Code division multiple access (CDMA) is a channel access method used by various radio communication technologies.

It should not be confused with the mobile phone standards called cdmaOne, CDMA2000 (the 3G evolution of cdmaOne) and WCDMA (the 3G standard used by GSM carriers), which are often referred to as simply CDMA, and use CDMA as an underlying channel access method. One of the concepts in data communication is the idea of allowing several transmitters to send information simultaneously over a single communication channel. This allows several users to share a band of frequencies (see bandwidth). This concept is called multiple access. CDMA employs spread-spectrum technology and a special coding scheme (where each transmitter is assigned a code) to allow multiple users to be multiplexed over the same physical channel. By contrast, time division multiple access (TDMA) divides access by time, while frequencydivision multiple access (FDMA) divides it by frequency. CDMA is a form of spread-spectrum signalling, since the modulated coded signal has a much higher data bandwidth than the data being communicated. An analogy to the problem of multiple access is a room (channel) in which people wish to talk to each other simultaneously. To avoid confusion, people could take turns speaking (time division), speak at different pitches (frequency division), or speak in different languages (code division). CDMA is analogous to the last example where people speaking the same language can understand each other, but other languages are perceived as noise and rejected. Similarly, in radio CDMA, each group of users is given a shared code. Many codes occupy the same channel, but only users associated with a particular code can communicate. The technology of code division multiple access channels has long been known. In the USSR, the first work devoted to this subject was published in 1935 by professor Dmitriy V. Ageev.[1] It was shown that through the use of linear methods, there are three types of signal separation: frequency, time and compensatory. The technology of CDMA was used in 1957, when the young military radio engineer Leonid Kupriyanovich in Moscow, made an experimental model of a wearable automatic mobile phone, called LK-1 by him, with a base station. LK-1 has a weight of 3 kg, 2030 km operating distance, and 2030 hours of battery life.[2][3] The base station, as described by the author, could serve several customers. In 1958, Kupriyanovich made the new experimental "pocket" model of mobile phone. This phone weighed 0.5 kg. To serve more customers, Kupriyanovich proposed the device, named by him as correllator.[4][5] In 1958, the USSR also started the development of the "Altai" national civil mobile phone service for cars, based on the Soviet MRT-1327 standard. The phone system weighed 11 kg and was approximately 3 cubic meters in size[dubious discuss]. It was placed in the trunk of the vehicles of high-ranking officials and used a standard handset in the passenger compartment. The main developers of the Altai system were VNIIS (Voronezh Science Research Institute of Communications) and GSPI (State Specialized Project Institute). In 1963 this service started in Moscow and in 1970 Altai service was used in 30 USSR cities.[citation needed]

Contents
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1 Uses 2 Steps in CDMA Modulation 3 Code division multiplexing (Synchronous CDMA) o 3.1 Example 4 Asynchronous CDMA o 4.1 Advantages of asynchronous CDMA over other techniques 4.1.1 Efficient practical utilization of fixed frequency spectrum 4.1.2 Flexible allocation of resources o 4.2 Spread-spectrum characteristics of CDMA 5 Collaborative CDMA 6 See also 7 Further reading

8 References 9 External links

[edit] Uses
A CDMA2000 mobile phone

One of the early applications for code division multiplexing is in GPS. This predates and is distinct from its use in mobile phones. The Qualcomm standard IS-95, marketed as cdmaOne. The Qualcomm standard IS-2000, known as CDMA2000. This standard is used by several mobile phone companies, including the Globalstar satellite phone network. The UMTS 3G mobile phone standard, which uses W-CDMA. CDMA has been used in the OmniTRACS satellite system for transportation logistics.

[edit] Steps in CDMA Modulation

CDMA is a spread spectrum multiple access[6] technique. A spread spectrum technique spreads the bandwidth of the data uniformly for the same transmitted power. A spreading code is a pseudo-random code that has a narrow Ambiguity function, unlike other narrow pulse codes. In CDMA a locally generated code runs at a much higher rate than the data to be transmitted. Data for transmission is combined via bitwise XOR (exclusive OR) with the faster code. The figure shows how a spread spectrum signal is generated. The data signal with pulse duration of is XORed with the code signal with pulse duration of . (Note: bandwidth is proportional to where = bit time) Therefore, the bandwidth of the data signal is and the bandwidth of the spread spectrum signal is . Since is much smaller than , the bandwidth of the spread spectrum signal is much larger than the bandwidth of the original signal. The ratio is called the spreading factor or processing gain and determines to a certain extent the upper limit of the total number of users supported simultaneously by a base station.[7]

Each user in a CDMA system uses a different code to modulate their signal. Choosing the codes used to modulate the signal is very important in the performance of CDMA systems. The best performance will occur when there is good separation between the signal of a desired user and the signals of other users. The separation of the signals is made by correlating the received signal with the locally generated code of the desired user. If the signal matches the desired user's code then the correlation function will be high and the system can extract that signal. If the desired user's code has nothing in common with the signal the correlation should be as close to zero as possible (thus eliminating the signal); this is referred to as cross correlation. If the code is correlated with the signal at any time offset other than zero, the correlation should be as close to zero as possible. This is referred to as auto-correlation and is used to reject multi-path interference.[8] In general, CDMA belongs to two basic categories: synchronous (orthogonal codes) and asynchronous (pseudorandom codes).

