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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power Advanced Training Centre in Electric Power Engineering Electronic Converters

Mehrdad Kazerani, 2010

Design and Applications of Power Electronic Converters


Prof. Mehrdad Kazerani Electrical and Computer Engineering University of Waterloo

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Mehrdad Kazerani, 2010

ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

16Sep10

Lecture 1

Part A: Evolution and Scope Part B: Application Examples Part C: Waveform Quality

Introduction to Power Electronics

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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

16Sep10

Outline

Introduction Multidisciplinary Nature of Power Electronics Evolution of Power Electronics Scope of Applications
3

Part A: Evolution and Scope

Introduction-1
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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

Mehrdad Kazerani, 2010

Power Electronics is the art of converting the electric power available from a source to that required by a load. Power conversion (or processing) is performed in a converter composed of semiconductor devices and energy storage elements. A closed-loop controller makes sure that the output follows the reference.

16Sep10

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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

An important application of power electronics is electric motor drives. The objective is to control the speed and torque or adjust the position of a load. A typical electric drive system is composed of the following basic elements:
Power Source Power Electronic Converter Electric Motor Mechanical Load Controller
Power Source S Power Electronic Converter

Introduction-2

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Electric Motor M

Mechanical Load L

Controller
16Sep10

A typical electric drive system

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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

16Sep10

Power Electronics brings together the knowledge and expertise form various disciplines.

Multidisciplinary Nature of Power Electronics

Evolution of Power Electronics


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1900: Introduction of Mercury Arc Rectifier 1900-1950s: Metal Tank Rectifier, Grid-Controlled Vacuum-Tube Rectifier, Ignitron, Phanotron and Thyratron 1948: 1st. Revolution, Invention of Silicon Transistor at Bell Telephone Labs 1956: Invention of Thyristor or Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR) at Bell Telephone Labs. 1958: 2nd. Revolution, Development of commercial Thyristor by General Electric (GE) 1958-Present: Introduction of different types of power semiconductor devices and conversion techniques
16Sep10 7

ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

Mehrdad Kazerani, 2010

Scope of Applications
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Switch-Mode DC Power Supplies (for computers, communication equipment, and consumer electronics) Uninterruptible Power Supplies (for critical loads) Energy Conservation: (High-efficiency fluorescent lamps, Adjustable-speed drives for pumps and compressors in process control) Factory Automation (Robots) Transportation (electric, hybrid electric and fuel cell vehicles, electric trains) Manufacturing (welding, electroplating, induction heating, arc furnaces) Utility (High-Voltage DC and Flexible AC Transmission Systems, Grid-Connected Distributed Generation, Power Factor Correction, Power Quality Control)
16Sep10 8

ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

Mehrdad Kazerani, 2010

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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

16Sep10

Outline

Stand-Alone PEM Fuel Cell Inverter Photovoltaic Grid-Connected Inverter Microturbine-Based Power generation Active Power Filter DC Motor Drive Brushless DC Motor Drive AC Motor Drive
9

Part B: Application Examples

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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

16Sep10

Objective:

Stand-Alone PEM Fuel Cell Inverter

Converting the output of a Polymer Electrolyte Membrane (PEM) fuel cell stack to a sinusoidal voltage at the grid frequency to feed the residential loads.

vo1 vs. io1 vo2 & io2


10

Photovoltaic Grid-Connected Inverter


Objectives:
Converting the output of a solar array to
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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

a sinusoidal voltage at the grid frequency (in stand-alone mode) a sinusoidal current in-phase with the grid voltage (in grid-connected mode)

Maximum Power Point Tracking


Insolation level

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io1 & po1 versus vo1

Temperature

16Sep10

io1 & po1 versus vo1

vo2 & io2

11

Microturbine-Based Power generation


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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

Objective:
Converting the output of a high-speed generator driven by a microturbine to
a sinusoidal voltage at the grid frequency (in stand-alone mode) a sinusoidal current in-phase with the grid voltage (in grid-connected mode)

Mehrdad Kazerani, 2010

vo1
16Sep10

vo2 & io2


12

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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

16Sep10

Objective:

Filtering the Unwanted Harmonics Generated by a Nonlinear Load by injecting into the line a current equal to the unwanted harmonics.

icompensating isource
13

Active Power Filter

iload

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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

16Sep10

Objective:

DC Motor Drive

Generating a controllable DC voltage to control the speed and torque of a DC motor.

DC motor speed

14

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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

16Sep10

Objective:

Brushless DC Motor Drive

Generating a pulsed voltage of the desired magnitude and frequency to control the speed of a brushless DC Motor.

Brushless DC motor speed

15

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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

16Sep10

Objective:

Converting a 3-Phase AC voltage of given Magnitude and Frequency to a 3-Phase voltage of Desired Magnitude and Frequency to Control the Speed and Torque of an AC Motor.

v2 at 90 Hz v2 at 60 Hz v2 at 120 Hz

AC Motor Drive

16

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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

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Part C: Waveform Quality

Typical Waveforms in Power Electronic Circuits Waveform Distortion and Harmonics Fourier Analysis Waveform Symmetry Definitions and Indices Examples

17

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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

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Single-Phase Single-Diode Rectifier:

Typical Waveforms in Power Electronic Circuits

DC output voltage waveform (Half-Wave Rectified Voltage)


18

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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

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Single-Phase Diode Rectifier Bridge:

Typical Waveforms in Power Electronic Circuits

DC output voltage waveform (Full-Wave Rectified Voltage)


19

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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

16Sep10

Three-Phase Diode Rectifier Bridge:


ia

Typical Waveforms in Power Electronic Circuits

Phase-a input current waveform


20

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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

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Three-Phase PWM Rectifier:

Typical Waveforms in Power Electronic Circuits

DC output voltage waveform


21

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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

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Three-Phase Voltage-Sourced PWM Inverter:

Typical Waveforms in Power Electronic Circuits

Phase-a line-to-neutral output voltage waveform


22

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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

16Sep10

Three-Phase Voltage-Sourced PWM Inverter:

Typical Waveforms in Power Electronic Circuits

Line-to-line output voltage waveform


23

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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

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12-Pulse Three-Phase Thyristor Rectifier:

Typical Waveforms in Power Electronic Circuits

DC output voltage waveform


2 1

24

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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

16Sep10

Boost DC/DC Converter:

Typical Waveforms in Power Electronic Circuits

Input current waveform in discontinuous mode of operation


25

Waveform Distortion and Harmonics-1


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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

Mehrdad Kazerani, 2010

Voltage and current waveforms in power electronic circuits are distorted. Waveform Distortion: Deviation from perfect DC or Perfect Sine Wave Cause of Distortion: Harmonics Harmonics: Unwanted Components at Integer Multiples of the Fundamental Frequency
Low Order Harmonics (require a large filter) High Order Harmonics (require a small filter)

Cause of Harmonics: Nonlinearity in the load

16Sep10

26

Waveform Distortion and Harmonics-2


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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

Effects of Harmonics:
Extra Losses EMI (Electromagnetic Interference) Device De-rating Torque Pulsation in Motor Drives

Mehrdad Kazerani, 2010

Main Objectives in Power Conversion:


Average Value Control in DC Outputs Fundamental Component Control in AC Outputs

Desired: Waveforms with Low Harmonic Distortion Need:


To avoid Harmonic Generation through Proper Choice of Circuit Topology and Control Strategy To suppress Harmonics through Active and Passive Filters
16Sep10 27

Fourier Analysis-1
Fourier Analysis: Gives the Harmonic Contents of a Periodic, but Non-Sinusoidal Waveform. Fourier Series: If f(t) is a periodic, but nonsinusoidal, function of time (e.g., v(t) or i(t) ), with fundamental angular frequency of , then it can be expressed by Fourier Series as:
f (t ) = a0 + a1 cos t + a2 cos 2t + a3 cos 3t + b1 sin t + b2 sin 2t + b3 sin 3t +
or or
f (t ) = a0 + A1 cos(t 1 ) + A2 cos(2t 2 ) +

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f (t ) = a0 + A1 sin(t + 1 ) + A2 sin(2t + 2 ) +

16Sep10

28

Fourier Analysis-2
Fourier Series:
f (t ) = a0 +
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a1 cos t + a2 cos 2t + a3 cos 3t + b1 sin t + b2 sin 2t + b3 sin 3t +


or or where

f (t ) = a0 + A1 cos(t 1 ) + A2 cos(2t 2 ) +

Mehrdad Kazerani, 2010

f (t ) = a0 + A1 sin(t + 1 ) + A2 sin(2t + 2 ) +

1T 1 2 a0 = " dc" or average value of v (t ) = v (t ) dt = v (t ) d ( t ) T 0 2 0


2T 1 2 a n = v (t ) cos nt dt = v ( t ) cos nt d ( t ); n = 1, 2, 3, T 0 0

2T 1 2 bn = v (t ) sin nt dt = v ( t ) sin nt d ( t ); n = 1, 2, 3, T 0 0
2 2 An = an + bn

n = tan 1

bn an

n = tan 1

an bn
29

16Sep10

Waveform Symmetry
Odd Symmetry:
A periodic waveform f(t) is said to have odd symmetry if
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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

f(-t) = - f(t) For an odd waveform, an= 0 for all values of n. In other words, only sine terms exist in the Fourier Series representation of the waveform.

Mehrdad Kazerani, 2010

Example: f(t) = K sin (t)

(sine wave)

-T

-T/2

T/2

f(t) = K sin (t)


16Sep10 30

Waveform Symmetry
Even Symmetry:
A periodic waveform f(t) is said to have even symmetry if
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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

f(-t) = f(t) For an even waveform, bn= 0 for all values of n. In other words, only cosine terms exist in the Fourier Series representation of the waveform.

Mehrdad Kazerani, 2010

Example: f(t) = K cos (t)

(cosine wave)

-T

-T/2

T/2

f(t) = K cos (t)


16Sep10 31

Waveform Symmetry
Half-Wave Symmetry:
A periodic waveform f(t) is said to have half-wave symmetry if
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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

f(t T/2) = - f(t) For a waveform with half-wave symmetry, there are no even harmonics. For a waveform with half-wave symmetry, the Fourier Integrals giving an and bn need to be evaluated for only half of a cycle and then multiplied by 2.

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Example: The waveform f(t) shown below.


f (t)

T 0 T/2

16Sep10

32

Waveform Symmetry
Quarter-Wave Symmetry:
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A periodic waveform f(t) is said to have quarter-wave symmetry if it is odd or even and has half-wave symmetry. Half-wave symmetry + even symmetry only cosine terms at odd multiples of fundamental frequency. Half-wave symmetry + odd symmetry only sine terms at odd multiples of fundamental frequency. For a waveform with quarter-wave symmetry, the Fourier Integrals giving an and bn need to be evaluated for only a quarter of a cycle and then multiplied by 4.

Example: The waveform f(t) shown below.


(half-wave symmetry + odd symmetry quarter-wave symmetry)
f (t) T t T/2

0 -T/2

16Sep10

33

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Average Value:

Fave. 1 1 = f (t ) dt = 2 T 0
0 T 2

For a periodic waveform f(t),

Basic Definitions

f ( t ) d ( t )

Note that f(t) can be a voltage v(t) or a current i(t).

34

Basic Definitions
RMS Value:
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For a periodic waveform f(t),


Frms 1T 1 2 2 2 =F= f (t ) dt = f ( t ) d ( t ) T0 2 0

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Also,
F = F +F +F +F +
2 dc 2 1 2 2 2 3

= F + F + Fn2
2 dc 2 1 n=2

where Fdc is the average value of f(t), F1 is the rms value of the fundamental component of f(t), and Fn is the rms value of the nth.-harmonic of f(t). Note that f(t) can be a voltage v(t) or a current i(t).
16Sep10 35

Basic Definitions
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Average Power:
For periodic waveforms of voltage v(t) and current i(t), average power is defined as:
Pave. 1T 1T = P = p(t ) dt = v(t ) i (t ) dt T0 T0 1 2 1 2 = p (t ) d (t ) = v(t ) i (t ) d (t ) 2 0 2 0

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Average power is also called real power or active power.

16Sep10

36

Basic Definitions
Apparent Power:
ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power
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For periodic waveforms of voltage v(t) and current i(t), apparent power is defined as:

S = VI
where V is the total rms value of v(t) and I is the total rms value of i(t).
V = V +V +V +V +
2 dc 2 1 2 2 2 3

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= V + V + Vn2
2 dc 2 1 n=2

I=

2 I dc

I12

2 I2

2 I3

2 I dc

I12

2 + In n =2

16Sep10

37

Waveform Quality Indices


Total Harmonic Distortion (THD):
For a periodic waveform f(t),
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where

THD f =
2 2 1

Fdis. F1
n=2 2 Fn

Fdis. = F F =

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Note that f(t) can be a voltage v(t) or a current i(t).

THDv =

n=2

V V1

2 n

THDi =

n=2

2 In

I1

It is assumed here that the waveform f(t) does not contain a dc component. If a dc component is present, it will be considered as an offset, not distortion. Total Harmonic Distortion is the most commonly used index for evaluating the quality of voltage and current waveforms. THD limits are specified by standards or by design requirements.
16Sep10 38

Waveform Quality Indices Harmonic factor (HF):


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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

For a periodic waveform f(t), the harmonic factor for the nth.-harmonic is defined as:
Fn HFn = F1

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where F1 and Fn are the rms values of the fundamental and nth.-harmonic components of f(t). Note that f(t) can be a voltage v(t) or a current i(t). Note that satisfying the THD constraints is not enough and the relative magnitude of each individual harmonic component has to kept below limit as well.

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39

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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

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Crest Factor (CF):


For a periodic waveform f(t),

Crest Factor (CF ) = Fpeak Frms

f(t) can be a voltage v(t) or a current i(t). For a pure sine wave, crest factor is 2 .

Waveform Quality Indices

A current waveform with high crest factor


40

Waveform Quality Indices


ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

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Form Factor (FF):


For a periodic waveform f(t),

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Frms Form Factor ( FF ) = Fave.


f(t) can be a voltage v(t) or a current i(t). For a pure sine wave, form factor is 1.11. For a constant dc voltage or current, FF = 1. In a waveform of zero average value (e.g., a sinusoidal voltage or current), the average value in the formula for FF is calculated over half a period.

16Sep10

41

Waveform Quality Indices


Ripple Factor (RF):
ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power
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For a dc waveform f (current or voltage), the ripple factor is defined as:

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F RF = ac = Fave.

2 rms

2 ave.

Fave.

Frms 2 = 1 = FF 1 Fave.

where Fac and Fave. are the rms value of the ac component of f and the average value of f, respectively. RF = 0 corresponds to FF = 1, i.e., a constant dc waveform with no ripple contents. In the output of some dc power supplies, ripple factors of as low as 0.1% are normally required.

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where
P Power Factor ( PF ) = S

The most general formula for power factor (PF) is:

P = Average Power S = Apparent Power

Power Factor-1

43

Power Factor-2
Case 1: Distorted voltage and current waveforms
Assume
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v (t ) = Vdc + 2V1 cos t + 2V2 cos 2t +

and

i (t ) = I dc + 2 I1 cos(t 1 ) + 2 I 2 cos(2t 2 ) +
Then,
p (t ) = v (t ) i (t )

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and the average power is

P = Pdc + P1 + P2 + = Vdc I dc + V1 I1 cos 1 + V2 I 2 cos 2 +


Note that only the components of v(t) and i(t) having the same frequency contribute to the average power. The rest of components contribute to reactive power only. Therefore,

P Pdc + n =1 Pn Power Factor ( PF ) = = S VI


44

16Sep10

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and

Then,

Assume

and the Power Factor (PF) is:

Case 2: Sinusoidal voltage and distorted current waveforms

Power Factor ( PF ) =
n =2

v (t ) = 2 V cos t

Power Factor-3

i (t ) = idc + i1 + in

P = P = V I1 cos 1 1

P V I1 cos 1 I1 = = cos 1 S VI I

45

Power Factor-4
Case 2: Sinusoidal voltage and distorted current waveforms (Cont.)
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Power Factor ( PF ) =
I

P V I1 cos 1 I1 = = cos 1 S VI I

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1 is called Distortion Factor (DF). I


I1 = I I1 I +I
2 1 2 dis

1 1 + THD
2

= Distortion Factor ( DF )

cos 1 is called Displacement Power Factor (DPF).

cos 1 = Displacement Power Factor ( DPF )


Therefore,

PF = DF DPF
16Sep10 46

Power Factor-5
ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

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Case 2: Sinusoidal voltage and distorted current waveforms (Cont.)

PF = DF DPF
For pure sinusoidal current, DF = 1. When the voltage and the fundamental component of current are in phase, DPF = 1. When both DF = 1 and DPF = 1, PF = 1. This condition is called Unity Power Factor, which is very desirable at the interface of the loads with the grid.

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Outline

Example 1 Example 2 Example 3

Examples

48

Example 1
For the output voltage waveform shown in Fig. 1(b), (a) Find the rms value in terms of the magnitude of the dc source voltage Vs and dead-time angle . (b) Find the numerical value of Vo for Vs= 100 V and = 60. (c) Find the numerical value of Vo for Vs= 100 V and = 0 (i.e., when vo is a perfect square wave).

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vo

Vs

-Vs

Fig. 1(a)

Fig. 1(b)

16Sep10

49

Solution: (a)
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1T 1 2 2 2 Vo = [vo (t )] dt = [vo (t )] d ( t ) 2 0 T0
2 / 2 1 / 2 2 [ (Vs ) d ( t ) + (Vs ) 2 d ( t )] = 2 / 2 + / 2 2 / 2 1 2 / 2 = Vs [ d ( t ) + d ( t )] 2 /2 + / 2

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= =

1 2 Vs [( / 2) ( / 2) + (2 / 2) ( + / 2)] 2 1 2 Vs (2 2 ) = Vs 2

(b)

Vo = Vs

/ 3 2 = 100 = 100 = 81.65 V 3


0 = 100 = 100 V = Vs
50

(c)

Vo = Vs

16Sep10

Example 2
For the output voltage waveform shown in Fig. 2(b), (a) Find Vo in terms of . (b) Evaluate Vo for = 30. Assume vs = Vm sin t, where Vm= 100 V. (c) Find vo1 for Vm= 100 V and = 30. (d) Find THD of vo. (e) If the load is resistive, with a resistance R = 2 , find the source power factor. (f) Find the average power absorbed by the load. (g) Find P and Q1 delivered by the source.
is vs 0 vo 0 2 t

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Fig. 2(a)
16Sep10

Fig. 2(b)
51

Solution: (a)

1T 1 2 2 2 Vo = [vo (t )] dt = [vo (t )] d ( t ) 2 0 T0
2 1 2 [ (vs ) d ( t ) + (vs ) 2 d ( t )] = 2 +

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But, Therefore, But, Therefore,

vs = Vm sin t
2 1 2 2 Vo = Vm [ sin t d ( t ) + sin 2 t d ( t )] 2 +

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sin 2 t =

1 cos 2t 2

2 Vm 1 1 1 1 2 Vo = {[ t sin 2t ] + [ t sin 2t ] } + 2 2 4 2 4 2 Vm 1 1 2 + 1 1 = sin 4 + sin 2( + )] [ sin 2 + sin 2 + 2 2 2 4 4 2 2 4 4 2 Vm 1 1 = [ + sin 2 + sin(2 + 2 )] 2 4 4

= Vm
16Sep10

+ sin 2
2
52

1 2

Solution (Cont.): (b) for Vm= 100 V and = 30,


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Vo = 100

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Note that for = 0,


Vo = Vm

1 + sin 60 6 2 = 69.69 V 2

0 + sin 0
2

1 2

= Vm

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1 Vm 100 = = Vrms = = 70.71 V 2 2 2

(c) The voltage waveform of Fig. 2(b) has half-wave symmetry, since
vo (t T / 2) = vo (t )

This means that vo does not contain even harmonics. Also, Fourier integrals can be evaluated over T/2 and then multiplied by 2.
1 1 a1 = 2 vo (t ) cos t d (t ) = 2 Vm sin t cos t d (t )

2Vm 1 Vm Vm 1 [1 cos 2 ] = sin 2t d (t ) = [ cos 2t ] = 2 2 2


16Sep10 53

Solution (Cont.):
1 1 b1 = 2 vo (t ) sin t d (t ) = 2 Vm sin t sin t d (t )

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2Vm 1 cos 2t = d (t ) sin t d (t ) = 2 V V 1 1 = m [t sin 2t ] = m [( ) (sin 2 sin 2 )] 2 2 V 1 = m [( ) + sin 2 ] 2 2Vm

For Vm= 100 V and = 30,


a1 =
b1 = Vm

Vm 100 [1 cos 2 ] = (1 cos 60 ) = 7.96 2 2

1 100 1 [( ) + sin 2 ] = ( + sin 60 ) = 97.12 2 6 2

Therefore,
A1 = a12 + b12 = 97.45 V a 1 = tan 1 1 = 4.69 b1
16Sep10 54

Solution (Cont.): and vo1 = A1 sin(t + 1 ) = 97.45sin(t 4.69 ) V


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(d)

THD% =

Vo ,dis. Vo1

100% =

Vo2 Vo2 1 Vo1

100%

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But, Therefore,

Vo1 =

97.45 68.91 V 2

69.692 68.912 THD% = 100% 15.1% 68.91

(e) If the load is resistive, with a resistance R = 2 ,


is1 = vo1 97.45 sin(t 4.69 ) = 48.73sin(t 4.69 ) A = 2 2

16Sep10

55

Solution (Cont.): Note that where


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PF = DF DPF

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and

I s1m 48.73 I 2 0.99 DF ( Distortion Factor ) = s1 = 2 = 69.69 Vo I 2 2

DPF ( Displacement Power Factor ) = cos 1 = cos( vs is1 ) = cos[0 (4.69 )] = cos 4.69 = 0.997

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Therefore,
PF = 0.99 0.997 = 0.987 lagging

(f)

Pave. = P =

1T 1 2 1 2 p (t ) dt = p(t ) d (t ) = v(t ) i (t ) d (t ) T0 2 0 2 0 V 1 1 = vo (t ) is (t ) d (t ) = (Vm sin t ) ( m sin t ) d (t ) 2 2 2 Vm 2 Vm 1 1 = ( + sin 2 ) sin t d (t ) = 2 2 2 2 2 Vm 1 = ( + sin 2 ) 4 2


56

16Sep10

Solution (Cont.): For Vm= 100 V and = 30,


Pave.
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2 Vm 1 1002 1 ( + sin 2 ) = ( + sin 60 ) 2, 427,91 W 2.43 kW =P= 4 2 4 6 2

(g)
P = P = Vs I s1 cos 1 = 1 100 48.73 0.997 2, 429.19 W 2.43 kW 2 2

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Note that in the case of a perfect sinusoidal source voltage, only the fundamental component of source current contributes to active power. Also, note that the power delivered by the source is equal to the power absorbed by the load, since the conversion has been assumed to be lossless.
Q1 = Vs I s1 sin 1 = 100 48.73 sin 4.69 199.22 Var 2 2

Note that this is the reactive power contributed by the fundamental component of the source current only. The current harmonics also contribute to reactive power.
16Sep10 57

Example 3
In the diode rectifier bridge shown in Fig. 3, the ratios of the 3rd, 5th, 7th, 9th, 11th, 13th, 15th, and 17th source current harmonics to the source current fundamental component are shown in Table 1. Find the THD of the source current.

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Fig. 3

Table 1

n
In % I1
16Sep10

11

13

15

17

73.2 36.6 8.1 5.7 4.1 2.9 0.8 0.4


58

Solution:
I s ,dis. I s1

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THD% = =

100% 100%
2 2 2 2

I s23 + I s25 + I s27 + I s29 + I s211 + I s213 + I s215 + I s217 I s1


2 2 2 2

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I I I I I I I I = s 3 + s 5 + s 7 + s 9 + s11 + s13 + s15 + s17 100% I s1 I s1 I s1 I s1 I s1 I s1 I s1 I s1 =

( 73.2 ) + ( 36.6 ) + (8.1) + ( 5.7 ) + ( 4.1) + ( 2.9 ) + ( 0.8) + ( 0.4 )


2 2 2 2 2 2 2

82.6%

16Sep10

59

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REFERENCES:
Mohan, Undeland and Robbins, Power Electronics: Converters, Applications, and Design, 3rd Edition, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2003. M.H. Rashid, Power Electronics: Circuits, Devices, and Applications, 3rd Edition, Pearson-Prentice Hall, 2003. R.S. Ramshaw, Power Electronics Semiconductor Switches, 2nd. Edition, Chapman & Hall, 1993.

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16Sep10

60

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Design and Applications of Power Electronic Converters


Prof. Mehrdad Kazerani Electrical and Computer Engineering University of Waterloo

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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

9Sep10

Lecture 2

Part A: Input/Output Filters Part B: Diode Part C: Single-Phase Diode Rectifier

Line-Frequency Diode Rectifiers

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Part A: Input/Output Filters

Output Voltage Second-Order Low-Pass Filter Input Current Second-Order Low-Pass Filter

Input/Output Filters
Objectives:
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Suppress unwanted components in the load voltage. Suppress unwanted components in the source current.
Source Converter
+v - s

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LPF

vL+
-

Load

vs = vwanted + vunwanted

vL = vwanted

Source

is

LPF

iL

Converter

Load

is = iwanted

iL = iwanted + iunwanted

Most Common: Second-Order L-C Low-Pass Filter


9Sep10 4

Second-Order L-C Low-Pass Filter for Voltage-1


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Source

Converter

+v - s

LPF

vL+
-

Load

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L-C LPF

Vo RC C s + 1 ( s) = Vi L C s 2 + ( RL + RC ) C s + 1
Input-to-Output Voltage Transfer Function of L-C LPF Note: The effect of load impedance has been neglected for simplicity. This is justified because at harmonic frequencies, the impedance of the filters shunt branch is much smaller than that of the load.
9Sep10 5

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Amplitude (db)

Second-Order L-C Low-Pass Filter for Voltage-2

Phase (degrees)
f r = 355.88 Hz

Vo RC C s + 1 ( s) = Vi L C s 2 + ( RL + RC ) C s + 1

Resonant Frequency:
fr = 1 2 LC

Second-Order L-C Low-Pass Filter for Voltage-3

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Amplitude (db) Rule of Thumb for choosing resonant frequency of L-C filter:
Take fr 1 decade below the frequency of the dominant unwanted component to be filtered. This results in attenuation of the unwanted component by 100 times. Note that the amplitude is 1 (0db) below resonant frequency and falls at the rate of -40db/decade above resonant frequency. By taking fr 1 decade below the frequency of the unwanted component to be filtered, the magnitude of that component falls by 40db.

fr

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V V V 40db = 20 log o log o = 2 o = 0.01 Vi Vi Vi

9Sep10

Second-Order L-C Low-Pass Filter for Voltage-4

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Amplitude (db) Damping:


fr
Damping Ratio : = RL + RC 2 C L

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If the damping of the filter is low, the amplitude will assume a high value at and around fr. If there are any unwanted components (even of small magnitude) at frequencies around fr, they will be amplified, instead of attenuated. Stray resistances of filter inductor and capacitor help in increasing filter damping. If the damping needs to be further increased, a small resistor has to be placed in series with L and/or C. It is preferred to place the small damping resistor in series with the capacitor, as any additional resistance in series with L results in additional voltage drop and power loss.

9Sep10

Second-Order L-C Low-Pass Filter for Voltage-5


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fr = 1 2 LC

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Comparing different Waveforms from Filtering Requirements Point of View:


Square-wave voltage contains low-order harmonics, i.e., low-frequency unwanted components. fr should be small. L and C should be large. Large Filter Size!
Magnitude v

fr

[1]
9Sep10 Square-wave voltage

f f1 3f1 5f1 7f1 9f1 Frequency spectrum 9

Second-Order L-C Low-Pass Filter for Voltage-5


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fr = 1 2 LC

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Comparing different Waveforms from Filtering Requirements Point of View:


Pulse-width modulated (PWM) voltage contains no low-order harmonics; only high-frequency unwanted components exist. fr can be large. L and C can be small. Small Filter Size!
v Fundamental Component Magnitude

fr

t f1 1/fs 9Sep10 PWM voltage 1/f1 fs 2fs f

[1]

Frequency spectrum 10

Second-Order L-C Low-Pass Filter for Current


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Source

is

LPF

iL

Converter

Load

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Ii RC C s + 1 ( s) = Io L C s 2 + ( RL + RC ) C s + 1
Output-to-Input Current Transfer Function of L-C LPF

L-C LPF The Output-to-Input Current Transfer Function of L-C LPF is exactly the same as Input-to-Output Voltage Transfer Function of L-C LPF. Therefore, the same discussions that were made for L-C LPF for voltage are valid for L-C LPF for current.
9Sep10 11

Example
Design an L-C, low-pass input filter for the buck converter shown below (input voltage = 100V, output voltage = 50V, fs=20kHz ) such that:
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The dominant unwanted component in the source current is attenuated by 100 times, and Damping ratio = 0.7.

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Source

is

LPF

iL

Converter

Load

L-C LPF

Ii RC C s + 1 ( s) = Io L C s 2 + ( RL + RC ) C s + 1
9Sep10

Buck Converter + Load

12

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9Sep10

where

RC RC 1 1 s+ s+ L RC C L RC C = = 2 RL + RC 1 2 s 2 + 2c s + c s + s+ L LC

The transfer function of the L-C LPF can be rewritten as:

1 RC C s + RC C Ii RC C s + 1 ( s) = = Io 2 RL + RC 1 L C s 2 + ( RL + RC ) C s + 1 LC s + s+ L LC

c = 2 fc =
1

LC and = RL + RC 2 C L

13

To fulfill the first requirement, we should have:

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f c = 0.1 f s where fs is the switching frequency. This gives:LC = 6.33 109 Choosing C = 104 F one gets: L = 6.33 105 H
Note that in ac circuits, setting additional constraints such as maximum allowable low-frequency current in the capacitor and maximum allowable voltage drop across the inductor can also help in the design of L and C. To find RL+RC,

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RL + RC C RL + RC 104 0.7 = RL + RC 1.11 = 5 L 2 2 6.33 10 Note that RL + RC represents the sum of series resistances of filter inductor and capacitor plus the sum of the additional resistances that are placed in series with the inductor and capacitor to provide the required damping. The challenge is in how to distribute the additional resistance between the two branches for the best results.
9Sep10 14

Note that for a small RCC, at low frequencies,


2 Ii c ( s) = 2 2 2 Io s + 2c s + c s 2 + 2c s + c i.e., no effect from the zero. Therefore, RC should be chosen low enough such that the boost in the gain due to the zero of the transfer function does not result in insufficient attenuation of unwanted components in the frequency range where their values are significant. We consider two cases for the following circuit.

1 LC

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15

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Case 1: RC = 0, RL = 1.11.
High damping No effect from the zero Source current ripple low

Source current filtered

Source current unfiltered

16

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Case 2: RC = 0.11, RL = 1.
High damping Zero effective at high frequencies Source current ripple higher

Source current filtered

Source current unfiltered

17

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Note: Large damping ratios translate into large series resistances (causing excessive voltage drop and power loss as well as adverse effect from the zero at high frequencies ). A compromise between damping ratio and series resistance size is desirable. For a damping ratio of 0.07,

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R + RC = L 2

R + RC C 0.07 = L L 2

104 6.33 10
5

RL + RC 0.11

Again, we consider two cases for the following circuit:

9Sep10

18

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Case 1: RC = 0.01, RL = 0.1.


Low damping Zero effective at high frequency Source current ripple low

Source current filtered

Source current unfiltered

19

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Case 2: RC = 0.1, RL = 0.01.


