Classical Mechanics

Chapter 5. Rigid Body Rotation Proceeding to problems with 3 degrees of freedom, this chapter discusses the most important of them, the rotation of rigid bodies. Some of the results will enable us to discuss, in Sec. 5.?, the description of motion in non-inertial reference frames. 5.1. Kinematics of rotation Let us consider a system of N particles, with all inter-particle distances rij ( i, j = 1,2,N) fixed rigidly. This reduces the number of degrees of freedom from 3N to just 6, for example 3 Cartesian coordinates of one point (say, O), and angles of the system rotation about 3 mutually perpendicular axes passing through this point. 1 If the point O is fixed, we are dealing with pure rotation, i.e. the motion with 3 degrees of freedom. During our discussion, it will be convenient for us to speak about rotation of a continuous rigid body, but all our arguments will be valid if some parts of the body (or even all of it, except N 3 discrete points) has been removed. The basic kinematic equation of rotation may be obtained from the following analysis. Consider a reference frame rotating with the body, the origin in the fixed point O (Fig. 1a), and r an arbitrary vector A which may be presented by is components in that reference frame:
3 r r A = Ai ni , i =1

(5.1)
r A in the

r where ni are the unit vectors of the frame. If we want to find the time derivative of r laboratory (not rotating) system, in which directions of ni change in time, we differentiate both terms in of the products of sum (1): r r r r 3 3 r dni dAi r 3 r dni dA dA = . ni + Ai in lab = in rot + Ai dt dt dt dt i =1 dt i =1 i =1

have to

(5.2)

= d / dt
r n3

r d

r A

r v

O r n1

r n2

r r

Fig. 5.1. Rigid body rotation: (a) instantaneous angular r velocity vector r and (b) its relation to the instantaneous r velocity v of a point.

1 An alternative way to arrive at the same number is to consider 3 points of the system, which uniquely define its position. If moving independently, the point would have 9 degrees of freedom, but if the distances between them are fixed, the resulting three constraints reduce the number of degrees of freedom to 6.
2006 by K. Likharev

Classical Mechanics

r Each of these infinitesimal vectors dni participating in the last term of this equation may be presented by its components in the same rotating references frame:
3 r r dni = d ij n j ; j =1

(5.3)

let us establish some properties of the (scalar) matrix elements d ij . For that note that each such element, as any vector component, may be presented as a scalar product: r r dij = dni n j . (5.4)

r Now, let us consider the following evident relation valid for unit vectors ni : r r ni n j = ij ,

(5.5)

where ij is the Kronecker delta (equal to 1 at i = j and for 0 otherwise). Differentiating it, we get:
r r r r r r 2dni ni = 2d ii = 0, dni n j + ni dn j = d ij + d ji = 0.

(5.6)

This means that there are not 9, but just three independent coefficients d ij , so that we can renumber them as follows: d1 d 23 , d 2 d 31 , d 3 d12 . Now we may notice that in this new notation, Eq. (3) may be presented just as a vector product:

r r r dni = d ni ,
r

(5.7)

where d is the infinitesimal vector with components di (in the rotating reference frame). Hence Eq. (2) may be re-written as r r r r r 3 r r r d d r dA dA dA . ni = (5.8) in lab = in rot + Ai in rot + A, dt dt dt dt dt i =1 This formula is the key to all rotation kinematics; in order to interpret the physical sense r r r of vector let us apply Eq. (8) to the particular case when A is the radius-vector r of some point of the same rotating body. In this case the first term in Eq. (8) is zero, and we get r r r dr (5.9) r. in lab = dt This equation shows that the point velocity (measured in the laboratory frame) is perpendicular r to both its radius-vector and vector and by magnitude equals r sin . Figure 5b shows that r this relation has a very simple sense: the point is rotating about axis with velocity v = = r sin . In other words, for the purpose of velocity evaluation, arbitrary rotation of a r rigid body with one fixed point may be considered as a simple rotation about an axis. Vector determines both the direction of this axisrand the angular velocity of the rotation. Note, however, that nothing in our calculations forbids to change in time and in many case it does; as a result

2006 by K. Likharev

Classical Mechanics it is called the instantaneous angular velocity vector and its direction, the instantaneous axis of r rotation. It is very importance that, by construct, is the same for the whole rigid body. After the rather involved derivation of Eq. (9), its generalization to the case of a rigid body moving with no fixed points comes surprisingly easy. Indeed, we can apply Eq. (1.6) to an arbitrary point O of the body to get r r r r v in lab = vO in lab + r , (5.10) r r where r is the radius-vector of a point measured in the frame O , while both velocities v are measured in the lab frame. This equation is all we need to proceed to 5.2. Dynamics of rotation: Inertia tensor Since the dynamics of each point of a rigid body is strongly constrained by numerous conditions rij = const , it is one of the most important fields of application of the Lagrangian formalism (Chapter 2). The first thing we need to know for this approach is the kinetic energy of the body, which may be readily calculated as a sum of kinetic energies of all its points. Assuming that the lab frame is inertial, we can use Eq. (10):