[edit] Code division multiplexing (Synchronous CDMA)

Synchronous CDMA exploits mathematical properties of orthogonality between vectors representing the data strings. For example, binary string 1011 is represented by the vector (1, 0, 1, 1). Vectors can be multiplied by taking their dot product, by summing the products of their respective components (for example, if u = (a, b) and v = (c, d), then their dot product uv = ac + bd). If the dot product is zero, the two vectors are said to be orthogonal to each other. Some properties of the dot product aid understanding of how W-CDMA works. If vectors a and b are orthogonal, then and:

Each user in synchronous CDMA uses a code orthogonal to the others' codes to modulate their signal. An example of four mutually orthogonal digital signals is shown in the figure. Orthogonal codes have a cross-correlation equal to zero; in other words, they do not interfere with each other. In the case of IS-95 64 bit Walsh codes are used to encode the signal to separate different users. Since each of the 64 Walsh codes are orthogonal to one another, the signals are channelized into 64 orthogonal signals. The following example demonstrates how each user's signal can be encoded and decoded.

An example of four mutually orthogonal digital signals. Start with a set of vectors that are mutually orthogonal. (Although mutual orthogonality is the only condition, these vectors are usually constructed for ease of decoding, for example columns or rows from Walsh matrices.) An example of orthogonal functions is shown in the picture on the left. These vectors will be assigned to individual users and are called the code, chip code, or chipping code. In the interest of brevity, the rest of this example uses codes, v, with only 2 bits. Each user is associated with a different code, say v. A 1 bit is represented by transmitting a positive code, v, and a 0 bit is represented by a negative code, v. For example, if v = (1, 1) and

the data that the user wishes to transmit is (1, 0, 1, 1), then the transmitted symbols would be (v, v, v, v) = (v0, v1, v0, v1, v0, v1, v0, v1) = (1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1). For the purposes of this article, we call this constructed vector the transmitted vector. Each sender has a different, unique vector v chosen from that set, but the construction method of the transmitted vector is identical. Now, due to physical properties of interference, if two signals at a point are in phase, they add to give twice the amplitude of each signal, but if they are out of phase, they subtract and give a signal that is the difference of the amplitudes. Digitally, this behaviour can be modelled by the addition of the transmission vectors, component by component. If sender0 has code (1, 1) and data (1, 0, 1, 1), and sender1 has code (1, 1) and data (0, 0, 1, 1), and both senders transmit simultaneously, then this table describes the coding steps: Step Encode sender0 Encode sender1 0 code0 = (1, 1), data0 = (1, 0, 1, 1) code1 = (1, 1), data1 = (0, 0, 1, 1) 1 encode0 = 2(1, 0, 1, 1) (1, 1, 1, 1) encode1 = 2(0, 0, 1, 1) (1, 1, 1, 1) = (1, 1, 1, 1) signal0 = encode0 code0 = (1, 1, 1, 1) (1, 1) = (1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1) = (1, 1, 1, 1) signal1 = encode1 code1 = (1, 1, 1, 1) (1, 1) = (1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1)

Because signal0 and signal1 are transmitted at the same time into the air, they add to produce the raw signal: (1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1) + (1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1) = (0, 2, 2, 0, 2, 0, 2, 0) This raw signal is called an interference pattern. The receiver then extracts an intelligible signal for any known sender by combining the sender's code with the interference pattern, the receiver combines it with the codes of the senders. The following table explains how this works and shows that the signals do not interfere with one another: Step 0 1 2 3 4 Decode sender0 code0 = (1, 1), signal = (0, 2, 2, 0, 2, 0, 2, 0) decode0 = pattern.vector0 decode0 = ((0, 2), (2, 0), (2, 0), (2, 0)).(1, 1) decode0 = ((0 + 2), (2 + 0), (2 + 0), (2 + 0)) data0=(2, 2, 2, 2), meaning (1, 0, 1, 1) Decode sender1 code1 = (1, 1), signal = (0, 2, 2, 0, 2, 0, 2, 0) decode1 = pattern.vector1 decode1 = ((0, 2), (2, 0), (2, 0), (2, 0)).(1, 1) decode1 = ((0 2), (2 + 0), (2 + 0), (2 + 0)) data1=(2, 2, 2, 2), meaning (0, 0, 1, 1)

Further, after decoding, all values greater than 0 are interpreted as 1 while all values less than zero are interpreted as 0. For example, after decoding, data0 is (2, 2, 2, 2), but the receiver interprets this as (1, 0, 1, 1). Values of exactly 0 means that the sender did not transmit any data, as in the following example: Assume signal0 = (1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1) is transmitted alone. The following table shows the decode at the receiver: Step 0 1 2 3 4 Decode sender0 Decode sender1 code0 = (1, 1), signal = (1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, code1 = (1, 1), signal = (1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1) 1, 1) decode0 = pattern.vector0 decode1 = pattern.vector1 decode0 = ((1, 1), (1, 1), (1, 1), (1, 1)).(1, decode1 = ((1, 1), (1, 1), (1, 1), (1, 1) 1)).(1, 1) decode0 = ((1 + 1), (1 1),(1 + 1), (1 + 1)) decode1 = ((1 1), (1 + 1),(1 1), (1 1)) data0 = (2, 2, 2, 2), meaning (1, 0, 1, 1) data1 = (0, 0, 0, 0), meaning no data

When the receiver attempts to decode the signal using sender1's code, the data is all zeros, therefore the cross correlation is equal to zero and it is clear that sender1 did not transmit any data.

