Fuel 89 (2010) 28022814

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Fuel
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/fuel

A comprehensive experimental investigation of combustion and heat release characteristics of a biodiesel (hazelnut kernel oil methyl ester) fueled direct injection compression ignition engine
M. Gumus *
Automotive Division, Department of Mechanical Education, Marmara University, Ziverbey 34722, Istanbul, Turkey

a r t i c l e

i n f o

a b s t r a c t
In the present study, hazelnut (Corylus avellana L.) kernel oil was transesteried with methanol using potassium hydroxide as catalyst to obtain biodiesel and a comprehensive experimental investigation of combustion (cylinder gas pressure, rate of pressure rise, ignition delay) and heat release (rate of heat release, cumulative heat release, combustion duration and center of heat release) parameters of a direct injection compression ignition engine running with biodiesel and its blends with diesel fuel was carried out. Experiment parameters included the percentage of biodiesel in the blend, engine load, injection timing, injection pressure, and compression ratio. Results showed that hazelnut kernel oil methyl ester and its blends with diesel fuel can be used in the engine without any modication and undesirable combustion and heat release characteristics were not observed. The modications such as increasing of injection timing, compression ratio, and injection pressure provided signicant improvement in combustion and heat release characteristics. 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Article history: Received 20 November 2009 Received in revised form 26 January 2010 Accepted 27 January 2010 Available online 6 February 2010 Keywords: Biodiesel Hazelnut kernel oil methyl ester Diesel engine Combustion Heat release

1. Introduction A number of studies have shown that biodiesel obtained from vegetable oils hold promise as alternative fuels for diesel engines [14]. Numerous vegetable oil esters called biodiesel have been tried as alternative to diesel fuel. A lot of researchers have reported that with the use of biodiesel as a fuel in diesel engines, a diminution in harmful exhaust emissions as well as equivalent engine performance with diesel fuel were achieved [513]. Several studies have found that biodiesel seems to emit far less of the most regulated pollutants than standard diesel fuel. Decreasing of carbon dioxide (CO2) by using biodiesel contributes to reduce greenhouse effect. In other sense, diminishing of carbon monoxide (CO), hydrocarbons (HC), nitrogen oxides (NOx) and smoke density improve air quality [1,14,15]. Similar results were also reported in the earlier study on hazelnut kernel oil methyl ester (HOME) used in a direct injection (DI) compression ignition (CI) engine by the present author [16]. Previous research has shown that biodiesel has comparable performance to diesel fuel with signicant reduction in emissions of CO, HC, and smoke but slightly increased in NOx emissions and brake specic fuel consumption. Combustion and heat release (HR) characteristics of biodiesel must be known in order to achieve the reduction of engine emis* Tel.: +90 216 3365770x321; fax: +90 216 3378987. E-mail address: mgumus@marmara.edu.tr 0016-2361/$ - see front matter 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.fuel.2010.01.035

sions and fuel consumption while keeping other engine performance parameters at an acceptable level. The differences in physical properties between diesel and biodiesel fuels affect the combustion and HR characteristics [2,1721]. A lot of studies related to combustion and HR characteristics of biodiesel have been reported in the literature. Test parameters of these studies include the percentage of biodiesel in the blend, engine speed, engine load (EL), injection timing (IT), injection pressure (IP) and engine compression ratio (CR). Biodiesel and its blends also show a slight drop in the engine power with decreased peak cylinder gas pressure (CGP) and reduced ignition delay (ID) when compared to diesel fuel. The premixed combustion phase of biodiesel and its blends take place earlier with diesel fuel because of shorter ignition delay. The maximum rate of pressure rise (ROPR) and the maximum rate of heat release (ROHR) of biodiesel are generally lower than that of diesel. Biodiesel also shows higher diffusion combustion compared to standard diesel operation. Moreover, when the test engine is fueled with biodiesel and its blends, the brake specic fuel consumption increases slightly relative to diesel fuel due to different physical properties, combustion and HR characteristics of biodiesel [2231]. Engine simulation and modeling of various processes have been used alongside experimental techniques to achieve understanding, analysis and control of the biodiesel spray combustion processes. Such simulations and models are also used for biodiesel in order to reduce the number of the costly development tests. The CI engine simulation models can be classied into three categories;

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Nomenclature ATDC BMEP BSFC BTDC BTE CA CD CFPP CGP CHR CI CO CO2 COHR CR after top dead center brake mean effective pressures brake specic fuel consumption before top dead center brake thermal efciency crank angle combustion duration cold Filter Plug Point cylinder gas pressure cumulative heat release compression ignition carbon monoxide carbon dioxide center of heat release compression ratio DI EL LHV HC HOME HR ID IP IT NOx rpm ROPR ROHR SD TDC direct injection engine load lower heating value hydrocarbon Hazelnut kernel oil methyl ester heat release ignition delay injection pressure injection timing nitrogen oxides revolution per minute rate of pressure rise rate of heat release standard deviation top dead center

zero dimensional single-zone models (thermodynamics model), quasi-dimensional multi-zone models and multi-dimensional models [3235]. Since Turkey is the main hazelnut producing country, hazelnut kernel oil can be used as an alternative to diesel fuel especially by the farmers around Black Sea region which is main production area. But there is not a comprehensive investigation on combustion and HR characteristics of HOME in DI-CI engines. In the previous study, an experimental investigation was carried out to examine the performance and emissions of a DI diesel engine running with HOME and its blends with diesel fuel. Results showed that HOME and its blends with diesel fuel are generally comparable to diesel fuel and small modications such as increasing IT, CR and IP provide signicant improvement in performance and emissions [16]. The objectives of this experimental study were to investigate combustion characteristics and HR behaviors of biodiesel and its blends with diesel fuel. Test parameters included the percentage of biodiesel in the blend, EL, IT, IP, and CR.

