KNES 385

Motor Control & Learning

Prof John Jeka

What is this class???

Course Description: Physiological and cognitive bases for motor control and their applications to the acquisition of movement skills and understanding of movement disorders. Basic Question HOW are motor skills learned and controlled?? This includes:
Execution of simple movements Expert performance Infant motor learning (i.e., learning to walk) Rehabilitation (i.e., stroke patient re-learning to walk)

Course Outline
Unit 1: Motor Learning Unit 2: Neurophysiology of Motor Control Unit 3: Theories of Motor Control Unit 4: Role of Memory / Attention

UNIT 1.1: Introduction to motor control, learning, skill and performance

Objectives
1. Define / compare and contrast: motor learning, control, coordination, skill and ability
Name and describe the factors that influence the above terms?

2. Classify motor skills based on established criteria 3. Identify characteristics of skillful behavior

Some Early Definitions

As an area of study. Motor control understanding how the neuromuscular system functions to activate and coordinate the muscles and limbs involved in the performance of a motor skill (Magill, 2007)
Coordination the patterning of body and limb motions relative to each other and to the environmental objects and events Three aspects / dimensions of control???

Some Early Definitions

As an area of study.. Motor learning study of the processes involved in acquiring and refining motor skills that promote or inhibit that acquisition Sample Questions
What is the role of feedback in motor learning? What type of feedback enhances learning? How do practice schedules impact motor learning? What is the role of memory in motor learning?
Coker, 2004

You have to go faster.

Skills, Movements and Abilities

What is Skill?
Write down a skill you think you possess

Do the answers vary?

Consider the many activities we perform on an everyday basis. We perform actions that we have acquired over time. From walking down steps to playing video games, these are skills.

A skill is an action or task that has a specific goal to achieve (Magill, 2001).

Are all activities skills?

An activity is a skill if it:

1) Is directed toward the attainment of a goal 2) Is performed voluntarily 3) Has been acquired by experience/ practice

What makes a skill a motor skill?

A motor skill requires voluntary body/ limb movement (Magill, 2001).
Is the skill you wrote down a motor skill under these criteria? Unless you thought of a cognitive skill, or one of the primary behaviors we are born with (i.e. suckling), it should be!

What about activities like

sitting

standing

walking

Levels of Skillfulness
Another conceptualization of skill is something which distinguishes competence between, for example, experts and novices.

vs.

Levels of Skillfulness
In addition to the criteria for a movement to be considered a skill, there are additional characteristics of skilled performance
1. Adaptable 2. Consistent 3. Efficient

What are Movements?

Movements are behavioral characteristics of specific limb(s) that are components of a skill (Magill, 2001)
i.e., movements are the building blocks of a skill

Why differentiate between skill, movement, etc?

There is a taxonomy or hierarchy

(e.g., Biology: phylum class order family etc)

Characteristics that vary within and between people Movement Jump shot, dunk, lay-up Skill Put the ball in the basket Goal

Process measures

outcome measures

Classifying skills

Why classify skills? Simplifies discussion Allows comparison across research Provides context for coaches/therapists

Classifying skills
Unlike biological classifications, we use a continuum so that a skill does not have to exactly match a condition or fit into a box on some chart skills have high variation across many variables.
Stuff Animal Vegetable Mineral

A one-dimensional continuum is a range between two ends on a given variable

Hot

Cold

Consider the 8 skills below

What characteristics do they have in common? Which characteristics differentiate them?

Classifying skills
Commonalities
All require concentration. All must focus attention on a specific point/thing. ???

Differences
Some have a stable, predictable environment in which the skill is performed, some do not. Some use the whole body, some just use the hands/arms. Some are continuous, some are sporadic. Some involve fast movements, some slow. Some involve standing posture, some seated.

Basis for continua.

Classification 1: Size of musculature used

The prime movers used in surgery and long jumping are clearly not the same.

GROSS
Use large musculature; involve less movement precision
Fundamental motor skills (jumping, locomotion, etc)

FINE
Require control of small muscles; hand-eye coordination
Writing, typing, sewing, etc

Classification 2: Type of Movement

Discrete Serial Continuous

Have a clearly specified beginning and end (e.g., hitting a switch) one movement skills.

Involve a series of discrete movements (e.g., playing piano, hammering a nail)

Have arbitrary start and end (e.g., swimming)

??

Implications for analysis

Classification 3: Motor-cognitive dimension

Low cognitive demand Moderate cognitive demand High cognitive demand

Actions are automatic, with little thinking about task required

The motor component is less significant than the cognitive element

Classification 4: Stability of the environment Environment refers to the characteristics of objects/ people the skill is performed with Closed Open
Environment does not change while performing the skill. These tend to be self-paced; the object waits for your action. Environment is changing during performance of the skill. These are usually not self-paced, require constant adjustment.

Classifying skills
Gross or Fine motor skill? Order the following skills in terms of the size of musculature used in the action. Punching a speed bag Typing your name Getting out of your car Open or Closed motor skill? Order the following skills in terms of the environment the skill is performed in. Snapping a football Basketball jump shot Bowling

So how does Skill relate to Ability?

Ability
An ability is a stable trait or capacity of the individual that is a determinant of a persons potential for the performance of specific skills (Magill, 2001). Abilities are generally thought to be hereditary/ genetically determined, and by large unmodified by experience (Schmidt & Wrisberg, 2000).

The hardware people bring to a task.

INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES

Stable, enduring differences among people that contribute to differences in task performance (Schmidt & Wrisberg, 2000)

INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES

Body type

Abilities

Developmental Cultural background Emotional Stage make-up

INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES

Body type Cultural background Emotional make-up

Abilities Developmental Stage

Abilities vs. Skills

ABILITIES
Stable Inherited traits Few in number Underlie performance of many skills

SKILLS
Modified by practice Developed Many in number Depend on different subsets of abilities
(Schmidt & Wrisberg, 2000)

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Generalized Motor Ability???

Abilities are highly related and can be characterized by a single, global ability
(Brace, 1927; McCloy, 1934)

- Minimal empirical evidence

Specificity of Motor Ability???