Low damping Zero effective at lower frequency Source current ripple higher

Source current filtered

Source current unfiltered

20

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9Sep10

Diode

Outline

Terminal Characteristics Diode Turn-Off Diode Types

Part B: Diode

21

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Diode is a 2-terminal pn-junction device. Diode conducts when forward biased, i.e., when vAK >VF . VF 1-2 V and is called forward voltage drop. When reverse biased, diode conducts a very small leakage current in reverse direction. If the reverse bias voltage exceeds reverse breakdown voltage, the device breaks down and conducts dangerously high reverse currents. This situation has to be avoided. On and OFF states of diode are controlled by the power circuit, not a control signal.
Anode A Cathode K

Diode

Power Diode (Clamping and Heat Exchanger)

Power Diodes

Diode Symbol [1] 9Sep10

Diode i-v Characteristic [1]

Diode Idealized i-v Characteristic [1] 22

Diode Turn-Off
Diode is very fast at turn-on, acting as an ideal switch. At turn-off, diode current reverses after crossing zero and remains negative for a reverse recovery time trr before coming back to zero. During reverse recovery, the excess carries are swept out of the device. This allows diode to be able to block reverse voltages again. Reverse Recovery Charge Qrr represents the total amount of charge that has to be depleted for reverse recovery. If the recovery process is soft, the diode current falls to zero gradually and does not cause any overvoltage due to high di/dt. If the recovery is abrupt, there is a possibility of overvoltages in inductive circuits. trr is an important parameter when diodes are used with switches in switching converters. When switching at high speeds, the reverse recovery time should be small.

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Diode turn-off Characteristic [1] 9Sep10 23

Diode Types
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Line-Frequency Diodes:
Used in 50/60 Hz applications. ON-state voltage drop designed to be as low as possible. Large trr (acceptable for line-frequency applications). Available with blocking voltage ratings of several kilovolts and current ratings of several kiloamperes. Higher voltage and current ratings can be obtained by series and parallel combinations of diodes.

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Schottky Diodes:

Fast Recovery Diodes:

Used in very low output voltage circuits. Low forward voltage drop (typically 0.3 V). Low blocking voltage rating (50-100 V). Used in high-switching-frequency circuits. Small reverse recovery time (typically a few microseconds).

9Sep10

24

Part C Single-Phase Diode Rectifiers


Outline
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Introduction Simple Diode Circuits


Purely Resistive Load Inductive Load Active Load

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Single-Phase Diode Bridge Rectifier Idealized Single-Phase Diode Bridge Rectifier Ls = 0


Case 1: Purely Resistive Load Case 2: Heavily Inductive Load

Constant DC-Side Voltage Practical Diode Bridge Rectifier Examples 1 and 2 Front-End Diode Rectifier in Universal Power Supplies Effect of Single-Phase Diode Bridge Rectifiers on Neutral Current of Three-Phase Four-Wire Systems, Example 3

9Sep10

25

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In many applications where the input power is provided by the utility grid in the form of a sinusoidal voltage at 50 or 60 Hz, a front-end diode rectifier converts the sinusoidal input voltage to a dc voltage before any other conversion takes place. In switching dc power supplies and ac motor drives, a front-end diode rectifier is usually an integral part of the system. Diode rectifiers convert ac voltage to uncontrolled dc voltage. Diode rectifiers are unidirectional or one-quadrant converters. The direction of power flow is always from ac source to dc load. As the output voltage of diode rectifier has large ripple contents, a large capacitor is normally used to obtain a smooth dc output voltage. Since the input current flows only when the capacitor is charging up, a discontinuous current results. This current is distorted and injects harmonics into the grid. Input current filtering is critical. Diode rectifier is a nonlinear load.
vs is

Introduction

9Sep10

26

Simple Diode Circuits


Assumption: In the analysis of the following diode circuits, the diodes are assumed to be ideal. In other words, it is assumed that the diodes represent a short circuit in the ON-state and an open circuit in the OFF-state. Also, reverse recovery process is neglected.

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Purely resistive load [1]

Inductive Load [1]

Active Load [1] 9Sep10 27

Purely Resistive Load


In the negative half-cycle of the source voltage, diode is in OFF state. The current and the resistor voltage are zero. The diode voltage is equal to the source voltage. When source voltage becomes positive, diode becomes forward biased and conducts. The current is equal to source voltage divided by R. The resistor voltage is equal to the source voltage. At the zero-crossing of the source voltage, the diode current falls to zero (due to the resistive nature of the load), diode turns off, resistor voltage becomes zero, and diode voltage becomes equal to the source voltage, which is negative. This circuit is rarely used, as the source current has a dc component and the output voltage and current have high ripple contents.

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Purely Resistive Load [1] 9Sep10 28

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In the negative half-cycle of the source voltage, diode is in OFF state. The current and the resistor and inductor voltages are zero. The diode voltage is equal to source voltage. When source voltage becomes positive, diode becomes forward biased and conducts. As long as the diode conducts, the current in the circuit is given by the following equation:
di 1 vs = Ri + vL = Ri + L or i = (vs Ri )d dt L0
t

Inductive Load-1

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Inductive Load [1]

9Sep10

29

Inductive Load-2
As long as the voltage across the inductor (vL=vs-Ri) is positive (0-t1), di/dt will be positive and the current will rise. When vs=Ri at t1, vL=0, di/dt=0, and the current will be at its peak. When the inductor voltage (vL=vs-Ri) becomes negative (t1- t3), di/dt will become negative and the current will fall till it becomes zero at t3. After this point, i, vR and vL will be zero and the diode will be in OFF state and reverse biased, taking the entire source voltage, which is negative. Note that when the source voltage crosses zero at t2, the current is still flowing in the circuit. This is due to the energy stored in the inductor.

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Inductive Load [1]

9Sep10

30

Calculation of time of zero-crossing of diode current (t3)


The voltage across the inductor is given by:
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Inductive Load-3
vL = L di 1 vL dt = di dt L
t3 0

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Integrating both sides between 0 and t3, one gets:


1 3 vL dt = L
0 t i (t3 )

di = i (t3 ) i (0) = 0

vL dt = 0

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i (0)

This means that the current falls to zero at t3, when area A=Area B. In general, when the inductor current is repetitive, the energy stored in the inductor during the time period when vL>0, will be equal to the energy returned to the circuit during the time period when vL<0.

Inductive Load [1]

9Sep10

31

Inductive Load-4
Average Value of Inductor Voltage in Repetitive Current Mode
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The average value of the voltage across the inductor in one period of repetition of current is: t T T 1 1 3 1 VL ,ave. = vL dt = [ vL dt + vL dt ] = [0 + 0] = 0 T 0 T 0 T t3 This very useful result can be stated in the following form: When the current through the inductor is repetitive, the average value of the voltage across the inductor is zero.

Inductive Load [1]

9Sep10

32

Inductive Load with Free-Wheeling Diode


If a diode is connected in anti-parallel across the R-L load, as soon as the output voltage crosses zero to assume negative values, the diode becomes forward biased and will conduct, providing a path for the inductive current and making the output voltage equal to zero. The effect of the free-wheeling diode is an increase in the average value of the output voltage compared with the case when the freewheeling diode is not present.

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vd
i
iL

vd

iD
vs

vs
9Sep10

33

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9Sep10

Average Value of Capacitor Current in Repetitive Voltage Mode

Based on the principle of duality of inductor and capacitor, When the voltage across the capacitor is repetitive, the average value of the current through the capacitor is zero. In other words,
I C ,ave. 1T = iC dt = 0 T0

34

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In the negative half-cycle of the source voltage, diode is in OFF state. The current and the inductor voltage are zero. The diode voltage is equal to vs-Ed. When source voltage becomes positive and exceeds Ed, diode becomes forward biased and conducts. As long as the voltage across the inductor (vL =vs-Ed) is positive, di/dt will be positive and the current will rise. When vs =Ed, vL =0, di/dt=0, and the current will be at its peak. When the inductor voltage (vL =vsEd) becomes negative, di/dt will become negative and the current will fall till it becomes zero. After this point, i and vL will be zero and diode will be in OFF state and reverse biased, taking the voltage vs-Ed, which is negative.

Active Load-1

Active Load [1]

9Sep10

35

Active Load-2
Note that when the source voltage is still in the positive half-cycle, the current has dropped to zero. This is due to the presence of the dc voltage source that reduces the current to zero earlier than the source voltages zero crossing. The inductor and the dc voltage source can represent a dc motor fed by the rectifier circuit and running at a constant speed.

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Active Load [1]

9Sep10

36

Single-Phase Diode Bridge Rectifier-1


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Single-phase diode bridge rectifiers are very commonly used at the interface of power electronic systems such as dc power supplies and ac motor drives with the grid. The utility supply is modeled by its Thevenin equivalent in the form of a perfect sinusoidal voltage source in series with an R-L impedance. The series resistance and inductance represent the impedance of the lines connecting the source to the rectifier as well as the transformers used to adjust the level of the voltage. Note that due to the high X/R ratio in the power system, the line resistance is neglected and the line impedance is usually represented by an inductance only.

1- Diode Bridge Rectifier [1]


9Sep10 37

Single-Phase Diode Bridge Rectifier-2


A large electrolytic capacitor is used at the output to make sure the dc output voltage has low ripple contents. In steady-state, a large capacitor acts as a low impedance path (ideally a short circuit) for the high-frequency ripple components of the output current. As the average current through the capacitor in a repetitive voltage mode is zero, the dc component or the average value of id will go to the load and its ripple components will be taken mostly by the capacitor. The sharing of the harmonic components of id between the capacitor and the load will be based on their relative impedances at the harmonic frequencies. For a large filter capacitor, it is fairly accurate to say that the current harmonics are taken by the capacitor. Ls and Cd form a second-order low-pass filter that will be more effective than a capacitor alone (a first-order filter) in filtering the output voltage and current waveforms.

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1- Diode Bridge Rectifier [1]

9Sep10

38

Idealized Single-Phase Diode Bridge Rectifier Ls = 0


Case 1: Purely Resistive Load
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Feeding a purely resistive load from a diode rectifier is very unlikely. However, the source current waveforms obtained in this case resemble those obtained in the power-factor-corrected diode rectifiers. The top-group diodes (D1 and D3) have common cathodes. Therefore, the one connected to a higher voltage at the anode will conduct the load current. The bottom-group diodes (D2 and D4) have common anodes. Therefore, the one connected to a lower potential at the cathode will conduct the load current.

9Sep10

1- Diode Bridge Rectifier with Ls= 0 [1]

39

Purely Resistive Load with Ls = 0 (Cont.)


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Assume the source voltage to be in the negative half-cycle and D3 and D4 to be conducting id. As soon as vs becomes positive, D1 becomes forward biased and places a negative voltage across D3. D3 becomes reverse biased and its current drops to zero. D3 is turned off or is commutated. The load current is transferred to D1. In the same way, D2 commutates D4. In the absence of a source inductance, the commutation of the out-going diodes and transfer of the load current to the in-coming diodes is instantaneous.

1- Diode Bridge Rectifier with Ls= 0 [1]


9Sep10 40

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Output Voltage

Purely Resistive Load with Ls = 0 (Cont.)

Circuit Diagram [1] Voltage and Current Waveforms [1]


41

When vs > 0, D1 and D2 conduct and vd = vs. When vs < 0, D3 and D4 conduct and vd = -vs. In general, vd = vs

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9Sep10

Input Current

Purely Resistive Load with Ls = 0 (Cont.)

Circuit Diagram [1]

id when vs > 0 is = id when vs < 0

When vs > 0, D1 and D2 conduct and is= id. When vs < 0, D3 and D4 conduct and is=-id. In general

Voltage and Current Waveforms [1]


42

Purely Resistive Load with Ls = 0 (Cont.) Average Value of Output Voltage


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The average value of the output voltage Vdo (where the o in the subscript corresponds to Ls = 0), can be found as: 1 1
Vdo = =

vs (t ) d (t ) =

2 Vs sin t d (t )

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2 Vs

[ cos t ] = 0

2 2 Vs

= 0.9 Vs

Circuit Diagram [1]


9Sep10

Voltage and Current Waveforms [1]

43

Idealized Single-Phase Diode Bridge Rectifier Ls = 0


Case 2: Heavily Inductive Load
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Placing a large series inductor at the output of the diode rectifier, for filtering, is common. In this case, the load can be modeled by a dc constant current source. The operation of the diode rectifier circuit in this case is identical to that in the case of purely resistive load.

Circuit Diagram [1]


9Sep10 44

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Output Voltage

Heavily Inductive Load with Ls = 0 (Cont.)

As in the case of purely resistive load, the output voltage can be expresses in terms of the source voltage as: v =v

Circuit Diagram [1]


d s

Voltage and Current Waveforms [1]

45

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Input Current

Heavily Inductive Load with Ls = 0 (Cont.)

As in the case of purely resistive load, the source current can be expressed as: id when vs > 0 is = id when vs < 0

Circuit Diagram [1] Voltage and Current Waveforms [1]


46

Heavily Inductive Load with Ls = 0 (Cont.)


Average Value of Output Voltage
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As in the case of purely resistive load, the average value of the output voltage can be found as:
2 Vs 2 2 Vs 1 1 = 0.9 Vs Vdo = vs (t ) d (t ) = 2 Vs sin t d (t ) = [ cos t ] = 0

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Circuit Diagram [1]


9Sep10

Voltage and Current Waveforms [1]


47

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9Sep10

Input Current RMS Value


Is = Id

Heavily Inductive Load with Ls = 0 (Cont.)

The rms value of the input current can be calculated to be:

Input Voltage and Current Waveforms [1]

48

Input Current Harmonics

Heavily Inductive Load with Ls = 0 (Cont.)


The rms value of the fundamental component of input current can be calculated as: 2 2 I s1 = I d = 0.9 I d

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The input current has half-wave symmetry. As a result, it does not contain any even harmonics. The rms value of the individual input current harmonic components can be expressed as:

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for even h 0 I sh = I s1 / h for odd h


The total harmonic distortion of input current is THD = 48.43%.

Input Voltage and Current Waveforms [1] Frequency Spectrum of Input Current [1]
9Sep10 49

Heavily Inductive Load with Ls = 0 (Cont.) Input Power Factor


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As fundamental component of input current is in phase with the source voltage, DPF = 1. The distortion factor can be found as DF = 0.9. As a result,
PF = DPF DF = 1.0 0.9 = 0.9

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Input Voltage and Current Waveforms [1] Frequency Spectrum of Input Current [1]
9Sep10 50

Inductive Load with Ls = 0


Id is not a constant dc current. At the beginning of each half cycle, incoming diodes commutate out-going diodes and the transfer of load current from the out-going diodes to the incoming diodes is instantaneous. vd is the full-wave rectified version of vs.

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is

vs

vd id

9Sep10

51

Inductive Load with Ls 0


At the beginning of each half cycle, incoming diodes commutate out-going diodes, but the transfer of load current from the out-going diodes to the incoming diodes is not instantaneous. vd stays at zero during the commutation interval, since all four diodes will conduct during this period, making the output voltage equal to zero.

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is

vs

vd id

9Sep10

52

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Currents in different branches during commutation interval

Effect of Source Inductance Ls

Constant dc-Side Voltage


This case is similar to the case where a large capacitor is connected across the dc-side terminals of the diode bridge rectifier. It is assumed that id falls to zero before zero-crossing of vs. Then, the single-phase bridge rectifier can be replaced by the equivalent circuit shown below. The diode indicates the unidirectionality of the current.

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1- Diode Bridge Rectifier Equivalent Circuit [1] 1- Diode Bridge Rectifier with constant dc-side voltage [1]
9Sep10 54

Constant dc-Side Voltage (Cont.)


In the positive half-cycle, when the fully-rectified source voltage exceeds Vd, the diode starts conducting. As long as |vs| is larger than Vd, the inductor voltage is positive and the current rises. When |vs|=Vd, the inductor voltage is zero and current is at its peak. The current starts falling when |vs| becomes smaller than Vd. The current falls to zero when all the energy stored in the inductor is returned to the circuit. This corresponds to the time at which area A is equal to area B. The start of conduction, b, and the angle corresponding to the peak of the current p , can be found from the relations:
Vd = 2 Vs sin b

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p = b

1- Diode Bridge Rectifier Equivalent Circuit [1] Voltage and Current Waveforms [1]
9Sep10 55

Constant dc-Side Voltage (Cont.)


When the current is flowing in the circuit, di vL = Ls = 2 Vs sin t Vd dt and 1 id = ( 2 Vs sin t Vd )d (t ) Ls b The angle corresponding to the zero-crossing of the current, f , can be obtained from: i ( ) = 1 ( 2 V sin t V )d (t ) = 0
d f

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The average value of the current can be found as:


1 f I d = id ( ) d

Ls

1- Diode Bridge Rectifier Equivalent Circuit [1]


9Sep10

Voltage and Current Waveforms [1]


56

Practical Diode Bridge Rectifier


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In a practical diode bridge rectifier, a large capacitor is connected across the dc-side terminals. As the time constant of the output R-C circuit is finite, the dc voltage will not be constant. Instead, the dc output voltage will contain ripple components. This practical circuit can be easily analyzed using circuit simulation programs. Here, PSIM, a simulation package developed for power electronic circuits and systems by PowerSim Inc., will be used to demonstrate the operation of the circuit through a few examples.

Practical Diode Bridge Rectifier [1]


9Sep10 57

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Example 1

Simulate the diode bridge rectifier shown Fig. 1 using PSIM with the following parameters:

Vs = 120 V , f = 60 Hz , Ls = 1 mH , Rs = 1 m, Cd = 1 mF , and Rload = 20 .

Assume the diodes to be ideal. Choose a time step of t = 25 s.

Fig. 1 Practical Diode Bridge Rectifier [1]


58

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9Sep10 vs |vs| id is vd 59

Solution

The circuit diagram drawn in PSIM SIMCAD and the results produced in PSIM SIMVIEW are as follows:

Example 2
In the diode bridge rectifier shown Fig. 2, using the same parameters as in Example 1, find through simulation:
the fundamental component of the source current, the frequency spectrum of the source current, and the THD of the source current.

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Fig. 2 Practical Diode Bridge Rectifier [1]


9Sep10 60

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9Sep10 vs is

Is,fundamental,peak= 15.6 A, i = -11

The circuit diagram drawn in PSIM SIMCAD and the results produced in PSIM SIMVIEW are as follows:

THDi
THDi = 93.3% fundamental 3rd harmonic 5th harmonic 7th harmonic

is, fundamental

Is,peak= 35 A

Solution

Frequency Spectrum
61

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The universal power supplies are used in devices, such as personal computers, that may be used with the 115-V, 60-Hz system and/or the 230-V, 50-Hz system. The switch-over between the two systems is performed by a switch. Irrespective of the source voltage used, the average value of the dc output voltage has to be the same. In this way, the dc-to-dc converters fed by the diode rectifier need not be designed for a specific system. This saves time and money in manufacturing. If the rectifier is fed from a 115-V system, the switch is placed in the corresponding position. In the positive half-cycle, the path of the current will be through D1, C1, and the closed switch. In the negative half-cycle, the current will flow through the closed switch, C2, and D2. At open circuit, each capacitor will be charged 2Vs and the total open circuit dc output voltage will be 2 2Vs = 2 2 115 = 2 230V .

Front-End Diode Rectifier in Universal Power Supplies

Universal Power supply Front-End Diode Bridge Rectifier [1]

9Sep10

62

Front-End Diode Rectifier in Universal Power Supplies


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If the rectifier is fed from a 230-V system, the switch is placed in the corresponding position. In the positive half-cycle, the path of current will be through D1, C1, C2, and the diode on the side of the square across from D1. In the negative half-cycle, the current will flow through the diode on the side of the square across from D2, C1, C2, and D2. At open circuit, the series capacitors will be charged to 2Vs and the total open circuit dc output voltage will be 2Vs = 2 230V .

Universal Power supply Front-End Diode Bridge Rectifier [1]


9Sep10 63

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In each half cycle, one of the diodes is forward-biased, letting the scaled-down or up source voltage appear across the load. Transformer provides isolation and voltage level adjustment. The number of diodes is 2 instead of 4. The cost of transformer has been added.

Single-Phase Diode Rectifier with Centre-Tapped Transformer (Two-Phase Diode Rectifier)

is

vs

vd id

9Sep10

64

Effect of Single-Phase Diode Bridge Rectifiers on Three-Phase Four-Wire Systems Neutral Current Example 3
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In the following 3-phase, 4-wire system, three single-phase diode bridge rectifiers similar to the one in Example 1 are connected between each phase and the neutral.
Draw the waveforms of ac-side currents of each rectifier. Draw the waveform of the neutral wire current. Find the peak values of the 3rd harmonic components in input current of each rectifier. Find the peak value of the 3rd harmonic component in the neutral wire. Explain.

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Three single-phase diode bridge rectifiers connected to a 3-phase 4-wire system


9Sep10 65

Solution
The ac-side currents of the three phases contain fundamental component and 3rd, 5th, 7th, 9th, harmonics. The fundamental components and 5th, 7th, 11th, 13th, harmonics in the currents of the three phases cancel each other out at the neutral junction point. The reason for this is that these components for all three phases have the same magnitudes and are phase shifted by 120. The triplen harmonics (harmonics with orders of odd multiples of 3) of the three phases, have equal magnitudes and are in phase. Therefore, they do not cancel out at the neutral point. Instead, they add up and make a large neutral current, mainly composed of 3rd harmonic. The neutral current can be a va ia ib ic problem in office buildings where there are a large number of computer loads, each with a single-phase front-end diode in rectifier, connected between one phase and the neutral. Note that with the nonlinear loads, the neutral wire current is not fundamental a small current caused by 3rd harmonic unbalanced loads connected to 5th harmonic different phases. The problem 7th harmonic 9th harmonic is more serious in this case. A thicker neutral wire or efficient 3rd harmonic harmonic filtering is required.
9th harmonic

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9Sep10

Reference:
[1]

Mohan, Undeland and Robbins, Power Electronics: Converters, Applications, and Design, 3rd Edition, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2003.

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Design and Applications of Power Electronic Converters


Prof. Mehrdad Kazerani Electrical and Computer Engineering University of Waterloo

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Part A: Three-Phase Diode Rectifiers Part B: Computer Simulation of Power Electronic Systems Part C: Thyristor

Lecture 3 Three-Phase Diode Rectifiers

Part A: Three-Phase Diode Rectifiers


ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

Outline

Advanced Training Centre in Electrical Power Engineering ECE 663: Energy Processing Advanced Training Centre in Electric Power Engineering Electronic Converters Power Electronic Converters: Design and Applications Mehrdad Kazerani, 2007

Introduction Three-Phase Full-Bridge Diode Rectifier with Ls=0 and id = Id Constant DC-Side Voltage Example Comparison of Single-Phase and Three-Phase Rectifiers Overcurrent (Inrush Current) and Overvoltage at Turn-On
Average Value of DC-Side Voltage Input Current

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9Sep10

Introduction
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Three-phase diode rectifiers can handle higher power levels and produce waveforms of higher quality and lower ripple contents. They are appropriate for industrial applications, where three-phase power is available and high power handling capability is a requirement. Practical three-phase full-bridge diode rectifiers feature source inductances on the ac-side and a large filter capacitor on the dc-side. First, the source inductances are neglected and the focus will be on the operation of the rectifier, sequence of conduction of diodes, and the waveforms produced on the ac- and dc-sides. The dc-side current is assumed to be constant. This is the case where a large inductance has been placed in series with the load.

A practical 3-phase full-bridge diode rectifier [1] 9Sep10

3-phase full-bridge diode rectifier with no source inductance and with constant dc-side current [1] 4

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The top-group diodes have common cathodes. Therefore, the diode connected at the anode to the highest voltage will conduct and will place the corresponding phase voltage between P and n terminals. The bottom-group diodes have common anodes. Therefore, the diode connected at the cathode to the lowest voltage will conduct and will place the corresponding phase voltage between N and n terminals. As a result, at any moment of time, vPn and vNn will follow one of the ac phase voltages. The dc terminal voltage vd = vPn vNn will then be equal to one of the phase-to-phase voltages.

Three-Phase Full-Bridge Diode Rectifier with Ls=0 and id = Id

3-phase full-bridge diode rectifier [1]


9Sep10

Voltage and Current Waveforms [1]


5

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The dc terminal voltage is a 6-pulse voltage (namely, it repeats itself six times per period of the ac source voltage) with low-ripple contents compared to the dc-side voltage of single-phase diode bridge rectifier. The dc terminal voltage is composed of selected pieces of the input line-to-line voltages. At any moment of time, a diode from the top group is conducting the load current with a diode from the bottom-group. Each diode in each group is conducting for 120, 60 with one diode of the opposite group and another 60 with another diode of the opposite group. The conducting diodes do not belong to the same legs.

Three-Phase Full-Bridge Diode Rectifier with Ls=0 and id = Id

3-phase full-bridge diode rectifier [1]


9Sep10

Voltage and Current Waveforms [1]


6

Three-Phase Full-Bridge Diode Rectifier with Ls=0 and id = Id (Cont.)


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When one diode from the top-group and one diode from the bottom-group are conducting, the load current flows in the corresponding phases. When a topgroup diode conducts, the current in the corresponding phase is equal to the dc-side current. When a diode in the bottom-group conduct, the corresponding phase current will be equal to minus the dc-side current. As a result, the source currents will have quasi square wave shapes composed of a positive pulse of width 120, a negative pulse of width 120, and a dead-time of width 60 between any two successive positive and negative pulses.

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3-phase full-bridge diode rectifier [1]


9Sep10

Voltage and Current Waveforms [1]

For example, the phase-a current is constructed as follows:


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Three-Phase Full-Bridge Diode Rectifier with Ls=0 and id = Id (Cont.)

ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

when D1 is conducting Id ia = I d when D4 is conducting 0 when neither diode is conducting The sequence of conduction of diodes is D1-D2-D3-D4-D5-D6-D1-. The diode D1 starts conducting at the zero-crossing of the line-to-line voltage vac.

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3-phase full-bridge diode rectifier [1]


9Sep10

Voltage and Current Waveforms [1]

Three-Phase Full-Bridge Diode Rectifier with Ls=0 and id = Id (Cont.) Average Value of DC-Side Voltage
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The dc-side voltage is composed of selective segments of input lineto-line voltages pieced together. Every 60, a new diode starts conducting and a new line-to-line voltage will appear at the output. If the origin is shifted to the angle corresponding to the peak of vab, the output voltage for 60 around the origin can be expressed as: vd = vab = 2 VLL cos t < t <
6 6

Therefore, the average value of the dc-side voltage is found to be:

1 6 3 2 Vdo = V 1.35VLL 2 VLL cos t d (t ) = / 3 LL


6

Voltage Waveforms [1]

9Sep10

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The total rms value of the source current can be found from the basic definition of rms value as: 2 Is = I d 0.816 I d 3 The rms value of the fundamental component of the source current can be found from Fourier analysis as:

Three-Phase Full-Bridge Diode Rectifier with Ls=0 and id = Id (Cont.) Input Current

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I s1 =

s1

6 I d 0.78 I d

The rms value of the individual harmonics in the source current can be found from Fourier analysis as: I

I sh =

h = 6k 1, k = 1, 2,3,...

Source Voltage and Current Waveforms [1] 9Sep10 Source Current Frequency Spectrum [1] 10

Three-Phase Full-Bridge Diode Rectifier with Ls=0 and id = Id (Cont.) Input Current
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Due to half-wave symmetry, there are no even harmonics in the source currents. Also, due to the 3-level waveshape of the source current, with 60dead time between the positive and negative pulses, there will not be any triplen harmonics. As the fundamental component of source currents are in phase with the corresponding phase voltages, DPF = 1.0 The power factor at the source can be found as:

PF = DPF DF = 1.0

0.955

Source Voltage and Current Waveforms [1] Source Current Frequency Spectrum [1] 9Sep10 11

Constant DC-Side Voltage


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Assumption: The dc-side current is discontinuous and only two diodes, one from the top-group and one from the bottom-group, are conducting at any moment of time. Current ia has two bumps in the positive half-cycle of va and two bumps in the negative half-cycle of va. The two positive bumps correspond to the conduction of diode 1 with diodes 6 and 2. The two negative bumps correspond to the conduction of diode 4 with 3 and 5.
vPN , open circuit

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3- Diode Bridge Rectifier Equivalent Circuit

3-phase full-bridge diode rectifier with Ls and constant dc-side voltage [1] 9Sep10

Voltage and current waveforms [1] 12

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Example

Simulate the three-phase diode bridge rectifier shown below using PSIM with the following parameters:

VLL = 208V , f = 60 Hz , Ls = 1 mH , Cd = 1.1 mF , and Rload = 35 .

Assume the diodes to be ideal. Choose a time step of t = 25 s.

Three-phase full-bridge Diode Rectifier [1]

13

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9Sep10 va ia vd id 14

Solution

The circuit diagram drawn in PSIM SIMCAD and the results produced in PSIM SIMVIEW are as follows:

Comparison of Single-Phase and Three-Phase Rectifiers


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Single-Phase
More Line Current Distortion Poor Power Factor High DPF Larger DC Current Ripple

Three-Phase
Less Line Current Distortion Higher Power Factor High DPF Smaller DC Current Ripple

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Larger Filter Capacitor Required Smaller Filter Capacitor required Larger Regulation in Vd Lower Regulation in Vd

9Sep10

15

Overcurrent (Inrush Current) and Overvoltage at Turn-On


Worst-Case Scenario at Turn-On:
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Filter capacitor is initially discharged. vd = 0. Short circuit at the output terminals. AC source voltage is at its peak phase-to-neutral voltage is at peak ( 2Vs ) in single-phase line-to-line voltage is at peak ( 2Vll ) in three-phase As a result, due to the series L-C circuit, composed of the source inductance and filter capacitor, the terminal voltage can reach:
Vd ,max = 2 2 Vs Vd ,max = 2 2 Vll Single Phase Three Phase

Large inrush currents at start-up (due to short circuit at the output terminals) can damage the rectifier diodes. Large overvoltages can damage the voltage-sensitive equipment such as dc-to-dc converters and switch-mode inverters.

1- diode rectifier 9Sep10

3- diode rectifier 16

Methods for Protection Against Inrush Current


Using a current-limiting or start-up resistor that will be bypassed by a switch following the start-up transients.
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Using a thermistor (thermal resistor) that has a finite resistance when it is cool (at start-up), and has a practically zero resistance when it is warm (during normal operation, following the start-up transient).

Using a half-controlled rectifier that is composed of diodes and SCRs. At start up, the rectifier starts with a large firing angle to limit inrush current, and after the start-up transient is over, firing angle will return to 0; namely, the SCRs will act as diodes during normal operation.

9Sep10

17

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Outline

PSIM Simulation Package Steps in Setting up a Circuit in PSIM Example

Part B: Computer Simulation of Power Electronic Systems

18

PSIM Simulation Package-1


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PSIM is a simulation software with a user-friendly graphical interface that has been developed by Powersim Inc. for simulation of power electronic circuits and systems. PSIM is based on ideal circuit components and is free of convergence problems. It is an ideal means for studying the performance of a power electronic system without getting lost in the unnecessary details, in the preliminary stage of design. An evaluation version of PSIM can be downloaded from the Powersim website (www.powersimtech.com). This version will be limited in the number of nodes and components, but will be capable enough for most of the circuits that will be simulated in this course. The software has numerous examples that can be used as a starting point. The manual can be downloaded from the website.

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9Sep10

19

PSIM Simulation Package-2


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The circuit is developed in PSIM SIMCAD window using the available components, whose attributes can be modified by the user. The time step and total duration of simulation are chosen by the user and the case is run. The results of simulation based on the quantities measured will be available in PSIM SIMVIEW window. In SIMVIEW, the results can be arranged in different plots. Also, Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) can be performed on waveforms to display their harmonic contents. The circuit and simulation results can be copied to a clipboard and imported to a document such as a Microsoft Word document. PSIM offers many features that can be learned and mastered through practice.