[edit] Asynchronous CDMA

See also: Direct-sequence spread spectrum and near-far problem When mobile-to-base links cannot be precisely coordinated, particularly due to the mobility of the handsets, a different approach is required. Since it is not mathematically possible to create signature sequences that are both orthogonal for arbitrarily random starting points and which make full use of the code space, unique "pseudo-random" or "pseudo-noise" (PN) sequences are used in asynchronous CDMA systems. A PN code is a binary sequence that appears random but can be reproduced in a deterministic manner by intended receivers. These PN codes are used to encode and decode a user's signal in Asynchronous CDMA in the same manner as the orthogonal codes in synchronous CDMA (shown in the example above). These PN sequences are statistically uncorrelated, and the sum of a large number of PN sequences results in multiple access interference (MAI) that is approximated by a Gaussian noise process (following the central limit theorem in statistics). Gold codes are an example of a PN suitable for this purpose, as there is low correlation between the codes. If all of the users are received with the same power level, then the variance (e.g., the noise power) of the MAI increases in direct proportion to the number of users. In other words, unlike synchronous CDMA, the signals of other users will appear as noise to the signal of interest and interfere slightly with the desired signal in proportion to number of users. All forms of CDMA use spread spectrum process gain to allow receivers to partially discriminate against unwanted signals. Signals encoded with the specified PN sequence (code) are received,

while signals with different codes (or the same code but a different timing offset) appear as wideband noise reduced by the process gain. Since each user generates MAI, controlling the signal strength is an important issue with CDMA transmitters. A CDM (synchronous CDMA), TDMA, or FDMA receiver can in theory completely reject arbitrarily strong signals using different codes, time slots or frequency channels due to the orthogonality of these systems. This is not true for Asynchronous CDMA; rejection of unwanted signals is only partial. If any or all of the unwanted signals are much stronger than the desired signal, they will overwhelm it. This leads to a general requirement in any asynchronous CDMA system to approximately match the various signal power levels as seen at the receiver. In CDMA cellular, the base station uses a fast closed-loop power control scheme to tightly control each mobile's transmit power.

[edit] Advantages of asynchronous CDMA over other techniques

[edit] Efficient practical utilization of fixed frequency spectrum In theory, CDMA, TDMA and FDMA have exactly the same spectral efficiency but practically, each has its own challenges power control in the case of CDMA, timing in the case of TDMA, and frequency generation/filtering in the case of FDMA. TDMA systems must carefully synchronize the transmission times of all the users to ensure that they are received in the correct time slot and do not cause interference. Since this cannot be perfectly controlled in a mobile environment, each time slot must have a guard-time, which reduces the probability that users will interfere, but decreases the spectral efficiency. Similarly, FDMA systems must use a guard-band between adjacent channels, due to the unpredictable doppler shift of the signal spectrum because of user mobility. The guard-bands will reduce the probability that adjacent channels will interfere, but decrease the utilization of the spectrum. [edit] Flexible allocation of resources Asynchronous CDMA offers a key advantage in the flexible allocation of resources i.e. allocation of a PN codes to active users. In the case of CDM (synchronous CDMA), TDMA, and FDMA the number of simultaneous orthogonal codes, time slots and frequency slots respectively are fixed hence the capacity in terms of number of simultaneous users is limited. There are a fixed number of orthogonal codes, time slots or frequency bands that can be allocated for CDM, TDMA, and FDMA systems, which remain underutilized due to the bursty nature of telephony and packetized data transmissions. There is no strict limit to the number of users that can be supported in an asynchronous CDMA system, only a practical limit governed by the desired bit error probability, since the SIR (Signal to Interference Ratio) varies inversely with the number of users. In a bursty traffic environment like mobile telephony, the advantage afforded by asynchronous CDMA is that the performance (bit error rate) is allowed to fluctuate randomly, with an average value determined by the number of users times the percentage of utilization. Suppose there are 2N users that only talk half of the time, then 2N users can be accommodated with the same average bit error probability as N users that talk all of the time. The key difference

here is that the bit error probability for N users talking all of the time is constant, whereas it is a random quantity (with the same mean) for 2N users talking half of the time. In other words, asynchronous CDMA is ideally suited to a mobile network where large numbers of transmitters each generate a relatively small amount of traffic at irregular intervals. CDM (synchronous CDMA), TDMA, and FDMA systems cannot recover the underutilized resources inherent to bursty traffic due to the fixed number of orthogonal codes, time slots or frequency channels that can be assigned to individual transmitters. For instance, if there are N time slots in a TDMA system and 2N users that talk half of the time, then half of the time there will be more than N users needing to use more than N time slots. Furthermore, it would require significant overhead to continually allocate and deallocate the orthogonal code, time slot or frequency channel resources. By comparison, asynchronous CDMA transmitters simply send when they have something to say, and go off the air when they don't, keeping the same PN signature sequence as long as they are connected to the system.