Abilities are relatively independent. The allaround athlete has a high number of abilities
(Henry, 1958)

Research evidence for specificity of motor abilities

Correlation

Rehabilitation

Identifying abilities allows the practitioner to get to the source of a problem. This can be achieved via a task analysis. May identify areas for compensation.

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Skill or Ability?

Skill or Ability?

Skill or Ability?

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Skill or Ability?
Preparing for a career in professional sports is risky business because it requires focusing on getting a job that statistically, does not exist.

Hall of Shame???

Skill or Ability?

UNIT 1.1 : Introduction to motor control, learning, skill and performance

Objectives
1. Define / compare and contrast: motor learning, control, coordination, skill and ability
Name and describe the factors that influence the above terms?

2. Classify motor skills based on established criteria 3. Identify characteristics of skillful behavior

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Measurement and Evaluation Of Performance

Unit 1.2

Prof. John Jeka

Unit 1.1 Outline

1.1 Introduction to Motor Control and Learning a) Motor coordination vs. motor control vs. motor learning b) Motor skills and abilities c) Classification of motor skills d) Characteristics of skillful performance 1.2 Assessment of Motor Skill Performance a) Outcome Measures (i.e., error scores, timing, etc.) b) Process Measures (i.e., kinematics, kinetics, brain imaging, etc.) 1.3 Motor Learning a) Characteristics of the learning process b) Assessment of motor learning c) Learning stages 1.4 Effects of practice on motor learning 1.5 Assisting the Learning Process a) Observational learning b) Augmented feedback

In order to: understand skilled performance. infer learning . compare individuals/groups We must measure performance

UNIT 1.2: Measurement and Evaluation of Performance

Objectives
1. Compute, utilize, and interpret outcome and process measures used to assess motor control, coordination, and learning 2. Design a research experiment to examine specific research questions in motor control and learning.

What is Motor Performance???

Motor performance is what we actually measure when a person performs a skill. It is divided into 2 types of measure:

Motor Performance
Performance outcome measures (outcome scores) Performance production measures (process measures)

Outcome Measures
Indicate the outcome of performing a skill, such as:
How accurate was a shot/throw etc? How fast did a person move? How far did an object travel? ACCURACY TIME/SPEED MAGNITUDE

Measures of Accuracy: Error Scores

Why measure error?
Accuracy is a major component of human skill from everyday tasks to sports performance. The way in which we understand the accuracy of performance is simply to measure the extent to which performance differed from a criterion.

How do we measure error?

The criterion can be a specific target in space, such as an archery target or a time, such as matching a rhythm.

Dimensionality of Error Scores

Y axis Y axis

1 Dimension

2 Dimensions

Information Obtained from Error Scores

A dichotomy (hit/miss): This performance has 6 hits/4 misses (60%).

So does this!
Is there a difference in the quality of performance?

ax

X axis

X axis

X axis

3 Dimensions

is

Information Obtained from Error Scores

10 8 6 4

28 points Only 40% hit

28 points 60% hit

Absolute Error (AE)

The absolute difference in relevant units between the criterion and the performance outcome

abs (xi T)
Absolute Error (AE) describes the error along a single dimension

We take multiple trials to gain a representative measure of performancethe average.

Where:

AE = abs (xi T) n

= the sum of T = target n = number of trials

Absolute Error (AE)

Trial 1 2 3 Xi 11 9 9.5 Abs Xi-T 11-10 9-10 9.5-10 = 1 1 0.5
Target

2.5
AE = 0.833
0 x2 x3 Then divide by n x1 the number of trials

AE =

abs (Xi T) n

10

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Radial Error (RE)

Absolute error for two dimensional tasks

RE =

Errorx2 + Errory2

What skill might this be appropriate for?

Radial Error (RE)

Y axis

RE =

Errorx2 + Errory2
c b

Pythagorean Theorem
a X axis

c2 = a2 + b2 c= RE = a2 + b2 Errorx2 + Errory2

Target

Radial Error (RE)

Point Xaxis Yaxis Y axis

a b c d

3 -3 -1 2

3 1 -3 -2

X axis

d c

RE =
Point

(x-axis error)2 + (y-axis error)2

Xaxis Yaxis X2 Y2 X2+Y2

sqrt

a b c d

3 -3 -1 2

3 1 -3 -2

9 9 1 4

9 18 4.24 1 10 3.16 9 10 3.16 4 8 2.83 13.39 / n 3.35

Average RE

Bias in Performance Outcomes

Absolute measures of accuracy may hold insufficient information. For example, they fail describe tendencies to over or under shoot. Constant error (CE): represents magnitude of error in a specific direction (i.e., it is no longer absolute). CE = (xi T)
Target Error

0 Vs.

10 ft

AE = abs (xi T) you missed by that much CE = (xi T) you overshot by that much

Constant Error (CE)

Trial 1 2 3 Xi 11 9 9.5 Xi-T 11-10 9-10 9.5-10 = 1 -1 -0.5

Then divide by n the number of trials

-0.5
Target x CE = -0.167 0
2

x3

x1

10

11

CE =

(Xi T) n

Variability in Performance Outcomes

Variability is a measure of consistency in performance. The typical measure is the standard deviation (Std Dev). Where: (x-m)2 Std Dev = n-1 = the sum of x = the individual score m = the mean n = the sample size

Variable error (VE) is an index of how much variability there is in the accuracy of performance.

Variable Error (Std Dev)

(x-m)2 n-1

Std Dev =

Trial 1
4 2 3 1 5

Trial 2 Trial 3 Trial 4 Trial 5

1.5 0.25 0.25 3 0.5

Variable Error (Std Dev)

Std Dev = Trials 1 2 3 4 5 Sum Mean Error 1.5 0.25 0.25 3 0.5 5.5 1.1
5.5

(x-m)2 n-1 (x m) -0.85 -0.85 1.9 -0.6 (x m)2 0.16 0.7225 0.7225 3.61 0.36
5.5775

Variable Error (Std Dev)

Std Dev = Trials 1 2 3 4 5 Sum Mean Error 1.5 0.25 0.25 3 0.5 5.5 1.1
5.5

(x-m)2 n-1 (x m) 0.4 -0.85 -0.85 1.9 -0.6 (x m)2 0.16 0.7225 0.7225 3.61 0.36
5.5775

Variable Error (Std Dev)

Std Dev = Trials 1 2 3 4 5 Sum Mean Std Dev Error 1.5 0.25 0.25 3 0.5 5.5 1.1 1.181
5.5

(x-m)2 n-1 (x m) 0.4 -0.85 -0.85 1.9 -0.6 (x m)2 0.16 0.7225 0.7225 3.61 0.36
5.5775

Skilled Performance??