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9Sep10

20

Steps in Setting up a Circuit in PSIM-1


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In PSIM SIMCAD, choose each desired component from the elements menu. Then, drag and place it at the desired locations. Click on the component and select the desired attributes. Some commonly-used components are available from the menu at the bottom of the screen. Connect the components with the tool marked by a pencil on the main menu. The pencil can be obtained by clicking on the pencil symbol. The wire connecting the components can be drawn by clicking and holding the left button of the mouse at the beginning of the line, dragging the mouse till the end of the wire and releasing the button at that point.

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9Sep10

21

Steps in Setting up a Circuit in PSIM-2


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Place voltage and current probes at the desired locations and choose the names of their outputs. These outputs will be available in SIMVIEW window for display in the form of plots, when the circuit is run and the simulation is complete. From the simulate menu, choose simulation control. Place the clock symbol and choose the simulation parameters such as time step and total time of simulation. From the simulate menu, choose run simulation. When simulation is complete, the active window will be switched to SIMVIEW, where a list of available outputs are displayed. Each output can be selected by clicking on it, then clicking on add, and finally clicking on OK.

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9Sep10

22

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Circuit Diagram in PSIM SIMCAD window

Example

Simulation Results in PSIM SIMVIEW window


23

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Outline

Thyristor (SCR)

Thyristor in a Simple Circuit Gate Current Pulse Thyristor turn-off Thyristor dv/dt limit Thyristor di/dt limit Thyristor Types Thyristor Turn-on Mechanisms Thyristor Physical Shape

Part C: Thyristor

24

Thyristor (SCR)
Thyristor (Silicon Controlled Rectifier, SCR) is a 3-terminal pnpn-junction device. Cathode Anode

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(A)

p Gate (G)

(K)

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ON state of thyristor is controlled by a control signal, but its OFF state is controlled by the power circuit. When in OFF state, thyristor can block positive voltages below forward breakdown voltage and reverse voltages below reverse breakdown voltage. Thyristor can be turned on by applying a positive gate current pulse when the device is forward biased. To assume ON state, thyristor current must reach a certain level called latching current. To turn the thyristor off, its current has to brought below a certain level called holding current and a negative voltage has to be maintained across its terminals for longer than a specified period of time.

SCR Symbol 9Sep10

SCR i-v Characteristic

SCR Idealized i-v Characteristic 25

Thyristor in a Simple Circuit


In a simple ac circuit composed of an ac voltage source, an ideal thyristor, and a resistive load, the thyristor blocks the applied voltage in the positive half cycle until getting triggered by a positive gate current pulse. After being latched on (turned on), the gate current pulse can be removed and the thyristor will stay ON. When in ON state, the thyristor will act as a short circuit connecting the source to the load. When the source voltage crosses zero, the thyristor current falls to zero as well and stays at zero, as the thyristor is a unidirectional device. The thyristor ceases conduction, the load is disconnected from the source, and the negative source voltage will be applied across the thyristor. The application of the negative voltage across the thyristor after zero crossing of current, makes sure that the thyristor will block the positive voltage applied at the beginning of the next positive half cycle and will not turn on unwontedly (i.e., without any gate current pulse) upon application of a positive dv/dt. Note that when the load is inductive, the current zero crossing happens following the zero crossing of the voltage, limiting the time available for the application of negative voltage across the thyristor.

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A simple thyristor circuit 9Sep10

Voltage and current waveforms 26

Gate Current Pulse The gate current pulse area represents the charge that has to be injected into the gate to turn the thyristor on. The pulse can have a large amplitude and a small width or a small amplitude and large width, as long as the area is large enough. In the former case, the turn-on will be faster than in the latter case.
iG iG
Q

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iG

Q t t Q t

Three different gate current pulses with the same area 9Sep10 27

Thyristor Turn-off
The reverse recovery process of thyristors is the same as that of diodes. At turn-off, thyristor current reverses after crossing zero and remains negative for a reverse recovery time trr before coming back to zero. Application of a negative voltage across the thyristor following the zero crossing is essential for completing the turn-off process. An important specification of thyristors is the turn-off time tq, which is defined as the interval between the time at which current crosses zero and the time when a positive voltage can be safely re-applied across the thyristor without unwontedly turning the thyristor on.

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9Sep10

Thyristor turn-off Characteristic

28

Thyristor dv/dt Limit


Every thyristor is characterized by a dv/dt limit. Applying a dv/dt larger than the specified limit across the thyristor can trigger the thyristor unwontedly without application of any gating signal. The reason for this phenomenon is as follows:
When thyristor is forward biased, the depletion layer formed at the reverse biased np-junction acts as a capacitor. The current through this junction capacitor Cj is related to the rate of change of the voltage across it through the relation iC=Cdv/dt If dv/dt is larger than a specified limit, it can initiate a current in the junction that can put the thyristor in conduction mode without any gate current pulse.

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The dv/dt can be limited to a safe level by


Choosing the right thyristor for a specific application. Using special circuits around the thyristor called dv/dt snubber.
Anode (A) + Cathode (K) _ Cj

n n +- p Gate (G)

+-

Junction Capacitor 9Sep10 29

Thyristor di/dt Limit


Every thyristor is characterized by a di/dt limit. Applying a di/dt larger than the specified limit across the thyristor can cause hot spots due to local heating and damage the thyristor. The reason for this phenomenon is as follows:
When the thyristor is in OFF state, its conduction area is practically zero, introducing a high resistance against current development. When thyristor is triggered by a gate current pulse, the conduction area starts growing at a certain rate which is characteristic of a given thyristor. If the rate of rise of current is higher than rate of growth of the conduction area, a large current may be forced through a small area resulting in high current density. If the current density exceeds the allowable limit, local heating can result leading to hot spots and thyristor permanent damage. Choosing the right thyristor for a specific application. Using special circuits around the thyristor called di/dt snubber.
A2 A1

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The di/dt can be limited to a safe level by

Expansion of conduction area as a result of triggering 9Sep10 30

Thyristor Types
Phase-Control Thyristor:
Triggered by gate current pulse Used in line-frequency applications Typical ratings for high power applications:
10 cm diameter 4 kA 5-7 kV ON-state voltage drop: 1.5 3 V

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Inverter-Grade Thyristor:

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Triggered by gate current pulse Used in line-frequency applications Small turn-off time (Appropriate for Inverter mode of operation of thyristor Converters, where the time available for application of negative voltage across the thyristor in turnoff process is limited. Typical ratings for high power applications:
2,500 V 1,500 A Tq,max=100 s

Light-Activated Thyristor:
Triggered by casting light on the chip through a window Used when isolation between the power circuit and control circuit through light is desirable Typical ratings for high power applications:
4 kV 3 kA ON-state voltage drop = 2 V Trigger Power = 5 mW

9Sep10

31

Thyristor Turn-on Mechanisms


Triggering by a gate current signal
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Common Method

Triggering by casting light on the chip through a window (light-activated thyristor)


Common Method

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Triggering by a dv/dt larger than the specified limit


Undesirable

Triggering by applying a voltage larger than forward breakdown voltage


Undesirable

9Sep10

32

Thyristor Physical Shape


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Thyristors are made in a shape similar to hockey pucks. This has two advantages:
It allows for stacking SCRs when they are connected in series to provide high voltage withstand capabilities for high-voltage applications. It allows cooling from both sides.

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The size of area of thyristors is related to their current carrying capability. The thickness of thyristors is related to their voltage withstand capability. The thicker a thyristor is, the slower it becomes.

K G K K A
High-Power Thyristors
9Sep10 33

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Reference:
[1]

Mohan, Undeland and Robbins, Power Electronics: Converters, Applications, and Design, 3rd Edition, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2003.

34

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Design and Applications of Power Electronic Converters


Prof. Mehrdad Kazerani Electrical and Computer Engineering University of Waterloo

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Part A: Single-Phase Phase-Controlled

Part B: Three-Phase Phase-Controlled

Line-Frequency Thyristor Converters

Converters Converters

Lecture 4

Part A Single-Phase Phase-Controlled Converters


Outline
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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

Introduction Simple Thyristor Circuits


Purely Resistive Load Inductive Load Active Load

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Gate Triggering of Thyristors Single-Phase Thyristor Bridge Converter Idealized Single-Phase Thyristor Bridge Converter: Ls = 0, id = Id
Case 1: = 0 Case 2: 0
Average Output Voltage Average Output Power Input Current Waveform Input Current, Power Factor and Power

Effect of Source Inductance Ls Practical Thyristor Bridge Converter Discontinuous Mode of Operation Inverter Mode of Operation
9Sep10 3

Examples 1 & 2

Introduction to Thyristor Converters


ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power
In applications where a controllable dc voltage is needed, the front-end diode rectifier can be replaced by a front-end thyristor converter. Due to the availability of highly capable controllable switches, thyristor converters are nowadays used only in very high-power applications such as high-voltage dc transmission (HVDC) and large dc and ac motor drives with regenerative capability. Thyristor converters are bidirectional or two-quadrant converters. The direction of power flow can be controlled to be from the ac-side to the dc-side and vice-versa. Diode rectifiers were characterized by discontinuous dc-side current duo to the presence of filter capacitors. In thyristor converters, the dc-side current is usually continuous due to the presence of a smoothing reactor on the dc-side. Thyristor converter is a nonlinear load, as the relationship between its input voltage and current is not linear. Harmonic generation and filtering requirements are critical issues in thyristorized converters. When the product of average voltage and current is positive, power flow is from the ac-side to the dc-side and the converter is in rectifier mode of operation (1st quadrant). When the product of average voltage and current is negative, power flow is from the dc-side to the ac-side and the converter is in inverter mode of operation (2nd quadrant). Id + Vd _ Id + Vd _ Inverter II 0 Id I Rectifier Vd

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Simple Thyristor Circuits


Assumption: In the analysis of the following thyristor circuits, the thyristors are assumed to be ideal. In other words, it is assumed that the thyristors represent a short circuit in the ON-state and an open circuit in the OFF-state. Also, reverse recovery process is neglected. The turn-off time (tq) is important in identifying the permissible range of thyristor firing angle and therefore, will be considered.

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Purely resistive load

Inductive Load

Active Load

9Sep10

Purely Resistive Load


In the negative half-cycle of the source voltage, thyristor is in OFF state. The current and the resistor voltage are zero. The thyristor voltage is equal to the source voltage. When source voltage becomes positive, thyristor becomes forward biased and is turned on upon the application of a gate pulse at firing angle . The thyristor conducts and the current is equal to the source voltage divided by R. The resistor voltage is equal to the source voltage. At the zero-crossing of the source voltage, the thyristor current falls to zero (due to the resistive nature of the load), thyristor turns off, resistor voltage becomes zero, and thyristor voltage becomes equal to the source voltage, which is negative. This negative voltage is applied across the thyristor for half a cycle of the line frequency, which is much longer than the turn-off time (tq) of the thyristor, making sure that the thyristor will be able to block the positive reapplied dv/dt at the beginning of the next positive half cycle. By varying the firing angle , the average value of the output voltage can be controlled continuously from 0 to a maximum (0.45 Vs).

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Purely Resistive Load 9Sep10 6

Inductive Load
Prior to t=, thyristor is in OFF state. The current and the resistor and inductor voltages are zero. The thyristor voltage is equal to source voltage. When source voltage becomes positive, thyristor becomes forward biased and is turned on upon the application of a gate pulse at firing angle . The thyristor conducts as long as its current is above zero. When the thyristor conducts, the current in the circuit is given by the following equation:

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vs = Ri + vL = Ri + L

di 1 t or i = (v Ri ) d dt L s

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As long as the voltage across the inductor (vL=vs-Ri) is positive (-1), di/dt will be positive and the current will rise. When vs=Ri at 1, vL=0, di/dt=0, and the current will be at its peak. When the inductor voltage (vL=vs-Ri) becomes negative (1-2), di/dt will become negative and the current will fall till it becomes zero at 2, when area A1= area A2. After this point, i, vR and vL will be zero and the thyristor will be in OFF state and reverse biased, taking the entire source voltage, which is negative. The interval 2 -2 represents the time available for the application of a negative voltage across the thyristor after its currents becomes zero. Note that when the source voltage crosses zero at , the current is still flowing in the circuit. This is due to the energy stored in the inductor.

Inductive Load 9Sep10 7

Active Load
Prior to t=, thyristor is in OFF state. The current and the inductor voltage are zero. The thyristor voltage is equal to vs-Ed. When source voltage becomes positive and exceeds Ed, thyristor becomes forward, but the thyristor does not turn on and start conducting till a gate pulse is applied to it at 2. As long as the voltage across the inductor (vL =vs-Ed) is positive, di/dt will be positive and the current will rise. When vs =Ed, vL =0, di/dt=0, and the current will be at its peak. When the inductor voltage (vL =vs-Ed) becomes negative, di/dt will become negative and the current will fall till it becomes zero, when area A1= area A2. After this point, i and vL will be zero and thyristor will be in OFF state and reverse biased, taking the voltage vs-Ed, which is negative. Note that when the source voltage crosses zero at , the current is still flowing in the circuit. This is due to the energy stored in the inductor. The inductor and the dc voltage source can represent the armature of a dc motor fed by the rectifier circuit and running at a constant speed.

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Active Load

9Sep10

Gate Triggering of Thyristor


In triggering thyristors, a reference for , i.e., =0, or the earliest time the thyristor can be triggered, has to be defined. This is usually the zero-crossing of the ac voltage that forward biases the thyristor prior to its firing. In order to synchronize the gating signal with the ac voltage, a sawtooth waveform is generated in synch with the ac voltage signal. Then, the sawtooth waveform is compared with a control signal that can vary between 0 and the peak of the sawtooth waveform. The intersections of the control signal and sawtooth waveform determine the delay angles with respect to the positive and negative zero crossings of the ac voltage signal. The delay angle with respect to the positive zero crossing is used to trigger the thyristor in the simple circuits discussed before. In the single-phase full-bridge thyristor converter, to be discussed later, the delay angles measured with respect to both positive and negative zero crossings of the ac voltage signal will be used.

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9Sep10

Gate Triggering of Thyristor (Cont.)


For the two similar triangles ABC and ADE, one can write: As and Vst are constants, will be proportional to vcontrol. This implies a linear relationship between the control signal and the firing angle. There are special integrated circuit components in the market that produce gate trigger signals for thyristors based on a control signal and a synch signal.
AC BC = AE DE or

vcontrol = Vst

or =

Vst

vcontrol

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B A C

D E

9Sep10

10

Single-Phase Thyristor Bridge Converter

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The utility supply is modeled by its Thevenin equivalent in the form of a perfect sinusoidal voltage source in series with an R-L impedance. A series resistance and inductance represent the impedance of the lines connecting the source to the rectifier as well as the transformers used to adjust the level of the voltage. Note that due to the high X/R ratio in the power system, the line resistance is usually neglected and the line impedance is represented by an inductance only. A large inductor is used at the output, in series with the load, to make sure the dc output current has low ripple contents. In steady-state, a large inductor acts as a high impedance against the highfrequency ripple components of the output current. As the average voltage across the inductor in a repetitive current mode is zero, the dc component or the average value of vd will appear across the load and its harmonic components will be taken mostly by the inductor. The sharing of the harmonic components of vd between the inductor and the load will be based on their relative impedances at the harmonic frequencies. For a large filter inductor, it is fairly accurate to say that the voltage harmonics are taken by the inductor allowing the load to take the average value of the voltage, resulting in a constant current. Ls can cause problems in commutation of the out-going thyristors by the in-coming thyristors, as current cannot change instantaneously through an inductor.

1- Thyristor Bridge Converter

9Sep10

11

Idealized Single-Phase Thyristor Bridge Converter: Ls = 0 and id = Id


Case 1: = 0
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As diode is a special case of thyristor, where = 0, the single-phase thyristor bridge converter operated at = 0, will behave exactly in the same way as the single-phase diode bridge rectifier.

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1- Thyristor Bridge Converter with Ls= 0, id = Id, and = 0

9Sep10

12

Idealized Single-Phase Thyristor Bridge Converter: Ls = 0 and id = Id (Cont.)


Case 2: 0
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The top-group thyristors (T1 and T3) have common cathodes. Therefore, the one connected to a higher voltage at the anode will be forward biased. The bottom-group thyristors (T2 and T4) have common anodes. Therefore, the one connected to a lower potential at the cathode will be forward biased. Assume that the source voltage is in the positive half-cycle and thyristors T3 and T4 are conducting id before t = . T1 and T2 are forward biased by the source voltage through the short circuits made by T3 and T4. As soon as T1 and T2 are triggered, they turn on and the load current is transferred instantaneously from T3 and T4 to T1 and T2. The short circuits introduced by T1 and T2 place negative voltages across T3 and T4. This assures positive voltage blocking and immunity against false triggering at the beginning of the next half-cycle when T3 and T4 become forward biased and experience a positive dv/dt. Thyristors T1 and T2 will remain ON and will continue conducting the load current as long as T3 and T4 have not been fired again at + . Every set of in-coming thyristors commutates the set of out-going thyristors upon getting triggered when forward biased. The output voltage will be composed of segments of input source voltage (when T1 and T2 are ON) and inverted (negated) input source voltage (when T3 and T4 are ON).

9Sep10

1- Thyristor Bridge Converter with Ls= 0, id = Id, and 0

13

Idealized Single-Phase Thyristor Bridge Converter: Ls = 0, id = Id and 0 (Cont.) Average Output Voltage
ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power
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The average output voltage can be found as follows:


Vd 2 2 Vs 1 + 1 + vs (t ) d (t ) = 2 Vs sin t d (t ) = cos = 0.9 Vs cos =

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For the special case of = 0, one can get the average output voltage by replacing with 0:
Vd 0 = 2 2 Vs

cos 0 = 0.9 Vs

which is the same result that was obtained for single-phase diode bridge rectifier. Area A represents the average voltage lost due to delayed triggering of thyristors. The average voltage is positive for 0 < < 90 and negative for 90 < < 180.

9Sep10

1- Thyristor Bridge Converter with Ls= 0, id = Id, and 0

14

Idealized Single-Phase Thyristor Bridge Converter: Ls = 0 and id = Id and 0 (Cont.) Average Output Power
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The average output power can be found as follows: 1 + 1 + 1 + P= vd id d (t ) = vd I d d (t ) = I d [ vd d (t )] = I dVd = 0.9 Vs I d cos The average power is continuously controllable both in magnitude and in sign by the firing angle . The average power is positive for 0 < < 90 . This implies that the converter is operating in the rectifier mode (1st-quadrant operation) for 0 < < 90 . The average power is negative for 90 < < 180. This implies that the converter is operating in the inverter mode (2nd- quadrant operation) for 90 < < 180.

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9Sep10

1- Thyristor Bridge Converter with Ls= 0, id = Id, and 0

15

Idealized Single-Phase Thyristor Bridge Converter: Ls = 0 and id = Id and 0 (Cont.) Input Current Waveform
ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power
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The input current waveform is exactly the same as in the case of diode rectifier except for a phase shift equal to the firing angle . The input current is equal to Id, as long as T1 and T2 are conducting, and equal to -Id, as long as T3 and T4 are conducting.

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9Sep10

1- Thyristor Bridge Converter with Ls= 0, id = Id, and 0

16

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Input Current RMS Value:

Idealized Single-Phase Thyristor Bridge Converter: Ls = 0 and id = Id and 0 (Cont.) Input Current, Power Factor, and Power
Is = Id
2 2
for even h 0 I d = 0.9 I d I sh = I s1 / h for odd h
THD = 48.43%

Input Current Harmonics: I s1 =

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Input Power Factor: DPF = cos , DF = 0.9, and PF = DPF DF = cos 0.9 = 0.9 cos . Input Power:
P = Vs I s1 cos 1 = 0.9 Vs I d cos P>0 for 0 < < 90 and <0 Q1 = Vs I s1 sin 1 = 0.9 Vs I d sin Q1 > 0 for 0 < < 180

for 90 < < 180

1- Thyristor Bridge Converter with Ls= 0, id = Id, and 0 9Sep10 17

Effect of Source Inductance Ls


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When the source inductance is not negligible, the commutation of the out-going thyristors by the in-coming thyristors is not instantaneous. Instead, there will be a period of time during which the out-going and in-coming thyristors share the load current. The reason for this phenomenon is that the current in the inductor cannot change instantaneously due to the stored energy in the inductor.

1- Thyristor Bridge Converter with Ls 0

9Sep10

18

Effect of Source Inductance Ls (Cont.)


ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power
Assume that in the positive half-cycle of vs, T3 and T4 are conducting Id. As soon as T1 and T2 are fired, they start conducting, but the load current will not be transferred to them instantaneously, as this means a step change in the inductive source current from Id to +Id. For a gradual change of source current from Id to +Id, the current in T1 and T2 will rise from 0 to Id, where the current in T3 and T4 will fall from Id to 0. During the commutation period u, all 4 thyristors are conducting making vd=0. The difference between the source voltage and the output voltage during the commutation period is placed across the inductor. The output voltage in the case of non-zero source inductance is always less than that in the case of zero source inductance, due to the lost area Au during commutation.

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1- Thyristor Bridge Converter with Ls0


9Sep10

Voltage and Current Waveforms


19

Practical Thyristor Bridge Converter


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In a practical thyristor bridge converter, the load consists of a series combination of an inductor, a small resistor, and a dc voltage source. This kind of load can represent a dc motor driven by the converter at a controllable speed. This practical circuit can be easily analyzed using circuit simulation programs. Here, PSIM simulation package will be used to demonstrate the operation of the circuit through an example.

Practical Thyristor Bridge Converter


9Sep10 20

Example 1
ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

Simulate the thyristor bridge converter shown Fig. 1 using PSIM with the following parameters:
Vs = 240 V , f = 60 Hz , Ls = 1.4 mH , = 45 , Ld = 9 mH , rd = 0, and Ed = 145V .

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Assume the thyristors to be ideal. Choose a time step of t = 25 s. Draw the waveforms of vs, is, vd, and id. Calculate Is1, Is, DPF, PF, and THD.

Fig. 1 Practical Thyristor Bridge Converter


9Sep10 21

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vs|

9Sep10 22

Solution

The circuit diagram drawn in PSIM SIMCAD is as follows:

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The results produced in PSIM SIMVIEW are as follows:

9Sep10

I s = 58.56 A
id

I s1, peak = 82.59 A I s1 = 82.59 = 58.4 A 2


vs vd

DPF = cos(55.96 ) = 0.56 lagging

Solution (Cont.)

DF =
is

I s1 58.4 = = 0.997 I s 58.56

PF = DPF DF = 0.56 0.997 = 0.558 lagging

23

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In the inverter mode of operation, the firing angle is between 90 and 180. Also, the average output voltage is negative. Inverter mode of operation is not sustainable, unless there is a dc voltage source of inverted polarity on the dc-side. Otherwise, the dcside current falls to zero upon loss of stored energy in the dc-side inductor.

Inverter Mode of Operation

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Thyristor Bridge Converter with constant dc-side current

Thyristor Bridge Converter with sustainable operation

9Sep10

24

Inverter Mode of Operation


(Cont.)

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In inverter mode of operation, due to delayed triggering of thyristors, the period of time available for the application of a negative voltage across the out-going valve after its currents falls to zero, is limited. The extinction angle that corresponds to the time available for the application of a negative voltage across the out-going valve is:

= ( + u )

In order to avoid commutation failure, i.e., false triggering of the out-going valve upon application of a positive dv/dt at the positive zero-crossing of the source voltage, the time available for the application of negative voltage across the out-going valve has to be larger than the turn-off time (tq) of the thyristor, i.e.,

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> tq or > tq

9Sep10

25

Example 2
Design a closed-loop control system for the single-phase thyristor bridge converter shown in Fig. 2 to regulate the dc-side current to 100 A. Use PSIM to simulate the converter and control system. The parameters of the converter circuit are as follows:
Vs = 240 V , f = 60 Hz , Ls = 1.4 mH , Ld = 25 mH , rd = 1 m, and Ed = 145V .

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Assume the thyristors to be ideal. Choose a time step of t = 100 s.

Fig. 2 Single-phase full-bridge thyristor converter


9Sep10 26

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9Sep10

PI Controller:
GPI ( s ) = K P K K 1 + s = KP + P = KP + I s s s

Solution

The circuit diagram drawn in PSIM SIMCAD is as follows:

Design by trial and error: Kp=0.02 & =0.057 s


27

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9Sep10

id,ref. id

Solution (Cont.)

The results produced in PSIM SIMVIEW are as follows:

28

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If the dc-side inductance is not large enough or if the average dc-side current is small due to a large firing angle, the dc-side current may become discontinuous. During the time interval where the dc-side current is zero, the voltage drops across the dc-side inductor and resistor are zero. Therefore, vd = Ed. At start-up, thyristor converters are normally operated at large firing angles (soft start) so that the dc-side current becomes discontinuous and the inrush current is limited. When the start-up transients are over, the firing angle is modified to realize the desired dc-side average current and output power.

Discontinuous Mode of Operation

vs

vd

id Ed

T1

T3

T4

T2

9Sep10

Vs = 240 V , f = 60 Hz , Ls = 1.4 mH , = 60 , Ld = 1 mH , rd = 0, and Ed = 145V .

29

Part B Three-Phase Phase-Controlled Converters


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Outline Introduction Three-Phase Full-Bridge Thyristor Converter with Ls=0 and id = Id Case 1: = 0 Case 2: 0
Average Value of DC-Side Voltage Output Voltage Waveform Average Output Power Input Current Input Current Harmonics Active and Reactive Power

Mehrdad Kazerani, 2010


9Sep10

Effect of Ls on Current Commutation Practical Thyristor Converter Examples Inverter Mode of Operation
30

Introduction-1
Compared with single-phase thyristor converters, threephase thyristor converters can handle higher power levels and produce waveforms of higher quality and lower ripple contents. They are used for very high power industrial applications such as high-voltage dc transmission (HVDC) systems, very large dc and ac motor drives, and cycloconverters.

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A practical 3-phase full-bridge thyristor converter 9Sep10

An idealized 3-phase full-bridge thyristor converter

31

Introduction-2
Practical three-phase full-bridge thyristor converters feature source inductances on the ac-side and a series combination of an inductor, a resistor and a dc voltage source on the dc-side. First, the source inductance is neglected and the dc-side current is assumed to be constant. This is the case where a large inductance has been placed in series with the load. The focus will be on the operation of the converter, sequence of conduction of thyristors, and the waveforms produced on the ac- and dc-sides. Then, the effect of source inductance on the operation of the converter will be discussed.

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A practical 3-phase full-bridge thyristor converter 9Sep10

An idealized 3-phase full-bridge thyristor converter

32

Three-Phase Full-Bridge Thyristor Converter with Ls=0 and id = Id


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Any thyristor in the top group, when forward biased and triggered, will turn on. Then, the load current will be transferred instantaneously from the out-going thyristor in the top-group to this thyristor. This thyristor will conduct the load current, commutate the out-going thyristor in the top-group and will place the corresponding phase voltage between P and n terminals.

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3-phase full-bridge thyristor converter


9Sep10 33

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Any bottom-group thyristor, when forward biased and triggered, will turn on. Then, the load current will be transferred instantaneously from the out-going thyristor in the bottom-group to this thyristor. This thyristor will conduct the load current, commutate the outgoing thyristor in the bottom-group and will place the corresponding phase voltage between N and n terminals. As a result, at any moment of time, vPn and vNn will follow one of the ac phase voltages. The dc terminal voltage will then be equal to:

Three-Phase Full-Bridge Thyristor Converter with Ls=0 and id = Id (Cont.)

vd = vPn vNn

and will follow one of the ac line-to-line voltages at any moment of time.

3-phase full-bridge thyristor converter

9Sep10

34

Three-Phase Full-Bridge Thyristor Converter with Ls=0 and id = Id (Cont.)


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The dc-side voltage is a 6-pulse voltage (namely, it repeats itself six times per period of the ac source voltage) with low-ripple contents compared to the dc-side voltage of single-phase thyristor bridge converter. The dc-terminal voltage is composed of selected pieces of the input line-to-line voltages. At any moment of time, a thyristor from the top-group is conducting the load current with a thyristor from the bottom-group. Each thyristor in each group is conducting for 120, 60 with one thyristor of the opposite group and another 60 with another thyristor of the opposite group. The conducting thyristors do not belong to the same converter leg.

3-phase full-bridge thyristor converter

9Sep10

35

Case 1: = 0
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Three-Phase Full-Bridge Thyristor Converter with Ls=0 and id = Id (Cont.)


As diode is a special case of thyristor, where = 0, the three-phase thyristor bridge converter operated at = 0 will behave exactly in the same way as the three-phase diode bridge rectifier. The numbering of thyristors is based on the order of their firing. The average output voltage is:

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Vdo =

3 2

VLL 1.35VLL

3-phase full-bridge thyristor converter


[1] Voltage and Current Waveforms

5 6

1 2

3 4

5 6

Firing Sequence of Thyristors


36

9Sep10

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Case 2: 0 The earliest moment at which thyristor 1 can be turned on is when it becomes forward biased. This corresponds to the time at which the voltage placed by the out-going valve in the top-group, i.e., thyristor 5, on the cathode of thyristor 1, i.e., vc becomes smaller than va which is connected to the anode of thyristor 1. Therefore, the positive zero-crossing of vac marks the earliest time thyrisor 1 can be turned on. This point corresponds to =0 and is taken as the reference point for the firing angle of thyristor 1. After thyristor 1 is fired, every 60, a new valve will be fired with the same sequence as in the 3-phase diode rectifier.

Three-Phase Full-Bridge Thyristor Converter with Ls=0 and id = Id (Cont.)

[1]

3-phase full-bridge thyristor converter Firing Sequence of Thyristors [2]


4

Voltage and Current Waveforms


5 6 1 2 3 4 5

9Sep10

37

Three-Phase Full-Bridge Thyristor Converter with Ls=0 and id = Id , Case 2: 0 (Cont.)


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The conducting thyristors from the top- and bottom-groups place the corresponding phase voltages on the dc-side positive and negative rails. As a result, the dc-side voltage will be a 6-pulse voltage composed of selected pieces of the input line-to-line voltages.

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[1]

3-phase full-bridge thyristor converter Firing Sequence of Thyristors


9Sep10

[2]
4

Voltage and Current Waveforms


5 6 1 2 3 4 5

38

Three-Phase Full-Bridge Thyristor Converter with Ls=0 and id = Id , Case 2: 0 (Cont.)


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When one thyristor from the top-group and one thyristor from the bottomgroup are conducting, the load current flows in the corresponding phases. When a top-group thyristor conducts, the current in the corresponding phase is equal to the dc-side current. When a thyristor in the bottom-group conducts, the corresponding phase current will be equal to minus the dcside current. As a result, the source currents will have quasi square wave shapes composed of a positive pulse of width 120, a negative pulse of width 120, and a dead-time of width 60 between any two successive positive and negative pulses, corresponding to the period of time when neither of the switches in the corresponding leg is conducting.