2. HOME production and its characterization The basic composition of hazelnut kernel oil is triglyceride, which is the ester of three fatty acids and one glycerol. Composition of different Turkish hazelnuts growing in the Eastern Black Sea Region of Turkey is given in previous study. Hazelnut has high energy (27.1728.46 MJ/kg) and contains 61.66% oil, 20.59% protein, and 10% carbohydrates as mean values [16]. HOME has been produced as a biodiesel by transesterication method. Transesterication of hazelnut kernel oil was included heating of oil until 65 C, addition of KOH (1% of oil by weight) and methyl alcohol 1/5 volumetric ratio of hazelnut kernel oil, stir-

ring of mixture, separation of glycerol, washing with distilled water and heating for removal of water. The reaction time with stirring continued for 1 h at constant temperature. After glycerol separation, the methyl ester was washed twice with a 1:1 volume of distilled water for 1 h. The ordinary diesel fuel was obtained from the Turkish Petroleum Reneries Corporation. The properties of fuels were determined at the laboratories of The Scientic and Technological Research Council of Turkey-Marmara Research Center. The properties of diesel fuel and biodiesel are given in Table 1. The kinematic viscosity values biodiesel and the diesel fuels used in the experiments were measured at 40 C. Transesterication of hazelnut kernel oil provided a signicant reduction in viscosity. The variation of biodiesel viscosity is very close to that of diesel fuel. It was further reduced with increase in diesel fuel amount in the blend. A similar reduction in specic gravity was also observed. However, caloric value of biodiesel was found to be 37.23 MJ/kg, which is less than caloric value of diesel fuel (43.15 MJ/kg). As the percentage of diesel fuel in the blends increased, the caloric value increased. The ash points of biodiesel were found to be greater than 120 C, which represents a safety for storage and handling. In this study, legend BX represents a blend including X% biodiesel i.e. B5 indicates a blend including 5% biodiesel and the legend B100 represents pure biodiesel.

3. Experimental set-up and procedure The combustion and HR characteristics of biodiesel and its blends with diesel fuel were investigated as compared with diesel fuel. The CI engine used in the study was a Lombardini 6 LD 400 DI, single cylinder, four-stroke, naturally aspirated, air-cooled engine. The combustion chamber of the CI engine is characterized by a re-

Table 1 The properties of biodiesel and diesel fuel. Property Density Kinematic viscosity Lower heating value Cetane numbera Flash point CFPP Ash content Water
a

Units kg m3, 15 C mm2 s1, 40 C MJ kg1 C C % mass % volume

EN 14124 limits 860900 3.55.0 51 min 120 min 150 0.02 max

ASTM D 6751 limits 1.96.0 41 min 130 min 0.02 max 0.05 max

Biodiesel[16] 884.3 5.4 37.23 55 182.5 14 0.008 0.0028

Diesel[46] 830 2.4 43.15 50 59 10 0.001 0.0002

Calculated from cetane index (distillation temperature, ASTM D 976).

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Table 2 Main characteristics of the engine used during the testing procedure [47]. Trademark and model Number of the cylinder Bore Stroke Swept volume Compression ratio Maximum engine power Maximum engine moment BMEP Injector opening pressure Cone angle of spray Number of nozzle hole Fuel injection timing Lombardini 6 LD 400 Single 86 mm 68 mm 395 cm3 18:1 8 kW at 3600 rpm 21 Nm at 2200 rpm 0.64 MPa at 20 Nm 20 MPa 160 4 20 CA BTDC

head thus decreasing the clearance volume thereby increasing the CR. All tests were conducted at a constant engine speed of 2200 rpm, obtained maximum torque. 4. Calculation of heat release The comprehensive investigation of combustion characteristics and the analysis of HR were performed based on the CGP data. The signals of CGP sensors were acquired for every 0.264 CA and the acquisition process covered 100 cycles. The averaged CGP data of 100 cycles was used for calculation of the combustion parameters and analysis of HR. HR analysis can yield valuable information about the effect of engine design changes, fuel injection system, fuel type and engine operating conditions on the combustion process and engine performance [36]. In this study, the CGP data were used to evaluate the ROHR which is a simplied thermodynamic model. The ROHR was calculated by a rst law analysis of the average CGP. It is assumed that the cylinder content is a homogeneous mixture of air and combustion products and is at uniform temperature and pressure at any moment during the combustion process. The ROHR at each CA was determined by the following formula:

entrant toroidal bowl piston with a protuberance in the bottom of the chamber. Details of the engine specication are given in Table 2. A Cussons-P8160 type single cylinder test bed equipped with an instrument cabinet, tted with a strain gauge load sensor, electrical tachometer and switches for load remote control was used in experiments. The engine was loaded by an electrical dynamometer rated at 10 kW and 380 V. An inductive pickup speed sensor was used to measure the engine speed. Air consumption was measured using a sharp edged orice plate and an inclined manometer. Different digital thermocouples monitored the temperatures of intake air, engine oil, and exhaust. Fuel consumption was determined by using calibrated burette with an accuracy of 0.1% and a stopwatch with an accuracy of 0.5% s. The diesel engine was fully equipped for measurements of combustion parameters. The CGP time history was measured by a Kistler Model 6052B air-cooled piezo-quartz pressure sensor which was mounted on the cylinder head. The cylinder signals were then passed onto matching Kistler Model 5644A charge amplier. A Kistler Model 4067 A2000 piezo-resistive pressure sensor with charge amplier was mounted on the fuel line for measuring fuel line pressure. Crankshaft position was obtained using a crankshaft angle sensor to determine CGP as a function of crank angle (CA). A LeCroy Model LT374 digital oscilloscope having four channels, 500 MHz bandwidth and 4 GS/s maximum sample rate was used to convert analog signals to digital form and to collect the necessary data as well as to store the data in a personal computer for combustion and HR analysis. The sound pressure level of the CI engine was also measured by PULSE multi analyzer system with   Brel&Kjr Model 4189 free-eld microphone and Brel&Kjr Model 2669 microphone preampliers at a position of one meter from the engine surface in four directions. Before each experiment, the engine was regulated according to the catalogue values. All data were collected after the engine stabilized. The engine was sufciently warmed up for each test. The engine was allowed to run for a few minutes until it reached steadystate conditions, around 8590 C and the data were collected subsequently. After measurements, the engine was allowed to cool. The test procedure is repeated three times and the values given in this study are the average of these three results. Test parameters included the percentage of biodiesel in the blend (0% pure diesel fuel, 5%, 20%, 50%, and 100% proportions by volume), EL (10 and 20 Nm), IT (5 CA advanced, original, and 5 CA retarded), IP (20 and 24 MPa), and CR (18 and 20). The original working parameters of the test engine are 20 CA before top dead center (BTDC) IT, 20 MPa IP, and 18 CR. Thickness of the advance shim, located in the connection place between the engine and fuel pump, was changed to adjust IT. The IP was increased by using different washer. The increasing of washer thickness increased spring stress so the IP increased properly. The increasing of CR was achieved by placing lower thickness spacers between the cylinder and the cylinder