(A) (B) Which would be regarded as most skilled? (A) has a lower AE & lower CE, but a higher VE than (B). (B) has a higher AE & higher CE, but a lower VE than (A)

Continuous Skills
Root mean square error (RMSE) Error between a participants displacement (position) curve and a criterion (ideal) curve Computes one error score for the total duration of the task

Performance Outcome Measures

Magnitude Accuracy Time/speed

Dichotomy hit/miss Zones of accuracy Absolute error (AE) Radial Error (RE) Constant error (CE) Variable error (VE) RMSE

Speed: Reaction and Movement Time

Reaction time (RT): interval between the onset of a signal or stimulus, to the initiation of a response

Stimulus or Go signal

Light/Color Word/Sound Shock/Vibration

Vision Hearing Touch

Reaction Time
Simple RT
Stimulus Used in information processing studies

Choice RT

Discrimination RT

Response key Index Index Middle Ring Index

Reaction Time
Match the following

Simple RT Choice RT Discrimination RT

What are typical RT values?

Simple RT: Light Siren Electrical shock All together Choice RT:
# of choices ~RT (ms) 1 200 2 350 3 400 4 450 5 500 6 550 7 600 8 600 9 650 10 650

240 ms 220 ms 210 ms 180 ms

Swink (1966)

Damon et al. (1966)

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Performance Measures: Time

Reaction time (RT): the interval of time from the onset of a go signal or stimulus to the initiation of a response Movement time (MT): the interval from the initiation of the response to the completion of the movement. Response time: the sum of RT + MT. From the onset of a go stimulus to the completion of the movement.
These are all defined by observable events

Electromyography (EMG) in RT measures

EMG, which indicates electrical activity of muscle, has been used to separate RT into central and peripheral components.

Research shows that following presentation of a stimulus, for a portion of RT, there is no electrical activity. This 40-80 ms period is known as pre-motor RT represents CENTRAL PROCESSES (decision making/ perceptual processes etc).
Weiss, 1965

Electromyography (EMG) in RT measures

Warning Stimulus Presentation Movement Onset Movement Offset

EMG
Pre-motor Foreperiod Motor

RT

MT

Response time

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Measures of Magnitude
Indicate the size of an outcome, and have particular relevance in sports settings.

Distance

Weight

How far you throw

Height
How much you lift

How high you jump

Performance Outcome Measures

Magnitude Accuracy Time/speed

Distance Height Weight

Dichotomy hit/miss Zones of accuracy Absolute error Constant error Variable error RMSE

Reaction Time Movement Time Response Time

Performance Process Measures

Outcome measures do not tell us how a result was achieved. To understand what underlies performance, we need process measures

Kinematics Kinetics EMG

Brain activity/ imaging

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Kinematics
Measures which describe motion, without regard to the cause of that motion. Muybridge (1878) in California, was the first to capture serial images of fast animal motion.

Kinematics
Modern systems such as Optotrak use infra-red technology to relay the spatio-temporal positions of markers. 3-D Data can be captured at 1000 Hz.

Kinematics

Video/film
Slow sampling rate Wide workspace of data collection Variation in precision of measurement Forgiving (extrapolation) Inexpensive

Optoelectric
Fast sampling rate Narrower workspace (less as Hz increases) Very precise Less forgiving Expensive
Schmidt & Lee (1999)

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Kinematics
Y axis

Both methods provide raw data in the form of x, y, and z coordinates. From this we can calculate the following: Displacement (linear/angular) Velocity (linear/angular) Acceleration (linear/angular) Coordination (relative motion)

Motion Analysis

Motion Analysis

ax

X axis

3 Dimensions

is

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Displacement
Change in spatial position
Time (s) 0 4.1 7.9 11.9 15.7 19.8 24.1 28.1 32.1 35.8 40.0 Disp (m) 0 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
0 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45

Velocity (m/s)

Accel (m/ s^2)

250

Displacement

Displacement (m)

20

200 150 100 50

Time (s)

Velocity
the rate of change in position (displacement)
Time (s) 0 4.1 7.9 11.9 15.7 19.8 24.1 28.1 32.1 35.8 40.0 Disp (m) 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 Velocity (m/s) Accel (m/ s^2)

v=

displacement time 20 0 m 4.1 0s

v=

v = 4.88 m/s

Velocity
the rate of change in position (displacement)
Time (s) 0 4.1 7.9 11.9 15.7 19.8 24.1 28.1 32.1 35.8 40.0 Disp (m) 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 Velocity (m/s) 4.88 5.29
Velocity (m/s)

Accel (m/ s^2)

7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 0

v=

displacement
Velocity

time 20 0 m 4.1 0s

5.02 5.22 4.91 4.61 5.06 4.88 5.43 4.76 N/A

v=

v = 4.88 m/s

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

Time (s)

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Acceleration
the rate of change in velocity
Time (s) 0 4.1 7.9 11.9 15.7 19.8 24.1 28.1 32.1 35.8 40.0 Disp (m) 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 Velocity (m/s) 4.88 5.29 5.02 5.22 4.91 4.61 5.06 4.88 5.43 4.76 N/A Accel (m/ s^2)

a=

velocity time 5.29 - 4.88 m/s 4.1 0s

a=

a = 0.1 m/s^2

Acceleration
the rate of change in velocity
Time (s) 0 4.1 7.9 11.9 15.7 19.8 24.1 28.1 32.1 35.8 40.0 Disp (m) 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 Velocity (m/s) 4.88 5.29 5.02 5.22 4.91 4.61 5.06 4.88 5.43 4.76 N/A Accel (m/ s^2) 0.10
Acceleration (m/s^2)
0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 -0.1 -0.2 -0.3 -0.4 -0.5 Time (s)
0

a=

velocity Acceleration time 5.29 - 4.88 m/s 4.1 0s

20 25 30 35

-0.07 0.05 -0.08 -0.07 0.10 -0.05 0.13 -0.18 N/A N/A

a=

5 a = 0.1 10 15 m/s^2

Coordination
Relative motion is the motion of one segment or point in a configuration relative to another
Postural coordination patterns

Upright Stance

Ankle Pattern

Hip Pattern

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Intra-limb Coordination: Running

ITO = ipsilateral take-off IFS = ipsilateral foot-strike CTO = contralateral take-off CFS = contralateral foot strike
Enoka et al. (1978)

Kinetics
Measurements of the forces which cause motion.
Predominantly apply Newtons laws of motion.