[edit] Spread-spectrum characteristics of CDMA

Most modulation schemes try to minimize the bandwidth of this signal since bandwidth is a limited resource. However, spread spectrum techniques use a transmission bandwidth that is several orders of magnitude greater than the minimum required signal bandwidth. One of the initial reasons for doing this was military applications including guidance and communication systems. These systems were designed using spread spectrum because of its security and resistance to jamming. Asynchronous CDMA has some level of privacy built in because the signal is spread using a pseudo-random code; this code makes the spread spectrum signals appear random or have noise-like properties. A receiver cannot demodulate this transmission without knowledge of the pseudo-random sequence used to encode the data. CDMA is also resistant to jamming. A jamming signal only has a finite amount of power available to jam the signal. The jammer can either spread its energy over the entire bandwidth of the signal or jam only part of the entire signal.[9] CDMA can also effectively reject narrow band interference. Since narrow band interference affects only a small portion of the spread spectrum signal, it can easily be removed through notch filtering without much loss of information. Convolution encoding and interleaving can be used to assist in recovering this lost data. CDMA signals are also resistant to multipath fading. Since the spread spectrum signal occupies a large bandwidth only a small portion of this will undergo fading due to multipath at any given time. Like the narrow band interference this will result in only a small loss of data and can be overcome. Another reason CDMA is resistant to multipath interference is because the delayed versions of the transmitted pseudo-random codes will have poor correlation with the original pseudo-random code, and will thus appear as another user, which is ignored at the receiver. In other words, as long as the multipath channel induces at least one chip of delay, the multipath signals will arrive at the receiver such that they are shifted in time by at least one chip from the intended signal. The correlation properties of the pseudo-random codes are such that this slight delay causes the multipath to appear uncorrelated with the intended signal, and it is thus ignored.

Some CDMA devices use a rake receiver, which exploits multipath delay components to improve the performance of the system. A rake receiver combines the information from several correlators, each one tuned to a different path delay, producing a stronger version of the signal than a simple receiver with a single correlation tuned to the path delay of the strongest signal.[10] Frequency reuse is the ability to reuse the same radio channel frequency at other cell sites within a cellular system. In the FDMA and TDMA systems frequency planning is an important consideration. The frequencies used in different cells must be planned carefully to ensure signals from different cells do not interfere with each other. In a CDMA system, the same frequency can be used in every cell, because channelization is done using the pseudo-random codes. Reusing the same frequency in every cell eliminates the need for frequency planning in a CDMA system; however, planning of the different pseudo-random sequences must be done to ensure that the received signal from one cell does not correlate with the signal from a nearby cell.[11] Since adjacent cells use the same frequencies, CDMA systems have the ability to perform soft hand offs. Soft hand offs allow the mobile telephone to communicate simultaneously with two or more cells. The best signal quality is selected until the hand off is complete. This is different from hard hand offs utilized in other cellular systems. In a hard hand off situation, as the mobile telephone approaches a hand off, signal strength may vary abruptly. In contrast, CDMA systems use the soft hand off, which is undetectable and provides a more reliable and higher quality signal.[11]

[edit] Collaborative CDMA

In a recent study, a novel collaborative multi-user transmission and detection scheme called Collaborative CDMA[12] has been investigated for the uplink that exploits the differences between users fading channel signatures to increase the user capacity well beyond the spreading length in multiple access interference (MAI) limited environment. The authors show that it is possible to achieve this increase at a low complexity and high bit error rate performance in at fading channels, which is a major research challenge for overloaded CDMA systems. In this approach, instead of using one sequence per user as in conventional CDMA, the authors group a small number of users to share the same spreading sequence and enable group spreading and despreading operations. The new collaborative multi-user receiver consists of two stages: group multi-user detection (MUD) stage to suppress the MAI between the groups and a low complexity maximum-likelihood detection stage to recover jointly the co-spread users data using minimum Euclidean distance measure and users channel gain coefcients. In CDM signal security is high.
Short for Code-Division Multiple Access, a digital cellular technology that uses spread-spectrum techniques. Unlike competing systems, such as GSM, that use TDMA, CDMA does not assign a specific frequency to each user. Instead, every channel uses the full available spectrum. Individual conversations are encoded with a pseudo-random digital sequence. CDMA consistently provides better capacity for voice and data communications than other commercial mobile technologies, allowing more subscribers to connect at any given time, and it is the common platform on which 3G technologies are built. CDMA is a military technology first used during World War II by English allies to foil German attempts at jamming transmissions. The allies decided to transmit over several frequencies, instead of one, making it difficult for the Germans to pick up the complete signal. Because Qualcomm created communications chips for CDMA technology, it

was privy to the classified information. Once the information became public, Qualcomm claimed patents on the technology and became the first to commercialize it.

Introduction to Spread Spectrum Communications CDMA is a form of Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum communications. In general, Spread Spectrum communications is distinguished by three key elements: 1. The signal occupies a bandwidth much greater than that which is necessary to send the information. This results in many benefits, such as immunity to interference and jamming and multi-user access, which well discuss later on. 2. The bandwidth is spread by means of a code which is independent of the data. The independence of the code distinguishes this from standard modulation schemes in which the data modulation will always spread the spectrum somewhat. 3. The receiver synchronizes to the code to recover the data. The use of an independent code and synchronous reception allows multiple users to access the same frequency band at the same time. In order to protect the signal, the code used is pseudo-random. It appears random, but is actually deterministic, so that the receiver can reconstruct the code for synchronous detection. This pseudo-random code is also called pseudonoise (PN).

Figure 1. Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum System Three Types of Spread Spectrum Communications There are three ways to spread the bandwidth of the signal:

Frequency hopping. The signal is rapidly switched between different frequencies within the hopping bandwidth pseudo-randomly, and the receiver knows before hand where to find the signal at any given time. Time hopping. The signal is transmitted in short bursts pseudo-randomly, and the receiver knows beforehand when to expect the burst. Direct sequence. The digital data is directly coded at a much higher frequency. The code is generated pseudo-randomly, the receiver knows how to generate the same code, and correlates the received signal with that code to extract the data.

Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum CDMA is a Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum system. The CDMA system works directly on 64 kbit/sec digital signals. These signals can be digitized voice, ISDN channels, modem data, etc. Figure 1 shows a simplified Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum system. For clarity, the figure shows one channel operating in one direction only. Signal transmission consists of the following steps: 1. A pseudo-random code is generated, different for each channel and each successive connection. 2. The Information data modulates the pseudo-random code (the Information data is spread). 3. The resulting signal modulates a carrier. 4. The modulated carrier is amplified and broadcast. Signal reception consists of the following steps: 1. The carrier is received and amplified. 2. The received signal is mixed with a local carrier to recover the spread digital signal. 3. A pseudo-random code is generated, matching the anticipated signal. 4. The receiver acquires the received code and phase locks its own code to it. 5. The received signal is correlated with the generated code, extracting the Information data.

Implementing CDMA Technology The following sections describe how a system might implement the steps illustrated in Figure 1. Input data CDMA works on Information data from several possible sources, such as digitized voice or ISDN channels. Data rates can vary, here are some examples: Data Source Data Rate

Voice Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)

64 kBits/sec

Adaptive Differential Pulse Code Modulation (ADPCM) 32 kBits/sec Low Delay Code Excited Linear Prediction (LD-CELP) 16 kBits/sec ISDN Bearer Channel (B-Channel) Data Channel (D-Channel) 64 kBits/sec 16 kBits/sec

The system works with 64 kBits/sec data, but can accept input rates of 8, 16, 32, or 64 kBits/sec. Inputs of less than 64 kBits/sec are padded with extra bits to bring them up to 64 kBits/sec. For inputs of 8, 16, 32, or 64 kBits/sec, the system applies Forward Error Correction (FEC) coding, which doubles the bit rate, up to 128 kbits/sec. The Complex Modulation scheme (which well discuss in more detail later), transmits two bits at a time, in two bit symbols. For inputs of less than 64 kbits/sec, each symbol is repeated to bring the transmission rate up to 64 kilosymbols/sec. Each component of the complex signal carries one bit of the two bit symbol, at 64 kBits/sec, as shown below.

Generating Pseudo-Random Codes For each channel the base station generates a unique code that changes for every connection. The base station adds together all the coded transmissions for every subscriber. The subscriber unit correctly generates its own matching code and uses it to extract the appropriate signals. Note that each subscriber uses several independant channels. In order for all this to occur, the pseudo-random code must have the following properties: 1. It must be deterministic. The subscriber station must be able to independently generate the code that matches the base station code. 2. It must appear random to a listener without prior knowledge of the code (i.e. it has the statistical properties of sampled white noise). 3. The cross-correlation between any two codes must be small (see below for more information on code correlation). 4. The code must have a long period (i.e. a long time before the code repeats itself). Code Correlation

In this context, correlation has a specific mathematical meaning. In general the correlation function has these properties: It equals 1 if the two codes are identical It equals 0 of the two codes have nothing in common

Intermediate values indicate how much the codes have in common. The more they have in common, the harder it is for the receiver to extract the appropriate signal. There are two correlation functions: Cross-Correlation: The correlation of two different codes. As weve said, this should be as small as possible. Auto-Correlation: The correlation of a code with a time-delayed version of itself. In order to reject multipath interference, this function should equal 0 for any time delay other than zero.

The receiver uses cross-correlation to separate the appropriate signal from signals meant for other receivers, and auto-correlation to reject multi-path interference.

Figure 2a. Pseudo-Noise Spreading

Figure 2b. Frequency Spreading Pseudo-Noise Spreading The FEC coded Information data modulates the pseudo-random code, as shown in Figure 2a. Some terminology related to the pseudo-random code: Chipping Frequency (fc): the bit rate of the PN code. Information rate (fi): the bit rate of the digital data. Chip: One bit of the PN code. Epoch: The length of time before the code starts repeating itself (the period of the code). The epoch must be longer than the round trip propagation delay (The epoch is on the order of several seconds).

Figure 2b shows the process of frequency spreading. In general, the bandwidth of a digital signal is twice its bit rate. The bandwidths of the information data (fi) and the PN code are shown together. The bandwidth of the combination of the two, for fc>fi, can be approximated by the bandwidth of the PN code. Processing Gain

An important concept relating to the bandwidth is the processing gain (G p). This is a theoretical system gain that reflects the relative advantage that frequency spreading provides. The processing gain is equal to the ratio of the chipping frequency to the data frequency:

There are two major benefits from high processing gain: Interference rejection: the ability of the system to reject interference is directly proportional to G p. System capacity: the capacity of the system is directly proportional to Gp.

So the higher the PN code bit rate (the wider the CDMA bandwidth), the better the system performance.