c 1 PdV VdP Q w c1 c1

where Q is the ROHR (J), c is the ratio of specic heats which is calculated according to an empirical equation [37], P is the CGP (Pa), V is the instantaneous volume of the cylinder (m3) and Q w is heat transfer rate (J) from the wall calculated based on the Hohenberg correlation [38] and the wall temperature was assumed to be 723 K. For this calculation the contents of the cylinder were also assumed to behave as an ideal gas (air) with the specic heat being dependent on temperature [39] and blow-by through the piston rings was neglected. The ID was dened as CA interval from the maximum pressure of fuel line to the maximum ROPR. The combustion duration (CD) was calculated as CA interval from the maximum ROPR to the maximum cumulative heat release (CHR). The center of heat release (COHR) is calculated as CA by using the expression given below:

R /e /c R s/ e
/s /

dQ d/

/d/ d/

dQ d/

5. Results and discussion 5.1. Combustion characteristics The combustion characteristics were determined via the investigation of variation in CGP with respect to CA. Figs. 1 and 2 show the changes in CGP with respect to CA for different fuels, ITs, IPs and CRs at 10 and 20 Nm ELs. Fig. 3 shows rate of ROPR with respect to CA different fuels and ITs at 20 Nm EL. Peak CGP, ROPR and ID were determined by analysis of CGP. Combustion parameters such as peak CGP, maximum ROPR, start of combustion, ID are shown in Table 3. 5.1.1. Cylinder gas pressure (CGP) Figs. 1 and 2 show CGP versus CA for different fuels, ITs, IPs, CRs, and ELs. As observed in gures, the peak CGP was higher for diesel fuel at all tests. This result can be related to the differences in the HR pattern shown in Figs. 4 and 5. The peak CGP mainly depends on the combustion rate in initial stages, which is inuenced by the fuel taking part in uncontrolled HR phase [40]. High viscosity and low volatility of the biodiesel lead to poor atomization and

M. Gumus / Fuel 89 (2010) 28022814

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(a)
Injection timing = 20 oCA BTDC Injection pressure = 20 MPa Compression ratio = 18 Load = 10 Nm B0 B5 B20 B50 B100

6 Cylinder Pressure (MPa)

2 9

(b)
Injection timing = 20 oCA BTDC Injection pressure = 20 MPa Compression ratio = 18 Load = 20 Nm B0 B5 B20 B50 B100

Cylinder Pressure (MPa)

2 -20

-10

10 Crank Angle (deg)

20

30

40

Fig. 1. CGP versus CA for different fuels at 10 Nm (a) and 20 Nm (b) load.

mixture preparation with air during the ID period. The peak CGP of biodiesel and its blends were lower due to the deterioration during the preparation process of airfuel mixture as a result of high fuel viscosity [27]. Table 3 shows the peak CGP values and points in which the peak CGPs were observed in terms of CA after top dead center (ATDC) for different fuels, ITs, IPs, CRs, and ELs. Fig. 1 shows the CGP in terms of CA for different fuels at 10 and 20 Nm ELs. As seen in the gures, peak CGP slightly decreases with the addition of biodiesel content in the blend. While the peak CGPs of 10 Nm EL were occurred between 6.61 and 7.05 MPa, the peak CGPs in 20 Nm EL were occurred between 7.54 and 7.96 MPa for all test fuels. The peak CGPs occurred within the range of 2.875.884 CA ATDC for all test fuels. With the addition of biodiesel content in the blend, the peak CGP slightly goes away from top dead center (TDC) due to poor atomization, mixture preparation and combustion process. When comparing CGPs traces of 10 and 20 Nm ELs, it is seen that the peak CGP increased with increasing EL. Experimental results showed that fuel consumption per unit time increased with increasing EL, this behavior provided an increase in peak CGP for 20 Nm. Locations of peak CGP got closer to TDC at 20 Nm EL because the starting fuel injection occurred earlier than that of 10 Nm and ID also decreased with 20 Nm EL.