Examples:
Force: push or pull on an object; product of an objects mass and acceleration (e.g., ground reaction force) Torque: angular force directed around an axis of rotation; product of force and perpendicular distance to the axis Momentum: product of an objects mass and velocity

Equipment includes force platforms, strain gauges, etc.

Kinetics: Force Platform

17

Electromyography (EMG)
Measures the electrical activity in muscle. Electrodes are attached to the skin superficial to the muscle belly

Electrodes detect electrical activity which result in muscular contraction. Electrical signals are amplified and recorded. Data describes temporal patterning, and amplitude.

STUDYING THE LIVING BRAIN

Brain activity and Imaging

Electroencephalography (EEG)
Electrodes placed on skull detect and record brainwaves, or the electrical patterns created by the rhythmic oscillations of neurons. Technique often uses:
Event related potentials (ERPs): electrical peaks that are related to a specific stimulus. Coherence- functional communication between brain areas of interest

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Electroencephalography (EEG)
Electrodes placed on skull detect and record brainwaves, or the electrical patterns created by the rhythmic oscillations of neurons.

Electroencephalography (EEG)

Pros:
Directly measure brain activation Good temporal Resolution Relatively cheap Easy to transport Silent! Easy to use for MANY behavioral paradigm and with different populations

Cons:
Spatial resolution Set-up time

Positron Emission Tomography (PET)

Uses computed tomography (CT) and radioactive markers injected in the bloodstream. Identifies areas of brain working most based on fuel intake (i.e., glucose and O2 providing energy to firing neurons).

Characteristics: Good spatial resolution; poor temporal resolution

19

Magnetoencephalography (MEG)
Records the magnetic fields produced by the electrical activity of the brain.

Characteristics: Better spatial resolution; good temporal resolution

Magnetoencephalography (MEG)

Pros:
Magnetic fields are less distorted Excellent temporal resolution Reference-Free Less set-up time Direct measure of brain activation

Cons:
Orientation of MEG Less readily available

Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI)

Aligns atomic particles in tissues by magnetism, then bombards them with radiowaves. Different tissues return different radio signals. fMRI determines areas in brain where there is most oxygenated hemoglobin.

Characteristics: Good spatial resolution; poor temporal resolution

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Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI)

Pros:
Excellent spatial resolution

Cons:
Indirect measure of brain activity Susceptible to movement artifacts Use of templates and atlases

Brain Imaging
Low Resolution High Resolution

Spatial Resolution

Temporal Resolution

Low Resolution

Human Connectome

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Summary of Performance Measures

Outcome
Accuracy Error scores - Absoluter error (1-D)
- Radial error (2-D) - Constant error - Variable error

Process
Description of movement Kinematics - displacement
- velocity - acceleration - relative motion - phase plane portraits

Movement Speed Reaction time - simple

- choice - discrimination

Forces underlying movement Kinetics - force

- torque - moment

Movement time Response time Magnitude

Electrical activity of muscle EMG Brain activity/images EEG, PET, fMRI & MEG

But before you start measuring performance..

Is it an objective measure? A measure is objective if it can be employed consistently by different people. It is also objective if the measurement scale is appropriate. Is it a valid measure? This refers to whether a test measures what it is supposed to measure. Does your measure have construct validity? Magnitude measures almost always do. However, is accuracy, consistency, bias a construct of your skill? Is it a reliable measure? Is the measurement repeatable? Deviations in the way a test is performed can result in markedly different results. As a result, change may be incorrectly attributed to difference in performance.

Improving your tests objectivity, reliability, and validity

Consider the purpose of the skill Keep the test environment consistent Document your methodology Standardize measures Dont test yourself!

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Scientific Method
Step 1

Develop a testable research question

Step 2

Formulate hypotheses
what is the anticipated outcome and why?

Scientific Method
Step 3

Operationally define independent and dependent variables

Independent : the manipulated variables/ factors Dependent: the measured variable (presumably influenced by the independent variable(s))

Scientific Method
Step 4

Design study to test research question 1 2

M F

Subjects.? Who How many? Independent groups or repeated measures? # of trials? How will you control for extraneous variables?

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Scientific Method
Step 5 Observe behavior and gather data
Male SUB 1 SUB 2 SUB 3 SUB 4 SUB 5 SUB 6 SUB 7 SUB 8 SUB 9 SUB 10 SUB 11 12 16 21 22 16 16 14 25 22 34 12 Female 11 14 12 17 12 16 11 21 17 26 11

Scientific Method
Step 6
Male Female 11 14 12 17 12 16 11 21 17 26 11 15.27273 4.818525

Analyze and interpret results of study Run descriptive statistics (and inferential statistics)

SUB 1 SUB 2 SUB 3 SUB 4 SUB 5 SUB 6 SUB 7 SUB 8 SUB 9 SUB 10 SUB 11 MEAN SD

12 16 21 22 16 16 14 25 22 34 12 19.09091 6.579583

UNIT 1.2: Measurement and Evaluation of Performance

Objectives
1. Compute, utilize, and interpret outcome and process measures used to assess motor control, coordination, and learning 2. Design a research experiment to examine specific research questions in motor control and learning.