T =
i

r r r r r mi 2 m r m 2 m r r vi = i (vO + ri ) 2 = i vO + mi vO ( ri ) + i ( ri ) 2 . (5.11) 2 2 2 2 i i i i

Let us apply to this expression two general formulas of the vector analysis: r r r r r r r r r a (b c ) = b ( c a ) = c ( a b ) to the second term, and
r r r r r r r r r r r r ( a b ) (c d ) = ( a c ) (b d ) ( a d ) (b c )

(5.12)

(5.13)

to the third term. The result is

T=

r r r m r r M 2 vO + mi ri (vO ) + i 2 ri 2 ( ri ) 2 , 2 2 i i

(5.14)

where M mi is the total mass of the body. This expression may be further simplified at a
i

specific choice of point O, namely if we use for this point the center of mass of the body whose position is defined by equation r 1 r R (5.15) mi ri . M i In the lab frame bound to the center its own radius-vector is of course zero, so that in that frame the sum over i in the second term of Eq. (14) vanishes, and we may present the kinetic energy as a sum of two separate terms:

T = Ttran + Trot , Ttran

r r M 2 m V , Trot i 2 ri 2 ( ri ) 2 , 2 2 i

(5.16)

2006 by K. Likharev

Classical Mechanics
r r r & where V R is the center-of-mass velocity in the inertial lab frame, while all ri have to be measured in the center-of-mass frame. r Since the angular velocity vector is common for all points of a rigid body, it is more convenient to re-write the rotational energy in a form in which the components of this vector are separated from the summation over the points:

Trot =
i

mi 2

j , k =1

[
3 j k

2 jk ri j k ( ri ) j ( ri ) k =

1 3 j k I jk , 2 j ,k =1

(5.17)

where the 33 matrix with components

I jk mi jk ri 2 (ri ) j (ri ) k
i

(5.18)

is called the inertia tensor of the body. (Note that in Eqs. (17), (18) the internal index is the body point number ( 1 i N ) while the external indices number coordinate axes, 1 j , k , l 3 ). The Kronecker-delta notation used in Eq. (16) may disguise the fact that actually the matrix has a very simple, symmetric structure:
y i2 + z i2 I = mi y i x i i z x i i xi y i x +z zi yi
2 i 2 i

xi z i y i z i . xi2 + y i2

(5.19)

Moreover, it may be further simplified. Indeed, the fact that I is a tensor (and not just a table) means that it is transformed by definite laws at the coordinate system rotations. In particular, math tells us that by a certain choice of the system orientation, any tensor may always be reduced to a diagonal form

I jk where, in our case

I1 = I j jk , i.e. I = 0 0

0 I2 0

0 0 , I3

(5.20)

2 I j = mi ( ri ) k + (ri )l = mi ( i ) j . 2 2 i i

(5.21)

(Here ( i ) j is the distance of the i-th point of the body from the j-th axis.) The axes of such special coordinate system are called principal axes and components I j the principal moments of inertia of the body. According to Eq. (18), in such special system, the relation (17) is also simplified to a form Trot =
j =1 3

Ij 2

2 j

(5.22)

which is very similar to that of the translational kinetic renergy. This analogy is especially striking for the rotation about a principal axis, when vector has just one component and hence
4

2006 by K. Likharev

Classical Mechanics T = ( I / 2) 2 , with the corresponding moment of inertia playing the role of effective mass and the moment of inertia, of the effective mass. Let us calculate the principal moments of inertia for a very simple but instructive system of 3 similar, small, massive points fixed in the vertices of a equilateral triangle (Fig. 2). Due to symmetry of the configuration, one of the principal axes has to pass through the center of mass O, perpendicular to the plane of the triangle. For the corresponding moment of inertia Eq. (19) readily yields I z = 3m 2 . If we want to express the result in terms of the triangle side a , we may use the fact that due to the symmetry, the angle marked in Fig. 2 equals / 6 have. Hence, from the right triangle shown in the figure with 2 dashed sides, a / 2 = cos( / 6), giving

= a / 3 so that, finally, I z = ma 2 . m
a m a m
Fig. 5.2. The simplest case for the calculation of the principal moments of inertia.

O /6 h a

Another way to get this result is to use the following general axis shift theorem. Let us r relate an inertia tensor component Ijk calculated in two reference frames translated by vector a r r r (Fig. 3a), so that for an arbitrary point, ri ' = ri + a . Plugging this relation into Eq. (18), we get r r r v r r I 'jk mi jk (ri + a ) 2 (ri + a ) j (ri + a ) k i (5.24) rr = mi jk (ri 2 + 2ri a + a 2 ) [(ri ) j (ri ) k + (ri ) j a k +(ri ) k a j + a j a k .

Since in the center-of-mass frame, sums

m (r )
i i i

equal zero for any j, we finally get (5.25)

I 'jk = I jk + M ( jk a 2 a j a k ).