Modications such as increasing of IT, IP, CR increase peak CGP because these modications improve combustion rate in the uncontrolled combustion phase of all test fuels. In all tests, the peak CGP was 8.95 MPa (at 1.80 CA ATDC) occurring at B0EL20CR20 condition while the minimum peak CGP was 6.10 MPa (at 7.82 CA ATDC) occurring at B100EL10IT15 condition. Increasing of CR was the most effective factor on the increase in CGP. Increasing CR enhances density of air charge in cylinder. The more density provides the higher angles of spray cone and this result in increase in the amount of air entrainment into the fuel spray. The more air in the fuel spray contributes completion of combustion and increases the CGP [16]. 5.1.2. Rate of pressure rise (ROPR) The maximum ROPR and position of the maximum ROPR in terms of CA ATDC at different ITs, IPs, CRs, and ELs for biodiesel, diesel and their blends are shown in Table 3. Biodiesel and its blends showed lower ROPRs as compared to diesel fuel due to lower ID and premixed combustible mixture would make less fuel to be burned in the premixed burning phase. The reasons for the less premixed combustible mixture are higher viscosity and lower volatility of biodiesel as compared to those of diesel fuel. Because of this, the CGP and ROPR decreased [25,41]. The ROPR increased with

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(a)

Injection pressure = 20 MPa Compression ratio = 18 Load = 20 Nm

B0, 15 oCA BTDC

Cylinder Pressure (MPa)

B0, 20 oCA BTDC B0, 25 oCA BTDC B100, 15 oCA BTDC B100, 20 oCA BTDC B100, 25 oCA BTDC

2
9

(b)
8
Injection timing = 20 oCA BTDC Compression ratio= 18 Load = 20 Nm B0, Pinj = 20 MPa B20, Pinj = 20 MPa B20, Pinj = 24 MPa B100, Pinj = 20 MPa B100, Pinj = 24 MPa

Cylinder Pressure (MPa)

2
9

(c)
8
Injection timing = 20 oCA BTDC Injection pressure = 20 MPa Load = 20 Nm B0, C.R.= 18 B20, C.R.= 18 B20, C.R.= 20 B100, C.R.= 18 B100, C.R.= 20

Cylinder Pressure (MPa)

-20

-10

10 Crank Angle (deg)

20

30

40

Fig. 2. CGP versus CA for different IT (a), IP (b), CR (c) at 20 Nm load.

the rise in EL for all test fuels due to increase in the quantity of fuel injected in the cylinder per CA. The increasing of IT, IP, and CR also increased ROPR because these modications improved combustion rate and increased burned fuel in the uncontrolled combustion

phase of all test fuels. Advanced IT has effects on the ROPR. Fig. 3 shows ROPR versus CA for B0 and B100 at different ITs. It may be noticed from the gure that the advanced IT increased the maximum ROPR for diesel and biodiesel. Advanced IT drops air pressure

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0.7 0.6 Rate of Pressure Rise (MPa/deg) 0.5 0.4

B0, 15 CA BTDC
o

Injection pressure = 20 MPa Compression ratio = 18 Load = 20 Nm

0.3 0.2 0.1 0 -0.1 -0.2 -0.3 -20

B0, 20 o CA BTDC B0, 25 o CA BTDC B100, 15 o CA BTDC B100, 20 CA BTDC B100, 25o CA BTDC
o

-10

10 Crank Angle (deg)

20

30

40

Fig. 3. ROPR versus CA for B0 and B100 at different IT and 20 Nm load.

Table 3 Combustion characteristics of the fuels for different engine conditions. 10 Nm B0 Original Injection timing (20 CA BTDC) Compression ratio (18) Injection pressure (20 MPa) Injection timing (15 CA BTDC) Maximum CGP (MPa) Maximum CGP (CA ATDC) Maximum ROPR (MPa/deg) Start of combustion (CA BTDC) Ignition delay (CA) Maximum CGP (MPa) Maximum CGP (CA ATDC) Maximum ROPR (MPa/deg) Start of combustion (CA BTDC) Ignition delay (CA) Maximum CGP (MPa) Maximum CGP (CA ATDC) Maximum ROPR (MPa/deg) Start of combustion (CA BTDC) Ignition delay (CA) Maximum CGP (MPa) Maximum CGP (CA ATDC) Maximum ROPR (MPa/deg) Start of combustion (CA BTDC) Ignition delay (CA) Maximum CGP (MPa) Maximum CGP (CA ATDC) Maximum ROPR (MPa/deg) Start of combustion (CA BTDC) Ignition delay (CA) 7.05 4.52 0.39 5.97 14.03 6.56 6.17 0.35 2.67 12.33 7.36 2.54 0.45 8.75 16.26 7.90 3.54 0.53 5.78 13.23 7.04 4.19 0.44 7.19 12.94 B5 7.02 4.85 0.39 6.11 13.90 6.56 6.50 0.35 2.73 12.53 7.32 2.87 0.45 8.74 16.21 7.87 3.53 0.55 5.86 13.11 7.01 4.23 0.43 7.20 12.83 B20 6.97 5.18 0.38 6.63 13.37 6.48 6.83 0.34 2.48 12.12 7.24 2.87 0.45 8.94 16.06 7.80 3.59 0.51 6.63 12.37 6.98 4.52 0.42 7.29 12.71 B50 6.82 4.97 0.37 6.44 13.57 6.34 7.16 0.32 3.00 12.00 7.13 3.20 0.44 8.61 16.39 7.64 3.86 0.48 6.44 12.57 6.92 4.68 0.39 7.32 12.56 B100 6.61 5.84 0.37 7.29 12.71 6.10 7.82 0.29 3.47 11.54 7.06 3.53 0.43 8.94 16.06 7.50 3.86 0.46 6.77 12.24 6.87 5.18 0.36 7.62 12.38 20 Nm B0 7.96 3.20 0.50 9.27 10.73 7.15 4.19 0.45 5.97 9.03 8.50 2.21 0.60 12.05 12.96 8.95 1.80 0.71 9.60 9.40 7.94 2.54 0.55 10.47 9.48 B5 7.94 2.87 0.49 9.60 10.40 7.14 4.52 0.44 6.25 8.56 8.47 1.13 0.59 13.13 11.77 8.93 1.55 0.67 9.42 9.58 7.94 2.87 0.54 10.53 9.41 B20 7.90 3.76 0.49 9.93 10.07 6.99 5.18 0.43 6.57 8.37 8.42 1.12 0.58 13.23 11.56 8.84 1.88 0.65 9.41 9.60 7.88 3.20 0.52 10.59 9.38 B50 7.71 3.86 0.46 10.07 9.94 6.85 5.51 0.42 6.63 8.32 8.34 1.54 0.56 13.04 11.97 8.65 2.21 0.61 9.41 9.59 7.79 4.19 0.50 10.67 9.31 B100 7.54 4.52 0.46 10.92 9.08 6.64 5.84 0.38 6.77 8.24 8.21 1.55 0.54 13.89 11.11 8.48 3.20 0.57 9.74 8.87 7.66 4.85 0.45 11.25 8.75