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7/4/12

Introduction to Motor Learning

Unit 1.3

Prof. John Jeka

Unit 1 Outline
1.1 Introduction to Motor Control and Learning 1.2 Assessment of Motor Skill Performance 1.3 Motor Learning Characteristics of the learning process Assessment of motor learning Learning stages 1.4 Effects of practice on motor learning 1.5 Assisting the Learning Process

UNIT 1.3: Introduction to Motor Learning

Objectives
1. Define and distinguish between motor performance and learning 2. Identify key characteristics of the learning process 3. Describe and compare / contrast different methods to assess motor learning 4. Design research experiments to assess motor learning 5. Describe and compare / contrast different stages of motor learning

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Introduction to Motor Learning!

Although we are born with the neural structures which facilitate the acquisition of knowledge and skill, with the exception of elementary reflexes, infants are born without repertoires of behaviour Bandura (1977) !

Complex human behaviours acquired over time and development are the result of experience and observation. In essence, they are learned. "

Understanding Learning

Learning is a relatively permanent change in the capability to perform a skill Learning cannot be directly measured it is inferred from performance! Influenced by performance variables Temporary Not necessarily a result of practice

Observable behavior

Learning

refers to a change in the potential or capability to perform a behaviour .why?

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Characteristics of the learning process

1. Performance of

skills shows an improvement over a period of time

Characteristics of the learning process

2. Performance becomes more consistent (less variable) over time
1.4 1.2

Variability

1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40

Blocks of Trials

Characteristics of the learning process

3. There is greater persistence in the improvements made

Time delay" Practice" Repeat"

Krakauer et al., 2005: Visuomotor adaptation

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Characteristics of the learning process

4. Performance of the skill becomes more adaptable !

Performance Curves
are a method of assessing learning by recording levels of performance across practice
Performance measure"

Dependent variable for learning

time (or time period)"

e.g., absolute error, variable error, time-on-task, RT

Learning a new skill is typically characterized by one of four performance curves

Performance Curves
(ceiling effect)

Linear

Negatively accelerated

Positively accelerated

(ceiling effect)

S-shaped

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Performance Curves in Kinematics

More complicated as they show not only changes in performance between trials, but within trials "
Improvement in performance can be assessed by how close the movement pattern matches the criterion. Consistency can be assessed by the extent to which the movement patterns vary.

Assessment of Learning
It is not wise to infer learning from practice because:
Practice data provides no evidence for permanent/ semi-permanent changes in behavior Performance during practice is susceptible to over-estimating and under-estimating learning

Performance in practice may temporarily plateau

230 220 210 200 190 180 170 160 150 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Absolute error

Days of practice

Assessing Learning by Retention

The typical design is as follows: Pre-test Practice/acquisition

+ 1 to 7 days Post-test Retention test

Measures ability to perform task before the treatment

Measures ability to perform task after period of practice

Measures ability to perform task after a nopractice retention interval

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Assessing Learning by Retention

Pre-test Practice/acquisition Post-test Retention test

Effect of practice on performance Learning Experimenters may test several groups using the same design
Pre Control Verbal Guidance Video Model 3 x 3 design Post

Decay of performance
Retention

Assessing Learning by Transfer

Transfer of learning describes how previous practice on a task influences the learning of a new skill

Transfer can be negative, where previous practice of one skill hinders learning of a new skill or positive, where previous practice in one skill assists learning of a new skill

Positive Transfer

Sensorimotor adaptation experiment (Abeele & Bock, 2003) Group A (left) performed tracking task in rotated environment before the pointing task (vice versa for Group B) Group A smaller errors on pointing task compared to Group B (right) Positive transfer across the tasks!!!!

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Negative Transfer

Sensorimotor adaptation experiment (Caithness et al., 2004) Task A = 30 CCW rotation; Task B = 30 CW rotation Angular error on day 2 (task B) exceeded -30 degrees, suggesting that performance on Task A hindered performance on Task B Negative transfer!!

The significance of transfer

1. It can define the appropriate sequencing of skills to be learned
Curricula tend to be organized in a simple-to-complex order Early fundamentals need to be in place before moving on Skill classifications can be a useful tool to guide transfer PTs need an appropriate order of functional treatment

The significance of transfer

2. It can assess the effectiveness of practice conditions!
Practice condition 1"

Practice condition 2" Criterion performance"

Practice condition 3"

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Theoretical explanations for positive transfer of learning

Identical elements theory (Thorndike, 1914)

Task 1 Task 2

Task 3 Task 4

Little overlap of elements = little transfer

Greater overlap of elements = greater transfer

Transfer-appropriate processing theory

Suggests that movement components need not be similar. Instead, positive transfer is more likely between two skills or practice conditions which share cognitive processing characteristics

(Morris et al, 1977)

Research designs to assess positive transfer

Group Experimental Control Practice conditions Practice skill A No practice Transfer test Perform skill B Perform skill B

OR"
Experimental Control Skill in context 1 No practice Skill in context 2 Skill in context 2 x 100 Experimental group + control group

Experimental group control group Percentage of transfer =

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Contextual variations in transfer tests

Changes to the physical environment Changes in availability of feedback information Changes to learners personal characteristics

Novel skill variations in transfer tests

Changes to the task itself (e.g., faster/slower)

i.e.,

Changes in constraints!

Transfer

Mobility Simulator
The devices can apply 6DOF forces and torques to the feet Simulate varied support surface conditions. The platforms are integrated with two VE simulations, a street crossing and park path.

http://shrp.umdnj.edu/rivers/facilities/index.htm

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Nintendo Wii
Use of Wii in physical rehab settings (children with cerebral palsy)
Deutsch et al., 2008

Stages of Learning
Fitts & Posner (1967) 3-stage model
Practice time continuum

Cognitive stage Learner encounters cognitive problems, and must integrate information. What should I do? How should I move? Large errors; variability

Associative stage Learner makes associations b/w environmental cues and movements. Learner detects errors. Performance is refined, variability and error decreases.

Autonomous stage Learner performs skill in habitual or automatic manner. No conscious thought of action processes. Learner can divide attention.

Gentiles two-stage model (1972, 2000)

Stage 1: Getting the idea of the movement The learner organizes a movement pattern by delimiting the potential muscular responses in tune with the demands of the environment. Must discriminate Regulatory conditions
Environmental features which specify how movement must be performed

Non-regulatory conditions
Environmental conditions which do not influence movement characteristics.