In particular, this equation shows that if we shift one of the principal axes perpendicular by d perpendicular to its direction (Fig. 3b), then

I 'j = I j + M (a 2 a 2 ) = I j + M (a k2 + al2 ) = I j + Md 2 . j
(a)
r ri '

(5.26)

(b)
Ij
d
r a
Fig. 5.3. (a) A general reference frame shift, and (b) a shift perpendicular to one of the principal axes.

mi r ri

' j

O'

r a O

2006 by K. Likharev

Classical Mechanics Returning to the system shown in Fig. 2, we could shift the principal axis perpendicular to the plane of the triangle to pass through the point of one of the masses. Then the contribution of that particular mass to the moment of inertia vanishes, and I z' = 2ma 2 . Now, returning to the center of mass and applying Eq. (26), we get I z = I z' M 2 = 2ma 2 (3m)(a 3 ) 2 = ma 2 , i.e. the same result as above. The symmetry situation inside the triangle plane is somewhat less evident, so let us start with calculating the moments of inertia for the axes show vertical and horizontal in Fig. 2. From Eq. (21) we get:
a ma 2 I y = 2 m( ) 2 = , 2 2

I x = 2mh 2 + m 2 = ma 2 [2(

1 2 3

)2 + (

1 3

)2 ] =

ma 2 , 2

(5.27)

where we have taken into account the fact that the distance h from the center of mass and any side of the triangle is h = sin( / 6) = a / 2 3. We see that I x = I y , and mathematics tells us that in this case any in-plane axis (passing through the center of mass O) may be considered as principal, and has the same moment of inertia. This is an example of the so-called symmetric top, a system in which I 1 = I 2 I 3 . (The last direction is called the main principal axis of the system.) Despite the name, the situation may be even more symmetric in spherical tops, systems with I 1 = I 2 = I 3 = I . An evident example of such system is a uniform sphere; a less obvious example is a uniform cube. 5.3. Angular momentum The rotational kinetic energy is not the only quantity (which in may cases is also an integral of motion) which may be expressed via the tensor of inertia. Indeed, let us use the key kinematic relation (10) to calculate the total angular momentum of the rigid body: r r r r r r r r r r r (5.27) L ri pi = mi ri vi = mi ri (vO + ri ) = LO + Lro t .
i i i

We see that the momentum may be presented as a sum of two terms. The first one, r r r r r LO mi ri v 0 = MR vO ,
i

(5.28)

describes possible rotation of the center of mass about the reference frame origin. This term evidently vanishes if the reference frame is positioned in the center of mass. In this case we are left with only the second term describes the rotation of the body about the center of mass: r r r r r (5.29) L = Lrot = mi ri ( ri ).
i

Using a general formula of the vector algebra, r r r r r r r r r a (b c ) = b (a c ) c (a b ), Eq. (29) is transformed to the form

(5.28)

2006 by K. Likharev

Classical Mechanics
r r r r r L = mi ri 2 ri (ri ) .
i

(5.29)

Let us write an explicit expression for an arbitrary component of this vector:

3 3 L j = mi j ri 2 (ri ) j [(ri ) k k ] = mi k jk ri 2 (ri ) k (ri ) j . i k =1 i k =1

(5.30)

Now, changing the order of summation and comparing the result with Eq. (18), we see that the angular momentum may be conveniently expressed via the same tensor of inertia as the rotational kinetic energy:
L j = I jk k .
k =1 3

(5.31)

Here I is seen in a more traditional role of a tensor: as a matrix relating components of two r r vectors, in this case L and . The transfer to the principal axes (27) reduces Eq. (31) to
L j = I j j .

(5.32)

Note that for a body with a symmetry of spherical top ( I1 = I 2 = I 3 I ), Eq. (32) yields a the relation L = I , similar to that for the rotation about a fixed axis. (It the latter case, we should use the moment of inertia for the rotation about that particular axis, rather than I.) However, for an arbitrary (asymmetric) body such a similar relation is true only if the rotation r axis coincides exactly with one of the principal axes of the body. In the general case vectors L r and have different directions, so that rotation dynamics may be rather complex even in the simplest cases. 5.4. Rotation of a free body The best illustration of this complexity comes from the simplest case of a body left alone, r i.e. not subjected to external forces. As we know (see Eq. (1.22)), at these conditions L is conserved (not only for the rigid body, but for any system of N points). Moreover, since distances between a rigid body is fixed, internal forces do not make any work, so that the full kinetic energy, and hence Trot , are also the integrals of motion. For the two simple cases listed above (including the spherical top) when the relation between the angular momentum is r proportional to the angular velocity, this means that both the magnitude and direction of vector are also conserved. In other words, the body conserves its rotation speed and axis direction. This property is broadly used in gyroscopes as the core parts of navigation systems, especially in planes and missiles. The main technical problem here is to make the external torques (see the right-hand part of Eq. (1.22)) negligible. This is achieved by rotating gyros at highest practicable speed (thus reducing the relative effect of parasitic external torques) and compensating unavoidable friction by gas or magnetic suspension, sometimes with a gentle gas-jet torque applied to compensate for the viscosity of the environment. If done carefully, these measures can give very spectacular results. For example, the gyroscope system of the Gravity Probe B satellite experiment which was launched in April 2004, can measure such