[1]

3-phase full-bridge diode rectifier [2]


9Sep10
4

5 6

1 2

3 4

Voltage and Current Waveforms

39

Average Value of DC-Side Voltage


The average output voltage can be found by considering the effect of the volt-second area A, which is lost due to triggering thyristors later A than =0: Vd = Vdo /3 The area A is the area under vac between t=0 and t=. Therefore,
A = vac d (t ) = 2 VLL sin td (t ) = 2 VLL (1 cos )
0 0

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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

Mehrdad Kazerani, 2010

The average output voltage then becomes:


Vd = 3 2

VLL

2 VLL (1 cos ) 3 2 = VLL cos = Vdo cos 1.35VLL cos /3

Voltage Waveforms
[1]

9Sep10

40

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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

9Sep10

Output Voltage Waveform

The average voltage is positive for 0 < < 90 and negative for 90 < < 180. Vd 1.35VLL cos

[1]

41

Average Output Power


ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

Advanced Training Centre in Electrical Power Engineering Processing ECE 663:in Electrical Power Centre Energy Advanced Training Centre in Electric Power Engineering Advanced Training Electronic ConvertersEngineering Power Electronic Converters: Design and Applications Mehrdad Kazerani, 2007

As the output current is assumed to be a constant dc, the average output voltage becomes:
P = Vd I d = 1.35VLL I d cos

The direction of average power is controllable by the firing angle . The magnitude of average power is continuously controllable by the firing angle . The average power is positive for 0 < < 90 . This implies that the converter is operating in the rectifier mode (1st-quadrant operation) for 0 < < 90 . The average power is negative for 90 < < 180. This implies that the converter is operating in the inverter mode (2nd- quadrant operation) for 90 < < 180.
9Sep10 42

Mehrdad Kazerani, 2010

Input Current
The total rms value of the source current can be found from the basic definition of rms value as:
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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

Is =

2 I d 0.816 I d 3

The rms value of the fundamental component of the source current can be found from Fourier analysis as:
I s1 0.78I d

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As the fundamental components of the source currents are shifted by with respect to the corresponding phase voltages, DPF = cos The power factor at the source can be found as:

PF = DPF DF 0.955cos

[1]
9Sep10 43

Input Current Harmonics


The rms value of the individual harmonics in the source current can be found from Fourier analysis as:
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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

I sh =

I s1 h

h = 6k 1, k = 1, 2,3,...

Due to half-wave symmetry, there are no even harmonics in the source currents. Also, due to the fact that there is no return path (forth wire or neutral wire), there will not be any triplen harmonics.

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[1]

9Sep10

44

Active and Reactive Power


ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

Advanced Training Centre in Electrical Power Engineering Processing ECE 663:in Electrical Power Centre Energy Advanced Training Centre in Electric Power Engineering Advanced Training Electronic ConvertersEngineering Power Electronic Converters: Design and Applications Mehrdad Kazerani, 2007

The input real power can be found as:


P = 3Vs I s1 cos 1 = 3 Vs (0.78I d ) cos = 1.35VLL I d cos

As seen,

Mehrdad Kazerani, 2010

P>0 P<0

for 0 < < 90 for 90 < < 180

The input reactive power drawn by the converter at the fundamental frequency can be found as:
Q1 = 3Vs I s1 sin 1 = 3 Vs (0.78 I d ) sin = 1.35VLL I d sin

As seen,
Q1 > 0 for 0 < < 180

[1]
9Sep10 45

Effect of Ls on Current Commutation


ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

Advanced Training Centre in Electrical Power Engineering Processing ECE 663:in Electrical Power Centre Energy Advanced Training Centre in Electric Power Engineering Advanced Training Electronic ConvertersEngineering Power Electronic Converters: Design and Applications Mehrdad Kazerani, 2007

The effect of source inductance will be that the commutation of the top- and bottom-group thyristors, or the transfer of current from an out-going thyristor to an in-coming thyristor in either group, will not be instantaneous. Instead, there will be a period of shared current conduction between the out-going and in-coming thyristors.

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3-phase full-bridge thyristor converter with Ls and constant dc-side current


[1]
9Sep10 46

Effect of Ls on Current Commutation (Cont.)


ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

Advanced Training Centre in Electrical Power Engineering Processing ECE 663:in Electrical Power Centre Energy Advanced Training Centre in Electric Power Engineering Advanced Training Electronic ConvertersEngineering Power Electronic Converters: Design and Applications Mehrdad Kazerani, 2007

Assume thyristors 5 and 6 are conducting when thyristor 1 is triggered and turned on. For an angle u (commutation interval), both thyristors 1 and 5 will be conducting. The current ia will rise from 0 to Id during this period, whereas the current ic will fall from Id to 0.

Mehrdad Kazerani, 2010

[1]

Equivalent circuit during commutation

3-phase full-bridge thyristor converter with Ls and constant dc-side current


[1]

[1]

9Sep10

Voltage and current waveforms during commutation

47

Practical Thyristor Converter


ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

Advanced Training Centre in Electrical Power Engineering Processing ECE 663:in Electrical Power Centre Energy Advanced Training Centre in Electric Power Engineering Advanced Training Electronic ConvertersEngineering Power Electronic Converters: Design and Applications Mehrdad Kazerani, 2007

In a practical thyristor bridge converter, the load consists of a series combination of an inductor, a small resistor, and a dc voltage source. This kind of load can represent a dc motor driven by the converter at a controllable speed. This practical circuit can be easily analyzed using circuit simulation programs. Here, PSIM simulation package will be used to demonstrate the operation of the circuit through an example.

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A practical 3-phase thyristor bridge converter


9Sep10

[1]
48

Example 1
Simulate the three-phase thyristor bridge converter shown in Fig. 1using PSIM with the following parameters:
ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power
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VLL = 480 V , f = 60 Hz , Ls = 1.2 mH , Ld = 5mH , rd = 0, Ed = 600 V , and = 20 .


Assume the thyristors to be ideal. Choose a time step of t = 25 s. Draw the waveforms of va, ia, vd and id and calculate Is1, Is, DPF, PF, and THD.

Mehrdad Kazerani, 2010

[1]

Fig. 1 Three-phase full-bridge thyristor converter


9Sep10 49

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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

9Sep10 50

Solution

The circuit diagram drawn in PSIM SIMCAD is as follows:

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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

9Sep10

va ia

vd id

Solution (Cont.)

The results produced in PSIM SIMVIEW are as follows:

51

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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

9Sep10

I s = 16.76 A I s1, peak = 22.32 A I s1 =


Phase angle of is1

s1

The results produced in PSIM SIMVIEW are as follows: Amplitude of i

DPF = cos(23.87 ) = 0.92 lagging 22.32 = 15.78 A 2


DF = I s1 15.78 = = 0.942 I s 16.76 = 0.87 lagging PF = DPF DF = 0.92 0.942

Solution (Cont.)

52

Example 2
Design a closed-loop control system for the three-phase thyristor bridge converter shown in Fig. 2 that regulates the dc-side current to 100 A. Use PSIM to simulate the converter and control system. The parameters of the converter circuit are as follows:

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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

VLL = 480 V , f = 60 Hz , Ls1 = 0.2 mH , Ls 2 = 1 mH , Ld = 20 mH , rd = 0, and Ed = 400 V .


Assume the thyristors to be ideal. Choose a time step of t = 25 s.

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Fig. 2 Three-phase full-bridge thyristor converter


9Sep10 53

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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

9Sep10

Solution The circuit diagram drawn in PSIM SIMCAD is as follows:

K K 1 + s = KP + P = KP + I s s s Design by trial and error: Kp=0.1 & =0.1 s


PI Controller:

GPI ( s ) = K P

54

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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

9Sep10
id,ref. id

Solution (Cont.)

The results produced in PSIM SIMVIEW are as follows:

Note that the ripples in the dc current are much smaller than those in the case of single-phase thyristor bridge converter.
55

Inverter Mode of Operation


ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

Advanced Training Centre in Electrical Power Engineering Processing ECE 663:in Electrical Power Centre Energy Advanced Training Centre in Electric Power Engineering Advanced Training Electronic ConvertersEngineering Power Electronic Converters: Design and Applications Mehrdad Kazerani, 2007

In the inverter mode of operation, the firing angle is between 90 and 180. Also, the average output voltage is negative. Inverter mode of operation is not sustainable, unless there is a dc voltage source of inverted polarity on the dc-side. Otherwise, the dcside current falls to zero upon loss of stored energy in the dc-side inductor.

Mehrdad Kazerani, 2010

[1]

[1]

Three-phase full-bridge thyristor converter


9Sep10

Voltage and current waveforms in inverter mode


56

Inverter Mode of Operation (Cont.)


ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

Advanced Training Centre in Electrical Power Engineering Processing ECE 663:in Electrical Power Centre Energy Advanced Training Centre in Electric Power Engineering Advanced Training Electronic ConvertersEngineering Power Electronic Converters: Design and Applications Mehrdad Kazerani, 2007

In inverter mode of operation, there is a risk of commutation failure, i.e., false triggering of a valve that is supposed to be OFF, upon application of a positive dv/dt at the positive zero-crossing of the voltage across the thyristor. This is due to lack of enough time for the application of a negative voltage across the out-going thyristor after its current falls to zero.

Mehrdad Kazerani, 2010

[1] [1]

Three-phase full-bridge thyristor converter

The voltage across a valve in inverter mode


9Sep10 57

Inverter Mode of Operation (Cont.)


ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

Advanced Training Centre in Electrical Power Engineering Processing ECE 663:in Electrical Power Centre Energy Advanced Training Centre in Electric Power Engineering Advanced Training Electronic ConvertersEngineering Power Electronic Converters: Design and Applications Mehrdad Kazerani, 2007

Commutation failure can result in a short circuit across the dc line which can be very destructive in the presence of a dc voltage source. To avoid this very undesirable condition, the following condition must be satisfied:

Mehrdad Kazerani, 2010

where

> tq or > tq
= ( + u )

[1] [1]

Three-phase full-bridge thyristor converter


9Sep10

The voltage across a valve in inverter mode

58

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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

[1]

[2]

9Sep10

References:

Mohan, Undeland and Robbins, Power Electronics: Converters, Applications, and Design, 3rd Edition, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2003. E.W. Kimbark, Direct Current Transmission, Vol. 1, Wiley-Interscience, New York, 1971.

59

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Design and Applications of Power Electronic Converters


Prof. Mehrdad Kazerani Electrical and Computer Engineering University of Waterloo

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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

10Sep10

Outline

Part A: Controllable Switches Part B: Switch-Mode DC-to-DC Converters

Lecture 5 Controllable Switches and Switch-Mode DC/DC Converters

Lecture 5, Part A Controllable Switches


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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

Outline
Controllable Switches in Converters Switching Characteristic of Controllable Switches Power Loss in Controllable Switches Power Rating versus Switching Frequency Bipolar Junction Transistors
Monolithic Darlington Configurations

Mehrdad Kazerani, 2010

Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor Field Effect Transistors (MOSFET) Gate-Turn-Off Thyristor (GTO) Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor (IGBT) MOS-Controlled Thyristor (MCT) Integrated Gate Commutated Thyristor (IGCT) Effect of Temperature Coefficient on Parallel Connection of Switches Comparison of Controllable Switches Power Semiconductor Device Capabilities Power Semiconductor Device Applications Range of Power Ratings of Commercially Available Semiconductor Devices
3

10Sep10

Controllable Switches-1
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A controllable switch is a semiconductor switch that can be turned on and off at the command of a control signal. When forward biased, the switch can be turned on by applying a positive voltage or current at the control terminal (gate or base). When ON, the switch can be turned off by applying a negative voltage or current at the control terminal (gate or base). There is a delay between the time of application of on and off control signals and initiation of turn-on and turn-off processes.

A Generic Controllable Switch [1]


10Sep10 4

Controllable Switches-2
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It takes certain amount of time for rise of current and fall of voltage at turn-on as well as for rise of voltage and fall of current at turn-off. In OFF state, the switch acts as a very large resistance, in the order of M, called OFF-state resistance. This resistance gradually falls to a very small value, in the order of m, called ON-state resistance, at turn-on as the conduction area expands. In ON state, the switch conducts current in one direction only. In OFF state, the switch blocks only positive voltages or both positive and negative voltages, depending on the switch type.

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A Generic Controllable Switch [1]


10Sep10 5

Controllable Switches in Converters


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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

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Lets consider a controllable switch in a typical situation in a power electronic converter. Vd is the dc source voltage and Io represents the inductive load current. A practical example for the typical situation of a controllable switch in a converter is the DC/DC buck converter. When the switch in ON, the dc voltage source supplies power to the load through the switch. When the switch is OFF, the diode freewheels the load current, as the inductive load current cannot be interrupted. Note that the interruption of an inductive current can cause dangerously high Ldi/dt voltages, unless an alternate path for the flow of current is provided to avoid this situation.

A DC/DC Buck Converter A Controllable Switch in a typical situation [1]


10Sep10 6

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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

10Sep10

Controllable Switch in a circuit [1]

Assume the switch is in OFF state. The load current is circulating through the freewheeling diode. As the ideal diode represents a short circuit in ON state, vT=Vd. As the switch is OFF, iT=0.

Switch Waveforms [1]

Switching Characteristic of Controllable Switches-1

Switching Characteristic of Controllable Switches-2


When the switch receives ON command, following a delay, its resistance starts dropping gradually, providing a low-resistance path, and diverting part of the load current from the diode to the switch. As the switch resistance drops further, a higher percentage of load current goes through the switch until the switch carries the entire load current . As long as diode carries some current, it represents a short circuit and vT remains at Vd. When the diode current drops to zero, it turns off and the voltage across it gradually increases till all the source voltage is across the diode and the switch voltage drops to a small value representing the forward voltage drop. This completes the turn-on process.

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Controllable Switch in a circuit [1] Switch Waveforms [1]


10Sep10 8

Switching Characteristic of Controllable Switches-3


When the switch is ON, vT=Von and iT=Io. When the switch receives OFF command, following a delay, its resistance starts rising gradually while carrying the entire load current, resulting in a gradual increase in vT. This continues till vT=Von. At this point of time, diode becomes forward biased and turns on, starting sharing of the load current with the switch. The diode current rises and switch current falls till diode carries the entire load current and switch current fall to zero. This completes the turnoff process.

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Controllable Switch in a circuit [1] Switch Waveforms [1]


10Sep10 9

Power Losses in Controllable Switches


The energy loss during turn-on and turn-off processes in the switch is
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1 Wc = Vd I o (tc ( on ) + tc ( off ) ) 2 The energy loss during ON-state is

Won = Von I oton


The switching loss will be

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Ps =

Wc 1 = Wc f s = Vd I o (tc ( on ) + tc ( off ) ) f s Ts 2

The conduction loss will be t W Pon = on = Von I o on = Von I o d Ts Ts where fs is switching frequency and d is switch duty ratio.

[1]
10Sep10 10

Power Rating versus Switching Frequency


The relation for switching losses, i.e.,
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1 Ps = Vd I o (tc ( on ) + tc ( off ) ) f s 2
implies that switching high voltages and currents at high speeds results in considerable amount of switching losses. The current semiconductor technology allows for switching high powers at low frequency (e.g., GTO for utility applications) and switching low powers at high frequency (e.g., MOSFET for low-voltage power supplies). Switching medium powers at medium switching frequency (e.g., IGBT for medium power ac motor drives) is also feasible. The relation for conduction losses, i.e., W t Pon = on = Von I o on = Von I o d Ts Ts implies that switches with low ON-state voltage drops are desirable at high currents in order to reduce conduction losses.
10Sep10 11

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Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT)-1


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When forward biased, BJT can be turned on by injecting a positive current of specified value into the base. The base current has to be maintained for as long as the switch is to be ON. When ON, the switch can be turned off by withdrawing a current of specified value from the base. The base current has to be maintained for as long as the switch is to be OFF. BJT is a Current Controlled Switch. This implies large power consumption in the base drive circuit.

BJT symbol [1]


10Sep10

BJT i-v characteristic [1] BJT idealized i-v characteristic [1]


12

Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT)-2


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BJT is not capable of withstanding reverse voltages. BJT is a Negative Temperature Coefficient device. In other words, as the device temperature rises, its ON-state resistance Ron drops. Typical BJT ratings are 1400V, a few 100 A, and Von=1-2 V. Typical current gain is hfe=5-10.

BJT symbol [1]


10Sep10

BJT i-v characteristic [1] BJT idealized i-v characteristic [1]


13

Monolithic Darlington Configurations


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As the current gain of power bipolar junction transistors is low (hfe=5-10), BJTs are normally used in Darlington configurations. In Darlington pair, two BJTs are connected in cascade 2 resulting in a current gain of h fe . In Triple Darlington, three BJTs are connected in cascade resulting in a current gain of h 3 . fe

Darlington Pair [1]


10Sep10

Triple Darlington [1]


14

Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor (MOSFET)-1


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When forward biased, MOSFET can be turned on by applying a positive voltage of specified value between gate and source. The gate voltage has to be maintained for as long as the switch is to be ON. When ON, the switch can be turned off by applying a negative voltage of specified value between gate and source. The gate voltage has to be maintained for as long as the switch is to be OFF. Note that only at turn-on and turn-off, a current pulse will be input to or withdrawn from the gate. The gate current during ON and OFF states is practically equal to zero. MOSFET is a Voltage Controlled Switch. This implies very small power consumption in the gate drive circuit.

MOSFET symbol [1]


10Sep10

MOSFET i-v characteristic [1]

MOSFET idealized i-v Characteristic [1]


15

Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor (MOSFET)-2


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MOSFET is not capable of withstanding reverse voltages. MOSFET is a Positive Temperature Coefficient device. In other words, as the device temperature rises, its ON-state resistance Ron rises as well. Typical MOSFET ratings are from 100 A and small voltage to 1000 V and small current. Switching frequency of MOSFETs can reach as high as 100 kHz.

MOSFET symbol [1]


10Sep10

MOSFET i-v characteristic [1]

MOSFET idealized i-v Characteristic [1]


16

Gate-Turn-Off Thyristor (GTO)


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When forward biased, GTO can be turned on by injecting a positive current pulse of specified amplitude into the gate. When ON, the switch can be turned off by withdrawing a current pulse of specified magnitude from the gate. GTO is a Current Controlled Switch. A high negative gate current pulse of up to 1/3 of the anode current is required to turn off the GTO. This implies large power consumption in the gate drive circuit. GTO is capable of withstanding reverse voltages. Typical GTO ratings are 6 kV, 6 kA, 500 Hz, and Von = 2-3 V. Depending on the power rating, fs =100 Hz-10KHz.

GTO symbol [1]


10Sep10

GTO i-v characteristic [1]

GTO idealized i-v characteristic [1]


17

Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor (IGBT)-1


When forward biased, IGBT can be turned on by applying a positive voltage of specified value between the gate and source or emitter. The gate voltage has to be maintained for as long as the switch is to be ON. When ON, the switch can be turned off by applying a negative voltage of specified value between the gate and source or emitter. The gate voltage has to be maintained for as long as the switch is to be OFF. Note that only at the turn-on and turn-off, a current pulse will be input to or withdrawn from the gate. The gate current during ON and OFF states is practically equal to zero.

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IGBT idealized IGBT symbol [1]


10Sep10

IGBT i-v characteristic [1]

i-v characteristic [1]


18

Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor (IGBT)-2


IGBT is a Voltage Controlled Switch. This implies very small power consumption in the gate drive circuit. IGBT combines the advantages of MOSFET (low power consumption at the gate), BJT (low ON-state voltage drop), and GTO (reverse voltage blocking capability). IGBTs reverse voltages blocking capability is lower than that of positive voltage blocking. New generation IGBTs called Non-PunchThrough (NPT IGBTs) are capable of blocking higher reverse voltages, but are slower in switching. Typical IGBT ratings are 1700 V, 1200 A, and switching times as low as 1 s.

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IGBT idealized IGBT symbol [1]


10Sep10

IGBT i-v characteristic [1]

i-v characteristic [1]


19

Power IGBT Physical Shape


The figure below shows an IGBT switch by Powerex. The two power terminals are collector (C) and emitter (E). The two drive terminals are gate (G) & emitter (E). When not in use, the gate and emitter terminals are short circuited together by conductive foam to protect the device against static. The disadvantage of IGBT is in that failure due to exceeding limits can result in a rupture in the casing, leading to damage to neighboring components.

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A Power IGBT

10Sep10

20

MOS-Controlled Thyristor (MCT)


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When forward biased, MCT can be turned on by applying a positive voltage pulse of specified magnitude between the gate and cathode. When ON, the switch can be turned off by applying a negative voltage pulse of specified magnitude between the gate and cathode. MCT is a Voltage Controlled Switch. This implies very small power consumption in the gate drive circuit. MCT is superior to GTO in that
MCT does not need a large negative gate current pulse at turn-off, and MCT has switching times in the order of a few s that makes it faster than GTO.

Mehrdad Kazerani, 2010

MCT has reverse voltage blocking capability. Typical MCT ratings are 1500 V, 50 A - to - a few 100 A.

MCT symbol [1]


10Sep10

MCT i-v characteristic [1]

MCT idealized i-v characteristic [1]


21

Integrated Gate Commutated Thyristor (IGCT)


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IGCT is a relatively new semiconductor device in the thyristor family which is replacing GTO in high-power applications due to its superior characteristics. IGCT is a Voltage Controlled Switch. This implies very small power consumption in the gate drive circuit. IGCT has reverse voltage blocking capability. Special design of IGCT assembly allows for stacking for voltage withstand enhancement.

IGCT
IGCT Symbol [3]

10Sep10

22

Integrated Gate Commutated Thyristor (IGCT)


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IGCT is superior to GTO in that IGCT can operate without dv/dt snubbing at high current density, thanks to its improved switching characteristics. IGCT has low ON-state and turn-off losses as a result of minimized Silicon thickness. IGCT has low gate drive requirements especially during conduction. IGCT has low ON-state voltage drop. Typical IGCT ratings are 3 kA, 4.5kV, 500-2000 Hz, Von= 2.4 V, maximum turn-on di/dt = 3000 A/s, and maximum turn-off dv/dt = 4000 v/s.

IGCT
IGCT Symbol [3]

10Sep10

23

Effect of Temperature Coefficient on Parallel Connection of Switches


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Controllable switches with Positive Temperature Coefficient guarantee even distribution of current among parallel switches. If a switch draws more current than switches in other parallel branches, its temperature will rise more. This increases the ON-state resistance of that switch above those of switches in other parallel branches. As a result, less current will be drawn by that branch and the current will be shared by all parallel branches almost equally. Controllable switches with Negative Temperature Coefficient are not appropriate for parallel connection. If a switch draws more current than switches in other parallel branches, its temperature will rise more. This decreases the ON-state resistance of that switch above those of switches in other parallel branches. As a result, more current will be drawn by that branch, resulting in higher temperature, lower Ron, and higher current. This degenerative process can lead to the destruction of the device. The objective of parallel connection of switches is to increase current carrying capability. In practice, external resistive and inductive elements are used to make sure the current is divided almost equally among parallel switches. However, switches with positive temperature coefficient make the task of paralleling much easier.
10Sep10 24

ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

Mehrdad Kazerani, 2010

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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

10Sep10

GTO

Device

BJT/MD

MOSFET

IGBT Low High High Medium Medium Fast Slow Slow

IGCT

Comparison of Controllable Switches [1]

MCT Medium Medium


25

Power Capability Medium Switching Speed Medium

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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

10Sep10 26

Power Semiconductor Device Capabilities [1]

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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

10Sep10 27

Power Semiconductor Device Applications [2]

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10Sep10 28

Range of Power Ratings of Commercially Available Semiconductor Devices [2]

Lecture 5, Part B Switch-Mode DC-to-DC Converters


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Outline
Introduction DC-to-DC Converter Applications DC-to-DC Converter Topologies Assumptions Control of Average Output Voltage in DC-to-DC Converters Control of DC-to-DC Converters: Pulse-Width Modulation (PWM) Step-Down (Buck) Converter
Output/Input Voltage Ratio Output/Input Current Ratio Discontinuous Conduction Mode Output Voltage Ripple Examples

Mehrdad Kazerani, 2010

10Sep10

29

Introduction
Switch-mode dc-to-dc converters are commonly used in regulated dc power supplies (e.g., power supplies for personal computers and communication systems) and dc motor drives. Switch-mode dc-to-dc converters have replaced linear dc voltage regulators in many applications. Linear DC Voltage Regulators:
Vin>Vout. No possibility of boosting the input voltage. Vin- Vout is placed across the regulator and load current passes through the regulator. A lossy scheme. The conduction losses depend on the difference between the input and output voltages and the load current. Fixed or off-line adjustable output voltage. Used in low-power electronic circuits.
Linear DC Voltage Regulator AC Voltage Diode Rectifier DC Unregulated Filter Capacitor DC Unregulated Vin Vout Filter Capacitor Load

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DC Regulated

Linear DC Voltage Regulator


10Sep10 30

Introduction (Cont.)
Switch-Mode DC-to-DC Converter:
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Vout < Vin or Vout > Vin. Much less lossy than linear dc voltage regulators resulting in considerably higher efficiency. Can be used at much higher power levels. On-line adjustable output voltage. Operating at high frequencies results in reduced size of energy storage elements (L & C) and magnetic components (transformers). Impedance of inductor is ZL=2 f L. As the frequency of operation is
increased, a smaller inductance is required to realize the same impedance and therefore, the same filtering effect. Impedance of capacitor is ZC =1/(2 f C). As the frequency of operation is increased, a smaller capacitance is required to realize the same impedance and therefore, the same filtering effect.
Vin AC Voltage Diode Rectifier DC Unregulated Filter Capacitor DC Unregulated DC-to-DC Converter DC Regulated Vout Load

Battery 10Sep10

Switch-Mode DC-to-DC Converter


31

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DC motor Drives
Variable Vout. Normally without electrical isolation transformer. Used in personal computers and communication systems. Fixed Vout. With electrical isolation transformer.

Regulated switch-mode dc power supplies

DC-to-DC Converter Applications

32

DC-to-DC Converter Topologies


Basic DC-to-DC Converter Topologies
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Step-Down (Buck) Converter Step-Up (Boost) Converter

Derived DC-to-DC Converter Topologies


Buck-Boost Converter (combination of buck and boost) Ck Converter (combination of buck and boost) Full-Bridge Converter (derived from buck)

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Isolated DC-to-DC Converter Topologies


Flyback Converter Forward Converter Push-Pull Converter Half-Bridge Converter Full-Bridge Converter

10Sep10

33

Assumptions
Steady-state operation Ideal controllable switches Lossless inductive and capacitive elements DC input voltage is ideal (no internal impedance, no ripple). Practically, diode rectifiers are used to produce input dc voltage and a large capacitor is used to lower the source internal impedance and voltage ripples. The load for switch-mode dc power supplies is represented by an equivalent resistance. The load for dc motor drives is represented by the series combination of armature R-L impedance and a dc voltage source (back emf).

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10Sep10

34

Control of Average Output Voltage in DC-to-DC Converters


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In dc-to-dc converters, the objective is to control the average value of the output voltage using an electronic signal. The average output voltage can be controlled by varying the switching frequency and switch on-period or by varying the switch on-period at a constant switching frequency. In both cases,

Vd ton 1 Ts Vo = vo dt = Ts 0 Ts

An elementary DC-to-DC Converter


10Sep10

[1]

Output voltage waveform


35

Control of Average Output Voltage in DC-to-DC Converters (Cont.)


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The variable switching frequency method of control of dc-to-dc converters (known as hysteresis technique) results in harmonics spread over the whole range of frequency spectrum, making output voltage filtering difficult, as the corner frequency of the filter cannot be located conveniently. The fixed switching frequency method results in a clean frequency spectrum making filtering easy. The fixed switching frequency method is called pulse width modulation (PWM). In PWM, the information about the desired average value of the output voltage is embedded in the width of the ON and OFF pulses applied to the switch. This information will be embedded in the width of the output voltage pulses, resulting in the desired average output voltage.

An elementary DC-to-DC Converter


10Sep10

[1]

Output voltage waveform


36

In PWM,
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Control of DC-to-DC Converters Pulse-Width Modulation (PWM)

ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

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First, the error between the desired and actual values of the average output voltage is produced. Then, the error is amplified in a controller (such as PI controller, which is designed based on the given transient and steady-state specifications). The amplified error is the control signal to be compared with a repetitive carrier signal (such as a sawtooth or triangular waveform). The moments of intersection of the control signal with the carrier signal are used to produce the switch control signal that when applied to the switch will result in the desired average output voltage.
B D

PWM control block diagram Switch control signal generation


10Sep10

[1]
37

Control of DC-to-DC Converters Pulse-Width Modulation (PWM) (Cont.)


The average output voltage is
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where

ton = d Vd Ts ton AC BC vcontrol d= = = = Ts AE DE Vst Vo = Vd


D B

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This implies a linear control input-to-output relationship:

V Vo = dVd = d vcontrol Vst


The advantage of linear input/output relationship is in that linear control theorybased techniques can be used o control the converter.
10Sep10 A

[1]
38

Step-Down (Buck) Converter


In buck converter, the average output voltage is smaller than the input voltage for all duty ratios. When the switch is ON (topological mode I), the diode is reverse biased and the voltage across the inductor (Vd - Vo) is positive. The inductor current will rise and energy is stored in the inductor.

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Buck Converter

[1]

Topological Mode I: Switch ON


10Sep10 39

Step-Down (Buck) Converter (Cont.)


When the switch is turned OFF (topological mode II), the inductor current is momentarily interrupted. The Ldi/dt voltage generated will overcome the output voltage and forward bias the freewheeling diode. The voltage across the inductor (-Vo) is negative. The inductor current will fall and part or all of the energy stored in the inductor is transferred to the output.

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Buck Converter

[1]

Topological Mode II: Switch OFF


10Sep10 40

Step-Down (Buck) Converter (Cont.)


Note that in switch ON-state, source is connected to the load and energy is stored in the inductor. In switch OFF-state, the source is disconnected form the output circuit, making the inductor the only source providing energy to the output circuit.

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Buck Converter

Topological Mode I: Switch ON


10Sep10

[1]

Topological Mode II: Switch OFF


41

Step-Down (Buck) Converter (Cont.)


By turning the switch on and off at a certain rate, a pulsed voltage voi will be generated across the freewheeling diode. This voltage contains a dc component equal to the desired average output voltage plus unwanted harmonics that have to be filtered. The inductor L and capacitor C form a second-order filter of resonant (or corner) frequency 1 fc = 2 LC

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Buck Converter LC filter frequency response voi waveform


10Sep10

[1]
42

Step-Down (Buck) Converter (Cont.)


The slope of the falling edge of the 2nd-order filter characteristic is -40 db/decade. This means that the output voltage harmonic at the switching frequency will be attenuated by a factor of 10-2 if fc is chosen 1 decade below fs and by a factor of 10-4 if fc is chosen 2 decades below fs. The rule of the thumb is to choose fc one decade below fs. Note that the higher the switching frequency, the smaller the sizes of the required filter inductance and capacitance. This is a great advantage for high frequency operation. However, since highfrequency operation results in high switching losses and lower efficiency and larger size of heatsink, a compromise has to be made when selecting the switching frequency.

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voi waveform Buck Converter LC filter frequency response [1]


10Sep10

voi frequency spectrum


43

Output/Input Voltage Ratio


Buck converters are normally operated in continuous conduction mode. In this mode, the inductor current is always positive and never falls to zero. The output-to-input voltage relationship of a buck converter in continuous conduction mode can be derived from the fact that in the repetitive mode of current, the average voltage across the inductor is zero. T t T
0

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vL dt = vL dt + vL dt = 0
0 tON

ON

Mehrdad Kazerani, 2010

Area A = Area B (Vd Vo ) ton = Vo toff (Vd Vo ) ton = Vo (Ts ton ) Vo ton = =d Vd Ts or Vo = d Vd

Since 0 < d < 1, Vo<Vd.

10Sep10

Buck Converter

[1]

Inductor voltage and current waveforms

44

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10Sep10

Pd = Po Vd I d = Vo I o

Output/Input Current Ratio

where Vd, Vo, Id and Io are all average values. The output-to-input current ratio of buck converter will therefore be:

Assuming a lossless conversion, the input power has to be equal to the output power.

Buck Converter [1]


45

I o Vd 1 = = I d Vo d

Discontinuous Conduction Mode


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If the inductance or the average current through the inductor is small, the energy stored in the inductor during the switch ON-state may not be enough to keep the current above zero during the switch OFF-state.