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Gentiles two-stage model (1972, 2000)

Stage 1 also is highly cognitive problem solving
Learner leaves stage 1 with a framework for the organization of the movement, but performance is variable and inefficient

Stage 2: Fixation/diversification Learner must acquire adaptability for the skill consistency economy of effort

Gentiles two-stage model (1972, 2000)

Closed Open

Skills require fixation Learner must refine pattern for consistency.

Skills require diversification Learner must diversify the basic movement pattern. Must be highly tuned to the regulatory conditions

Embedded Hierarchy
of coordination, control and skill (Newell, 1985) coordination control
Toward skill

Early skill learning emphasis within the synergy of coordination and control is upon assembling a new movement pattern (coordination) Later in skill learning, when the movement pattern is assembled, the emphasis is upon scaling the movement pattern (control)

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Bernsteins Degrees of Freedom

The degrees of freedom (DOF) in any system is the number of independent elements to be controlled DOF problem: how can a complex system act to constrain so many degrees of freedom into a functional unit? e.g., The human arm has 7 degrees of freedom" 3 at the shoulder" 1 at the elbow" 1 at radioulnar joint" 2 at the wrist"

Bernsteins Degrees of Freedom

Early learning novice simplifies movement by freezing a portion of available DOF.

Later learning there is a release of the DOF. Dynamics of action become more apparent to the learner

Expert - release and organization of DOF. Flexibility to freeze or release DOF at appropriate moments

UNIT 1.3: Introduction to Motor Learning

Objectives
1. Define and distinguish between motor performance and learning 2. Identify key characteristics of the learning process 3. Describe and compare / contrast different methods to assess motor learning 4. Design research experiments to assess motor learning 5. Describe and compare / contrast different stages of motor learning

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Role of Memory in Motor Control and Learning

Unit 4.1

Prof. John Jeka

UNIT 4.1: Role of Memory in Motor Control and Learning

Objectives 1. Define / compare and contrast: verbal and motor memory, declarative and procedural memory, short- and long-term memory 2. Describe methods used to assess memory 3. Explain the neurophysiological processes underlying memory 4. Describe different causes of forgetting

Information processing does not simply refer to generating short-term responses. Information must be retained, and accessed later.

?? In what form are memories stored?

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Memory
How is that I can remember the names of every teacher I had in school (Mrs. Bungay, Mrs. Abel, Mr. Jones, Miss Waugh, Miss. Wilson, Mr. Jones II, Mrs. Winterbottom, Mr. Robottom, Mr. Cormack, Mr. Dean, Mrs. Court etc , etc) But I forget a name within 5 minutes of meeting someone new?

Memory
Why does repetition and association make it easier to remember something? Why are phone numbers 7 digits?

Is memory for action the same as memory for numbers, language etc?

Memory
Some definitions. - The internal record or representation of some prior event or experience - Retention of experience-dependent changes over time - The capacity to remember - Tulving (1985): the capacity that permits the organism to benefit from past experiences

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Motor Memory
Schmidt & Lee (1999)

the persistence of the acquired capability for motor performance

Motor Memory
theories of motor control & learning
Motor program: a memory structure, or representation that stores information necessary for action.

Schema theory (Schmidt, 1975,88): we have a motor response schema which provides rules governing an action.

Motor Memory
as a reference of correctness in closed-loop motor control theory:
System goal

Detection, recognition, matching Decisions Muscle response

input
Reference mechanism

error
Executive level

instructions
Effector level

output
Environment

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Human Memory System

Carter, 2000

Amygdala: traumatic, uncon. mems Temporal lobe: LT memories

Caudate nucleus: instincts (genetically -coded memories) Putamen: procedural memories Hippocampus: laying down/retrieving (spatial) memories

Neurophysiological Basis of Memory

Memories are groups of neurons which fire together in the same pattern each time they become activated
(Carter, 2000).
A. 2 Linked connection strong enough to trigger firing Weak connection 1 3

Initial stimulus

Neurophysiological Basis of Memory

Memories are groups of neurons which fire together in the same pattern each time they become activated
(Carter, 2000).
B. 2 Linked connection strong enough to trigger firing Weak connection 1 3

Initial stimulus

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Neurophysiological Basis of Memory

Memories are groups of neurons which fire together in the same pattern each time they become activated
(Carter, 2000).
C. 2 Linked connection strong enough to trigger firing Weak connection 1 3
The faster the neural activity, the more likely the charge will pass to neighboring cells

Initial stimulus

Neurophysiological Basis of Memory

Every perceived sensation creates new neural connections But, if not laid down in memory the impression rapidly fades

Lingering patterns connect with and create activity in other neural networks = an association

In principle, if same neural network is lit up should give rise to same thought etc. In reality similar, mutated patterns occur

As memory fades, neural connections are lost. (Carter, 2000)

Verbal vs. Motor Memory

Magill (2001): verbal and motor memory considered as part of same memory system. But two conditions suggest they are not: Apraxia person cannot produce movement from verbal command Agnosia person can produce a movement but cannot name it Also, depend on different neural structures Verbal: consolidation into LTM depends on medial temporal lobe

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Key Definitions
Retention: the information that we remember Forgetting: the information we cannot remember Is memory not there?
Cannot retrieve it?

Retrieval: the process of calling up information from LT memory (ST memory?) Serial search, activation

Measuring Memory
Recognition tests ability to recognize something from list/group of stimuli.

Recall tests ability to reproduce something from memory.

How do these relate to our examinations in this class???

Put down your pens

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Tick..tock

Recall: How many items do you remember from the previous slide?

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Recognition: Which of the following items were on the test slide?

Recall vs. Recognition

List the 3 proposed stages of information processing Stimulus identification ____________________________________ Response selection ____________________________________ Response programming ____________________________________

With the condition apraxia, a person:

A. Cant remember the names of movements they do B. Cant produce movement from a verbal command C. Cant hear verbal commands D. Cant remember anything

Two-component Theory of Memory

Short-term Memory

Long-term Memory Declarative Procedural

explicit
Episodic

implicit

Semantic

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Short-term Memory
- capacity to retain info for short time
(Peterson & Peterson, 1959: <30 sec)

- involves short-term processes sensation, attention, perception, etc... - is a workspace for association & integration of new info with retrieved old info.