2006 by K. Likharev

Classical Mechanics minute effects of general relativity as the expected axis precession of 42 milliarc-seconds per year, with a ~1% accuracy, at the total project expense of the order of $0.5B. Now let us explore free motion of a body with lower symmetry, the symmetric top r ( I1 = I 2 I 3 ), when the initial L has not been aligned with any of the principal axes (Fig. 4). In r this case, vector L is still conserved, including its direction (shown vertical in Fig. 4). r Superficially, so should be vector , since according to Eqs. (25) and (31), its projections on the r principal axes are directly related with those of vector L :

j = Lj / I j

(5.33)

with coefficients independent of time. However, it is clear from Fig. 4a if the rotation axis were r fixed, the angle between the main principal axis (3) and vector L would change, thus ruining our arguments about the constancy of components L j and hence j .

r L

(a)

3
L3

r L

(b) r n3

L1

nut r n1 1

O
Fig. 5.4. Free rotation of a symmetric top: (a) general position of vectors L and , and (b) determining the free precession frequency fp .

r The way our of this contradiction may be found using Fig. 4b. Let us present vector r r not as a sum of two vectors n11 and n3 3 as in Fig. 4a, 2 but as r r r r r L = n3 rot + n L nut , n L . (5.34) L
It is clear from Fig. 4b that rot is the angular velocity of the body rotation about its main r principal axis, while fp it the frequency of its rotation about the constant vector L . The latter motion is called nutation or free precession. (The last term has to be distinguished it from the torque-induced precession which will be discussed in Sec. 7 below.) Its frequency may be readily calculated from Fig. 4 by noticing that the same angle participates in two relations:

sin =

L1 = 1 . L nut

(5.35)

Now excluding 1 with the help of Eq. (32) for j = 1, we finally get a very simple formula
2 Since for a symmetric top any pair of directions (1 and 2), perpendicular to each other and to the main principal axis, may play the role of two other principal axes, we can always select them so that 2 = L2 / I 2 = 0 , as this has been done in Fig. 4.
2006 by K. Likharev

Classical Mechanics (5.36) r which shows that the nutation frequency is independent of the alignment of vector L with the main principal axis, while the amplitude of this motion (characterized by angle ) vanishes at their exact alignment. 5.5. Effects of external forces
r In the presence of external forces, we can use the above expression for L together with the general laws (1.13) and (1.23) valid for dynamics of any system of interacting particles: r r r r & & P = F (ext) , L = (ext) . (5.37) r Using the definition (15) of the center of mass, the total momentum P of the body may be presented as r r r && & P mi ri = MR, (5.38)
i

nut = L / I 1 .

so that the first of equations (37) shows that the center of mass of the body moves as a point particle of mass M, in accordance with the 2nd Newton law under the effect of the net external force. This means that we may apply to this motion all the methods and results we have already discussed in Chapters 2-4. The second of Eqs. (37), expressing the dynamics of rotation, leads to simple differential equations only in some special cases. For example, if the body either has the spherical top symmetry, or the rotation axis is fixed, or this axis by any other reason permanently coincides with one of the principal rotation axes, then L = I , and the dynamics of the resulting 1D rotation is similar to the 1D motion of a particle, with the evident parallels: 1D rotation:
& I = , L = I , I L2 , T = 2 = 2 2I

1D particle:
& mv = F , p = mv, m p2 . T = v2 = 2 2m

(5.39)

A well-known example where this analogy is very productive is the physical pendulum (Fig. 5), a body with a fixed horizontal axis A which does not pass through the center of mass O, in the uniform gravity field (1.15). Relative to the rotation axis, the gravity creates torque r r r r r r r r (5.40) A ri in A Fi = mi (rO in A + ri in O ) g = Ml g .
i i

Note that Eq. (40) is if all the body mass were concentrated in it center. (The torque of the suspension force is of course zero.) r r Vector , as well as L , are parallel to the fixed axis and hence the body dynamics is described by a scalar equation (39),

2006 by K. Likharev

Classical Mechanics
& I& = Mgl sin

(5.41)

which is similar to that of the point-mass (mathematical) pendulum with the small oscillation frequency
Mgl = I
1/ 2

(5.42)

Note that here I is the moment of inertia for rotation about axis A rather the center of mass. In the simplest case when the linear size of the body is much smaller that the suspension length l , we can find I using either Eq. (18) or Eq. (26): I = Ml 2 , and Eq. (40) reduces to = g / l .
A

r l

r Mg

Fig. 5.5. Physical pendulum.

5.6. Precession In the more general cases, the dynamics of rotation may be rather complex, including the most famous and counter-intuitive effect of top precession. Consider an axially-symmetric body rapidly spinning about his symmetry axis, which is supported in some point of that axis (point A in Fig. 6a), which does not coincide with the center of mass O. Without external forces, the body would retain the direction of its rotation axis, which would coincide with the direction of the angular momentum: r r r L = I 3 = I 3n3 . (5.43) If the top is placed in the uniform gravity field, it creates, just as in the physical pendulum problem discussed above, torque (39) relative the suspension point A. In this case, however, it is easier to work in the frame centered to the center-of-mass O. Relative to this point, the gravity torque is zero, r r r r r (5.44) in O ri in O Fi = mi ri in O g = 0.
i i

r r However, since the support force N has to counter-balance the total gravity force Mg , it creates a net torque r r r r r r r = rA in O N = rA in O Mg = Ml n3 g , (5.45)
identical to that relative to the support point see Eq. (40). Hence the general equation (36) of the angular momentum becomes

2006 by K. Likharev

10

Classical Mechanics
r r r & L = Ml n3 g .