Injection timing (25 CA BTDC)

Compression ratio (20)

Injection pressure (24 MPa)

and temperature at the point of injection and results in longer ID and thereby more premixed combustible mixture are generated. Higher ROPR means a greater proportion of the injected fuel being burnt in the premixed combustion phase [29]. It can be noticed from Table 3 that the maximum ROPR increased with increasing IP from 20 to 24 MPa for biodiesel and blends with diesel fuel at 10 and 20 Nm ELs. This is due to the ner spray formation resulting in better combustion [3]. The increasing of CR was also the most effective factor on the ROPR like CGP due to similar reasons mentioned above.

In all tests, the maximum ROPR was 0.71 MPa/deg occurring at 9.60 CA BTDC for B0EL20CR20 condition. The minimum ROPR was 0.29 MPa/deg occurring at 3.47 CA BTDC for B100EL10IT15 condition. The position of the maximum ROPR can be considered as the position in which combustion starts. The start of combustion in terms of CA BTDC for all test fuels at different conditions was given in Table 3. Combustion starts earlier for biodiesel and blends with diesel fuel (Fig. 1a and b) due to advanced IT (because of a higher bulk modulus and higher density of biodiesel) and shorter ID.

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30

(a)
25
Rate of Heat Release (kJ/deg)

Injection timing = 20 oCA BTDC Injection pressure = 20 MPa Compression ratio = 18 Load = 10 Nm B0 B5 B20 B50 B100

20

15

10

-5 35

(b)
30
Rate of Heat Release (kJ/deg)
Injection timing = 20 oCA BTDC Injection pressure = 20 MPa Compression ratio = 18 Load = 20 Nm B0 B5 B20 B50 B100

25 20 15 10 5 0 -5 -20

-10

10 Crank Angle (deg)

20

30

40

Fig. 4. ROHR versus CA for different fuels at 10 Nm (a) and 20 Nm (b) load.

5.1.3. Ignition delay (ID) ID is an important parameter in combustion phenomenon. Biodiesel and its blends showed shorter IDs as compared to diesel fuel due to higher cetane number of biodiesel. High cetane number makes autoignition easily and gives short ID. A lot of parameters such as fuel type, fuel quality, airfuel ratio, engine speed, quality of fuel atomization, intake air temperature and pressure inuence the ID. The fuel type is an important parameter affecting the ID [26]. When biodiesel is used as alternative fuel, the earlier fuel ITs have been occurred in engines with mechanical injection systems. These earlier ITs obtained with biodiesel have been attributed to differences in the physical properties between biodiesel and diesel fuels. A critical difference between the diesel fuel and biodiesel fuel properties is the compressibility (bulk modulus). The compressibility of biodiesel and its blends is lower than that of diesel fuel. When biodiesel is injected, the liquid fuel pressure rise produced by the pump is faster as a consequence of its lower compressibility, and also the pressure waves can propagate quicker toward the injectors (higher sound velocity). The difference in this physical property has provided that the IT of biodiesel and its blends is effectively advanced relative to that of diesel fuel [20,42,43]. Another physical property having effect on the IT is density. The

biodiesel has a slightly higher density, which affects the fuel compression process in the volumetric injection pump. The higher density of biodiesel causes advance in the IT. Also, this case causes a different quantity of fuel to be injected per stroke for the same volume of crank angle. In addition, its higher viscosity reduces pump leakages leading to an increase in the injection line pressure, to faster evolution of pressure, and thus to advanced IT. Furthermore, lower vapor content in a high pressure injection system could also be the reason for the advanced IT. By decreasing the vapor volume, the injection delay decreases which results in advanced IT [18,40,44,45]. Table 3 shows IDs of the test fuels for different ITs, IPs, CRs, and ELs. The ID decreased with increase in EL for all test fuels. In spite of slightly higher viscosity and lower volatility of the biodiesel, the ignition delay seems to be lower than that with diesel fuel. B100 showed shorter ID as compared to diesel fuel due to higher cetane numbers of biodiesel. Increasing of the cetane number with an increased biodiesel addition in blends with diesel fuel is responsible for the decrease in the ID. While advanced IT increased ID, retarded IT, increasing of IP and CR decreased ID. Effects of these parameters on the ID increased with addition of biodiesel content in the blend. The minimum and maximum IDs were obtained at B100EL20IT15 and B0EL10IT25 conditions, respectively.

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50 45 40
Rate of Heat Release (kJ/deg)

(a)
Injection pressure = 20 MPa Compression ratio = 18 Load = 20 Nm B0, 15 o CA BTDC B0, 20 o CA BTDC B0, 25 o CA BTDC B100, 15 o CA BTDC B100, 20 o CA BTDC B100, 25 o CA BTDC

35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 -5 35

(b)
30
Rate of Heat Release (kJ/deg)

Injection timing = 20 o CA BTDC Compression ratio= 18 Load = 20 Nm B0, Pinj = 20 MPa B20, Pinj = 20 MPa B20, Pinj = 24 MPa B100, Pinj = 20 MPa B100, Pinj = 24 MPa

25 20 15 10 5 0 -5 50 45 40

(c)
Injection timing = 20 oCA BTDC Injection pressure = 20 MPa Load = 20 Nm B0, C.R.= 18 B20, C.R.= 18 B20, C.R.= 20 B100, C.R.= 18 B100, C.R.= 20

Rate of Heat Release (kJ/deg)

35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 -5 -20 -10 0 10 Crank Angle (deg)

20

30

40

Fig. 5. ROHR versus CA for different IT (a), IP (b), CR (c) at 20 Nm load.