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[1] Inductor current on the verge of discontinuity

[1] Inductor current in discontinuous conduction mode


10Sep10 46

Output Voltage Ripple


The inductor current has a dc component equal to the inductor average current. As the average current through the capacitor in a repetitive voltage mode is zero, the inductor average current goes to the load. The harmonic or ripple current components, however, will be shared by the capacitor and the load based on their relative impedances at the harmonic frequencies. Assuming all the ripple current to flow through the capacitor and the load to receive only the average inductor current (i.e., assuming a large filter capacitor), the ripple in the output voltage will be due to the variations of the inductor current around its average value. iL > IL results in a positive current in the capacitor and therefore a rise in the capacitor voltage. iL < IL results in a negative current in the capacitor and therefore a fall in the capacitor voltage.

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10Sep10

Buck Converter

[1]

Output voltage ripple

47

Output Voltage Ripple (Cont.)


The output voltage ripple in dc-to-dc converters is usually given in percent, as the ratio of the peak-to-peak output voltage ripple to the average output voltage. The peak-to-peak ripple in the output voltage can be found from the famous capacitor equation, relating the voltage, charge and capacitance.

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QC = CVC Vo =

where Vo is the peak-to-peak output voltage ripple and Q is the charge stored in the capacitor during the period of time when iL > IL.

Q C

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Output voltage ripple [1]

10Sep10

48

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10Sep10

From the figure, Q can be found as:

I L =

where IL is the peak-to-peak inductor current ripple and can be found from the fall-time of the current and current slope during switch OFF-state as:

Vo V toff = o (Ts ton ) L L V V = o (Ts dTs ) = o (1 d )Ts L L

Output Voltage Ripple (Cont.)

1 I L Ts Ts Q = = I L 2 2 2 8

[1] Output voltage ripple


49

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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

10Sep10

fc =

where

2 LC
Output voltage ripple [1]

Output Voltage Ripple (Cont.)

The output voltage peal-to-peak ripple and relative ripple will therefore be:
Ts Vo 1 Ts2 (1 d )Vo Vo = (1 d )Ts = 8C L 8 LC Vo 2 1 Ts2 (1 d ) %= 100% = (1 d )( f c / f s ) 2 100% Vo 8 LC 2

50

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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

10Sep10

Example 1

Design a closed-loop control circuit for the buck converter circuit shown in Fig. 1 to regulate the output voltage at 50 V. Simulate the circuit using PSIM and show the output voltage waveform.

Fig. 1

51

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Simulation results in SIMVIEW Circuit diagram in SIMCAD

Solution

52

Example 2
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Design a closed-loop control circuit for the buck converter circuit shown in Fig. 2 to regulate the inductor current at 5 A. Use hysteresis technique with a hysteresis band of 0.2 A. Simulate the circuit using PSIM and show the inductor current, switch signal and output voltage waveforms. Note: In Hysteresis technique, a tolerance band is defined around the reference signal for the quantity to be controlled. Then, the switch is turned on whenever the controlled quantity hits the lower limit, and turned off whenever the controlled quantity hits the upper limit. In this way, the controlled quantity is forced to remain within the tolerance or hysteresis band. Since no restriction is placed on the frequency of switching, it changes freely during the operation. This method is simple and elegant, but results in harmonics spread over the whole range of frequency spectrum, making the filtering task difficult.

Fig. 2
10Sep10 53

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10Sep10

Solution

Circuit diagram in SIMCAD

54

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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

10Sep10

Simulation results in SIMVIEW

Solution

55

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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

10Sep10

References:

[1] Mohan, Undeland and Robbins, Power Electronics: Converters, Applications, and Design, 3rd Edition, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2003. [2] M.H. Rashid, Power Electronics: Circuits, Devices, and Applications, 3rd Edition, Pearson-Prentice Hall, 2003. [3] IEEE Industry Applications Magazine, July/August 1999.

56

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Design and Applications of Power Electronic Converters


Prof. Mehrdad Kazerani Electrical and Computer Engineering University of Waterloo

Lecture 6 Switch-Mode DC-to-DC Converters


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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

Outline
Step-Up (Boost) Converter
Output/Input Voltage Ratio Output/Input Current Ratio Discontinuous Conduction Mode Output Voltage Ripple Effect of Parasitic Elements on Output/Input Voltage Ratio Example Output/Input Voltage Ratio Output/Input Current Ratio Discontinuous Conduction Mode Output Voltage Ripple

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Buck-Boost Converter

Full-Bridge DC-to-DC Converter

PWM with Bipolar Voltage Switching


Average Output Voltage Switches ON and Devices Conducting

PWM with Unipolar Voltage Switching


Average Output Voltage Switches ON and Devices Conducting 9Sep10 2

Lecture 6 Switch-Mode DC-to-DC Converters


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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

Outline
Comparison of Switch-Mode DC-to-DC Converters DC/DC Converter with Electrical Isolation
Flyback Converter 1-Switch Forward Converter 2-Switch Forward Converter Push-Pull Converter Half-Bridge Converter Full-Bridge Converter

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Switching DC Power Supply (Switcher)


Single-Output Multi-Output A Complete Switcher
Mag. Amp.

9Sep10

Step-Up (Boost) Converter


In boost converter, the average output voltage is larger than the input voltage for all duty ratios. When the switch is ON (topological mode I), the voltage across the inductor is Vd which is positive. The inductor current will rise and energy is stored in the inductor.

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Boost Converter [1]

Topological Mode I: Switch ON [1]


9Sep10 4

Step-Up (Boost) Converter (Cont.)


When the switch is OFF (topological mode II), the inductor current is momentarily interrupted. The Ldi/dt voltage generated will overcome the output voltage and forward bias the boost diode. The voltage across the inductor Vd-Vo is negative. The inductor current will fall and part or all of the energy stored in the inductor is transferred to the output circuit.

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Boost Converter [1]

Topological Mode II: Switch OFF [1]


9Sep10 5

Step-Up (Boost) Converter (Cont.)


Note that in switch ON-state, source is disconnected from the load and energy is stored in the inductor. In switch OFF-state, the energy stored in the inductor is pumped to the output circuit. This energy is complemented by the energy coming from the source. In other words, two sources provide energy to the output circuit. This is the reason for voltage boost.

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Boost Converter [1]

Topological Mode I: Switch ON [1]


9Sep10

Topological Mode II: Switch OFF [1]


6

Output/Input Voltage Ratio


Boost converters may be operated in continuous conduction or discontinuous conduction mode. In continuous conduction mode, the inductor current is always positive and never falls to zero. In discontinuous conduction mode, there are periods of time during which the inductor stays at zero. Boost converter has a non-minimal phase transfer function in continuous mode of operation, due to a right-half-plane zero. This leads to some stability problems. Using a properly-designed controller, or operating in discontinuous conduction mode, solves this problem.

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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

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Boost Converter

[1]

9Sep10

Output/Input Voltage Ratio (Cont.)


The output-to-input voltage relationship of boost converter in continuous conduction mode can be derived from the fact that in the repetitive mode of current, the average voltage across the inductor is zero.
Ts 0

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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

vL dt = vL dt + vL dt = 0
0 tON

tON

Ts

Mehrdad Kazerani, 2010

Area A = Area B Vd ton = Vd Vo toff Vd ton = (Vo Vd ) toff Vd (ton + toff ) = Vo toff Vd Ts = Vo (Ts ton ) Vo Ts 1 1 = = = Vd Ts ton 1 ton 1 d Ts

Area A Area B

Since 0 < d < 1, Vo>Vd.

9Sep10

Boost Converter

[1]

Inductor voltage and current waveforms


8

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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

9Sep10

Output/Input Current Ratio

Pd = Po Vd I d = Vo I o

I o Vd = = 1 d I d Vo

Assuming a lossless conversion, the input power has to be equal to the output power.

where Vd, Vo, Id and Io are all average values. The output-to-input current ratio of boost converter will therefore be:

Boost Converter [1]


9

Discontinuous Conduction Mode


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If the inductance or the average current through the inductor is small, the energy stored in the inductor during the switch ON-state may not be enough to keep the current above zero during the switch OFF-state.

Mehrdad Kazerani, 2010

Inductor current on the verge of discontinuity [1]

Inductor current in discontinuous conduction mode [1]

9Sep10

10

Output Voltage Ripple


The diode current has a dc component equal to the diode average current. As the average current through the capacitor in a repetitive voltage mode is zero, the diode average current goes to the load. The harmonic or ripple current components, however, will be shared by the capacitor and the load based on their relative impedances at the harmonic frequencies.

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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

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Boost Converter 9Sep10

[1]
Output voltage ripple

[1]
11

Output Voltage Ripple (Cont.)


Assuming all the ripple current to flow through the capacitor and the load to receive only the average diode current (i.e., assuming a large filter capacitor), the fall and rise (ripple) in the output voltage will be due to the variations of the diode current around its average value. iD > ID results in a positive current in the capacitor and therefore a rise in the capacitor voltage. iD < ID results in a negative current in the capacitor and therefore a fall in the capacitor voltage.

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Boost Converter 9Sep10

[1]
Output voltage ripple

[1]
12

Output Voltage Ripple (Cont.)


The peak-to-peak ripple in the output voltage can be found from:
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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

QC = CVC Vo =

where Vo is the peak-to-peak output voltage ripple and Q is the charge stored in the capacitor during the period of time when iD > ID. When the inductor current is continuous and IL,min. > Io, then from the figure, Q can be found as:

Q C

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Q = ton I o = d Ts I o
where Io is the average value of the output current. IL,max. IL,min.

Output voltage ripple [1]

9Sep10

13

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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

9Sep10

Knowing that

and
Vo = Q d TsVo = C RC
Vo dT dT % = s 100% = s 100% Vo RC

one can get

where = RC

Output Voltage Ripple (Cont.)


Io = Vo R

Output voltage ripple [1]

14

Effect of Parasitic Elements on Output/Input Voltage Ratio


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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

Theoretically, the output/input voltage ratio goes to infinity as the duty cycle of the boost switch approaches 1. However, in real life, due to the presence of parasitic or stray resistances, inductances and capacitances, the voltage ratio will fall to zero at some point. The practical operating range of boost converter is limited well below this point.

Mehrdad Kazerani, 2010

[1]

9Sep10

15

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Design a power factor correction circuit based on boost converter for a single-phase front-end diode rectifier. Simulate the circuit using PSIM and show the waveform of input current. Note: In front-end diode rectifiers with a large capacitor on the dc side, input current is far from sinusoidal. A pre-regulator circuit based on boost converter can be used to waveshape the input current as a sinusoidal. This is done by waveshaping the dc-side current to be a full-wave rectified sinusoidal. In a complete system, an output voltage closed-loop circuit is used to derive the multiplier for the absolute value of the source voltage to make the reference signal for the dc-side current.

Example 3

9Sep10

16

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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

9Sep10

Circuit diagram in SIMCAD

Solution

17

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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

9Sep10

Solution (Cont.)

Simulation results in SIMVIEW

18

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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

In buck-boost converter, the average output voltage can be made larger or smaller than the input voltage by proper choice of switch duty ratio. When the switch is ON (topological mode I), the voltage across the inductor is Vd which is positive. The inductor current will rise and energy is stored in the inductor. The diode is reverse biased during switch ON-state.

Buck-Boost Converter

Mehrdad Kazerani, 2010

Buck-Boost Converter [1]

Topological Mode I: Switch ON [1]


9Sep10 19

Buck-Boost Converter
When the switch is OFF (topological mode II), the inductor current is momentarily interrupted. The Ldi/dt voltage generated will overcome the output voltage and forward bias the diode. The voltage across the inductor -Vo is negative. The inductor current will fall and part or all of the energy stored in the inductor is transferred to the output circuit.

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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

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Buck-Boost Converter [1]

Topological Mode II: Switch OFF [1]


9Sep10 20

Buck-Boost Converter
Note that in switch ON-state, source is disconnected from the load and energy is stored in the inductor. In switch OFF-state, the energy stored in the inductor is pumped to the output circuit. The source remains disconnected from the output circuit. The polarity of output voltage is opposite to that of the input voltage.

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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

Mehrdad Kazerani, 2010

Boost Converter [1]

[1]

9Sep10

Topological Mode I: Switch ON

Topological Mode II: Switch OFF

21

Output/Input Voltage Ratio


Buck-boost converters may be operated in continuous conduction or discontinuous conduction mode. In continuous conduction mode, the inductor current is always positive and never falls to zero. In discontinuous conduction mode, there are periods of time when the inductor stays at zero. Buck-boost converter has inherent stability problems due to a righthalf-plane zero in the transfer function. A properly-designed controller or operating in discontinuous conduction mode solves this problem.
Area A Area B

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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

Mehrdad Kazerani, 2010

Buck-boost Converter [1]


9Sep10

Inductor voltage and current waveforms [1]


22

Output/Input Voltage Ratio (Cont.)


The output-to-input voltage relationship of boost converter (which is the product of those of a buck and a boost converter), in continuous conduction mode, can be derived from the fact that in the repetitive mode of current, the average voltage across the inductor is zero.
Ts 0

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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

vL dt = vL dt + vL dt = 0
0 tON

tON

Ts

Mehrdad Kazerani, 2010

Area A = Area B Vd ton = Vo toff Vd d Ts = Vo (1 d )Ts Vo d Ts d = = Vd (1 d )Ts 1 d


For 0 < d < 0.5, Vo<Vd and for 0.5 < d < 1, Vo>Vd.
Area A Area B

9Sep10

Buck-boost Converter

[1]

Inductor voltage and current waveforms

23

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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

9Sep10

I o Vd 1 d = = I d Vo d

Output/Input Current Ratio

Pd = Po Vd I d = Vo I o

where Vd , Vo , Id and Io are all average values. The output-to-input current ratio of buck-boost converter will therefore be:

Assuming a lossless conversion, the input power has to be equal to the output power.

Buck-boost Converter [1]


24

Output Voltage Ripple


The diode current has a dc component equal to the diode average current. As the average current through the capacitor in a repetitive voltage mode is zero, the diode average current goes to the load. The harmonic or ripple current components, however, will be shared by the capacitor and the load based on their relative impedances at the harmonic frequencies.

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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

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Output voltage ripple

Buck-boost Converter

[1]

9Sep10

25

Output Voltage Ripple (Cont.)


Assuming all the ripple current to flow through the capacitor and the load to receive only the average diode current (i.e., assuming a large filter capacitor), the ripple in the output voltage will be due to the variations of the diode current around its average value. iD > ID results in a positive current in the capacitor and therefore a rise in the capacitor voltage. iD < ID results in a negative current in the capacitor and therefore a fall in the capacitor voltage.

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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

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Output voltage ripple

Buck-boost Converter

[1]
26

9Sep10

Output Voltage Ripple (Cont.)


The peak-to-peak ripple in the output voltage can be found from:
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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

where Vo is the peak-to-peak output voltage ripple and Q is the charge stored in the capacitor during the period of time when iD > ID. When the inductor current is continuous and IL,min. > Io, then from the figure, Q can be found as:

Q QC = CVC Vo = C

Mehrdad Kazerani, 2010

Q = ton I o = d Ts I o

where Io is the average value of the output current. IL,max. IL,min.

Output voltage ripple [1]

9Sep10

27

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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

9Sep10

and

Knowing that

where

one can get

= RC

Note: The output voltage ripple has the same formula as in boost converter.

Output voltage ripple

Output Voltage Ripple (Cont.)

Vo d Ts d Ts %= 100% = 100% Vo RC

[1]
28

Io = Vo R

Q d TsVo Vo = = C RC

Bidirectional Buck-Boost Converter


The buck-boost converter topology introduced before was capable of unidirectional power flow. Sometimes, it is desired to connect two dc sources and have bidirectional power flow transactions between them. A good example is a battery energy storage system connected to a dc bus at a higher voltage with respect to that of the battery. Buckboost converter topology shown below is a system that is suitable for this application. The two switches called Sbuck and Sboost receive complementary signals. It is also possible to let one switch operate at a time and disable the other one. When both switches operate all the time, the duty ratio corresponding to the borderline case, where the power is not transferred between the two sources have to be identified first. This duty ratio is roughly equal to the ratio of the lower voltage to the higher voltage. Then, the buck switch is operated at a duty ratio larger than the borderline duty ratio for power flow from source 1 (higher voltage) to source 2 (lower voltage). Operating the buck switch at a duty ratio smaller than the borderline duty ratio results in power flow from source 2 to source 1. The boost switch receives the complementary switch control signal. When one switch is operated at a time, buck switch is operated and boost switch is disabled for power transfer from source 1 (higher voltage) to source 2 (lower voltage). For power flow from source 2 to source 1, boost switch is operated and buck switch is disabled.

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Bidirectional Buck-Boost Converter Topology


9Sep10 29

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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

9Sep10

Example

Bidirectional Buck-Boost circuit in PSIM

The borderline duty ratio is roughly equal to 80/100=0.8.

30

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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

9Sep10

Example (Cont.)

Case 1: Power flows from source 1 to source 2 Power supplied by source 1 = 2,458W Power absorbed by source 2 = 2,443.2W

31

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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

9Sep10

Example (Cont.)

Case 2: Power flows from source 2 to source 1 Power supplied by source 2 = 2,425.6W Power absorbed by source 1 = 2,409.4W
32

Full-Bridge DC-to-DC Converter


All single-switch dc-to-dc converters discussed up to now (buck, boost, buck-boost and Ck) are single-quadrant converters allowing unidirectional power flow from the source to the load. These converters are suitable for applications where there is no need for reversing the direction of power flow. In applications such as dc motor drives, a 4-quadrant dc-to-dc converter is required to be able to realize both modes of motoring and regenerative breaking in both directions of rotation of the rotor. Full-bridge dc-to-dc converters are capable of 4-quadrant operation. The same topology (also called H bridge) can be used for dc-to-dc conversion and single-phase dc-to-ac conversion.

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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

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[1] Full-bridge dc-to-dc converter

9Sep10

33

Full-Bridge DC-to-DC Converter (Cont.)


Full-bridge dc-to-dc converter is composed of two converter legs. There are two switches in each leg. Each switch has an anti-parallel diode which allows current flow in the opposite direction of switch conduction. This path is used when a switch is ON, but the load current is opposite to the direction allowed by the switch. Without anti-parallel diodes, large and destructive Ldi/dt voltage will be generated when a change in the positions of switches interrupts the load current.

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Mehrdad Kazerani, 2010

[1]
9Sep10

Full-bridge dc-to-dc converter

34

Full-Bridge DC-to-DC Converter (Cont.)


The switches in the same leg cannot be ON at the same time, as this will result in a short circuit across the dc voltage source, resulting in large and destructive currents through the switches. This situation must be avoided by proper control delaying the turn-ON of each switch with respect to the turn-OFF of the other switch in the same leg. Applying complementary switch control signals to the switches in the same leg is not good enough. There are two possible methods for controlling the full-bridge dc-todc converter. The first method is called PWM with Bipolar Voltage Switching and is based on treating diagonal switches as a pair by turning them on and off together. The other method, called PWM with Unipolar Voltage Switching, is based on controlling the two converter legs independently.

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Full-bridge dc-to-dc converter [1]

9Sep10

35

Full-Bridge DC-to-DC Converter (Cont.)


When TA+ is ON and TA- is OFF,
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v AN = Vd v AN = 0 vBN = Vd vBN = 0

ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

When TA- is ON and TA+ is OFF, When TB+ is ON and TB- is OFF, When TB- is ON and TB+ is OFF, Therefore,

Mehrdad Kazerani, 2010

Average Value of v AN = VAN = dTA+ Vd , Average Value of vBN = VBN = dTB+ Vd , and Average Value of vo = Vo = VAN VBN = ( dTA+ dTB+ )Vd

Full-bridge dc-to-dc converter [1]

9Sep10

36

PWM with Bipolar Voltage Switching


In bipolar voltage switching, the diagonal switches are treated as a pair and are turned on and off together. A control signal proportional to the desired average output voltage is compared with a triangular carrier signal and the intersection points of the two signals define the beginning of the ON and OFF periods of the switches.

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Full-bridge dc-to-dc converter [1] Switch control signal generation and output voltage waveforms
9Sep10 37

PWM with Bipolar Voltage Switching


If the control signal is larger than the carrier signal, TA+ and TB- are turned on and TB+ and TA- are turned off. This results in vAN = Vd and vBN = 0. If the control signal is smaller than the carrier signal, TA+ and TB- are turned off and TB+ and TA- are turned on. This results in vAN = 0 and vBN = Vd. The output voltage is: vAB = vAN - vBN . This voltage is equal to Vd or -Vd depending on the positions of switches. The term bipolar has been assigned to this method since the output voltage has [1] two possible polarities.

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Full-bridge dc-to-dc converter, switch control signal generation, and output voltage waveforms
9Sep10 38

PWM with Bipolar Voltage Switching (Cont.) Average Output Voltage


Vo = VAN VBN = (dTA+ dTB+ ) Vd = (d1 d 2 ) Vd

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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

But , d 2 = 1 d1 Vo = Vd (d1 d 2 ) = Vd (2d1 1) Note that d1 = ton (TA+ , TB ) Ts


E C

From the figure, ton (TA+ , TB ) = 2t1 + Ts / 2 Also, v v T t AB BC = 1 = control t1 = control s AD DE Ts / 4 Vtri Vtri 4 vcontrol Ts ) Vtri 2 and d1 = v 1 (1 + control ) 2 Vtri
D

B A

Mehrdad Kazerani, 2010

ton (TA+ , TB ) = (1 + Vo = Vd (2d1 1) =

vcontrol V Vd = d vcontrol Vtri Vtri

Vo = k vcontrol (linear relationship)

[1]

9Sep10

Full-bridge dc-to-dc converter, switch control signal generation, and output voltage waveforms

39

PWM with Bipolar Voltage Switching (Cont.) Switches ON and Devices Conducting
in Electrical Advanced Training663: Energy Processing ECE Centre Electrical Power Engineering Centre in Advanced Training Centre in Electric Power Engineering Advanced Training Electronic DesignPower Engineering Converters Power Electronic Converters:Kazerani, and Applications 2007 Mehrdad

The output voltage is defined by the positions of switches, but the direction of load current determines which device is conducting. If the polarity of the output voltage and the direction of output current are both positive or both negative, the switches that are ON are conducting the load current; otherwise, the diodes connected in anti-parallel with those switches will be conducting the load current, even though the switches are ON. If a switch is ON, it may or may not be conducting.
9Sep10

ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

Mehrdad Kazerani, 2010

[1]

[1]
40

Full-bridge dc-to-dc converter and output voltage and current waveforms

Switches ON and Devices Conducting (Cont.)


If the average output voltage and average output current are both positive or both negative, the power is transferred from the source to the load (motoring in clockwise and counterclockwise directions); otherwise, the power is transferred from the load to the source (regenerative breaking in clockwise and counterclockwise directions). In bipolar voltage switching, at any moment of time, a pair of diagonal switches is ON.

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[1]

[1]
9Sep10

Full-bridge dc-to-dc converter and output voltage and current waveforms

41

PWM with Unipolar Voltage Switching


In unipolar voltage switching, the two converter legs are controlled independently. Two control signals vcontrol and -vcontrol are compared with a triangular carrier signal. vcontrol is proportional to the desired average output voltage. The intersection points of vcontrol and the carrier signal define the beginning of the ON and OFF periods of the switches TA+ and TA-, whereas the intersection points of -vcontrol and the carrier signal define the beginning of the ON and OFF periods of switches TB+ and TB-. It is also possible to use one control signal and two triangular carrier signals, that are 180 phase shifted with respect to each other, to generate the PWM switch control signals.

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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

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[1] Full-bridge dc-to-dc converter


9Sep10

[1] switch control signal generation and output voltage waveforms

42

PWM with Unipolar Voltage Switching (Cont.)


The rule of comparison is exactly the same that used in bipolar voltage switching method, except for the fact that the switch control signal is applied to one switch only, not a switch pair. Also, the switches in one leg receive complementary switching signals. If the desired average output voltage is positive, the output voltage is composed of positive pulses of magnitude Vd. If the desired average output voltage is negative, the output voltage is composed of negative pulses of magnitude Vd. The term unipolar has been assigned to this method since the output voltage has only one polarity for a given polarity of average output voltage.

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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

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Full-bridge dc-to-dc converter [1]


9Sep10

[1] switch control signal generation and output voltage waveforms

43

PWM with Unipolar Voltage Switching (Cont.) Average Output Voltage


Vo = VAN VBN = (dTA+ dTB+ ) Vd = (d1 d 2 ) Vd

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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

But , d 2 = 1 d1 Vo = Vd (d1 d 2 ) = Vd (2d1 1) Note that d1 = v 1 (1 + control ) as in bipolar voltage switching 2 Vtri vcontrol V Vd = d vcontrol Vtri Vtri

Vo = Vd (2d1 1) =

Mehrdad Kazerani, 2010

Vo = k vcontrol (linear relationship)

[1] [1] Full-bridge dc-to-dc converter, switch control signal generation, and output voltage waveforms

9Sep10

44

PWM with Unipolar Voltage Switching (Cont.) Switches ON and Devices Conducting
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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

The output voltage is defined by the positions of switches, but the direction of load current determines which device is conducting. If the polarity of the output voltage and the direction of output current are both positive or both negative, the switches that are ON are conducting the load current; otherwise, the diodes connected in anti-parallel across them will be conducting the load current, even though the switches are ON.

Mehrdad Kazerani, 2010

[1]

[1] Full-bridge dc-to-dc converter and output voltage and current waveforms

9Sep10

45

Switches ON and Devices Conducting (Cont.)


If the output voltage is zero, two top switches or two bottom switches are ON. Depending on the direction of load current, one of the two switches that are ON and the diode across the other one will conduct the load current. This state is a freewheeling state. During this state, the source and load are disconnected and the load current freewheels through one switch and one diode. In unipolar voltage switching, at any moment of time, two diagonal switches or two top switches or two bottom switches are ON.

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[1]

[1]

9Sep10

Full-bridge dc-to-dc converter and output voltage and current waveforms 46

Comparison of Switch-Mode DC-to-DC Converters


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Buck, Boost, Buck-Boost and Ck converter are single-switch, single-quadrant converters. Only power flow from the source to the load is allowed. In Buck-Boost and Ck converters, the polarity of the output voltage is opposite to that of the input voltage.
Io I 0 Buck, Boost Io

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Vo

III

Vo

Ck, Buck-Boost

Full-bridge converter has four switches and can operate in all Io four quadrants.
II III I IV Vo

9Sep10

Full-Bridge Converter

47

Comparison of Switch-Mode DC-to-DC Converters (Cont.)


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If only Vo < Vd is desired, Buck converter is used. If only Vo > Vd is desired, Boost converter is used. If both Vo < Vd and Vo > Vd are desired, Buck-Boost or Ck converter is used. If four-quadrant operation is desired (e.g., in dc motor drives with regenerative braking capability), full-bridge converter is used. In bipolar voltage switching, the frequency of the output voltage is the same as the switching frequency. In unipolar voltage switching, the frequency of the output voltage is twice the switching frequency. This results in a lower load current ripple. The output voltage ripple in Buck and Ck converters is lower thanks to the second-order filter at the output. The output voltage ripple in Boost and Buck-Boost converters is higher due to the fact that the output filter is of order 1. If electric isolation between the input and output or among different outputs (in multi-output converters) is desired, isolated dc-to-dc converters are used. The isolation is provided by special transformers.
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9Sep10

DC/DC Converter with Electrical Isolation

Flyback Converter (1-Switch, Unidirectional Core Excitation)

Flyback Converter [2]

49

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Push-Pull Converter (Bidirectional Core Excitation)

Push-Pull Converter [2]

50

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Full-Bridge Converter (Bidirectional Core Excitation)

Full-Bridge Converter [2]

51

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Single-Output Based on flyback converter topology

Switching DC Power Supply (Switcher)

A Single-Output Switcher

52

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Multi-Output Based on flyback converter topology

Switching DC Power Supply (Switcher), (Cont.)

A Multiple-Output Switcher

53

A Complete Switcher

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[3]

Mag. Amp. (Magnetic Amplifier)


When reset current is equal to zero, Mag. Amp. is saturated and behaves as a good conductor. When a reset current is applied, Mag. Amp. will block. The number of blocked volt-seconds depends on the reset current value. When 12-V output > +12 V, reset current makes the Mag. Amp. block, till output voltage becomes equal to +12 V. Then, reset current goes to zero and core is saturated and behaves as a good conductor.
9Sep10 54

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[2] [3]

9Sep10

References:
[1]

Mohan, Undeland and Robbins, Power Electronics: Converters, Applications, and Design, 3rd Edition, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2003. Prof. P. Jains Course Notes (Queens University) P. Horowitz and W. Hill, The Art of Electronics, 2nd Edition, Cambridge University Press, 1989.

55

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Design and Applications of Power Electronic Converters


Prof. Mehrdad Kazerani Electrical and Computer Engineering University of Waterloo

Lecture 7 Switch-Mode DC-to-AC Converters (Inverters) Part A


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Outline
Introduction Switch-Mode DC-to-AC Converter Types Voltage-Sourced Inverter Classification PWM Switching Scheme Half-Bridge Inverter
Definitions Output Voltage Generation Output Voltage Frequency Spectrum Linearity of PWM Process Choice of mf and ma Square-Wave Switching Scheme PWM with Bipolar Voltage Switching PWM with Unipolar Voltage Switching Examples Current-Mode Control of Voltage-Sourced Inverter Examples Comparison of Bipolar and Unipolar Voltage Switching Approaches Voltage Cancellation Method

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Single-Phase Full-Bridge Inverter

10Sep10

Introduction
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The objective of switch-mode inverters is to convert a regulated or unregulated dc voltage to a single-phase or three-phase square-wave or sinusoidal voltage of controllable magnitude, frequency and phase angle. Inverters find applications in variable-speed ac motor drives, uninterruptible power supplies, FACTS (Flexible AC Transmission Systems) controllers, and interfacing the alternative energy generating systems (based on wind energy, solar energy, fuel cells and microturbines) with the grid or loads. Inverters are composed of controllable switches. The immediate output of inverters is a pulsed voltage or current. The objective of the controller will be to control the fundamental component of the output voltage or current. Passive low-pass filters are used at the input and output terminals to eliminate harmonics and improve waveform quality. There are also techniques to prevent harmonic generation in the first place or eliminate selected harmonic components. The desired features of an inverter are high fidelity, high output waveform quality and bidirectional power flow. The inverters used in ac motor drives are expected to be capable of motoring in both directions as well as regenerative braking in both directions.
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Introduction (Cont.)
In ac motor drives, the dc voltage to be converted to controllable ac voltage is produced by a diode rectifier or a switch-mode converter. Scheme 1: A diode rectifier is used to convert the ac voltage available from the ac source to a dc voltage. In this case, motoring in both directions is possible, but regenerative braking is impossible due to unidirectional power flow characteristic of diode rectifiers. The energy recovered during braking is dissipated in a resistor switched in parallel with dc-bus capacitor. This method of braking is called dynamic braking.

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[1]

Scheme 1: Diode Rectifier, DC-bus, Switch-Mode Inverter Motoring: Rectifier Inverter


10Sep10 4

Introduction (Cont.)
Scheme 2: A switch-mode converter is used to produce the dc voltage. In this case, motoring in both directions as well as regenerative braking in both directions will be possible due to bidirectional power flow characteristic of the switch-mode converter. In this scheme, depending on the direction of power flow, one switch-mode converter will be acting as rectifier and the other switch-mode converter as an inverter.

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[1] Scheme 2: Switch-Mode Converter, DC-bus, Switch-Mode Converter Motoring: Rectifier Inverter Regenerative Braking: Inverter Rectifier
10Sep10 5

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Switch-Mode DC-to-AC Converter Types

Switch-mode converters are named based on the type of the dc quantity (or dc term) on their dc-sides. Voltage-Source (or Voltage-Sourced) Converter: In this type of switch-mode dc-to-ac converter, the dc term is a dc voltage. Voltage-sourced converter is the most commonly used type of dcto-ac converter.