Functional Capacity of Short-term Memory George Miller (1956) - AT&T Laboratories. The Magic #7 (7 +/- 2 items)

Immediate recall capacity = 5-9 digits (with or without practice) e.g., phone numbers = 7 digits.

Functional Capacity of Short-term Memory Chess Players - masters only better than novices with known board patterns Joystick movement errors increase after 8 movements (Wilberg & Samela, 1973) Dancers - skilled only better than unskilled with a known sequence (Starkes et al, 1987)

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Functional Capacity of Short-term Memory

Remember the following lists: C G Q T R L S W D H E S P N L O L B M W

Factors that Affect STM capacity Serial Position - movements that are first or last in a series are remembered best Primary-Recency effect

Factors that Affect STM capacity

Limits to STM can be increased by organizing information - chunking

A chunk is the largest meaningful unit in the presented material that the person recognizes.

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Factors that Affect STM capacity

Implications for instruction? strategies are important present chunks of information

first - last pieces of information remembered best.

Duration of working memory: verbal

1 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 1 0 2 3
Peterson & Peterson (1959)

Probability of recall

3 letter patterns, while counting backwards in threes.

3 6

4 9

5 12

6 15

7 18

Retention Interval

Duration of working memory: position Adams & Dijkstra (1966)

Criterion position

Varied retention interval ???

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Motor Memory

Adams & Dijksta (1966)

Increasing STM through meaningfulness Semicircular positioning task with 5 or 60 sec retention interval. 3 types of info about criterion mm
Verbal label

Absolute error (deg)

9 7 5 0

No label

Clock-face

5 60 Retention Interval (sec)

Shea (1977)

Serial Position Movements that are 1st or last in a series are remembered best Primary-Recency effect Design: Subjects blindfolded linear positioning task criterion = total of 3, 6 or 9 movements recall criterion in same order
Magill & Dowell (1977)

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Results
200 160
Absolute error (mm)

120 ! ! 80 ! ! 40 ! !

3 4 5 6 Serial Position

Primacy-Recency effect seen w/longer MMs.

Two-component Theory of Memory

Short-term Memory

Long-term Memory
Declarative Procedural

explicit
Episodic Semantic

implicit

Long-term memory
LTM is a relatively permanent storage repository for information (Magill, 2001).
No known capacity

Procedural memory: Enables us to remember how to do something, so that we can perform learned procedures.

This is not verbally accessible. Implicit

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Declarative Memory
Represents being able to verbalize what to do (or what we know). Explicit - Episodic: knowledge of personally experienced events, and their temporal links.

- Semantic: general/conceptual knowledge developed from experience.

Motor Learning
Early in skill learning: declarative knowledge predominates. As skill develops, you learn to proceduralize declarative knowledge to solve the action problem.

declarative

Anderson, 1987

procedural

Forgetting
Trace Decay: Refers to deterioration of a memory trace as a function of time

Anterograde interference: When information presented before the test stimulus causes interference

Retrograde interference: When information presented after the test stimulus causes interference

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Anterograde Interference
Present recall info Recall info

Present useless info Time

(retention interval)

Retrograde Interference
Present recall info Recall info Present useless info (retention interval)

Time !

Preventing Interference

Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS)

Cohen & Robertson (2011) Nature Neuroscience, 14(8): 953-955

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Preventing Interference

Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS)

Cohen & Robertson (2011) Nature Neuroscience, 14(8): 953-955

Motor Memory Consolidation

Practice: (arm movement task) Similar movement structure Same time 800 ms Randomized! 2 groups: Constant A3 (120 trials) Variable A3 (60 trials) A1, A2, A4 (20 trials each) target actual Feedback: Target v Actual trajectories RMSE

Kantak et al (2010) Nature Neuroscience, 13(8), 923-925

Motor Memory Consolidation

Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS)

Kantak et al (2010) Nature Neuroscience, 13(8), 923-925

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Motor Memory Consolidation

EoA = End of Acquisition R = RMSE

Interference effects temporally specific to immediate post-practice phase!

Kantak et al (2010) Nature Neuroscience, 13(8), 923-925

Amnesia
Retrograde - memory loss prior to trauma you forget things you already knew
% of normal memory
100

50

Birth Time

Time of Trauma

Today

Amnesia
Anterograde impairment in the ability to form new memories
% of normal memory
100 50 0

Birth

Time

Time of Trauma

Today

Severe - inability to learn anything new Mild - learning is slow and requires more repetition

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Medial Temporal Lobe

Patient H.M
Temporal lobe removed to relieve epileptic seizures. Profound anterograde amnesia

Medial Temporal Lobe

Anterograde amnesia limited to declarative memories not procedural (i.e., motor)

UNIT 4.1: Role of Memory in Motor Control and Learning

Objectives 1. Define / compare and contrast: verbal and motor memory, declarative and procedural memory, short- and long-term memory 2. Describe methods used to assess memory 3. Explain the neurophysiological processes underlying memory 4. Describe different causes of forgetting

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Unit 4.2: Attention

Prof John Jeka

UNIT 4.2: Attention

Outline: 1. Introduction to attention 2. Theories of Attention a) Fixed capacity vs. flexible capacity b) Filter theories c) Multiple Resource Theories d) Action Selection 3. Measuring Attention 4. Pre-attention 5. Visual Search

UNIT 4.2: Attention

Objectives 1. To describe / compare and contrast different theories of attention 2. To describe techniques used to assess retention 3. To define pre-attention and to compare and contrast exogenous and endogenous control 4. To define and discuss the components of visual search

What is attention?
In the context of human performance, attention is the conscious or unconscious engagement in perceptual, cognitive, and/or motor activities, before, during, and after performing motor skills (Magill, 2001)

Is this definition helpful???