(5.46)

Despite the apparent simplicity of this equation, its analysis is straightforward only in the limit of r r high rotation velocity . In this limit, we may use Eq. (43) for L , so that vector dL / dt is r r r perpendicular both to n3 (and hence to L ) and to g (i.e. located in the horizontal plane) see r Fig. 6b. The magnitude of this vector is constant, dL / dt = mgl sin , so that vector L (and hence the top as the whole) rotates about the vertical axis with angular velocity

pr =

dL / dt Mgl sin Mgl = = . Lxy L sin L

(5.47)

Note that, like the nutation frequency (36), the torque-induced precession frequency (47) does not depend on the initial (and sustained) angle .

pr

(a)

(b)

r n3

r dL / dt
r Lxy

r N
O

r Mg

Fig. 5.6. Symmetric top in the gravity field: (a) side view at the system and (b) top view at the evolution of the horizontal component of the angular momentum vector.

Thus, surprisingly, the fast-rotating top does not want to follow the external force and r rather performs, in addition to fast spinning about the symmetry axis n3 (with velocity = L / I 3 ), also performs a relatively slow precession (with velocity pr 1 / L 1 / ) about the vertical axis. Of course, this may be only true for the tops spinning fast enough. Indeed, in our approximate treatment we have used Eq. (39), i.e. neglected the contribution to the angular momentum coming from the precession itself. This is only possible if the contribution is relatively small, I pr << I 3 . Using our result (42), this condition may be re-written as

MglI >> th ~ 2 I 3

1/ 2

(5.48)

For a body of not extreme proportions, with all dimensions ~ l , all inertia moments are of the order of Ml 2 , so that the threshold value th of the angular velocity is of the order of g / l , i.e. comparable with the frequency of the same body used as the physical pendulum.

2006 by K. Likharev

11

Classical Mechanics 5.7. Euler angles In order to overcome limitations of the approximate treatment of precession, one needs to introduce a particular set of generalized coordinates for expressing the basic equation of rotation, r r dL / dt = , in a component form. The most natural set of such coordinates is a set of three r r r r r r independent angles between the principal axes {n1 , n2 , n3 } of the body and axes {n x , n y , n z } of a non-rotating (laboratory) system. There are several possible options for the definition of such angles, Figure 7 shows the most popular of them, due to L. Euler. r nz r n3 r n2

line of nodes"

r nx

r n1

r ny
Fig. 5.7. Definition of the Euler angles.

r r The first Euler angle is counted from axis n z to axis n3 ; the second one, , from axis r r r r r n z to the line of poles which is formed by the intersection of planes [n x , n y ] and [n1 , n 2 ]. The r last angle is measured between the line of poles and axis n1 . Now, let us express the principal-axes components 1 , 2 , and 3 of the bodys instantaneous angular velocity in terms of the Euler angles. It may be easily done calculating, from Fig. 7, the projections of vectors of the Euler rotation vectors to each principal axis, and then adding them up. The result is
& 1 = sin sin + & cos , & 2 = sin cos & sin , & & 3 = cos + .

(5.49)

These formulas allow us to express the kinetic energy of rotation (22) and the angular momentum components (32) in terms of the generalized coordinates , , and and use the powerful Lagrangian formalism to generate their equations of motion. These expressions are especially simple for symmetric tops (with I 1 = I 2 ), because for these bodies we can always r select axis n1 coinciding with the line of nodes, and hence select = 0 at the considered & moment of time. (Note that this does not mean we can take = 0 .) As a result, Eqs. (49) are reduced to just

1 = & ,

& 2 = sin ,

& 3 = cos + & ,

(5.50)

and the rotational energy (22) becomes simply

Trot = I I1 & 2 & & & + 2 sin 2 + 3 ( cos + )2 . 2 2

(5.51)

2006 by K. Likharev

12

Classical Mechanics Now we are well equipped to return to the precession problem (Fig. 6) in which the Lagrangian function, written in the inertial reference frame with the center in the support point A, is
L = (Trot + TO ) U , TO = M 2 M 2 &2 & V = l + 2 sin 2 , U = Mgl cos . 2 2

(5.52)

Instead of writing the Lagrangian equations of motion for the Euler angles, we can immediately notice that L does not depend on cyclic coordinates and , so that the corresponding generalized momenta are conserved:
p L & & & = I sin 2 + I 3 ( cos + ) cos = const, &