Voltage-Sourced Converter

Switch-Mode DC-to-AC Converter Types (Cont.)


Current-Source (or Current-Sourced) Converter: In this type of switch-mode dc-to-ac converter, the dc term is a dc current. Current-sourced converters are less frequently used in industrial applications. Their main applications are in active power filters and high-power ac motor drives with a long cable connecting the converter to the motor. One example is converters driving submerged ac motors with pump loads.

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Current-Sourced Converter

Voltage-Sourced Inverter Classification


Pulse-Width Modulated (PWM) Inverters: The dc-side voltage is regulated at a constant value and the local average (i.e., the average per switching period) of the output voltage is controlled by pulsewidth modulation of the inverter switches. In Sinusoidal Pulse-Width Modulation (SPWM), which is the most common PWM technique, the local average of the output voltage is a sinusoidal waveform (also called fundamental component) whose magnitude, phase, and frequency are controlled by pulse-width modulation of the inverter switches. The higher the switching frequency, the higher the quality of the resulting waveforms, and the smaller the filter capacitors and inductors. Also, at high switching frequencies (higher than 20 kHz), switching noise will not be audible. However, the higher the switching frequency, the higher the switching losses. High-switching frequency PWM is not appropriate for high-power applications.

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[1] Output voltage waveform of PWM voltage-sourced inverter

10Sep10

Voltage-Sourced Inverter Classification (Cont.)


Square-Wave Inverters: The output voltage is a square wave. If the dc-side voltage is constant, the magnitude of the fundamental component of the output voltage is not controllable. In order to be able to control the magnitude of the fundamental component of the output voltage, the dc-side voltage has to be controlled. The inverter switching controls only the frequency and the phase angle of the output voltage. The switching frequency is minimal, i.e., each converter switch turns on and off once per period of the output voltage. Due to low switching frequency, and thus low switching losses, this scheme is appropriate for high-power applications.

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[1] Output voltage waveform of Square-Wave voltage-sourced inverter


10Sep10 9

Voltage-Sourced Inverter Classification (Cont.)


Single-Phase Inverters with Voltage Cancellation: The output voltage is a quasi-square wave. The dc-side voltage is constant and the magnitude of the fundamental component of the output voltage is controllable by adjusting the dead-time between the successive positive and negative pulses in the output voltage waveform. The frequency and phase angle of the output voltage are controllable as in the square-wave inverter. The switching frequency is minimal as in square-wave , i.e., each converter switch turns on and off once per period of the output voltage. Due to low switching frequency and thus low switching losses, this scheme is appropriate for high-power applications. Note that this technique is restricted to single-phase fullbridge inverter.

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[1]

Output voltage waveform of Square-Wave voltage-sourced inverter with voltage cancellation


10Sep10 10

PWM Switching Scheme


In full-bridge dc-to-dc converter, a constant control signal was compared with a triangular carrier signal to generate the switch control signals. The switching frequency was decided by the carrier signal frequency. The average dc output voltage was controlled and was proportional to the control signal. In switch-mode inverters, a sinusoidal control signal (modulating signal) is compared with a triangular carrier signal of constant amplitude and frequency to generate the switch control signals. The fundamental component of the output voltage is controlled and can be shown to be proportional to the control signal. In PWM technique, the information about the fundamental component of the output voltage is embedded (modulated) in the widths of the output voltage pulses. The demodulation takes place in the output low-pass filter, where the switching harmonics are separated from the fundamental component, or in the inductive load, where the pulsed voltage waveform is transformed to a sinusoidal current at the fundamental frequency. In the following sections, first a one-leg switch-mode inverter, normally known as half-bridge inverter, is explained. Then, single-phase full bridge inverter, and finally three-phase fullbridge inverter will be discussed.
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Half-Bridge Inverter
Half-bridge inverter is composed of two identical capacitors connected in series across the dc terminals (to form a center-tapped dc voltage source) and one converter leg with two switches and two anti-parallel diodes. The output terminals are formed by the middle of the converter leg and the middle of the capacitor leg. The two switches receive complementary switching signals to avoid short circuiting of the dc voltage source. Furthermore, due to the finite time that it takes for a switch to turn on and turn off, turn-on signal of the in-coming switch is delayed behind the turn-off signal of the out-going switch to make sure the ON-periods of the two switches do not overlap. V When TA+ is ON and TA- is OFF, v Ao = d

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When TA- is ON and TA+ is OFF,

v Ao

Vd = 2

Half-bridge inverter [1]

10Sep10

12

Half-Bridge Inverter (Cont.) Definitions


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fs: Triangular carrier waveform frequency or switching frequency. f1: Frequency of control signal vcontrol or modulating signal, also fundamental frequency of the inverter output voltage. ma: Amplitude Modulation Ratio or modulation index.

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ma =

V control

V tri

Amplitude of Modulating Signal Amplitude of Triangular Waveform

mf: Frequency Modulation Ratio.

mf =

fs f1

10Sep10

13

Half-Bridge Inverter (Cont.) Output Voltage Generation


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Based on the comparison of vcontrol and vtri, the switch control signals will be derived and the output voltage waveform will be generated, independent of the load current io. The output voltage waveform indicates that because of PWM switching, the local average of vAo will be a sinusoidal waveform proportional to vcontrol.

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comparison of vcontrol and vtri Half-bridge inverter [1] vAo and its fundamental component [1]
10Sep10 14

Half-Bridge Inverter (Cont.) Output Voltage Frequency Spectrum


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Due to the linearity of PWM process, the ratio of the peak value of the fundamental component of the output voltage to the input voltage Vd / 2, is equal to the modulation index. Since frequency modulation ratio has been chosen to be an odd number, the resulting output voltage waveform has half-wave symmetry and, as a result, does not contain even harmonics.

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vAo and its fundamental component

[1]

10Sep10

15

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When j is odd, k is even and vice versa.

f h = j f s k f1

vAo and its fundamental component [1]

Half-Bridge Inverter (Cont.) Output Voltage Frequency Spectrum

The output voltage harmonics appear as sidebands around the switching frequency and its multiples. The harmonics occur at:

Frequency spectrum of vAo

16

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In PWM dc-to-dc converter, the relationship between the input control signal and average output voltage was found to be linear. For halfbridge dc-to-dc converter,
VAo = vcontrol

Half-Bridge Inverter (Cont.) Linearity of PWM Process


V d 2

(vcontrol V tri , linear range)

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In PWM half-bridge inverter, if fs >> f1, vcontrol can be assumed to be constant over one switching period. Then, the local average (i.e., average per switching period) of vAo will be proportional to vcontrol in that switching period. As vcontrol varies from one switching period to the next, so does the local average of vAo, maintaining a linear relationship.
vcontrol = V control sin 1t v Ao1 =

V tri

V control

sin 1t

V tri

Vd V V = ma d sin 1t or V Ao1 = ma d 2 2 2

(ma 1)

Input/output linearity in PWM dc-dc converter [1] PWM in dc-to ac converter

10Sep10

17

Half-Bridge Inverter (Cont.) Choice of mf and ma


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For small mf (mf 21), vcontrol and vtri should be synchronized (synchronized PWM). This implies an integer mf . If this condition is not met, subharmonics of f1 (i.e., harmonics at frequencies smaller than f1 ) will appear in the output voltage waveform. Sub-harmonics are hard to filter and undesirable in most of applications. Note that to maintain an integer mf , fs should vary according to f1. mf should be an odd integer for the output voltage waveform to have half-wave symmetry. Particularly at very low mf values, slopes of vcontrol and vtri should be opposite in sign at coincidental zero crossings. For large mf (mf >21), asynchronous PWM may be used since, in this case, magnitudes of sub-harmonics are small. This implies that fs can be maintained constant as f1 varies.

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Half-Bridge Inverter (Cont.) Choice of mf and ma


Over-modulation (ma >1)
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For ma< 1, the peak value of vAo varies linearly with ma, independent of mf (for mf >9). For ma> 1, the linearity is lost and the peak value of vAo will depend on mf . In this case, the output voltage will contain many more harmonics in the sidebands compared with the case of ma< 1, in which harmonics are pushed away from f1 to fs and its multiples as sidebands. Over-modulation is used to increase the amplitude of vAo beyond what can be obtained for ma= 1. For sufficiently large ma values, the output voltage waveform of the inverter degenerates from pulse-width modulated to square-wave.

10Sep10

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V Ao1 =

V Aoh =

V Ao1 h

Square-wave output voltage vAo

V 4 Vd = 1.273 d 2 2

Half-Bridge Inverter (Cont.) Square-Wave Switching Scheme

In square-wave switching scheme, each of TA+ and TA- is ON for half a cycle of the desired output frequency (f1). From Fourier analysis,

[1]

(h : odd )

Frequency spectrum of vAo [1]


20

Half-bridge inverter [1]

Half-Bridge Inverter Square-Wave Switching Scheme (Cont.)


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The square-wave switching is a special case of sinusoidal PWM switching with ma so large that vcontrol intersects with vtri only at two points per period of vcontrol. The main advantage of square-wave switching is low switching frequency. This makes square-wave switching method appropriate for high-power applications, where high switching frequency is not practical. The disadvantages of square-wave switching are inability to control the magnitude of the fundamental component of the output voltage and presence of low-order harmonics in the output voltage.

10Sep10

21

Single-Phase Full-Bridge Inverter


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This is the same topology that was used in full-bridge dc-to-dc converter. Full-bridge inverter is composed of two converter legs each having two switches and two anti-parallel diodes. The output terminals are formed by the middle of the converter legs and there is no need for the centre-tapped dc voltage source arrangement that was necessary in half-bridge converter, unless a neutral point is required. The two switches in each leg receive complementary switching signals to avoid short circuiting of the dc voltage source. Furthermore, due to the finite time that it takes for a switch to turn on and turn off, turn-on signal of the in-coming switch is delayed behind the turn-off signal of the out-going switch to make sure the ONperiods of the two switches in the same leg do not overlap.

Single-Phase Full-Bridge Inverter [1]

10Sep10

22

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When TB+ is ON and TB- is OFF,

When TB- is ON and TB+ is OFF,

When TA- is ON and TA+ is OFF,

When TA+ is ON and TA- is OFF,

Single-Phase Full-Bridge Inverter

[1]

Single-Phase Full-Bridge Inverter (Cont.)

v AN = 0

v AN = Vd

vBN = Vd vBN = 0

23

PWM with Bipolar Voltage Switching


In bipolar voltage switching, the diagonal switches are treated as a pair and are turned on and off together. A sinusoidal control signal with the same frequency and phase shift angle of the fundamental component of the desired output voltage is compared with a triangular carrier signal and the intersection points of the two signals define the beginning of the ON and OFF periods of the switches.

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Full-bridge inverter [1] Switch control signal generation, and output voltage waveform [1]

10Sep10

24

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The common rule of comparison and the resulting output voltages are as follows: If the control signal is larger than the carrier signal, TA+ and TB- are turned on and TB+ and TA- are turned off. This results in vAN = Vd and vBN =0. If the control signal is smaller than the carrier signal, TA+ and TB- are turned off and TB+ and TA- are turned on. This results in vAN =0 and vBN = Vd. The output voltage is: vo = vAB = vAN - vBN . This voltage is equal to Vd or -Vd depending on the positions of switches. The term bipolar has been assigned to this method since the output voltage has two possible polarities.

PWM with Bipolar Voltage Switching (Cont.)

Full-bridge inverter [1]


10Sep10

Switch control signal generation, and output voltage waveform [1]

25

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The frequency spectrum of the output voltage shows that: The amplitude of the fundamental component of the output voltage is equal to ma times Vd.

PWM with Bipolar Voltage Switching (Cont.) Output Voltage Frequency Spectrum

V o1 = ma Vd

(ma 1)

Mehrdad Kazerani, 2010

It can also be shown that 4 Vd V o1 Vd (ma > 1, over-modulation)

[1]
N

Full-bridge inverter [1]

10Sep10

Output voltage waveform and frequency spectrum 26

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The first switching harmonic is at fs = mf f1 , where mf = 15, i.e., an odd number. The harmonics at 2mf f1 , 4mf f1 , and generally even multiples of mf f1 do not exist. This is due to the fact that mf is odd and the output voltage waveform has half-wave symmetry, and therefore, does not contain even harmonics. The frequency of the sidebands around switching harmonics follow the rule:

PWM with Bipolar Voltage Switching (Cont.) Output Voltage Frequency Spectrum

f h = j f s k f1

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When j is odd, k is even and vice versa. The large distance between f1 and fs is a great advantage for PWM switching, as it makes filtering of the unwanted components very easy.

[1]
N

Full-bridge inverter [1] Output voltage waveform and frequency spectrum

10Sep10

27

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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

10Sep10

Example 1

Simulate the single-phase full-bridge inverter shown in Fig. 1 with PWM bipolar voltage switching. Choose

Rload = 1, Lload = 5 mH , Vd = 100V , ma = 0.5, f1 = 60 Hz, and f s = 5000 Hz

Fig. 1 [1]

28

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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

10Sep10

Solution

29

PWM with Unipolar Voltage Switching


In unipolar voltage switching, the converter legs are controlled independently. Two sinusoidal control signals vcontrol and -vcontrol are compared with a triangular carrier signal. vcontrol is proportional to the fundamental component of the desired output voltage. The intersection points of vcontrol and the carrier signal define the beginning of the ON and OFF periods of the switches TA+ and TA-, whereas the intersection points of -vcontrol and the carrier signal define the beginning of the ON and OFF periods of switches TB+ and TB-. It is also possible to use one control signal and two triangular carrier signals, that are 180 phase shifted with respect to each other, to generate the PWM switch control signals.

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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

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[1] [1]

Full-bridge inverter, switch control signal generation, and output voltage waveforms
10Sep10

30

PWM with Unipolar Voltage Switching


The rule of comparison is exactly the same as that used in bipolar voltage switching method, except for the fact that the switch control signal is applied to one switch only, not a switch pair. Also, the switches in one leg receive complementary switching signals. When TA+ is ON and TA- is OFF, v AN = Vd When TA- is ON and TA+ is OFF, When TB+ is ON and TB- is OFF, When TB- is ON and TB+ is OFF, The output voltage will be:

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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

v AN = 0

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vBN = Vd

vBN = 0

vo = v AN vBN

[1]
N

[1]

Full-bridge inverter, switch control signal generation, and output voltage waveforms
10Sep10 31

PWM with Unipolar Voltage Switching (Cont.) Output Voltage Frequency Spectrum
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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

The frequency spectrum of the output voltage shows that: The amplitude of the fundamental component of the output voltage is equal to ma times Vd.

V o1 = ma Vd

(ma 1)

It can also be shown that

Mehrdad Kazerani, 2010

Vd V o1 Vd (ma > 1, over-modulation)

[1]

Full-bridge inverter [1]


10Sep10

Output voltage waveform and frequency spectrum

32

PWM with Unipolar Voltage Switching (Cont.) Output Voltage Frequency Spectrum
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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

The harmonic at fs= mf f1 does not exist, since the effective switching frequency at the output is 2fs. The harmonic at 2mf f1, 4mf f1 , etc. do does not exist, since the output voltage waveform has half-wave symmetry due to choice of odd mf.. The harmonics at 3mf f1, 9mf f1 , etc. do not exist as no harmonic component exist at mf f1. The frequency of the sidebands around switching harmonics follow the rule:

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f h = j f s k f1
When j is odd, k is even and vice versa.

[1]

Full-bridge inverter 10Sep10

[1]

Output voltage waveform and frequency spectrum 33

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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

10Sep10

Simulate the single-phase full-bridge inverter shown in Fig. 2 with PWM unipolar voltage switching. Choose

Rload = 1, Lload = 5 mH , Vd = 100V , ma = 0.5, f1 = 60 Hz, and f s = 5000 Hz

Fig. 2 [1]

Example 2

34

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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

10Sep10

Solution

35

Current-Mode Control of Voltage-Sourced Inverter


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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

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In applications such as ac motor servo drives, where the motor current supplied by the voltage-sourced inverter is controlled, a current-mode control technique can be used. Also, in the interface of switch-mode rectifiers with the utility, where power factor correction is desirable, and in shunt active power filters, where the injected current has to be controlled, current-mode control is used. There are two main techniques used for current-mode control.
Tolerance-Band Control (also called Hysteresis or Bang-Bang Control) Fixed-Switching Frequency Control

10Sep10

36

Tolerance-Band Control (Hysteresis or Bang-Bang Control)


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In this method, current is controlled by keeping it within a tolerance band around the reference. Whenever the current hits the lower limit while falling, a positive voltage is switched across the output inductance (e.g., motor inductance) to increase the current. Whenever the current hits the upper limit while rising, a negative voltage is switched across the output inductance to decrease the current. The width of the window within which the current is allowed to stay determines the current ripple.

Current & voltage waveforms [1]

Converter leg A [1]


10Sep10 37

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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

10Sep10

Converter leg A

Hysteresis method is elegant and simple. However, in this method, the switching frequency is not fixed, resulting in switching harmonics spread all over the frequency spectrum. This makes the filtering of unwanted components difficult.

Control loop [1] [1] Current & voltage waveforms [1]


38

Hysteresis Control (Cont.)

Example 3
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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

Design a closed-loop control system for the single-phase fullbridge inverter shown in Fig. 3 to waveshape the load current as a sinusoidal current of amplitude equal to 5A. Use hysteresis technique with a tolerance band of 0.2 A around the current reference. Use bipolar voltage switching. Choose
Rload = 1 , Lload = 5 mH , Vd = 100V , and f1 = 60 Hz.

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[1]

Fig. 3
10Sep10 39

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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

10Sep10

Solution: Circuit Diagram

40

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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

10Sep10

Solution: Simulation Results

Zoom-In

41

Fixed-Switching Frequency Control


In this method, the error between the reference and the actual current is measured and amplified in a controller (say, a PI controller). The amplified error vcontrol is then compared with a triangular carrier waveform of fixed frequency and the resulting comparator output signal is used to control the switches in the converter leg corresponding to the current being controlled. A positive vcontrol results in switching a voltage of positive local average across the output inductance, thus increasing the current in attempt to nullify the error. Similarly, a negative vcontrol results in switching a voltage of negative local average across the output inductance, thus decreasing the current in attempt to reduce the error to zero. In steady-state, the local average of i follows i*. This method, also called error triangulation, is in fact PWM and results in a fixed switching frequency, which is dictated by the frequency of the carrier signal.

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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

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Converter leg A [1]


10Sep10

Control loop [1]

42

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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

10Sep10

Rload = 1 , Lload = 5 mH , Vd = 100V , and f1 = 60 Hz.

Design a closed-loop control system for the single-phase fullbridge inverter shown in Fig. 4 to waveshape the load current as a sinusoidal current of amplitude equal to 5A. Use PWM technique with a switching frequency of 5,000 Hz. Use bipolar voltage switching. Choose

Fig. 4 [1]
43

Example 4

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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

10Sep10

Solution: Circuit Diagram

44

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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

10Sep10

Solution: Simulation Results

45

Comparison of Bipolar and Unipolar Approaches


The effective switching frequency of the output voltage waveform in the case of unipolar voltage switching is two times that in the case of bipolar voltage switching for the same actual switching frequency. This makes filtering easier and load current ripple smaller. The frequency spectrum of the output voltage in the case of unipolar voltage switching is far better than that in the case of bipolar switching resulting in a high-quality load current waveform.

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[1]

[1]

10Sep10

Bipolar Voltage Switching

Unipolar Voltage Switching

46

Voltage Cancellation Method


Voltage cancellation method is a variation of square-wave switching technique that allows control on the amplitude of the output voltage, while keeping the switching frequency as low as in square-wave method. The control lever in this method is width of dead time between the successive positive and negative pulses in the output voltage waveform.

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Full-bridge inverter [1]


10Sep10

Output voltage waveforms [1]


47

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As varies between 0 and 180, the amplitude of the output voltage fundamental component varies between a maximum (4 ) Vd and a minimum 0. The peak values of the fundamental and harmonic components of the output voltage can be found as: 4 = Vd sin(h ) V oh h Note that for = 60 ( = 60), the triplen harmonics disappear as in ac input currents of 3-phase diode rectifiers and thyristor converters with constant dc-side current.

Voltage Cancellation Method

Output voltage waveforms [1]


10Sep10 N Full-bridge inverter [1] 48

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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

[1]

10Sep10

References:
Mohan, Undeland and Robbins, Power Electronics: Converters, Applications, and Design, 3rd Edition, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2003.

49

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Design and Applications of Power Electronic Converters


Prof. Mehrdad Kazerani Electrical and Computer Engineering University of Waterloo

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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

Lecture 8 Switch-Mode DC-to-AC Converters (Inverters) Part B Outline


Interaction of Voltage-Sourced Converter and AC Source Active and Reactive Power Flow Control Three-Phase Inverters
PWM in Three-Phase Inverters Output Voltage Frequency Spectrum Square-Wave operation in Three-Phase Inverters Linear Range and Over-Modulation in PWM Three-Phase Inverter Phase-to-Neutral Voltages Input Current Waveform Devices ON and Devices Conducting in PWM Three-Phase Inverter

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Selective Harmonic Elimination (SHE) Technique Current-Mode Control of Voltage-Sourced Inverter


Tolerance-Band Control (Hysteresis or Bang-Bang Control) Fixed-Switching Frequency Control

Rectifier Mode of Operation Bidirectional Power Flow Operation AC-Side Current Ripple DC-Side Voltage Limit Application examples for PWM Voltage-Sourced Converters
AC Motor Drives Active Power Filter (APF) 2

References
10Sep10

Interaction of Voltage-Sourced Converter & AC Source-1


In applications such as ac motor drives, interface of alternative energy sources with the grid, and flexible ac transmission systems, the ac terminal voltage of voltage-sourced converter (VSC) interacts with an ac voltage source. The controllability of magnitude and phase angle of the fundamental component of the VSC terminal voltage allows for controllable active and reactive power transactions between the converter and the ac source. Even though most of the applications involve a three-phase VSC, starting with a single-phase voltage-sourced converter helps avoid complexities associated with three-phase systems and allows more focus on the principal concepts.

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Single-Phase VSC and AC Source


10Sep10 3

Interaction of Voltage-Sourced Converter & AC Source-2


Due to the linear relationship between the control signal (modulating signal) and fundamental component of VSC terminal voltage under PWM control, one can write:

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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

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vcontrol Vcontrol sin(t + control ) vo1 = Vo1 sin(t + vo1 ) = Vd = Vd Vtri Vtri Vcontrol Vo1 = Vd = maVd and vo1 = control V
Conclusion: The magnitude and phase angle of fundamental component of VSC terminal voltage can be controlled by magnitude and phase angle control of the control (modulation) signal.
tri

Single-Phase VSC and AC Source

10Sep10

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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

10Sep10

Io

Active and Reactive Power Flow Control-1

Based on the circuit diagram of the single-phase VSC and ac source shown below, one can write draw a phasor diagram for a typical case.

Single-Phase VSC and AC Source


5

Vo1

jX L I o

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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

From the phasor diagram, one can find a relationship for the active power flow between the converter and the ac source. Vo1

Active and Reactive Power Flow Control-2

Io

jX L I o
E

X L I o cos = Vo1 sin

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P = EI o cos Vo1 sin X L I o cos = Vo1 sin I o cos = XL EVo1 sin P = XL ( = vo1 e )

If = vo1 e > 0 , i.e., if vo1 leads e , P flows from VSC to ac source and vice versa.
10Sep10 6

Active and Reactive Power Flow Control-3


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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

Similarly, one can find a relationship for the reactive power flow between the converter and the ac source. Vo1

Io

jX L I o

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X L I o sin = Vo1 cos E

Q = EI o sin X L I o sin = Vo1 cos E I o sin = Q = E (Vo1 cos E ) XL Vo1 cos E XL

( = vo1 e )

If Vo1 cos E > 0 , Q flows from VSC to ac source and vice versa.
10Sep10 7

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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

10Sep10

= vo1 e > 0

Vo1 cos E > 0

Based on the direction of P and Q, four different cases can be identified.

Case 1: P from converter to ac source, Q from converter to ac source

Active and Reactive Power Flow Control-4

Io

E
Vo1

jX L I o

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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

10Sep10

= vo1 e > 0
Io

Vo1 cos E < 0

Vo1

Case 2: P from converter to ac source, Q from ac source to converter

Active and Reactive Power Flow Control-5

jX L I o
E

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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

10Sep10

Vo1 cos E > 0

= vo1 e < 0
Io

E
Vo1

Case 3: P from ac source to converter, Q from converter to ac source

Active and Reactive Power Flow Control-6

jX L I o

10

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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

10Sep10

= vo1 e < 0
Io

Vo1 cos E < 0

Vo1

Case 4: P from ac source to converter, Q from ac source to converter

Active and Reactive Power Flow Control-7

jX L I o

11

Three-Phase Inverters
Three-phase inverter is composed of three converter legs each having two switches and two anti-parallel diodes. The output terminals are formed by the middle of the converter legs. There is no need for the centre-tapped dc voltage source arrangement that was necessary in halfbridge converter, unless a neutral point is required. The two switches in each leg receive complementary switching signals to avoid short circuiting the dc voltage source. Furthermore, due to the finite time that it takes for a switch to turn on and turn off, turn-on signal of the in-coming switch is delayed with respect to the turn-off signal of the out-going switch to make sure the ON-periods of the two switches in the same leg do not overlap.

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Three-phase inverter
10Sep10

[1]
12

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When TB+ is ON and TB- is OFF,

When TB- is ON and TB+ is OFF,

When TA- is ON and TA+ is OFF,

When TA+ is ON and TA- is OFF,

When TC+ is ON and TC- is OFF,

When TC- is ON and TC+ is OFF,

Three-phase inverter

[1]

vBN = 0

v AN = 0

Three-Phase Inverters (Cont.)

vCN = Vd vCN = 0

v AN = Vd

vBN = Vd

13

PWM in Three-Phase Inverters


The objective is to generate a set of three-phase output voltages from a regulated dc voltage source, where the magnitude, frequency, and phase angle of the fundamental components of output voltages are controllable. Three sinusoidal control signals, which are phase shifted by 120 with respect to one another, are compared with a triangular carrier signal at the desired switching frequency. The intersections of the control signals and carrier signal determine the switching moments of the converter switches. Linearity of PWM process ensures that the fundamental components of the output voltages follow the control signals accurately.
10Sep10

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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

Three-phase inverter

Mehrdad Kazerani, 2010

Output voltage waveform

[1]

14

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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

10Sep10

Three-phase inverter

[1] [1]

PWM in Three-Phase Inverters (Cont.)

The line-to-line voltages have waveforms similar to those obtained through unipolar voltage switching. The effective switching frequency sensed in the output line-to-line voltages is two times the rate at which the switches are operated.

Output voltage waveform


15

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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

10Sep10

For ma= 0.8,

In the linear range of modulation, i.e., ma 1,

Vd 2 Therefore, Vd V 3 ma d = 0.612 ma Vd = 0.866 ma Vd and VLL1 = V LL1 = 3 ma 2 2 2

[1]

Output Voltage Frequency Spectrum

V LL1 = 0.866 0.8Vd = 0.693Vd

V AN 1 = V BN 1 = V CN 1 = ma

16

Output Voltage Frequency Spectrum (Cont.)


The harmonic at fs= mf f1 does not exist, since the effective switching frequency at the output is 2fs. The harmonics at 2mf f1, 4mf f1, , do not exist, since the output voltage waveform has half-wave symmetry due to choice of odd mf. The harmonics at 3mf f1, 5mf f1, , do not exist, since no harmonic component exists at mf f1.

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Mehrdad Kazerani, 2010

[1]

10Sep10

17

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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

10Sep10

f h = j f s k f1

Output Voltage Frequency Spectrum (Cont.)

when j is odd, k is even and vice versa. The effective switching frequency in the line-to-line output voltage is two times the rate at which switches are operated. This leads to low ripples in the load current.

The frequency of the sidebands around switching harmonics follow the rule:

[1]

18

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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

10Sep10

If Vd is controllable, the threephase inverter can be operated in a square-wave mode. In square-wave operation, each switch is operated at the duty ratio of 50%. As a result, at any moment of time, three switches are ON (two from the top-group and one from the bottom-group or one from the top-group and two from the bottom-group.

[1] [1]
19

Square-Wave operation

Square-Wave operation (Cont.)


The line-to-line output voltage is a 3level waveform which is higher in quality and closer to sinusoidal waveform than a 2-level waveform. The line-to-line output voltage waveform depends only on the positions of switches and is independent of load current. The main advantage of square-wave operation is low switching frequency which makes this method a good candidate in high power applications.

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[1] [1]
10Sep10 20

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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

VLLh =

10Sep10

VLL1 0.78 = Vd h h
n = 6k 1 (k = 1, 2,...)

The rms value of the line-to-line output voltage can be found as: 6 VLL1 = Vd 0.78Vd

whose amplitudes decrease in inverse proportionality to the harmonic order.

The line-to-line output voltage contains harmonics of order

(n = 6k 1, k = 1, 2,...)

[1] [1]
21

Square-Wave operation (Cont.)

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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

10Sep10

The maximum value corresponds to ma=1 and is:

In the linear range of modulation, the rms value of the line-to-line output voltage is:

Linear Range and Over-Modulation in PWM

In square-wave mode of operation, the line-to-line output voltage is:

[1]

VLL1 =

VLL1 = 0.612 ma Vd

VLL1,max. = 0.612 Vd

6 Vd 0.78Vd 0.612 Vd

22

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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

10Sep10

By KVL, v AN = v An + vnN vBN = vBn + vnN v = v + v Cn nN CN

But, iA + iB + iC = 0 v An + vBn + vCn = 0

vnN = v AN + vBN + vCN 3

(v AN + vBN + vCN ) = (v An + vBn + vCn ) + 3vnN

3-Phase Inverter Phase-to-Neutral Voltages

2 1 v An = v AN vnN = v AN (vBN + vCN ) 3 3 2 1 and vBn = vBN vnN = vBN (v AN + vCN ) 3 3 2 1 vCn = vCN vnN = vCN (v AN + vBN ) 3 3

[1]

23

3-Phase Inverter Phase-to-Neutral Voltages (Cont.)


Now, forgetting about switching harmonics,
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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

v AN = v AN 1 + Vd / 2 vBN = vBN 1 + Vd / 2 v = v + V / 2 CN 1 d CN

Adding both sides of the 3 equations and noting that vAN 1 + vBN 1 + vCN 1 = 0 ,
3 vBN + vCN = Vd v AN 2 2 1 2 1 3 v An1 = v AN (vBN + vCN ) = v AN ( Vd v AN ) 3 3 3 3 2 = v AN Vd / 2 = (v AN 1 + Vd / 2) Vd / 2 = v AN 1 V An1 = V AN 1 = ma Vd / 2

Mehrdad Kazerani, 2010

[1]

10Sep10

24

Rectifier Mode of Operation


A desirable characteristic of three-phase PWM converters is bidirectionality, i.e., ability to operate in both rectifier and inverter modes. The PWM converter in an ac motor drive must operate in rectifier mode when performing regenerative braking. Also, rectifier mode of operation is needed when charging up the dc-side capacitor of PWM converters and maintaining the desired voltage across the capacitor. In some applications, such as battery chargers, the main operational mode is rectification. In this analysis, the focus will be on the fundamental components of the ac-side voltages and currents.