Figure 3a. Complex Modulator

Figure 3b. Complex Modulation Transmitting Data The resultant coded signal next modulates an RF carrier for transmission using Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (QPSK). QPSK uses four different states to encode each symbol. The four states are phase shifts of the carrier spaced 90_ apart. By convention, the phase shifts are 45, 135, 225, and 315 degrees. Since there are four possible states used to encode binary information, each state represents two bits. This two bit word is called a symbol. Figure 3 shows in general how QPSK works. First, well discuss Complex Modulation in general, applying it to a single channel with no PN-coding (that is, well show how Complex Modulation would work directly on the symbols). Then well discuss how we apply it to a multi-channel, PN-coded, system. Complex Modulation Algebraically, a carrier wave with an applied phase shift, (t), can be expressed as a sum of two components, a Cosine wave and a Sine wave, as:

I(t) is called the real, or In-phase, component of the data, and Q(t) is called the imaginary, or Quadrature-phase, component of the data. We end up with two Binary PSK waves superimposed. These are easier to modulate and later demodulate.

This is not only an algebraic identity, but also forms the basis for the actual modulation/demodulation scheme. The transmitter generates two carrier waves of the same frequency, a sine and cosine. I(t) and Q(t) are binary, modulating each component by phase shifting it either 0 or 180 degrees. Both components are then summed together. Since I(t) and Q(t) are binary, well refer to them as simply I and Q. The receiver generates the two reference waves, and demodulates each component. It is easier to detect 180_ phase shifts than 90_ phase shifts. The following table summarizes this modulation scheme. Note that I and Q are normalized to 1. Symbol I 00 01 10 11 Q Phase shift

+1 +1 45 +1 -1 315 -1 +1 135 -1 -1 225

For Digital Signal Processing, the two-bit symbols are considered to be complex numbers, I +jQ. Working with Complex Data In order to make full use of the efficiency of Digital Signal Processing, the conversion of the Information data into complex symbols occurs before the modulation. The system generates complex PN codes made up of 2 independent components, PNi +jPNq. To spread the Information data the system performs complex multiplication between the complex PN codes and the complex data. Summing Many Channels Together Many channels are added together and transmitted simultaneously. This addition happens digitally at the chip rate. Remember, there are millions of chips in each symbol. For clarity, lets say each chip is represented by an 8 bit word (its slightly more complicated than that, but those details are beyond the scope of this discussion). At the Chip Rate Information data is converted to two bit symbols. The first bit of the symbol is placed in the I data stream, the second bit is placed in the Q data stream. The complex PN code is generated. The complex PN code has two independently generated components, an I component and a Q component. The complex Information data and complex PN code are multiplied together.

For each component (I or Q): Each chip is represented by an 8 bit word. However, since one chip is either a one or a zero, the 8 bit word equals either 1 or -1. When many channels are added together, the 8-bit word, as the sum of all the chips, can take on values from between -128 to +128. The 8-bit word then goes through a Digital to Analog Converter, resulting in an analog level proportional to the value of the 8-bit word. This value then modulates the amplitude of the carrier (the I component modulates the Cosine, the Q component modulates the Sine) The modulated carriers are added together.

Since I and Q are no longer limited to 1 or -1, the phase shift of the composite carrier is not limited to the four states, the phase and amplitude vary as A2 = I2 + Q2 Tan(() = Q/I At the Symbol Rate Since the PN-code has the statistical properties of random noise, it averages to zero over long periods of time (such as the symbol period). Therefore, fluctuations in I and Q, and hence the phase modulation of the carrier, that occur at the chip frequency, average to zero. Over the symbol period the modulation averages to one of the four states of QPSK, which determine what the symbol is. The symbol only sees the QPSK, and obeys all the statistical properties of QPSK transmission, including Bit Error Rate. Receiving Data The receiver performs the following steps to extract the Information: Demodulation Code acquisition and lock Correlation of code with signal Decoding of Information data

Demodulation The receiver generates two reference waves, a Cosine wave and a Sine wave. Separately mixing each with the received carrier, the receiver extracts I(t) and Q(t). Analog to Digital converters restore the 8-bit words representing the I and Q chips. Code Acquisition and Lock The receiver, as described earlier, generates its own complex PN code that matches the code generated by the transmitter. However, the local code must be phase-locked to the encoded data. The RCS and FSU each have different ways of acquiring and locking onto the others transmitted code. Each method will be covered in more detail in later sections. Correlation and Data Despreading Once the PN code is phase-locked to the pilot, the received signal is sent to a correlator that multiplies it with the complex PN code, extracting the I and Q data meant for that receiver. The receiver reconstructs the Information data from the I and Q data.

Automatic Power Control The RCS gets bombarded by signals from many FSUs. Some of these FSUs are close and their signals are much stronger than FSUs farther away. This results in the Near/Far problem inherent in CDMA communications. System

Capacity is also dependant on signal power. For these reasons, both the RCS and FSU measure the received power and send signals to control the others transmit power. Near/Far Problem Because the cross-correlation between two PN codes is not exactly equal to zero, the system must overcome what we call the Near/Far problem. The output of the correlator consists of two components: The autocorrelation of the PN code with the desired coded signal The sum of the cross-correlation of the PN code with all the other coded signals.

Mathematically, if we are trying to decode the kth signal, we have:

Where: Aj is the amplitude of the jth signal, jk is the cross-correlation between the kth and jth signal, and is the sum over all the j signals (excluding k). Since the cross-correlation is small (ideally, it is zero), the sum of cross-correlation terms should be much less than the amplitude of the desired signal. However, if the desired signal is broadcast from far away, and undesired signals are broadcast from much closer, the desired signal may be so small as to be drowned out by the cross-correlation terms. Note that this problem only exists in the reverse direction. The RCS is receiving signals from many FSUs at different distances, but the FSU is receiving all signals from one RCS. The RCS controls the power of each FSU so that the signals received from all FSUs are the same strength. System Capacity The capacity of a system is approximated by:

where: is the maximum number of simultaneous calls is the processing gain is the total signal to noise ratio per bit, and is the inter-cell interference factor.