L & & = I 3 ( cos + ) = const, p &

(5.53)

where I I 1 + Ml 2 is the moment of inertia for rotation about a horizontal axis passing through point A. According to the last Eq. (49), p is just L3, the projection of the angular momentum to r the rotating axis n3 . On the other hand, by its definition p is Lz, the projection of the same r vector to the static axis z. (We could foresee the conservation of both these components of L , r r because the vector (45) of the external torque is perpendicular to both n3 and n z .) One more conserved quantity in this problem is the full mechanical energy
E= I &2 I & & & + 2 sin 2 + 3 ( cos + )2 Mgl cos . 2 2

(5.54)

(Indeed, since the Lagrangian does not depend on time explicitly, H = const. Then, since the kinetic energy Trot + TO is a quadratic-homogeneous function of the generalized velocities, E = H.)
& & Now, excluding and from three equations (53)-(54), we get one first-order & differential equation for , which may be presented in a simple form:

I &2 + U ef ( ) = E , 2 ( L L3 cos ) 2 L2 U ef ( ) z + 3 + mgl cos . 2 2I 3 2 I sin

(5.55)

Thus, similarly to the Kepler problem, the symmetric top precession has been reduced to a 1D problem of motion of its polar angle in an effective potential U ef ( ) which is a sum of the real potential energy U given by Eq. (52) and a contribution from the kinetic energy of motion along two other angles. Besides the case of special initial conditions (0) = 0, Lz = L3 , 3 the first

3 In that simple case the body continues to rotate about the vertical symmetry axis: (t ) = 0 . Such motion is stable if the spinning speed is sufficiently high see below.
2006 by K. Likharev

13

Classical Mechanics term in U ef ( ) diverges at 0 and , so it has a minimum at some finite polar angle = 0 . If the initial conditions correspond to this value of the angle, and energy E = [U ef ( )]min = U ef ( 0 ), (5.56) the polar angle remains constant: (t ) = 0 . This corresponds to the torque-induced precession whose angular velocity may be found from Eqs. (53)

& pr =
The condition for finding 0 , dU ef / d
0

Lz L3 cos 0 . I sin 2 0

(5.57)

= 0 , gives a transcendent algebraic equation which

cannot be solved analytically for arbitrary parameters. It may be readily used, however, to show that in the limit of high spinning speed 3 >> th , cos 0 ( Lz / L3 ) ( IMgl / L2 ) 0 . This 3 means that in this limit the precession frequency (57) approaches the simple expression Eq. (47). The second important result which is easily derivable from Eq. (55) is the exact expression the threshold value of the spinning speed for a vertically rotating top. Indeed, at 0 this expression may be readily simplified:

L2 Mgl 2 + O( 4 ). U ef ( ) const + 3 8I 2
If the spinning velocity 3 = L3 / I 3 is higher than the value
4 Mgl th = 2 , I 3
1/ 2

(5.58)

(5.59)

then U ef ( ) has a stable minimum at 0 = 0 . On the other hand, if 3 < th the fixed point 0 = 0 becomes unstable, so that the top falls. If the initial energy is larger than the value given by Eq. (56), angle oscillates around the fixed point 0 . The law and frequency of these oscillations may be found exactly as in Sec. 3.3 see Eqs. (3.19) and (3.20). At 3 >> th , this motion corresponds to a fast rotation of the r symmetry axis n3 of the body about its average position performing the slow precession. These are essentially the same nutations which have been analyzed in Sec. 5.5 for the case of free body, and the order of magnitude of their frequency is still given by Eq. (36). Small energy dissipation (not taken into account in our analysis) leads first to a decay of nutations, than to a slower drift of the precession angle 0 to zero and, finally, to a gradual decay of the spinning speed until it reached the threshold and the top falls. To conclude our discussion of rotation, let us emphasize that Eqs. (49), together with Eqs. (22) for the kinetic energy allow the Lagrangian formalism to be used for the analysis of rotation of not only symmetric tops but also arbitrary (asymmetric) bodies. An alternative vehicle for such analysis is provided by the so-called Euler equations which are more convenient

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Classical Mechanics for an analysis of free rotation of asymmetric bodies, but are more cumbersome for problems with external torque, e.g., precession. 5.8. Rotation coupled to translation So far, we have concentrated on rotation alone, but in many important cases the rotational and translational motions of the same body are coupled by certain conditions. Possibly the simplest example is a round wheel rolling on a surface without slippage (Fig. 8). This condition may be presented as the requirement of zero net velocity of the particular wheel point A which touches the ground. For the simplest case of plane surface (Fig. 8a) this requirement gives the following relation between the angular velocity of the wheel and the linear velocity V of its center:

r +V = 0.

(5.60)

The relation becomes less trivial for rolling on a convex or concave surface (Fig. 8b), if we want to relate the angular velocities of the wheel rotation about its axis O ( ) and that of its axis rotation about the center O of curvature of the surface ( ). The most systematic way to do this is to note that Eq. (60) holds for this situation as well, and on the other hand the same velocity may be expressed as V = ( R r ). Combining these equations, for a concave surface we get a not quite trivial relation
= r . Rr

(5.61)

(A popular error would be to write = ( r / R ) .) (a) (b)

O V

O'

r
A

Fig. 5.8. A wheel rolling over (a) plane surface and (b) concave surface.