5.2. Analysis of heat release HR calculations are an attempt to learn more about the combustion process in an engine. Several important

parameters such as ROHR, CHR, COHR, and CD were determined by analysis of HR. Figs. 4 and 5 demonstrate the ROHR and Figs. 6 and 7 illustrate the CHR for different fuels, ITs, IPs, and CRs at 10 and 20 Nm ELs. HR parameters such as maximum

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500 450 400 Cumulative Heat Release (kJ) 350 300 250 200 150 100 50 0 -50 600

(a)
Injection timing = 20 oCA BTDC Injection pressure = 20 MPa Compression ratio = 18 Load = 10 Nm B0 B5 B20 B50 B100

(b)
500 Cumulative Heat Release (kJ)

Injection timing = 20 oCA BTDC Injection pressure = 20 MPa Compression ratio = 18 Load = 20 Nm B0 B5 B20 B50 B100

400

300

200

100

0 -20 -10 0 10 Crank Angle (deg) 20 30 40

Fig. 6. CHR versus CA for different fuels at 10 Nm (a) and 20 Nm (b) load.

ROHR, CHR, end of combustion, COHR, and CD are shown in Table 4. 5.2.1. Rate of heat release (ROHR) Figs. 4 and 5 demonstrate the ROHR for different fuels, ITs, IPs, and CRs at 10 and 20 Nm ELs. Because of the vaporization of the fuel accumulated during ID, at the beginning a negative HR is observed and after combustion, this behavior becomes positive. After the ID, premixed fuel air mixture burns rapidly, followed by diffusion combustion, where the burn rate is controlled by fuel air mixture. It can be observed that combustion starts earlier for biodiesel blends under all engine operating conditions and it becomes more prominent with higher biodiesel addition in the blends. The premixed combustion HR is higher for diesel owing to higher volatility and better mixing of diesel with air. Another reason may possibly be the longer ID of diesel, which leads to a larger amount of fuel accumulation in the combustion chamber at the time of the premixed combustion stage, leading to a higher ROHR. As illustrated in the Fig. 4, ROHR decreased with the increase of biodiesel in the blends. From the gures it is clear that the maximum ROHR of biodiesel was lower than that of diesel fuel owing to lower premixed burning of biodiesel. At the time of ignition, fuel air mixture prepared for combustion decreases with addition of biodiesel content in the blend due to lower volatility, ID and higher

viscosity. Therefore the premixed HR decreases with the addition of biodiesel content in the blend [27]. Also, the lower caloric value of biodiesel reduces ROHR. Location of the maximum ROHR as CA for biodiesel and its blends with diesel fuel is earlier than that of diesel fuel. As seen in the comparison in Fig. 4a and b, ROHR increased with the rise in the EL due to the increase in the quantity of fuel injected in the cylinder. With the advanced IT (Fig. 5a), the ID increased because the fuel injected earlier in the combustion chamber. This leads to greater accumulation of the fuel during ID period and leads to an increase in the premixed HR. Retarded IT leads to a decrease in ID and lower accumulation of fuel. This is the reason for the lower premixed burning, HR and poor combustion. The premixed HR and the maximum ROHR improved when the IP was enhanced owing to better fuel atomization and more mixture preparation (Fig. 5b). The increased in the premixed HR for biodiesel is more than that of the diesel fuel when the IP was increased. With an increase in CR (Fig. 5c) the premixed HR and the maximum ROHR increases due to the fuel injected in hotter combustion chamber and this leads to higher combustion rate. As seen in the Table 4, the maximum ROHR was 48.47 kJ/deg occurring at 9.80 CA BTDC for B0EL20CR20 condition. The minimum ROHR was 17.23 kJ/deg occurring at 7.62 CA BTDC for B100EL10IT15 condition.

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600

500 Cumulative Heat Release (kJ)

(a)

Injection pressure = 20 MPa Compression ratio = 18 Load = 20 Nm B0, 15 oCA BTDC B0, 20 oCA BTDC B0, 25 oCA BTDC B100, 15 oCA BTDC B100, 20 oCA BTDC B100, 25 oCA BTDC

400

300

200

100

0 600

(b)
Injection timing = 20 oCA BTDC Compression ratio= 18 Load = 20 Nm B0, Pinj = 20 MPa B20, Pinj = 20 MPa B20, Pinj = 24 MPa B100, Pinj = 20 MPa B100, Pinj = 24 MPa

500 Cumulative Heat Release (kJ)

400

300

200

100

0 600

(c)
Injection timing = 20 oCA BTDC Injection pressure = 20 MPa Load = 20 Nm B0, C.R.= 18 B20, C.R.= 18 B20, C.R.= 20 B100, C.R.= 18 B100, C.R.= 20

500 Cumulative Heat Release (kJ)

400

300

200

100

0 -20 -10 0 10 Crank Angle (deg)

Fig. 7. CHR versus CA for different IT (a), IP (b), CR (c) at 20 Nm load.