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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

Mehrdad Kazerani, 2010

AC motor drive with regenerative braking capability [1]


10Sep10

Three-phase voltage-sourced converter [1]


25

Bidirectional Power Flow Operation


Assume that the switch-mode converter is driving an induction motor. During motoring operation, VAn1 must lead EA by an angle so that the direction of active power is from the converter to the motor. The active component of IA1 is in phase with EA, implying that the power is flowing from the dc-side to the ac-side and converter is operating as an inverter. The reactive component of IA1 is lagging EA by 90, implying that the motor is acting as an inductive load for the converter and reactive power is supplied by the converter to the motor.
P Q

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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

Mehrdad Kazerani, 2010

AC motor drive with regenerative braking capability [1]


10Sep10

Phasor diagram in inverter mode [1]


26

Bidirectional Power Flow Operation (Cont.)


During braking operation, VAn1 must lag EA by an angle so that the direction of active power is from the motor to the converter. The active component of IA1 is 180 out-of-phase with EA, implying that the power is flowing from the ac-side to the dc-side and converter is operating as a rectifier. The reactive component of IA1 is lagging EA by 90, implying that the motor is acting as an inductive load for the converter and reactive power is supplied by the converter to the motor.
P Q

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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

Mehrdad Kazerani, 2010

Phasor diagram in rectifier mode AC motor drive with regenerative braking capability [1]
10Sep10 27

[1]

Bidirectional Power Flow Operation (Cont.)


PWM voltage-sourced converter has the capability of generating a 3phase output voltage with controllable magnitude, frequency, and phase angle. The amplitude of the modulating signal is the control lever for the output voltage magnitude control. Magnitude control is used for controlling the magnitude and directions of reactive power. If the component of VAn1 along EA is larger than EA, reactive power flows from the converter to the load and vice versa. The phase angle of the modulating signal is the control lever for the output voltage phase angle control. Phase angle control is used for controlling the magnitude and direction of active power. If VAn1 leads EA, active power flows from the converter to the load and vice versa.
P Q

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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

Mehrdad Kazerani, 2010

Phasor diagram in inverter mode [1]


P Q

10Sep10

AC motor drive with regenerative braking capability [1]

Phasor diagram in rectifier mode [1]

28

Bidirectional Power Flow Operation (Cont.)


Conclusion: By adjusting the amplitude and phase angle of the modulating signal, magnitude and direction of active and reactive power can be controlled. Active and reactive power controls are not decoupled by nature, but magnitude control is strongly affecting reactive power flow, whereas phase angle control strongly affects active power flow.

Advanced Training Centre in Electrical Power Engineering Processing ECE 663:in Electrical Power Engineering Electric Centre Energy Power Advanced Training Centre in Electrical Power Engineering Advanced Training Electronic ConvertersEngineering Power Electronic Converters: Design and Applications Mehrdad Kazerani, 2007

ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

Mehrdad Kazerani, 2010

AC motor drive with regenerative braking capability [1]

P Q

P Q

10Sep10

Phasor diagram in inverter mode [1]

Phasor diagram in rectifier mode [1]

29

AC-Side Current Ripple


The converter output voltage vAn is composed of fundamental and harmonic components. The fundamental component together with eA produce the fundamental component of the current iA. The harmonic components contribute to the ripple contents of iA. As eA is assumed to be harmonic-free, the entire distortion component of vAn is placed across the load inductance. The larger the inductance is and the larger the switching frequency is, the smaller the ripples in the current will be. At high frequencies, a small inductance can do the filtering of the current to an acceptable degree. In switch-mode rectifiers, current-mode control can be used to obtain ac-side power factors of 0.999 and up. From this point of view, switch-mode rectifiers are superior to diode rectifiers, which can achieve an ac-side power factor of maximum 0.955 with a sufficiently large dc-side inductor.

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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

Mehrdad Kazerani, 2010

AC motor drive with regenerative braking capability [1]


10Sep10 30

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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

Mehrdad Kazerani, 2010

In applications such as ac motor drives, uninterruptible power supplies, FACTS (Flexible AC Transmission Systems) controllers, active power filters and active power line conditioners, a source of sinusoidal voltage with controllable magnitude, frequency and phase angle is required. A PWM voltage-sourced converter under PWM switching can realize a linear power amplifier with a regulated dc voltage as the source of power, a low-power control signal (modulating signal) as the input, and a voltage, whose fundamental component is a high-power duplicate of the control signal, as the output. Using SPWM, the controllable source of sinusoidal voltage that is required in a lot of power applications can be realized. In this part, some applications of PWM voltage-sourced converters are described.

Applications of PWM Voltage-Sourced Converters

Three-phase voltage-sourced converter [1]


10Sep10 31

Objective: Running an ac motor at different speeds in both directions, regenerative braking Output-1:
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AC Motor Drives

ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

Output-2:

Sinusoidal voltage Line frequency Adjustable magnitude to control reactive power flow (power factor control) Adjustable phase angle to control active power flow (dc-bus voltage regulation) Sinusoidal voltage Adjustable frequency Adjustable magnitude to control reactive power flow Adjustable phase angle to control active power flow

Mehrdad Kazerani, 2010

Input: low-power duplicate of the desired output

10Sep10

AC Motor Drive

32

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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

10Sep10

Active Power Filter (APF)

Objective: Filtering current harmonics generated by nonlinear loads Output: A current equal to the distortion component of the line current Input: low-power duplicate of the desired output

APF

33

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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

[1]

10Sep10

References:

Mohan, Undeland and Robbins, Power Electronics: Converters, Applications, and Design, 3rd Edition, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2003.

34

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Design and Applications of Power Electronic Converters


Prof. Mehrdad Kazerani Electrical and Computer Engineering University of Waterloo

Lecture 9
Speed Control of DC Motors
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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

Outline
Separately-Excited and Shunt DC Motors Speed Control of Shunt and Separately-Excited DC Motors
Speed Control by Inserting an Adjustable Resistance in Series with the Armature Winding Speed Control by Adjusting Armature Voltage Speed Control by Adjusting Field Flux Single-Phase Half-Wave Drive Single-Phase Full-Wave Drive DC Motor Drive Based on DC/DC Converter

Mehrdad Kazerani, 2010

Solid-State Speed Control of Shunt and Separately-Excited DC Motors

10Sep10

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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

10Sep10

If = Vf Rf

Nf If

d = K I a

Vt = I a Ra + Ec

Ec = Km = K ' n

+ Ia + Vt Ec m Armature Ra If Rf Field Vf + -

K=

Separately-Excited DC Motor

( N f : no. of turns of field winding )

Separately-Excited DC Motor
3

ZP ZP , K' = 2 a 60a

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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

10Sep10

=
Nf If

If = Vt Rf

It = I a + I f

Vt = I a Ra + Ec

+ It If Ia Rf Vt Field Armature + Ec m

Shunt DC Motor

ZP ZP m = n Ec = 2 a 60a ZP d = I a , If = const. d I a 2 a

( N f : no. of turns of field winding )

Shunt DC Motor Ra
4

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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

The speed-torque and speed-current characteristics of a shunt or separately-excited DC motor are Load Speed N given by the relations: nNL n Vt Ra n= ' = n NL n ' 2 d Operating K KK

Speed Control of Shunt or Separately-Excited DC Motor

Mehrdad Kazerani, 2010

Vt Ra n = ' ' I a = n NL n K K 0 d At any given load torque, motor speed can be controlled by:

Point

Torque

Inserting an adjustable resistance in series with the armature circuit, Adjusting armature voltage or terminal voltage, and Adjusting field flux
Ia + Ra If Rf Vf + + It Vt If Ia Rf Field Shunt Ra

+ Vt Ec m Armature

+ Ec m -

Field

Armature
5

10Sep10

Separately-Excited

Speed Control by Inserting an Adjustable Resistance in Series with the Armature Winding-1
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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

Mehrdad Kazerani, 2010

The speed-torque and speed-current characteristics of a shunt or separately-excited DC motor, with an adjustable resistance inserted in series with the armature, are given by the relations: Ra + Radj . Vt d = n NL n n= ' ' 2 K KK Ra + Radj . Vt n= ' I a = n NL n ' K K
It If Ia Radj. Ia + Vt + Ec 10Sep10 Field Field Armature Armature 6

Radj. Vt

Ra

If + Ec m Vf Field + -

Ra

+ -

Armature

Speed Control by Inserting an Adjustable Resistance in Series with the Armature Winding-2
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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

Mehrdad Kazerani, 2010

As the value of the inserted resistance is increased, the no-load speed remains unchanged, but the speed drop term n increases, resulting in further reduction in motor speed. Ra + Radj . Vt n= ' d = nNL n ' 2 K KK Ra + Radj . Vt n= ' I a = nNL n ' K K
Speed nNL

Radj ,5 > Radj ,4 > Radj ,3 > Radj ,2


Radj,1 = 0

2 3 4
5 Radj,5

Radj,2 Radj,3 Radj,4

0 10Sep10

Torque
7

Speed Control by Inserting an Adjustable Resistance in Series with the Armature Winding-3
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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

Mehrdad Kazerani, 2010

As Radj. is increased, an operating point will be reached where the motor speed is equal to zero. This operating mode is called holding. This mode of operation, which is common in applications such as robotics and actuation, is different from braking and stopping. Radj,5, corresponding to holding condition is found by putting speed equal to zero. Ra + Radj ,5 Vt K Vt d = 0 Radj ,5 = n= ' Ra ' 2 d K KK Ra + Radj ,5 Vt Vt n= ' I a = 0 Radj ,5 = Ra ' Ia K K
nNL Speed Radj,1 = 0

2 3 4
5 Radj,5

Radj,2 Radj,3 Radj,4

10Sep10

Torque

Speed Control by Inserting an Adjustable Resistance in Series with the Armature Winding-4
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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

This method of speed control is simple and inexpensive. However, the following disadvantages are associated with this approach:
The controlled speed is always smaller than the speed without Radj.; The method is not able to change the no-load speed of the motor; There is an additional I2R loss associated with Radj.; and Speed regulation is deteriorated and the almost-constant-speed characteristic of shunt DC motor is lost.

Mehrdad Kazerani, 2010

Using a resistor in series with the armature winding to control motor speed can be justified if the heat produced due to I2R loss is utilized in one way or another and the resistance is used for short periods of time, i.e., the motor is operated at full-speed most of the time.

10Sep10

Speed Control by Adjusting Armature Voltage-1


A common, efficient (no additional I2R losses) and easy to implement method. In a shunt DC motor, an adjustable armature voltage can be obtained by placing a DC-to-DC converter between the field and armature. In a separately-excited DC motor, the adjustable DC voltage can be obtained from an AC or a DC source using an AC-to-DC converter or a DC-to-DC converter. In either case, the rated armature voltage must not be exceeded.
It If DC to DC Ia Ia Va Ra + Ec m - Armature
10

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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

Mehrdad Kazerani, 2010

Ra Va

If + Ec m Vf Field + -

+ -

Vt

+ -

Armature

Field
10Sep10

Speed Control by Adjusting Armature Voltage-2


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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

As the armature voltage is reduced, the no-load speed nNL will be reduced, but the speed drop term n remains unchanged. This will shift the whole characteristic curve down by the change in nNL.

Va Ra n= ' = nNL n ' 2 d K KK

Va Ra n = ' ' I a = nNL n K K

Mehrdad Kazerani, 2010

Note that close-to-constant-speed characteristic is maintained.


Speed nNL,1 nNL,2 nNL,3 nNL,4 nNL,5 0
10Sep10

Va ,1 > Va ,2 > Va ,3 > Va ,4 > Va ,5


2 3 4 5
1 Va1 Va2 Va3 Va4 Va5 Torque
11

Speed Control by Adjusting Armature Voltage-3


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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

Mehrdad Kazerani, 2010

As armature voltage is decreased, an operating point will be reached where the motor speed is equal to zero. The armature voltage required for electric holding at a given developed torque or armature current can be found by putting the speed equal to zero in the speed-torque relation. Va ,5 Ra R n= ' d = 0 Va ,5 = a d K K KK ' 2

Ra n = ' ' I a = 0 Va ,5 = I a Ra K K
Speed nNL,1 nNL,2 nNL,3 nNL,4 nNL,5 0
10Sep10

Va ,5

2 3 4 5

Va1 Va2 Va3 Va4 Torque Va5


12

Speed Control by Adjusting Armature Voltage-4


The sequence of events in reducing motor speed by adjusting armature voltage, assuming no rotational losses, is as follows:
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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

Va I a (= Va Ec ) Ra

Mehrdad Kazerani, 2010

d (= K I a )

d m 2 n , m = d < L n Based on : d L = J 60 dt

Ec (= K ' n)
Va Ec ) Ra

I a (=

d (= K I a ) till d = L

( steady state)

The new steady-state speed will be lower than the original speed.
10Sep10 13

Speed Control by Adjusting Field Flux-1


As field flux affects both no-load speed and the drop in speed under load, speed is more sensitive to the variations of field flux than to variations in armature voltage or the resistance inserted in series with the armature.

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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

Mehrdad Kazerani, 2010

Vt Ra n= ' = n NL n ' 2 d K KK

n=

Vt R 'a I a = n NL n K ' K

It

If

Ia + + -

Ia Vt

Ra

+ -

Vt

Radj. + Ec Field Field

Ra

+ Ec m OR

Radj.

If + -

Vf Field If Vf Field

Armature

+ 14

Armature Armature

10Sep10

Speed Control by Adjusting Field Flux-2


In separately-excited DC motor, the field current and thus, field flux can be adjusted in two ways:
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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

A constant DC voltage applied to the field winding and a variable resistance inserted in series with the field, or A controllable DC voltage applied to the field winding.

The second method is more efficient, as it does not involve additional resistance and the losses associated with it. The variable DC voltage can be produced by an AC-to-DC converter from an AC source or a DC-to-DC converter from a DC source. Having two I If a Radj. Ra Radj. totally separate circuits + + V for armature and field + Vf + Ec m t is an advantage for separately-excited Armature Field OR DC motor.
If Vf Field
10Sep10 15

Mehrdad Kazerani, 2010

+ -

Speed Control by Adjusting Field Flux-3


In shunt DC motor, the same voltage source feeds both field and armature circuits and it is not possible to control the field voltage independently to adjust the field flux. In order to adjust the field current and thus, field flux, the resistance of a variable resistance inserted in series with the field is changed. This method is lossy due to the I2R losses.
It If Ia

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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

Mehrdad Kazerani, 2010

+ -

Vt

Radj. + Ec Field Field

Ra

Armature Armature

10Sep10

16

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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

10Sep10

nNL,3 nNL,2 nNL,1

field weakening.

Speed Control by Adjusting Field Flux-4

At any given load torque, as , speed and vice versa. Going from a lower speed to a higher speed by deceasing is called

Speed

3 > 2 > 1

d
Torque

2 3
3 2

17

Speed Control by Adjusting Field Flux-5


The sequence of events in the process of increasing motor speed by decreasing is as follows:
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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

Radj. ( R f + Radj. ) or V f

Mehrdad Kazerani, 2010

Vt ) or R f + Radj. Nf If ) (=

I f (=

I f (=

Vf Rf

Ec (= K ' n) Speed does not change instantaneously due to the inertia of the rotating parts. Vt Ec ) I a (= Ra d ( = K I a ) Even though , the increase in Ia dominates and results in d. A small change in a large change in Ia. d > L n Based on d L = J d m dt
10Sep10

Ec (= K ' n) Even though , the increase in n dominates and Ec.


18

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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

10Sep10

I a (= Vt Ec ) Ra

d (= K I a ) till d = L
( steady state)

The new steady-state speed will be higher than the original speed.

Speed Control by Adjusting Field Flux-6

19

Speed Control by Adjusting Field Flux-7


The following points have to be taken into account when field flux adjustment is used to control motor speed:
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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

Mehrdad Kazerani, 2010

The maximum voltage and current ratings of field winding should not be exceeded. Extra I2R losses occur due to the presence of Radj.. Very low field flux values can lead to severe overspeeds. Reducing field flux at a given developed torque can result in high armature currents according to I a = d K . Field loss, i.e., interruption of field current, can result in very low field flux (due to residual magnetism) and a very high armature current and developed torque and thus, dangerously high motor speeds.

To protect the motor against overcurrent, an overcurrent relay is used with DC motors to stop the motor in case of high armature currents. A field loss relay is also used to protect against loss of field.

10Sep10

20

Solid-State Speed Control of Shunt and Separately-Excited DC Motors


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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

When controlling the speed of shunt and separately-excited DC motors, usually a power electronic converter is used to adjust the armature voltage. Sometimes, a power electronic converter is used to control the field current and thus, field flux for motor speed control. Using a power electronic converter makes the choice of motor independent of the source available. The converter takes care of matching the characteristics of the source with the requirements of the motor. In this section, speed control based on armature voltage adjustment using a power electronic converter with an AC and a DC source is analyzed and simulated. Since the mechanical time constants associated with the motor and load are much longer than the electrical time constants of the motor and converter, most of the time, thyristor converters will do a good job. However, for the sake of completeness, a drive based on a switchmode converter will also be introduced.
10Sep10 21

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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

10Sep10 22

Solid-State Speed Control of Shunt and Separately-Excited DC Motors (Cont.)

Single-Phase Half-Wave Drive: A single-phase half-wave thyristor rectifier is used to adjust the armature voltage. Also, a diode rectifier is employed to feed the field circuit with a constant DC voltage to produce a constant flux.

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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

10Sep10

A Single-Phase Half-Wave Drive (Cont.)

Assume a constant field flux and a constant speed at steady-state. The waveforms of source voltage, terminal voltage and armature current at steady-state for a firing angle are shown below.

vs vt

+ ia

Ec

Ra

vs ia

La

vt
Ec + Armature

m
Load

23

A Single-Phase Half-Wave Drive (Cont.)


At a constant speed and constant field flux, counter emf Ec is constant. When the SCR is turned on, vt follows vs as long as armature current ia flows. When the voltage across La is positive, ia rises and when the voltage across La becomes ia negative, ia falls. When + La + Ra + ia falls to zero, vt Ec m vs vt becomes equal to Ec. Due to long time constants of mechanical systems in Armature comparison with vt Ec those of electrical ia systems, only the average values of voltage and vs currents will determine system behaviour.
10Sep10 24

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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

Mehrdad Kazerani, 2010

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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

10Sep10

Vt ,ave. = I a ,ave. Ra + Ec

When the inductor current is repetitive, the average voltage across the inductor is equal to zero. Therefore,

Around the armature loop, by KVL,

A Single-Phase Half-Wave Drive (Cont.)

vt = ia Ra + vLa + Ec Vt ,ave. = I a ,ave. Ra + VLa ,ave. + Ec

Ec

vs ia

Armature

vs vt

vt

ia Ra La Ec +

25

A Single-Phase Half-Wave Drive (Cont.)


Vt ,ave. = I a ,ave. Ra + Ec 1 2 1 2 1 2
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1 2 + vt d t = I a ,ave. Ra + Ec 2

ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

2 vt d t + + vt d t = I a ,ave. Ra + Ec vs d t + Ec (2 + ) = I a ,ave. Ra + Ec 2Vs sin(t ) d t = I a ,ave. Ra + Ec Ec 1 (2 + ) 2

Mehrdad Kazerani, 2010

2Vs Ec [cos cos ] = I a ,ave. Ra + 2 2 2Vs ' Kn [cos cos ] = I a,ave. Ra + 2 2 vt E


c

ia

vs

10Sep10

26

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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

A 1-hp, separately-excited DC motor is driving a constant load of 8 N.m. The armature resistance is 0.5, the armature inductance 0.01 H, field voltage 120 V, field resistance 75 and field inductance 0.02 H. The moment of inertia values for the motor and load are 0.4 and 0.1, respectively. The frictional torque is 0.396 N.m. It is assumed that = kIf and Kk = 0.06 (Kk = 0.573). The drive consists of a single-phase, half-wave SCR converter. The source voltage is 120 V @ 60 Hz. The firing angle of the SCR is 45 and the conduction period 172.85. Find the motor speed and the developed power. Simulate the case using PSIM. To find motor speed,

Example

Mehrdad Kazerani, 2010

Solution

d ,ave. = K I a ,ave. = K (kI f ) I a ,ave. = L + frictional


I a ,ave. =

d + frictional
( Kk ) I f

8 + 0.396 9.16 120 0.573 75

2Vs ' ' cos cos ] = I a ,ave. Ra + (K k )I f n K n = I a ,ave. Ra + [ 2 2 2 2 120 172.8 120 cos 45 cos(45 + 172.8 ) = 9.16 0.5 + 0.06 n 2 75 360 n = 778.22 rpm 10Sep10 27

The developed power is:

Solution (Cont.)

Pd = Ec I a ,ave. = K ' n I a ,ave. = K ' k I f n I a ,ave.


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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

120 778.22 9.175 = 685.46 W OR 75 2 n 2 778.22 Pd = d m = ( L + frictional ) = (8 + 0.396) = 684.23 W 60 60 = 0.06


The drive system is set up in PSIM, based on the parameters provided. The conduction period was provided to make evaluation of motor speed possible using the formula for speed. In simulation, the actual waveform of the current will dictate this quantity.

Mehrdad Kazerani, 2010

10Sep10

28

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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

10Sep10

Simulation results are as follows:

ia

Solution (Cont.)

vs vt

n = 783 rpm

29

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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

10Sep10

In the drive systems shown below, a 4-SCR and a 2-SCR single-phase full-wave thyristor rectifiers are used to adjust the armature voltage.

Single-Phase Full-Wave Drive:

4 2

1 3

30

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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

10Sep10

vs

A Single-Phase Full-Wave Drive (Cont.)

Assume a constant field flux and a constant speed at steady-state. The waveforms of source voltage, terminal voltage and armature current at steady-state for the 4-SCR converter at firing angle are shown below.

+ vt ia

ia vs Ec vt
Ec Armature

Ra La +

m
Load

31

A Single-Phase Full-Wave Drive (Cont.)


At a constant speed and constant field flux, counter emf Ec is constant. When SCRs 1 and 2 are turned on, vt follows vs as long as armature current ia flows. When the voltage across La is positive, ia rises and when the voltage across La vt Ec becomes negative, ia falls. When ia falls to zero, vt ia becomes equal to Ec. vs When SCRs 3 and 4 are turned on, vt follows -vs as long as armature current ia flows. When the voltage across La is positive, ia rises and when the voltage across La becomes ia negative, ia falls. + La + Ra When ia falls to + Ec zero, vt becomes vs vt m equal to Ec. Load
10Sep10

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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

Mehrdad Kazerani, 2010

Armature

32

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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

10Sep10

vs -

Around the armature loop, by KVL,

A Single-Phase Full-Wave Drive (Cont.)

vt = ia Ra + vLa + Ec Vt ,ave. = I a ,ave. Ra + Ec

ia

vs

vt -

ia

Ec
Ra

vt
La Ec +

Armature

33

A Single-Phase Full-Wave Drive (Cont.)


Vt ,ave. = I a ,ave. Ra + Ec
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2 + vt d t = I a , ave. Ra + Ec 2

ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

2 vt d t + + vt d t = I a ,ave. Ra + Ec 2 1 vs d t + Ec ( + ) = I a ,ave. Ra + Ec 1 1 2Vs sin( t ) d t = I a , ave. Ra + Ec Ec ( + ) 2Vs

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Ec 2Vs ' Kn [cos cos ] = I a,ave. Ra +

[cos cos ] = I a,ave. Ra +

Ec ia

vt

vs

10Sep10

34

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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

Mehrdad Kazerani, 2010

A separately-excited DC motor is driving a constant load of 8 N.m. The armature resistance is 0.5, the armature inductance 0.01 H, field voltage 120 V, field resistance 75 and field inductance 0.02 H. The moment of inertia values for the motor and load are 0.4 and 0.1, respectively. It is assumed that = kIf and Kk = 0.06 (Kk = 0.573). The drive consists of a single-phase, 4-SCR, full-wave SCR converter. The source voltage is 120 V @ 60 Hz. The firing angle of the SCR is 45 and the conduction period 149.4. Find the motor speed and the developed power. Simulate the case using PSIM. Also, simulate the case when the load torque is increased to 40 N.m.

Example

Solution
d ,ave. = K I a ,ave. = K (kI f ) I a ,ave. = L
I a ,ave. = 2Vs
To find motor speed,

L
( Kk ) I f

8 120 0.573 75

8.73

[cos cos ] = I a,ave. Ra +

' ' (K k )I f n K n = I a ,ave. Ra +

2 120

10Sep10

149.4 120 cos 45 cos(45 + 149.4 ) = 8.73 0.5 + 0.06 n 75 180 35 n = 1, 081.25 rpm

The developed power is:

Solution (Cont.)

Pd = Ec I a ,ave. = K ' n I a ,ave. = K ' k I f n I a ,ave.


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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

120 1, 081.25 8.73 = 906.17 W OR 75 2 n 2 1, 081.25 Pd = d m = L = 8 = 905.83 W 60 60 = 0.06


The drive system is set up in PSIM, based on the parameters provided. The conduction period was provided to make evaluation of motor speed possible using the formula for speed. In simulation, the actual waveform of the current will dictate this quantity.

Mehrdad Kazerani, 2010

10Sep10

36

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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

10Sep10

ia

Simulation results are as follows:


vs vt

Solution (Cont.)

n 1, 093 rpm

37

Simulation results for L = 40 N.m are as follows:


ia vt

Solution (Cont.)

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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

vs

Mehrdad Kazerani, 2010

n 565 rpm

Note: As the motor load gets heavier, the armature current tends to become continuous. In continuous current mode, each switch conducts for 180, i.e., = + 180. From calculations, at L = 40 N.m, armature current becomes 43.65 A, speed 568.43 rpm and developed power 2.38 kW. A continuous armature current has lower ripple content, resulting in a more steady torque.
10Sep10 38

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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

A 1-hp, separately-excited DC motor is driving a constant load of 10 N.m. The armature resistance is 0.5, the armature inductance 0.01 H, field voltage 120 V, field resistance 75 and field inductance 0.02 H. The moment of inertia values for the motor and load are 0.4 and 0.1, respectively. The drive consists of a single-phase, 4-SCR, full-wave SCR converter. The source voltage is 120 V @ 60 Hz. Design a closed-loop control system to make the motor speed follow the reference, initially at 600 rpm with a step increase of 200 rpm at 0.6 seconds. Use PSIM to simulate the drive system.

Example

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ia + vs + vt Ra La + Ec Armature If Rf

m
Lf

Vf Field

+ -

10Sep10

39

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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

10Sep10

System setup in PSIM

40

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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

10Sep10

Firing Angle Speed Reference Speed

Simulation Results

41

DC Motor Drive Based on DC/DC Converter-1


When a DC voltage source is available or can be obtained by rectification of an AC voltage, a switch-mode DC/DC converter can be used to adjust the average value of the armature voltage and thus, control the speed of the shunt or separately-excited DC motor. The DC/DC converter in the drive system shown below is a step-down or buck converter. The average output voltage of a buck converter is related to its input voltage through the duty ratio of the switch, i.e.,
Vout = dVin Since duty ratio is always less than 1, the output voltage of a buck converter is always smaller than its input voltage.
It + Vt If Switch Ra La + Ec m Armature DC/DC Converter
42

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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

Mehrdad Kazerani, 2010

Ia

Diode

Field
10Sep10

DC Motor Drive Based on DC/DC Converter-2


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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

Mehrdad Kazerani, 2010

When the switch is turned on, va = Vt. In this case, a current ia will flow from the source to the armature circuit. When the switch is turned off, the current is interrupted. The armature inductance resists the fast change in the current by developing a voltage La dia /dt which will forward bias the diode. The diode turns on and the armature current freewheels through the diode. When the diode is on, va = 0. If the turning on and off of the switch occurs periodically, at a frequency fs, the waveform of the voltage va will be as shown below.
va it + Vt If Switch + Ra va Field
10Sep10 DC/DC Converter

ia

La + Ec m Armature

Vt

Diode

tON

tOFF

Ts=1/ fs
43

DC Motor Drive Based on DC/DC Converter-3


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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

Mehrdad Kazerani, 2010

Even though the voltage applied to the armature is pulsed, the armature current will be a relatively smooth DC current due to the filtering effect of the armature inductance. This is specially true if the frequency of switching (i.e., the rate at which the switch is turned ON and OFF) is high. Note that the rotor of the motor does not respond to the instantaneous value of the armature current due to its high inertia. Therefore, motor speed and back emf, which is proportional to speed, do not have fast variations and are smooth functions of time. As a result, the developed torque of the motor will also be smooth. Due to armature inductance and inertia of the rotor of DC machine, in steady-state, only the average value of va will be effective in motor speed control.

Vt tON tON 1 Ts ) = d Vt = Vt ( Va ,ave. = va dt = Ts 0 Ts Ts


va

where d is the duty ratio (or duty cycle) of the switch.


0
10Sep10

Ec ia t
44

Example
A shunt DC motor is fed from a 120-V DC source. The armature voltage is controlled by a DC-to-DC converter. The duty ratio of the chopper circuit is d=50% and the input power is 5 kW, when the motor is operating at 600 rpm. The armature resistance is 0.048 and the field resistance is 50 . The load torque is assumed to be constant and the core losses, mechanical losses and miscellaneous losses are neglected. Find: (a) the developed horse power on the shaft of the motor, (b) the speed of the motor and developed horse power at d=60%, and (c) the speed of the motor and developed horse power at d=1.
It + Vt If Switch Ra Ia La + Ec m Armature
45

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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

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Diode

Field
10Sep10

DC/DC Converter

Solution
(a) At d=50%, Va (average of voltage applied to armature) = d Vt = 0.5 120 = 60 V
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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

According to the principle of conservation of power and assuming a lossless DC-to-DC converter, one can write: Vt 2 1202 Pin Pf = Va I a Pin = Va I a 5, 000 = 60 I a Rf 50
5, 000 288 = 78.53 A 60 Ec = Va Ra I a = 60 0.048 78.53 = 56.23V Ia = Pd = Ec I a = 56.23 78.53 = 4, 415.74 W = 5.92 hp
It + Vt If Switch Ra La + Ec m Armature
46

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Ia

Diode

Field
10Sep10

DC/DC Converter

Solution (Cont.)
(b)
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At d=60%,
Va = d VL = 0.6 120 = 72 V

ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

The developed torque is:

d = K I a

Mehrdad Kazerani, 2010

Since the load torque is assumed to be constant and the core losses, mechanical losses and miscellaneous losses are neglected, the developed torque is equal to the load torque and a constant. Since field current is constant, the field flux will be a constant, too. Therefore, the armature current will be a constant and will not change with duty ratio. Therefore, I a = 78.53 A

Ec = Va Ra I a = 72 0.048 78.53 = 68.23 V


The ratio of the back emf at d=50% to that at d=60% is:

Ec 2 K '2 n2 n2 Ec 2 68.23 n1 = = ' = n2 = 600 = 728.05 rpm Ec1 K 1n1 n1 Ec1 56.23 Pd = Ec I a = 68.23 78.53 = 5,358.1W = 7.18 hp
10Sep10 47

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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

10Sep10

(c) At d=1,

Va = d VL = 1 120 = 120 V Since armature current is independent of duty ratio,

I a = 78.53 A

Solution (Cont.)

The ratio of the back emf at d=1 to that at d=50% is:

Pd = Ec I a = 116.23 78.53 = 9,127.54 W = 12.24 hp

Ec = Va Ra I a = 120 0.048 78.53 = 116.23V

Ec3 K '3n3 n3 E 116.23 = ' = n3 = c 3 n1 = 600 = 1, 240.23 rpm Ec1 K 1n1 n1 Ec1 56.23

48

Example
A 1-hp, separately-excited DC motor is driving a constant load of 8 N.m. The armature resistance is 0.5, the armature inductance 0.01 H, field voltage 120 V, field resistance 75 and field inductance 0.02 H. The moment of inertias of the motor and load are 0.4 and 0.1, respectively. The drive consists of a stepdown (buck) DC/DC converter. The source voltage is 120 V, DC. Design a closed-loop control system to make the motor speed follow the reference, initially at 600 rpm with a step increase of 200 rpm at t = 0.5 s. Use PSIM to simulate the drive system.