The kinematic relations like (60) or (61) are essentially constraints which reduce the number of degrees of freedom of the system. For example, without condition (60) the wheel on a plane surface has to be considered as a system with two degrees of freedom, so that its total kinetic energy (16) is a function of two generalized velocities, say V and :
T= M 2 I 2 V + . 2 2

(5.62)

Using Eq. (60) we may exclude, for example, the angular velocity and reduce Eq. (62) to the kinetic energy of a point with some effective mass:

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Classical Mechanics
M M 2 I V I V + = ef V 2 , M ef M + 2 . 2 2 r 2 r
2

T=

(5.63)

(Equation (61) illustrates that such effective parameters may depend in non-trivial way on the system geometry.) Another famous example of the relation between the translational and rotational motion is given by the sliding ladder problem (Fig. 9). Let us analyze it for the simplest case of no friction, the ladder thickness negligible in comparison with its length l . Using the Lagrangian approach, we write the kinetic energy of the ladder as
T= M & 2 &2 I 2 (X + Y ) + 2 & , 2

(5.64)

where X and Y are the Cartesian coordinates of its center of mass, and I is the moment of inertia for rotation about the z-axis passing through the center. (For the uniform ladder, I = Ml 2 / 12 ).

l 2
r O = {X , Y } l 2

l 2

Fig. 5.9. The sliding ladder problem.

Now we notice that both X and Y may be simply expressed via angle : l l X = cos , Y = sin . 2 2

(5.65)

(The easiest way to obtain these relations is to notice that the line shown dashed in Fig. 9 also has a slope of and length l / 2 .) Since the potential energy of the ladder in the gravity field may be also expressed via the same angle,
l U = MgY = Mg sin , 2

(5.66)

Lagrangian equation of motion for that coordinate, we notice that since L / t = 0 and the & kinetic energy is a quadratic-homogeneous function of , T= so that the full mechanical energy I ef 2 Ml 2 1 2 & , I ef = I + = Ml , 2 4 3 (5.67)

may be used as the (only) generalized coordinate of the system. Even without writing the

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Classical Mechanics

E = T +U =

& I ef 2 l Mgl l 2 & + Mg sin = 3g + sin 2 2 2

(5.68)

is conserved and gives us the first integral of motion. Moreover, Eq. (68) shows that the systems dynamics is identical to that of an (inverted) pendulum with the small-oscillation frequency
Mgl / 2 = I ef
1/ 2

3g = 2l

1/ 2

(5.69)

5.9. Non-inertial reference frames Before moving on, let us use the results of our discussion of rotation kinematics in Sec. 1 to complete the analysis of transfer between two reference frames, started in the introductory Chapter 1 see Fig. 1.2 and its discussion. Indeed, the differentiation rule described by Eq. (8) r derived for an arbitrary vector A enables us to relate not only radius-vectors, but also the velocities and accelerations of a particle as measured in two reference frames O and O, generally moving and rotating relative to each other see Fig. 10. particle
r r
in O '

r r

O'

r rO

in O '

Fig. 5.10. The general case of transfer between two reference frames.

r Even if frame O' rotates relative to frame O with angular velocity 0 , the radiusvectors of an arbitrary particle are still related by the simple Eq. (1.7): r r r r in O ' = rO in O ' + r . (5.70)
In order to get the corresponding relations between the corresponding velocities, let us differentiate this equation over time. Since frame O does not rotate (in itself), the first term may r r be differentiated directly, but for the second term we have to apply rule (8) with A = r : r r drO r r r r dr r r r v in O' + r = vO in O ' + (v + r ). (5.71) in O ' + dt dt This is a generalization of Eq. (10) to the case when the particle may move in the rotating reference frame as well, and on the other hand a generalization of Eq. (1.8) to the case 0 . In order to calculate acceleration, let us differentiate Eq. (71), using Eq. (8) again, now with r r r r A = v +r :
r a
in O'

r aO

in O '

r r r r d r r r (v + r ) + (v + r ). dt

(5.72)

Carrying out the differentiation in the RHP, we finally get equation

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Classical Mechanics r a r aO r r r r r r r r & + a + r + 2 v + ( r ) (5.73)

in O'

in O '

which is a generalization of the simple Eq. (1.9) to the rotating frame case. Now let the laboratory system O be inertial; then the 2nd Newton law for a particle of mass m is r r ma in O ' = F , (5.74) and we can use Eq. (73) to write r r r ma = F maO r r r r r r r & m ( r ) 2m v m r .

in O '

(5.75)

This result may be interpreted in the following way: if we want to use the Newton law in a nonr inertial (in particular, rotating) reference frame, we have to add to the real net force F , acting on a particle, several pseudo-force terms (inertial forces), all proportional to the particle mass. Let us analyze them. r The first term, maO in O ' , is the only one not related to rotation, and is well known from the undergraduate mechanics (remember all these weight-in-the-moving-elevator problems?), so it hardly deserves any additional discussion. r r r The direction of the second term, m ( r ) , the centrifugal force, is always perpendicular to, and directed outrof the instantaneous rotation axis see Fig.11 . Indeed, vector r r r r is perpendicular to both and r (in Fig. 11, normal to the picture plane and directed from the reader) and has magnitude r sin . Hence the outer product, with the account of the r minus sign, is normal to , directed out of the axis, and equal to 2 r sin = 2 . The centrifugal force is of course just the result of the fact that the centripetal acceleration, explicit in the inertial reference frame, disappears in the rotating frame. For Earth (E 2/(246060) ~10-4 s-1, ~ RE 6106 m), the acceleration is rather considerable, ~3 cm/s2 ~ 0.003 g) and is responsible, in particular, for the largest fraction of the deviation of the Earth geoid from a sphere, with the polar radius about 20 km smaller than the equatorial radius. r m r r r r ( r ) r
Fig. 5.11. The centrifugal force.