Notice, as we said earlier, the capacity is directly proportional to the processing gain. Capacity is also inversely proportional to the signal to noise ratio of the received signal. So, the smaller the transmitted signal, the larger the system capacity (as long as the receiver can detect the signal in the noise!). Both the RCS and FSU control the power transmitted by the other so that the received signal is as small as possible while maintaining a minimum signal to noise ratio. This maxi mizes syste m capac ity.

Figure 4. Multi-Path Interference Rejection

Interference Rejection CDMA technology is inherently resistant to interference and jamming. A common problem with urban communications is multi-path interference. Multi-path interference is caused by the broadcast signal traveling over different paths to reach the receiver. The receiver then has to recover the signal combined with echoes of varying amplitude and phase. This results in two types of interference: Inter-chip interference: The reflected signals are delayed long enough that successive bits (or chips, in this case) in the demodulated signals overlap, creating uncertainty in the data. Selective fading: The reflected signals are delayed long enough that they are randomly out of phase, and add destructively to the desired signal, causing it to fade.

Combating Interference Two methods are commonly used to combat multi-path interference: Rake filter: Correlators are set up at appropriate time intervals to extract all the echoes. The relative amplitude and phase of each echo is measured, and each echo signal is phase corrected and added to the signal. Adaptive Matched Filter. This filter is matched to the transfer function (i.e. the propagation characteristics) of the signal path. It phase shifts the echo signals and adds them to maximize the received signal.

System Operation The following sections describe a hypothetical implmentation of CDMA technology. A connection can be one of many types of data, but for simplicity we will refer to any connection as a call. These sections cover the following system states: System Idle: System operation when there is no call in progress. Call Setup: The steps to setup a connection. Call Processing: The processing and transmission of the digital data once a connection is established. Call Teardown: The steps taken once a call is finished to free system resources.

But first, in order to understand system operation, you must understand the Pilot codes and communication channels the system uses. Pilot Codes At each phase of operation, the system broadcasts pilot signals. These pilot signals are the unmodulated PN codes associated with each channel, used to synchronize and track the locally generated PN codes for despreading. The system uses the following pilot signals. Global Pilot: Broadcast by the RCS. All FSUs use the Global Pilot for all received channels.

Short Access Pilot: Broadcast by FSU. Monitored by the RCS for an incoming access attempt by an FSU. Alerts the RCS that an FSU is requesting access. Long Access Pilot: Broadcast by the FSU. Allows the RCS to synchronize to the FSU to setup a call. Assigned Pilot: Broadcast by FSU. Unmodulated PN code of the assigned channel. Allows RCS to synchronize to and track the PN codes of the FSU assigned channels for despreading.

Communication Channels In order to understand system operation, we need to introduce the system communication channels. The system has the following channel groups: The Broadcast Channel group: Channels continuously broadcasted by the RCS. Call Setup Channel group: Channels used to setup a call. There are four sets of these channels; up to 4 FSUs can request access at one time. Assigned Channel group: Channels used for the call.

Each logical channel in each group is realized by assigning a unique PN code to it. Channel Group Broadcast Channel Name Global Pilot Direction F Number of Channels One One Description An unmodulated PN code that the FSU can synchronize to. A single message indicating which services and access channels are available. This information may change rapidly. Paging messages and other system information that does not need to be updated rapidly. Alerts the RCS that an FSU is requesting access. Allows the RCS to synchronize to the FSU to setup a call. Used by the FSUs to access an RCS and get assigned channels. Used by the RCS to reply to access attempts from FSUs. Controls FSU power during initial access.

Fast Broadcast F Channel Slow Broadcast Channel Call Setup Short Pilot Long Pilot Access Channel Control Channel Control Channel APC Assigned R F F F

One

Four Four Four Four Four

Assigned Pilot R APC Channel Traffic Channels Order wire F R F R F R

One per FSU An unmodulated PN code that the RCS can synchronize to. One per FSU Controls FSU power during call. Controls RCS power of assigned FSU channels. Up to 3 per FSU Signal data from RCS to FSU. Signal data from FSU to RCS. One per FSU Control signals: CDMA and Telco messages.

Note on Direction: F - Forward - From RCS to FSU

R - Reverse - From FSU to RCS Pilot Ramp Up When the FSU transmits its Short and Long Access Pilots, it ramps the power up to determine what power level it should transmit. When the RCS detects the Short Access Pilot, it acknowledges over the Fast Broadcast Channel. The FSU then knows that it is being received, and switches to the Long Access Pilot code. The Long Access Pilot code ramps up more slowly, until the RCS locks and starts transmitting Automatic Power Control signals. System Idle On startup, the RCS places one of its modems in broadcast mode, in which state it broadcasts the following Global Channels continuously: Global Pilot Slow Broadcast Channel Fast Broadcast Channel

In addition, the RCS sets aside 4 modems for Call Setup channels. These modems continuously listen for access attempts by the FSUs. Well discuss the operation of the modems in more detail later. Paging Groups and Sleep Cycles The RCS divides all the FSUs associated with it into paging groups. The RCS assigns each paging group a particular time slot on its Slow Broadcast Channel (the first time slot is reserved for general Slow Broadcast information). When the RCS pages an FSU, the RCS will only page it during the time slot of that FSUs paging group. The Slow Broadcast Channel cycles through all the paging groups. The cycle takes approximately one second to complete. Each FSU remains powered down for most of the cycle. When the Slow Broadcast Channel reaches the time slot of the FSUs paging group, the FSU powers up, synchronizes to the Global Pilot, and checks for its address in the paging group. If it recognizes its paging address, it requests access; if not, it powers down. This results in a duty cycle of less than 10%, and saves considerable power at the FSU.