20

30

40

5.2.2. Cumulative heat release (CHR) The CHR was calculated and illustrated in Figs. 6 and 7. These gures show the tendency of earlier HR for biodiesel blends but combustion for diesel fuel quickly exceeds the CHR for biodiesel

blends although combustion for diesel fuel starts later. Results show that the CHR decreased with the increase of biodiesel amount in the fuel blend as shown in Table 4. The main reason for the decrease in the CHR is lower heating value (LHV) of

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M. Gumus / Fuel 89 (2010) 28022814

Table 4 Heat release characteristics of the fuels for different engine conditions. 10 Nm B0 Original Injection timing (20 CA BTDC) Compression ratio (18) Injection pressure (20 MPa) Injection timing (15 CA BTDC) Maximum ROHR (kJ/deg) Maximum ROHR (CA BTDC) Maximum CHR (kJ) End of combustion (CA ATDC) Combustion duration (CA) COHR (CA ATDC) Maximum ROHR (kJ/deg) Maximum ROHR (CA BTDC) Maximum CHR (kJ) End of combustion (CA ATDC) Combustion duration (CA) COHR (CA ATDC) Maximum ROHR (kJ/deg) Maximum ROHR (CA BTDC) Maximum CHR (kJ) End of combustion (CA ATDC) Combustion duration (CA) COHR (CA ATDC) Maximum ROHR (kJ/deg) Maximum ROHR (CA BTDC) Maximum CHR (kJ) End of combustion (CA ATDC) Combustion duration (CA) COHR (CA ATDC) Maximum ROHR (kJ/deg) Maximum ROHR (CA BTDC) Maximum CHR (kJ) End of combustion (CA ATDC) Combustion duration (CA) COHR (CA ATDC) 22.91 5.84 449.59 36.66 42.64 7.71 23.23 2.28 445.55 36.66 39.34 9.81 26.73 9.21 452.97 36.73 45.47 6.33 33.47 5.91 473.59 41.11 46.81 8.64 26.93 7.17 454.53 35.41 42.70 7.13 B5 22.80 6.24 454.26 36.66 42.77 8.05 22.89 2.32 449.43 36.80 39.27 10.48 26.38 9.28 459.09 36.00 44.75 6.69 34.80 5.92 477.84 41.09 46.86 9.07 26.09 7.16 460.94 34.88 42.17 7.40 B20 21.92 6.50 455.96 36.86 43.49 7.83 21.89 2.54 446.56 36.86 39.34 10.84 25.53 9.47 461.18 34.16 43.10 6.84 31.70 6.24 481.04 41.08 47.72 8.46 24.39 7.15 462.52 35.08 42.37 7.54 B50 20.90 6.83 442.69 39.96 46.40 8.52 20.27 2.86 441.13 36.93 39.93 11.16 24.79 8.48 443.90 36.80 45.41 7.72 28.62 6.50 463.89 41.10 47.52 9.20 21.83 7.10 450.45 39.96 47.26 8.00 B100 20.19 7.23 437.03 39.77 47.06 8.73 17.23 7.62 432.50 37.06 40.52 12.07 23.69 10.20 432.68 36.93 45.87 8.36 26.78 6.83 457.66 41.08 47.85 9.55 18.41 7.02 446.95 41.09 48.71 8.58 20 Nm B0 31.01 9.47 531.11 40.16 49.43 6.12 27.19 5.84 504.87 37.19 43.16 9.99 42.60 12.77 527.44 40.16 52.21 4.35 48.47 9.80 543.04 36.66 46.27 5.53 36.46 10.44 532.66 40.16 50.65 5.08 B5 30.68 9.80 531.26 40.18 49.83 5.91 26.81 6.57 502.03 39.83 46.46 9.84 43.13 13.17 527.81 40.43 53.66 3.12 44.05 9.87 542.27 36.73 46.13 6.22 35.28 10.53 532.06 40.16 50.75 5.26 B20 30.21 10.13 532.05 40.23 49.99 5.69 25.84 6.68 499.47 39.96 46.60 10.43 41.75 13.43 527.74 40.36 53.59 3.48 42.55 9.54 541.41 36.65 46.07 6.76 33.15 10.65 530.52 40.14 50.93 5.68 B50 27.78 10.57 525.58 40.26 50.29 7.00 24.89 6.50 496.47 39.90 46.53 11.03 39.86 13.54 520.52 40.82 53.86 4.58 38.11 9.91 537.04 41.09 50.49 8.01 30.67 10.79 528.43 40.14 51.00 6.29 B100 28.13 10.86 522.34 40.29 51.22 7.18 20.78 7.16 492.69 40.16 46.93 11.99 38.56 14.16 515.05 41.09 54.98 4.72 34.26 10.46 535.24 36.80 46.53 8.66 26.37 11.52 525.45 40.15 51.41 6.77

Injection timing (25 CA BTDC)

Compression ratio (20)

Injection pressure (24 MPa)

Table 5 BSFC and BTE of the CI engine. BSFC (g kWh1) 10 Nm Original Injection timing (15 CA BTDC) Injection timing (25 CA BTDC) Compression ratio (20) Injection pressure (24 MPa) B0 B100 B0 B100 B0 B100 B0 B100 B0 B100 299.89 367.68 296.64 372.89 292.94 327.37 290.94 339.63 288.13 348.99 20 Nm 321.47 394.34 318.48 419.96 318.48 368.71 322.47 382.51 320.50 370.19 BTE (%) 10Nm 27.82 26.30 28.12 25.93 28.48 29.54 28.68 28.47 28.96 27.71 20 Nm 25.95 24.52 26.20 23.02 26.20 26.23 25.87 25.28 26.03 26.12

biodiesel as compared to diesel fuel. As seen in the comparison Fig. 6a and b, CHR increased with the rise in the EL from 10 to 20 Nm due to the increase in the quantity of fuel injected into the cylinder. CHR increased with the increase in EL for all test fuels. Table 4 shows the CHR of the test fuels for different ITs, IPs, and CRs. While the increasing of IT, IP, and CR increased CHR, retarded IT decreased CHR. The maximum CHR was 543.04 kJ occurring at 36.66 CA ATDC for B0EL20CR20 condition. The minimum CHR was 432.50 kJ occurring at 37.06 CA ATDC for B100EL10IT15 condition. It has been accepted that the position of the maximum CHR is end of combustion. The end of combustion as CA ATDC for all test fuels at different engine operating conditions was given in Table 4. The end of combustion changed within the range of 34.1641.09 CA ATDC for all test fuels. With addition of biodiesel content in the blend, the end of combustion went away from TDC due to poor atomiza-

tion, mixture preparation and combustion process. With the increase in EL, end of combustion also went away from TDC. 5.2.3. Combustion duration (CD) CD increased with the increase of biodiesel content in the fuel blend due to the poor atomization and the slow combustion. The reason of longer CD obtained with biodiesel and its blends can be explained as a consequence of higher viscosity, ash point and lower volatility. Because adequately fuel was not evaporated during the main combustion phase the evaporation of fuel continued in the end combustion phase. More fuel was required in the case of biodiesel and its blends because the caloric value of biodiesel is lower than that of diesel. These factors lead to a longer CD for biodiesel blends. The CD also increased with increasing of EL for the all fuels due to increase in the quantity of fuel injected in the cylinder.