O The third term in the RHP of Eq. (75) presents the so-called Coriolis force which exists only if the particle moves in the rotating reference frame. This force is responsible in particular for the high right banks of rivers in the Northern hemisphere, regardless of the direction of their flow (Fig. 12). Despite the smallness of the force (for the water in a typical river with v ~ 1 m/s

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Classical Mechanics it is equivalent to acceleration ac ~ 10-4 m/s2 ~ 10-5 g), its multi-century effects may be rather prominent. 4 r r & The last, fourth inertial force, m r , exists only when the rotation frequency changes in time, and may be interpreted as a local-position-specific addition to the first term. Equation (75) presents the Newtonian approach to dynamics in a rotating reference frame. An alternative, Lagrangian approach is to use Eq. (71) to present the kinetic energy of the particle in the inertial frame in the form
T= m r [vO 2
in O '

r r r 2 + (v + r ) ]

(5.76)

r r and use it to express the particle Lagrangian function in terms of v and r (as a reminder, measured in the rotating frame). For the simple case of particle motion in the field of potential r forces, described from a reference frame which performs pure rotation ( vO in O ' = 0 ) with a
constant angular velocity, Eq. (76) yields
L T U =
r Fc

r r r m r r 2 m 2 v + mv ( r ) + ( r ) U . 2 2

(5.77)

r v

r r r Fc = 2m v

N
r v O

Fig. 5. 12. The Coriolis force on the Earths surface.

Of course, the Lagrangian equations of motion derived from this equation would give the r & same result as Eq. (75) with = 0 , but it is informative to have a look at the generalized r momentum corresponding to velocity v ,
r r r L r p r = m v + m r , v

(5.78)

and the Hamiltonian function:

4 Another well-known geophysical effect of the Coriolis forces in the Northern hemisphere is the counterclockwise rotation of cyclones, e.g., the Northeaster storms.
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Classical Mechanics
r r m m r r H p v L = v 2 + U ( r ) 2 . 2 2

(5.79)

The function is evidently different from the particles energy 5

E T +U =
r r r m 2 m r r 2 v + U + U c + mv ( r ), U c ( r ) . 2 2

(5.80)

This equation shows that in order to write correct energy of the particle in a non-inertial reference frame it is not sufficient to add to the real potential energy U of the particle the effective potential energy Uc of the centrifugal force: r r r r r Fc m ( r ) = U c . (5.81) It is also necessary to add to energy one more term which may be simply expressed via the r angular momentum L of the particle (as measured in the rotating frame): r r r r r r r r (5.82) mv ( r ) = ( r mv ) = L. Note that this term cannot be described via an effective potential energy, because it is depends on particles velocity.

r 5 This is natural because the kinetic energy includes a term linear in v and hence is not a quadratichomogeneous function of this generalized coordinate.

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Classical Mechanics Exercises 5.1. Calculate the principal moments of inertia for the following rigid bodies: (a) an equilateral triangle made of thin rods with a uniform linear mass density (Fig. 1), (b) a thin plate in a shape of an equilateral triangle, with a uniform areal mass density (Fig. 2), and (c) a tetrahedral pyramid made of heavy material with a uniform mass density (Fig. 3). Assuming that the total mass of all three objects is the same, compare the results and give an interpretation of their difference.

a a

a a

a a a

a Fig. 1 Fig. 2 Fig. 3

5.2. A solid, uniform, round cylinder of mass m can roll without slipping over a concave, round cylindrical surface of a block of mass M, in Earths gravity field, within the plane of picture see Figure below. The block can slide without friction on a horizontal surface, also in the same plane. For this system: (a) find the frequency of small oscillations of the system near the equilibrium, and (b) sketch the normal mode of oscillations for the particular case m = M, r = 0.5R. This system has two degrees of freedom, i.e. nominally should have two normal modes of the small oscillations; what has happened to the second mode? R M m r g

5.3. For the ladder problem discussed in Sec. 8, find the angle at which the ladders left end would separate from the wall, if the ladder has started sliding from the vertical position with a negligible initial velocity. 5.4. Explore the effect of the Coriolis force on objects falling in the Earth gravity field, neglecting air resistance. Interpret the result. In particular, estimate the lateral deviation of an object dropped, with negligible initial velocity, from the Empire State Building. 5.5. In the view of the difference between formulas for H (79) and E (80) written in a rotating frame, which of these quantities (if any) is conserved?

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