HH History
In July 1985, seven industry veterans came together in the den of Dr. Irwin Jacobs San Diego home to discuss an idea. Those visionariesFranklin Antonio, Adelia Coffman, Andrew Cohen, Klein Gilhousen, Irwin Jacobs, Andrew Viterbi and Harvey Whitedecided they wanted to build Quality Communications and outlined a plan that has evolved into one of the telecommunications industrys greatest start-up success stories: Qualcomm Incorporated. Qualcomm started out providing contract research and development services, with limited product manufacturing, for the wireless telecommunications market. One of the teams first goals was to develop a commercial product. This effort resulted in OmniTRACS. Since its introduction in 1988, OmniTRACS has grown into the largest satellite-based commercial mobile system for the transportation industry today.

Qualcomm has an extensive portfolio of United States and foreign patents, and we continue to pursue patent applications around the world. Our patent portfolio is the most widely and extensively licensed portfolio in the industry with over 195 licensees.

This early success led the company to take a daring departure from conventional wireless wisdom. In 1989, the Telecommunications Industry Association (TIA) endorsed a digital technology called Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA ). Just three months later, Qualcomm introduced Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA), a superior technology for wireless and data products that changed the global face of wireless communications forever. Today, Qualcomm plays a central role in the rapid adoption and growth of 3G and next-generation wireless around the world. Qualcomm has an extensive portfolio of United States and foreign patents, and we continue to pursue patent applications around the world. Our patent portfolio is the most widely and extensively licensed portfolio in the industry with over 195 licensees.

How CDMA technology works and how it is different and advantages then GSM?

Best Answer - Chosen by Voters

Short for Code-Division Multiple Access, a digital cellular technology that uses spread-spectrum techniques. Unlike competing systems, such as GSM, that use TDMA, CDMA does not assign a specific frequency to each user. Instead, every channel uses the full available spectrum. Individual conversations are encoded with a pseudo-random digital sequence. CDMA consistently provides better capacity for voice and data communications than other commercial mobile technologies, allowing more subscribers to connect at any given time, and it is the common platform on which 3G technologies are built. CDMA is a military technology first used during World War II by English allies to foil German attempts at jamming transmissions. The allies decided to transmit over several frequencies, instead of one, making it difficult for the Germans to pick up the complete signal. Because Qualcomm created communications chips for CDMA technology, it was privy to the classified information. Once the information became public, Qualcomm claimed patents on the technology and became the first to commercialize it.
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cdma is alot slower than gsm. CDMA technology currently does not allow voice and data to be sent over the network simultaneously, which means you can't, for example, make a phone call while checking e-mail or using the maps app, but you can with a GSM AT&T iPhone. Also, the ringer/mute button had to be slightly moved, which means the bumpers and cases available for the iPhone 4 (GSM) may not fit. Verizon did not claim exclusivity for the CDMA iPhone 4 at its launch event on Tuesday, which leaves the door open for a Sprint version, since Sprint also uses CDMA
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These are the tech differencr between the 2. CDMA is a very strong network, Code Division Multiple Access is what cdma stands for. The network is a good network beause it can penatrate through, buildings better then GSM. CDMA uses all the access points of the network to keep good call quality, for example. Lets say that CDMA has 2 division of access, it will use both access points to keep the call quality good, its deticating all access points to keep the quality of the call at best, to maximize performace. Thats the reason why you cant go on the internet and go online at the same time. GSM means Global Systems for Mobile Communications, its meant to use overseas, and gives u alot more control and the able to do multiple things, but it comes with a cost. GSM does not give u a deticated access. you get to use all the access u want , but the quality will not be that good, thstd why will GSM u get akot more droped calls and bad call quality. T-Mobile is kown for dropped calls and bad service, and they use GSM, ATT Wireless uses GSM also, and u can read online, where the iPhone users where cloging up the network, and att could not handle, there has been alot of outages in new york because of the iPhone and so on and fourth. GSM was not able to handle the high traffic.

Why you think verizon is number 1 consumers know, where he quality of service is. But once again it all depends on what the consumer want. GSM: You can do what ever you want, but the quality wont be that good. CDMA: You maybe limited to what you can do, but what you can do is done to the best possible way.

MULTIPLE ACCWSS METHOD There are predominantly three types of multiple access methods.

1.FDMA(Frequency Division Multiple Access) 2.TDMA(Time Division Multiple Access) 3.CDMA(Code Division Multiple Access)

FDMA(Frequency Division Multiple Access) With FDMA, frequencies are separated in thefrequency domain,each user is allotted adifferent set of frequencies to operate upon. Subscribers are assigned a pair of voice channels(forward and reverse) for the duration of the call. 2.TDMA(Time Division Multiple Access) In this system, each user is allocated a differenttime slot. Forward link frequency and reverse linkfrequency is the same. A synchronous switch isresponsible for the time switching.