Concepts in Attention
Concept 1: humans have a limited availability of resources for performing tasks and gaining information

Capacity to perform task

Portion used to perform task

Traditional resource model (Kroemer et al, 2000)

Concepts in Attention
Concept 2: environmental information must be reduced or filtered Process
Registration in sense organ At nerve junctions Conscious awareness Lasting impression

Information stream in bits/s

1,000,000,000 3,000,000 16 0.7

Early Theories of Attention

Fixed Capacity Models
Tasks

Single, fixed capacity channel

Fixed Capacity
Driving the car - steering, braking, signaling, etc

Monitoring other cars Monitoring position on road Talking to passengers Irrelevant info

The Beginner

Fixed Capacity
Miscellaneous Driving the car Monitoring position on road Talking to passengers Monitoring road position Monitoring upcoming stoplight Deciding to pass

The Expert

Filter Theories of Attention

Bottleneck or filter: filters out (ignores) information not selected for further processing.
Filter Selected information

All information

Filter Theories of Attention

Filter theories differ in terms of where the filtering takes place
Environmental information Environmental information Detection ID Selection of Response Preparation of response

R E S P O N S E

Filter?

Filter?

Filter?

Look at this picture for a few seconds

Where was your attention?

Was the woman using a cellphone? Was she wearing a necklace? Color of her jacket? Was she wearing glasses? What was special about the red car? Name of the pub?

Early Theories of Attention

Filtering occurs at stimulus identification phase Identified

Unidentified?

Broadbent, 1958

Do the Test

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ahg6qcgoay4

What did you see? What happened to all the other information were you never aware that certain objects were there, or did you filter them at the point that you selected items of interest?

Filter Theories of Attention

S1

S2 Sensory register Selective filter Short term memory

Broadbent (1958)

Filter as Attenuator
Triesman (1964) also assumed filtering to occur early in processing.

However, she believed that the filter had more flexibility, considering it an attenuator, amplifying some stimuli and weakening others.

Filter Theories of Attention

S1 S2

Sensory register

Attenuator

Short term memory

Triesman (1964)

Flexible Capacity Models

Attention capacity should not be considered fixed as task requirements change. Available attention that can be given to a task is a pool of effort. This can be distributed to several activities at once. Arousal becomes a factor.
Kahneman, 1973

Flexible Capacity
Miscellaneous determinants

Arousal
Available capacity

Miscellaneous manifestations of arousal

Enduring disposition s Momentary intentions

Allocation policy Evaluations of demands on capacity

Possible activities

Responses

Multiple Resource Theories

Previous central resource theories consider attention to be taken from a central, single resource. Multiple resource theories suggest the presence of many attention mechanisms, each with limited resources, and differing functions.
e.g., Allport (1980), Wickens (1980, 84, 92)

Action-selection Accounts of Attention

Disputed the very concept of capacity or resource limitations in attention. Rather, when we have the momentary goal of an action, the stimuli are all processed in parallel at first. The outcome of this is selection of an action. As a result of this selection, certain processes are prevented from happening.
Neuman (1987, 1996)

Change Blindness
Daniel Simonds Experiment: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=38XO7ac9eSs

Derron Brown Person Swap http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vBPG_OBgTWg

MEASURING ATTENTION
The Dual Task Paradigm The primary task is the one of interest, and the secondary task is the distractor.
Continuous secondary task: Secondary-task probe: Assesses attention demand in preparation, of components of a skill, or at specific moments in performance. Assesses if attention is required throughout performance of a motor skill. e.g., motor and verbal skills

Dual-Task Paradigm
Primary task - move a handle between 2 targets (RH) Secondary task (probe) - press a button in response to a buzzer (LH) Attentional demands change over time

Secondary Task RT

primary + probe no primary task

45 90 Movement Position Posner & Keele, 1969 of Primary Task (degrees)

Pre-Attention
The process of detecting stimuli in the visual field (usually in the periphery) to guide future attention.

Pre-Attention
The process of detecting stimuli in the visual field (usually in the periphery) to guide future attention. Can be bottom-up (stimulus driven): if target is sufficiently different from distractors (targets popout). This is exogenous control.

Pre-Attention
Can be top-down (user-driven): uses a limited vocabulary. Evidence from detection of target colors among heterogenous colors. This is endogenous control.

Pre- Attention to color

Parallel visual search: all items in the display are processed simultaneously-- the search time is independent of the number of distractors

Target = Red Circle

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Pre- Attention to Form

Parallel visual search: all items in the display are processed simultaneously-- the search time is independent of the number of distractors

Target = Red Circle

Color and Form

Serial visual search: the attention system examines each item, one by one, to determine whether it does or does not have the required conjunction of features

Target = Red Circle

Behavioral Consequences of Attention

Attention. Enhances Detection Influences Reaction Time

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Detection
attended location fixation point cue ( , or +)

Fixate on central point Attention shifts to the right... Small circle flashed for 15 msec...

Left

Right

Detection
100

% correct detection

(Posner et al., 1980)

80 60 40 20 0 +/Right Right/Right Right/Left

Cue / Target

Detection
Reaction Time (msec)
300
(Posner et al., 1980)

250

200 Invalid Neutral Valid

Cue

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Spotlight Metaphor

Selective attention is a "beam" that is moved spatially may not be divided enhances detection of events falling within it.

Spotlight Metaphor
How does the anatomy of the retina explain preattention? Acuity drops to 50% in 2.5 deg of arc.
Williams et al, (1999)

Visual Search - Selective Visual Attention

Visual search is the process of actively directing visual attention to locate relevant information in the environment. Evidence that eye movements directed to a location are preceded by a shift in attention to that area, & the coupling on attention and eye movements is mandatory.
Hoffman, 1998

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Components of visual search

The two visual system: 1.initial detection in the peripheral retina (pre-attention), 2.identification, recognition etc through foveal vision.

Saccades: Are conjugate eye movements, responsible for rapid jumping shifts in attention. We have dramatic loss of sensitivity during saccades. Saccades can be anticipatory.

Components of visual search

Pursuit tracking eye movements: smooth eye movements which allow us to track slow moving objects of up to 100 deg/sec (decline at 30 deg/ sec). The vestibular-ocular reflex (VOR): stabilizes gaze during head movements. Fixations: Pauses in visual search, between saccades. They stabilize vision for greater uptake of information. Typically a minimum of 100-120 ms.

Eye Movements

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EYE MOVEMENT SUMMARY

http://www.tutis.ca/Senses/L11EyeMovements/L11EyeMovements.swf

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