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In this study, the CD was calculated as CA interval from the maximum ROPR to the maximum CHR. There is a small vagueness in this method because there is small slope at the end of CHR curves as seen from Figs. 6 and 7. But it is probably being useful to obtain an idea about CD. The variations in CD with respect to different ITs, IPs, CRs, and ELs for all test fuels are shown in Table 4. Increasing of IP increased CD for all test fuels. The higher IP caused better spray; atomization and mixture with air and this continued diffusion combustion, where the burn rate is controlled by fuelair mixture. Retarded IT decreased CD for all test fuels. Advanced IT generally increased CD but the CD decreased with advanced IT for B20, B50 and B100 at 10 Nm EL. Increasing of CR increased CD for all test fuels at 10 Nm EL while increasing of CR decreased CD for all test fuels except B50 at 20 Nm EL. The maximum CD was obtained 54.98 CA at B100EL20IT25 condition. The minimum CD was obtained 39.27 CA at B5EL10IT15 condition. 5.2.4. Center of heat release (COHR) The COHR became closer to TDC with the increase in EL for all fuels due to the rise in combustion rate. The COHR went away from TDC with the increase of biodiesel content in fuel blend due to the poor atomization and the slow combustion. With the advanced IT, the COHR became closer to TDC and the COHR went away from TDC with retarded IT as expected. With an increase in CR, the COHR went away from TDC for all test fuels but the COHR became closer to TDC for only diesel fuel at 20 Nm EL. With increasing IP, the COHR became closer to TDC for all test fuels. The COHR changed within the range of 3.1212.07 CA ATDC for all test fuels. During the experimental study, it was also detected that the engine noise was qualitatively less than that of diesel fuel when the engine was running with B100. Biodiesel and its blend with diesel fuels had no traces of unacceptable high CGP rises and the CGP smoothly varied with respect to CA. 5.3. Engine performance Brake specic fuel consumption (BSFC) and brake thermal efciency (BTE) were given as engine performance in Table 5 for biodiesel and diesel fuel at different, ITs, IPs, CRs, and ELs. As shown in Table 5, the BSFC of biodiesel is higher than that of diesel fuel for all conditions owing to the lower LHV and higher viscosity of biodiesel. Therefore, the amount of fuel introduced to the cylinder for a desired energy input has to be greater with the biodiesel. As seen in the Table 5, increasing of IT, CR and IP decreased BSFC for biodiesel and diesel fuel. The minimum BSFC values were obtained at advanced IT. The BTE decreased as the biodiesel content increased in the blended fuel for all conditions. As shown in Table 5, increasing of IT, CR and IP increased BTE for all test fuels. The best results in terms of BTE were obtained at advanced IT.

increased IP and CR also decreased ID even more. The minimum ID was obtained at B100EL20IT15 condition. While increasing of biodiesel concentration in the blend decreased the peak CGP, increasing of IT, IP and CR increased the peak CGP of biodiesel and its blend with diesel fuel. The maximum peak CGP and minimum peak CGP were obtained at B0EL20CR20 and B100EL10IT15 conditions, respectively. Biodiesel and its blends showed lower ROPRs as compared to diesel fuel. The CR was the most effective factor on the ROPR. The maximum ROPR was obtained at B0EL20CR20 condition. While the increase in the biodiesel mass fraction decreases the ROHR, increasing of IT, IP and CR increased the ROHR of biodiesel and its blend with diesel fuel. The maximum and minimum ROPR were obtained at B0EL20CR20 and B100EL10IT15 conditions, respectively. Increasing the biodiesel mass fraction of blends results in a decrease in the CHR and increasing of IT, CR and IP compensates the decrease in CHR. The CD increased with addition of biodiesel content in the blend due to the slow combustion of the biodiesel. The CD also increased with increasing of EL for all the fuels. The CD of all fuels was affected by the variation in IT, CR, and IP. The COHR went away from TDC with the increase in the biodiesel mass fraction. With increase in CR, the COHR went away from TDC for biodiesel and blend fuels. With the increase in IP, the COHR became closer to TDC for all test fuels. The BSFC for biodiesel are higher than that for diesel fuel while BTE for biodiesel is lower than that for diesel fuel. This is resulting of lower LHV of biodiesel. The advanced IT gave the best results for BSFC and BTE compared to the other conditions.

Consequently it can be concluded that biodiesel (hazelnut kernel oil methyl ester) and its blends with diesel fuel can be used in the engine without any modication, and undesirable combustion features such as unacceptable high CGP rises were not observed. The modications such as increasing of IT, CR and IP provided signicant improvement in combustion and HR characteristics. References
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6. Conclusion In this study, a comprehensive experimental investigation of combustion and HR of a DI-CI engine running with HOME and its blends with diesel fuel was carried out. Based on the experimental study; the main results of combustion and HR analysis are summarized as follows: Analysis of combustion indicated that biodiesel and all fuel blends exhibited similar pressuretime history as diesel fuel and no undesirable combustion features such as unacceptable high CGP rises were observed. Combustion started earlier as the concentration of biodiesel in the blend is increased due to decreasing of ID. Retarded IT,

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