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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

Mehrdad Kazerani, 2010

It + Vt

Switch

Ra

Ia

La + Ec m Armature Lf Rf

If Vf Field + -

Diode

DC/DC Converter

10Sep10

49

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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

10Sep10

System Setup in PSIM

50

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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

10Sep10

Simulation Results

51

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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

10Sep10

Reference:

Stephen J. Chapman, Electric Machinery Fundamentals, 4th Edition, McGraw Hill, 2005. M.A. El-Sharkawi, Fundamentals of Electric Drives, Brooks/Cole, Thomas Learning, 2000.

52

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Design and Applications of Power Electronic Converters


Prof. Mehrdad Kazerani Electrical and Computer Engineering University of Waterloo

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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

10Sep10

Outline

Example

Plugging

Braking of DC Motors

Regenerative Braking Dynamic Braking Countercurrent Braking

Introduction to Braking of Electric Motors

Countercurrent Braking of DC Motors

Regenerative Braking of Shunt DC Motors Dynamic Braking of Shunt DC Motors

Terminal Voltage Reversal (TVR)


Example Example

Lecture Session 10
Braking of DC Motors

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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

Braking in electric motor drive terminology refers to operations involving reducing the speed of the motor, stopping the motor and holding a specific shaft position. Braking can be done mechanically or electrically. Electrical braking is superior to mechanical braking from the efficiency and maintenance requirements points of view. During normal operation of an electric motor, power flows from the electrical power source to the mechanical load. During braking, the direction of power flow can be changed. In this case, the mechanical load will act as the source of mechanical power, the motor will act as a generator, and the kinetic energy stored in the rotating parts will be returned in the from of electric energy to the electrical source. Braking is an important capability of a high-performance drive system. Drive systems should be designed to handle the electrical and mechanical stresses resulting from electrical braking. Electric braking methods can be divided into three different categories:
Regenerative Braking, Dynamic Braking, and Countercurrent Braking.

Introduction to Braking of Electric Motors-1

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10Sep10

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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

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When the direction of load torque is reversed, causing the machine to run at a speed higher than its no-load speed, but in the same direction as before, the motor is said to be in regenerative braking. In the first quadrant, the electric machine is operating as a motor. Power flows from electrical source to load. The motor develops a torque in the direction of rotation of motor. As an example, consider an electric vehicle traveling uphill. When the load torque changes direction with the motor running in the same direction as before, the speed exceeds no-load speed and the operation will move to the second quadrant. The electric machine will operate as a generator, developing a torque opposite in direction to the load toque, and the power flows form the load to the electrical source. As an example, consider an electric vehicle traveling downhill. Note: For regenerative braking to happen, load torque must be bidirectional. Power Flow Regenerative Braking
m
Load M o to r
S p eed

Regenerative Braking

Power Flow Motoring


m
M o to r Load

d L
T o rq u e

10Sep10

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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

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When the electrical source is disconnected from the motor and a resistor is switched in at the electrical terminals of the motor, while field flux is maintained, the motor will act as a generator and the kinetic energy stored in the moving parts will be converted to electrical power and dissipated in the resistor. Under these conditions, the motor is said to be in dynamic braking. During dynamic braking, machine acts as a generator. The direction of rotation does not change, but the directions of torques of load and machine change. The change in the direction of torque is reflected in the change of direction of current in braking mode, iB, with respect to that in motoring mode, iM. The rate at which the stored kinetic energy is dissipated depends on the value of braking resistance RB. The smaller RB is, the faster the stored energy will be dissipated. Power Flow Power Flow
Braking Resistance

Dynamic Braking

Regenerative Braking

S p eed

Motoring
- +

RB

iB

m
Load

iM

Source

m
Load

Motor

d L

Motor

d L
T o rq u e
5

10Sep10

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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

Mehrdad Kazerani, 2010

Countercurrent braking is based on an attempt to reverse the direction of rotation of the motor. It can be used to reduce motor speed, reverse direction of rotation or stop the motor. Reversing the direction of rotation is performed by changing the direction of field flux or polarity of armature voltage in dc motors. In the course of changing the direction of rotation, motor decelerates first. During deceleration, motor will operate in the second quadrant, as a generator, as torque is reversed, but direction of rotation is unchanged. If no other action is taken, motor passes through zero speed and accelerates in the opposite direction and ends up operating in the third quadrant as a motor. If at zero speed, the power source is disconnected from the machine, the motor stops under countercurrent braking.
Power Flow
M o to r

Countercurrent Braking

m
Load

S p eed

Power Flow m
M o to r

Load

Generating

d L

Motoring
T o rq u e

Power Flow m
M o to r
10Sep10

Load

d L

Motoring

Braking of DC Motors
One should be careful in performing braking operation on DC motor, as well as other types of motors, as braking operation is associated with high transient currents as well as high mechanical stresses. The motor control should avoid transients beyond machine capability and electrical and mechanical design of the machine, as well as its mechanical support system, should be able to withstand transients within reasonable range. In this part, the application of different braking techniques, i.e., regenerative braking, dynamic braking and countercurrent braking, to shunt and separately-excited DC motors are explained.

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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

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10Sep10

Regenerative Braking of Shunt DC Motors-1


As mentioned before, whatever is said about shunt DC motors, is applicable to separately-excited DC motors, as well. We will use the example of an electric vehicle to explain regenerative braking. Assume zero rotational losses. d = L at steady-state. We will remember that the speed-torque characteristic of a shunt DC motor is linear. We will use the main equations of a shunt DC motor for our explanations: V = I R + E t a a c
Ec = Km = K ' n, K = ZP ZP & K' = 2 a 60a

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d = K I a
Vt Ra n= ' ' 2 d K KK
Electric Vehicle
Fn L
10Sep10

It + -

If

Ia Rf

Ra

Vt Field

+ Ec m

Gravitational Force

Armature
8

Regenerative Braking of Shunt DC Motors-2


When the electric vehicle is traveling uphill, the machine is operating as a motor, the developed torque is in the direction of rotation of wheels due to the force Fd, the load torque is opposite to the direction of rotation of wheels due to the gravitational force along the inclined surface, FL, and the system is operating in the first quadrant at point 1. The load torque caused by gravitational force is bidirectional, i.e., load torque assumes clockwise or counterclockwise direction depending on traveling uphill or downhill.
Fd FL Fn

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It + -

If

Ia Rf

Ra

Vt Field

+ Ec m

Speed

Armature

Downhill

1 [1] Torque
9

Uphill

10Sep10

L3

L1

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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

FL

10Sep10

Fn

Downhill

I a1 =

V Ra n1 = t' ' 2 L1 K KK

When the electric vehicle is traveling uphill, one can write:

Regenerative Braking of Shunt DC Motors-3

L3
3 Speed

Fd

Vt Ec1 , Vt > Ec1 Ra

L1
Uphill [1] Torque
10

+ -

1 Field

It

Vt Rf Armature + Ec m

If [1] Ia Ra

Regenerative Braking of Shunt DC Motors-4


Assuming no rotational loss, when the electric vehicle is traveling on a flat surface, the load torque from the point of view of motor becomes zero, as FL = 0. This corresponds to operating at point 2. At operating point 2, which represents no-load operating point,

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d 2 = L2 = 0 Ia2

d2 = =0 K

[1]

Mehrdad Kazerani, 2010

Vt = I a 2 Ra + Ec 2 = Ec 2 n2 =
Electric Vehicle
Fn L

Ec 2 V = t' > n1 K ' K


It If Ia Rf Field Ra + Ec m

+ Speed

Vt

Gravitational Force

Armature

Downhill

1 [1] Torque
11

Uphill

10Sep10

L3

L1

Regenerative Braking of Shunt DC Motors-5


When the electric vehicle is traveling downhill, the load torque changes direction, as FL changes direction. However, the direction of rotation of wheels and direction of field flux remain unchanged. As the torque changes direction and fields direction remains unchanged, armature current changes direction: Ia = d 3 [1] K The machine operates as a generator and delivers power to the source if armature current is larger than field current.
Fd FL

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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

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It
L
Fn

If

Ia Rf

Ra

+ -

Vt Field

+ Ec m

Speed

Armature

Downhill

1 [1] Torque
12

Uphill

10Sep10

d3=L3

d1 =L1

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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

Fd

10Sep10

Fn

n3 =

Downhill

When the electric vehicle is traveling downhill, one can write: V Ec 3 L 3 = , Ec 3 > Vt I a3 = t Ra K

Regenerative Braking of Shunt DC Motors-6

d3=L3
Speed

FL

Vt Ra ' ' 2 L3 K KK

2
1

d1 =L1
Uphill [1] Torque
13

+ It Vt Field Rf Armature + Ec m [1] If Ia Ra

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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

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During dynamic braking, the source is disconnected from the armature and the kinetic energy stored in the rotating parts is dissipated in the form of heat in a resistive load. When all the kinetic energy is dissipated, motor stops. Note that even though the armature circuit is disconnected from the source, the field has to be maintained for the dynamic braking to be executed. The main equations of shunt DC motor are:
Vt = I a Ra + Ec Ec = Km = K ' n, K = ZP ZP & K' = 2 a 60a
It + If Ia Rf Field Ra

Dynamic Braking of Shunt DC Motors-1

d = K I a
V Ra n = t' ' 2 d K KK

Vt

+ Ec m

Armature

10Sep10

14

Dynamic Braking of Shunt DC Motors-2


Assume the motor is running at speed n. In order to execute dynamic braking operation, the armature is disconnected from the source and is connected to a braking resistance RB, instead. The field circuit is disconnected from the armature, but is kept connected to the source. The motor connection will look like that of a separately-excited DC motor. Under dynamic braking, the counter emf Ec forces a current out of the armature terminals into the resistive load. The machine is operating as a generator in the second quadrant and the braking current will transfer the stored kinetic energy of the rotating parts to the electrical load.

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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

Mehrdad Kazerani, 2010

It + -

If

Ia Rf

Ra

Ia + Ec m RB

Ra + Ec m Armature Dynamic Braking

If Vf Field + -

Vt Field

Armature

Motoring
10Sep10

15

Dynamic Braking of Shunt DC Motors-3


Note that the armature current changes direction during dynamic braking. The braking current can be given as: Ec Km K ' n [1] = = IB = Ra + RB Ra + RB Ra + RB During dynamic braking, two components of power loss contribute to the stopping of motor:
1) 2) Mechanical or rotational losses, Protational, and I2R losses in the armature and braking resistances, PB , which has the major role in dissipating power and reducing the speed of the machine to zero. The larger PB is, the faster the braking process will be.

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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

Mehrdad Kazerani, 2010

Ec2 ( Km )2 ( K ' n) 2 = = PB = Ra + RB Ra + RB Ra + RB
It + If Ia Rf Field
10Sep10

[1]

Ra

Ia=IB + Ec m RB

Ra + Ec m Armature Dynamic Braking

If Vf Field
16

Vt

Armature

+ -

Motoring

Dynamic Braking of Shunt DC Motors-4


From:
Ec2 ( Km )2 ( K ' n) 2 = = PB = Ra + RB Ra + RB Ra + RB
[1]

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one can see that the smaller the braking resistance is, and the stronger the field flux is, the more the power dissipated and the shorter the braking period will be. The motoring operation is in the first quadrant, whereas the dynamic braking is in the second quadrant. Since for a constant field flux, developed torque is proportional to armature current, a speed-current characteristic is used to combine the characteristics in the motoring and dynamic braking modes of operation.
Speed RB2 RB3 RB1

RB1 > RB 2 > RB 3

1 Motoring [1] Current


17

Dynamic Braking

IB3
10Sep10

IB2

IB1

Ia1


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During motoring, the speed-current characteristic is a straight line in the first quadrant. Assume motor is operating at point 1. During dynamic braking, for a given braking resistance, the speedcurrent characteristic is a straight line going through the origin at a negative slope determined by the value of the braking resistance. The smaller the braking resistance is, the larger the braking current will be (more electrical stress!), and the faster the stored kinetic energy will be dissipated, and the faster the braking operation will be. If the act of disconnecting the armature from the source and connecting it to the braking resistance is performed quickly, the motor assumes one of the operating points 2, 3, or 4 in the second quadrant, without any change in the speed of the motor.
Speed RB2 RB3 RB1

Dynamic Braking of Shunt DC Motors-5

RB1 > RB 2 > RB 3

1 Motoring [1] Current


18

Dynamic Braking

10Sep10

IB3

IB2

IB1

Ia1

Dynamic Braking of Shunt DC Motors-6

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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

When the operating point moves horizontally to the second quadrant, the operating point will continue moving according to the loading condition of the motor. If the load torque is frictional, the operating point moves along one of the characteristic lines towards the origin. In this process, the kinetic energy stored will be dissipated, the motor speed drops to zero and motor stops at the new steady-state operating point of 5.
Speed RB2 RB3 RB1

Mehrdad Kazerani, 2010

RB1 > RB 2 > RB 3

1 [1] Motoring

Dynamic Braking

IB3

IB2

IB1

5 Ia1

Current

10Sep10

19

Dynamic Braking of Shunt DC Motors-7

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If the load torque is gravitational, the load force will be the mass of the load multiplied by the acceleration of gravity, i.e., a constant. A constant unidirectional load torque, irrespective of speed. In this case, the final steady-state operating point will be where the motor characteristic and load characteristic meet each other in the fourth quadrant at point 6, 7 or 8. In order to stop the motor, the load should be disconnected or a mechanical brake should be applied. Speed In the fourth quadrant, RB1 RB1 > RB 2 > RB 3 RB2 the machine is RB3 2 3 4 1 rotating in the [1] opposite direction Dynamic Motoring Braking in generating 5 Torque mode, and delivers d1=L B3 B2 B1 power to the braking 6 resistance. 7
Generating

ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

Mehrdad Kazerani, 2010

10Sep10

20

Example [1]

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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

A 440-V shunt DC motor has a rated armature current of 76 A at a speed of 1000 rpm. The armature resistance is 0.377 and the field resistance is 110 . Assume K = 0.41. The load of the motor is gravitational (constant and unidirectional). The armature current at the steady-state operating point (point 1) is 40 A. A dynamic braking is implemented using a braking resistance of 2 . Find the speed at the new steady-state operating point.

Mehrdad Kazerani, 2010

Solution
The final operating point will be in the fourth quadrant. One can see that the armature current at the final steady-state operating point is still 40 A, as the load torque and flux are constant. The speed can therefore be found from: Ec Km K ' n = = IB = Ra + RB Ra + RB Ra + RB
0.41n n = 231 rpm 0.377 + 2 Note that the machine is rotating in the opposite direction to that in the motoring mode in the first quadrant. 40 =
10Sep10 21

Countercurrent Braking of Shunt DC Motors


Countercurrent braking of shunt DC motors can be performed by plugging or terminal voltage reversal method. Plugging is used to stop, reverse the direction of rotation, or hold the motor at zero speed, where the load is gravitational. Terminal Voltage Reversal (TVR) is used to stop the motor rapidly or reverse its direction of rotation. TVR cannot be used to hold the motor at zero speed.

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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

Mehrdad Kazerani, 2010

It + -

If

Ia Rf

Ra

Vt Field

+ Ec m

Armature

10Sep10

22

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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

10Sep10

L m

Fd

Cabin FL Motion

Plugging-1

Consider the example of an elevator, where the load is gravitational. Irrespective of direction of motion, the direction of the load force is downward and the direction of motor force is upward. Therefore, the direction of load torque is clockwise and that of motor is counterclockwise.

[1]

L m

Fd

Cabin FL Motion

23

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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

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Assume motor is operating at point 1, where the cabin is moving upward. The terminal voltage is Vt1 and the load torque is L. Lets assume that the intention is to stop the cabin and move it downward. In plugging method, the terminal voltage is reduced to Vt2 and field flux is maintained. The speed-torque characteristic moves downward in parallel with the original characteristic. Assuming a quick reduction in the terminal voltage, speed does not change instantaneously, due to inertia of the rotating parts, and the operating point moves to point 2 in the second quadrant.
Speed Regenerative Braking Vt2 Fd

Plugging-2

Vt1

Vt1 > Vt 2
L


3 4 5

1 Motoring

FL

10Sep10

Torque [1] Cabin Motion


24

d1=L

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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

Since the motor and load characteristics do not meet at point 2, point 2 is not a steady-state operating point for the system. The operating point moves towards point 5, where the motor and load characteristics meet. As long as the operating point is in the second quadrant, the motor is operating in regenerative braking mode. Note: n2 > n3 (=nNL) for Vt2. In moving from point 2 to point 5, motor goes through point 3. At point 3, motor torque is zero and motor is rotating at no-load speed.

Plugging-3

Mehrdad Kazerani, 2010

d 3 = 0 I a3 =
Speed Regenerative Braking Vt2

d3 I R +V V = 0 n3 = nNL = a 3 a ' t 2 = t'2 K K K


Fd

[1]

Vt1

Vt1 > Vt 2

1 Motoring

m L

FL

10Sep10

4 5 d1=L

Torque [1] Cabin Motion


25

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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

When the operating point moves to point 4, the motor speed becomes zero. If the intention is to stop the motor, the source is disconnected from the motor at this point and a mechanical brake is applied to keep the motor at standstill. At point 4,

Plugging-4

Mehrdad Kazerani, 2010

Vt 2 Ra KVt 2 = 0 d4 = n4 = ' ' 2 d4 Ra K KK


Speed Fd

[1]

Regenerative Braking Vt2

Vt1

Vt1 > Vt 2

1 Motoring

m=0 L

FL

4 5 d1=L

Torque [1] Cabin


26

10Sep10

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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

If the intention is not to stop the motor by disconnecting the motor from the source and applying a mechanical brake, the operating point moves to point 5, where motor torque is positive, speed is negative, and the machine is operating as a generator. At point 5,

Plugging-5

n5 =

Vt 2 Ra V Ra d 5 = t'2 ' ' 2 ' 2 L K KK K KK

[1]

Mehrdad Kazerani, 2010

Note that since d5 > d4, n5 < 0.


Speed Regenerative Braking Vt2 Fd

Vt1

Vt1 > Vt 2

1 Motoring

m L

FL

10Sep10

4 5

Torque Generating [1]


27

Cabin

Motion

d1=L

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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

If the intention is to operate the motor in electric holding mode, the terminal voltage must be reduced enough so that the characteristics of motor and load meet at zero speed. The terminal voltage required to implement this operation can be found from:

Plugging-6

Mehrdad Kazerani, 2010

Vt 2 Ra Ra L = 0 Vt 2 = n4 = ' ' 2 L K K KK
Speed Fd

[1]

Regenerative Braking Vt2

Vt1

Vt1 > Vt 2

1 Motoring

m L

FL

10Sep10

Torque Cabin [1] Motion


28

Generating

d1=L

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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

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A separately-excited DC motor has an armature resistance of 0.5 and K = 3 V-s. The motor is driven by a single-phase full-wave SCR converter. The AC input voltage is 277 V. The motor is used as a prime mover of a forklift. In the upward direction, the mechanical load torque is 100 N.m and the firing angle of the SCRs is 20. In the downward direction, the load torque is 200 N.m. Find the firing angle of SCRs required to keep the downward speed equal in magnitude to the upward speed. Assume a continuous armature current.

Example [1]

277 V 60 Hz + vs 1-Phase FullWave SCR AC/DC Converter Ia + Va Ra + Ec m Armature If Vf Field + -

10Sep10

29

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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

Mehrdad Kazerani, 2010

The speed-toque characteristics of separately-excited DC motor, driven by a single-phase full-wave SCR converter, corresponding to two values of firing angle (and thus, terminal voltage) and the same speed magnitude in upward and downward operations, have been shown below. Note that the speed-torque characteristic of a separately-excited DC motor driven by a single-phase full-wave SCR converter, is not linear due to the nonlinearity introduced by the converter. The speedtorque relationship for continuous armature current is as follows:
' Kn For continuous armature current , = + or = ,
2Vs

Solution

[cos cos ] = I a,ave. Ra +


cos = I a ,ave. Ra + K n
'

2 2Vs

Speed

2 2Vs

cos =

d Ra + K ' n K

n1

1 Torque

0 n2 = - n1
10Sep10

up

[1]
30

down

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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

10Sep10

2 2Vs

2 2 277

2 2Vs

2 2 277 cos 2 =

At point 2,

At point 1,

n1 = 692.9 rpm

2 = 137.66

cos 1 =

cos(20 ) =

cos 2 =

100 0.5 + 3 n1 3 30

n1

200 Speed 0.5 3 692.9 3 30

n2 = - n1

Solution (Cont.)

( Note : K ' =

L ,up d1 2 2Vs Ra + K ' n1 cos 1 = Ra + K ' n1 K K

d2 2 2Vs Ra + K ' n2 cos 2 = L ,down Ra K ' n1 K K

up

30

2 [1] Torque
31

down

K)

In the previous example, during the upward motion, the operator decides to keep the motor at holding position. Find the firing angle of SCRs for this operation.
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Example [1]

ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

Solution
At holding position, point 2, the motor torque is equal to the load torque during upward motion and motor speed is equal to zero. Therefore,
L ,up d2 2 2Vs ' cos 2 = Ra + K n2 cos 2 = Ra + K ' n2 K K L ,up Speed 2 2Vs n2 = 0 cos 2 = Ra K
2 2Vs 2 2 277

Mehrdad Kazerani, 2010

cos 2 =

100 0.5 3

2 = 86.17

n1

1 2 Torque [1]

up
10Sep10 32

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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

In TVR braking, the terminal voltage is reversed, but field flux direction is maintained. Under TVR braking, the motor stops rapidly and the direction of rotation is reversed, unless motor is disconnected from the source and a mechanical braking is applied at n = 0. At steady-state, before and after terminal voltage reversal, the polarities of the counter emf and the terminal voltage are opposing each other.
It + If Ia Rf Field Ra Ia + Ec m + + Vt Ra If Ec m + Armature Speed Vf Field + -

Terminal Voltage Reversal (TVR)-1

Mehrdad Kazerani, 2010

Vt

Armature

Normal Operation

Terminal Voltage Reversal Normal Operation

Motoring Motoring Terminal Voltage Reversal


10Sep10

Torque

0 [1]
33

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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

Mehrdad Kazerani, 2010

Assume steady-state operation at point 1. Also, assume the load torque to be bidirectional. When the terminal voltage is suddenly reversed, the operating point moves to point 2, without any change in speed (due to inertia of the rotating parts). Point 2 is not the steady-state operating point, as the characteristics of motor and load do not meet at this point. The operating point moves along motor characteristic to point 3, where motor speed is equal to zero. If the intention is to stop the motor at point 3, the source is disconnected from the motor and a mechanical brake is applied. Between points 2 and 3 the machine operates in generating mode. The steady-state is reached at point 4, where characteristics of motor and load meet. Speed
Vt2

Terminal Voltage Reversal (TVR)-2

1 Vt1 Torque [1]

10Sep10

d = -L

d = L

34

At point 1,

Terminal Voltage Reversal (TVR)-3


d1 Ra + K ' n1 = L Ra + K ' n1 K K
[1]

Vt1 = I a1Ra + Ec1 =


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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

At point 2,

d2 Vt 2 = Vt1 = Ra + K ' n1 K
Ia2 Vt 2 Ec 2 Vt1 Ec1 = = Ra Ra

Mehrdad Kazerani, 2010

Note that the current Ia2 is much larger than the current Ia1. Considering that in steady-state, at point 1, with a small armature resistance, Ec1 Vt1 , the current Ia2 is about two times the starting current I a,start = Vt1 Ra . This can be damaging and has to be reduced.
Speed Vt2 2 1 Vt1 Torque

0 [1]

d = -L
10Sep10

d = L
35

At point 3, motor speed is equal to zero. Therefore, Ec3 = 0 and

Terminal Voltage Reversal (TVR)-4


Vt 2 = Vt1 =

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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

d3 Ra K

and

I a3 =

Mehrdad Kazerani, 2010

The current Ia3, even though smaller than Ia2, is still very large and equal to the starting current without a starting resistor. This current is damaging, too, and has to be reduced. At point 4, d4 L ' '

d 3 Vt1 = K Ra

[1]

Vt 2 = Vt1 = Ia4

Note that at point 4, speed and counter emf are both negative. Also, |Ia4|= |Ia1|. Speed
Vt2

K K Vt 2 Ec 4 Vt1 Ec 4 , Ec 4 = K ' n4 = = Ra Ra

Ra + K n4 =

Ra + K n4

[1]

1 Vt1 Torque

0 [1]

10Sep10

d = -L

d = L

36

Terminal Voltage Reversal (TVR)-5


As the armature currents during TVR braking can reach very high and damaging levels, the armature current has to be limited to safe values. One way for limiting armature current is to insert a braking resistance in series with the armature circuit at the time of TVR braking. At point d5 5, '

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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

Vt 2 = Vt1 = I a5

Mehrdad Kazerani, 2010

This current is smaller than the current at point 2. The second equation can be used to design a braking resistance to reduce the braking current to the desired value.
Vt2 RB1 = 0 RB2 > 0 Speed

K V Ec 5 Vt1 Ec1 = t2 = Ra + RB Ra + RB

( Ra + RB ) + K n1

[1]

1 Vt1 [1] Torque

d = -L
10Sep10

d = L
37

Terminal Voltage Reversal (TVR)-6


Another way for limiting armature current is to reduce the magnitude of the terminal voltage at the time of TVR braking. At point 5, V = d 5 R + K ' n
t3

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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

I a5

Mehrdad Kazerani, 2010

The current at point 5 is smaller than the current at point 2. The second equation can be used to find the magnitude of the terminal voltage that results in a safe braking current.

K Vt 3 Ec 5 Vt 3 Ec1 = = Ra Ra
a

[1]

Vt 3 < Vt 2
Vt3 Vt2 2 Speed

1 Vt1 [1] Torque

7 0

d = -L
10Sep10

d = L
38

Terminal Voltage Reversal (TVR)-7


When braking a unidirectional-torque load (e.g., gravitational load), the final steady-state operating point will be point 5, in the fourth quadrant, where motor and load characteristics meet. When moving towards point 5, motor passes through point 4, where the motor torque (and thus, the armature current) is zero and the motor speed is the no-load speed corresponding to the terminal voltage Vt2. At point 4, Ec 4 Vt 2

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n4 =

Note that at point 4, both terminal voltage and motor speed are negative.
Speed Vt2

K
'

K
'

[1]


3 0

1 Vt1 Torque

[1]

d = L
10Sep10 39

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10Sep10

Vt2

I a5

Vt 2 = Vt1 =

3 0

4 Speed

d5 Ra + K ' n5 K

Vt 2 Ec 5 Vt1 K n5 = = Ra Ra

Terminal Voltage Reversal (TVR)-8

At point 5, motor speed exceeds no-load speed and the machine will be operating in regenerative braking mode with a negative terminal voltage and a negative speed. At point 5,

d = L
40

5 [1] Torque

1 Vt1

'

[1]

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When a DC power source is available, a power electronic circuit that can be used for normal operation, as well as TVR braking, of a shunt or separately-excited DC motor, is the 4-quadrant full-bridge DC/DC converter. By turning switches 1 and 2 on, a positive voltage of magnitude Vs appears at motor terminals. By turning switches 3 and 4 on, a negative voltage of magnitude Vs appears at motor terminals. Through PWM control, the average value of the motor terminal voltage can be adjusted based on the widths of the positive and negative pulses generated by the converter. This allows us to operate the machine as a motor and also implement TVR braking.

Terminal Voltage Reversal (TVR)-9

10Sep10

41

Terminal Voltage Reversal (TVR)-10


When an AC power source is available, a power electronic circuit that can be used for normal operation, as well as TVR braking, of a shunt or separately-excited DC motor, is single-phase full-wave SCR converter, configured in dual converter style to cover all 4 quadrants. To produce a positive average terminal voltage, SCRs 1 and 2 are fired when source voltage is positive and SCRs 3 and 4 when source voltage is negative. To produce a negative average terminal voltage for TVR braking, SCRs 1 and 2 are fired when source voltage is positive and SCRs 3 and 4 when source voltage is negative. In order to change the average value of the converter output voltage, the firing angles of the SCRs have to be adjusted.

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42

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Another possibility is using three-phase four-quadrant SCR converter, configured in dual converter style to cover all 4 quadrants. The magnitude and polarity of the terminal voltage of the DC motor armature is controlled by adjusting the firing angles of the SCRs in converters 1 and 2. In order for both converters to produce the same average dc-side voltage, the condition is: 2 = 180 - 1. Converters 1 and 2 support positive and negative armature currents, respectively. The smoothing inductors limit the current circulating between the two converters due to unequal instantaneous dc-side voltage values.

Terminal Voltage Reversal (TVR)-11

10Sep10

43

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A separately-excited DC motor is driving a constant load of 10 N.m. The armature resistance is 0.5, the armature inductance 0.1 H, field voltage 120 V, field resistance 75 and field inductance 0.02 H. The moment of inertias of the motor and load are 0.4 and 0.1, respectively. The drive consists of a fullbridge DC/DC converter. The source voltage is 120 V. Simulate the system using PSIM. Use a closed-loop control to adjust the armature voltage to 100 V and then to -100 V. Draw speed and torque versus time.

Example

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Solution
The system setup in PSIM is:

10Sep10

44

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The simulation results are: st


1 quadrant quadrant quadrant quadrant
2nd 3rd 4th

Solution (Cont.)

For armature voltage of 100 V, the DC motor operates in the first quadrant. Due to TVR, operating point moves to the second, third and fourth quadrants. Finally, steady-state is reached when motor torque becomes equal to load torque, i.e., 10 N.m.
45

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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

A separately-excited DC motor is driving a constant load of 10 N.m. The armature resistance is 0.5, the armature inductance 0.1 H, field voltage 120 V, field resistance 75 and field inductance 0.02 H. The moment of inertias of the motor and load are 0.4 and 0.1, respectively. The drive consists of a threephase four-quadrant (or dual) converter. The source voltage is 208 V. Simulate the system using PSIM. Start with 1 = 65. Then, apply a step increase to 1 to make it 107. Draw speed and torque versus time over the entire simulation period. The system setup in PSIM is:

Example

Solution

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10Sep10

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The simulation results are:


1st quadrant
2nd 3rd 4th

Solution (Cont.)
quadrant quadrant quadrant

At 1 = 65, the DC motor operates in the first quadrant. Due to TVR, operating point moves to the second, third and fourth quadrants. Finally, steady-state is reached when motor torque becomes equal to load torque, i.e., 10 N.m.
47

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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

[2]

[1]

[3]

10Sep10

Reference:

M.A. El-Sharkawi, Fundamentals of Electric Drives, Brooks/Cole, Thomas Learning, 2000. Stephen J. Chapman, Electric Machinery Fundamentals, 4th Edition, McGraw Hill, 2005. Peter F. Ryff, Electric Machinery, 2nd Edition, Prentice Hall, 1994.
48

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Design and Applications of Power Electronic Converters


Prof. Mehrdad Kazerani Electrical and Computer Engineering University of Waterloo

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Outline

Brushless DC Motor Switched Reluctance Motor Stepper Motor

Lecture 11

Special-Purpose Motors

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Brushless DC motors are special motors that are fed from a DC source (through a converter), but do not have brushes. The stator of a brushless DC motor is similar to that of a synchronous or induction motor. The stator can have three or more phases. The rotor is non-salient (cylindrical) and permanent magnet. A rotor position sensor is an integral part of a brushless DC motor. A multi-phase power electronic converter is used to convert a DC voltage to square pulses that will be applied to the stator windings.

Brushless DC Motor-1

Vdc

Controller & Converter

a b c a' b' c'

c'

a
b

Br
b' a'

Bs
c

[3]

Rotor Position Signal


10Sep10 3

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The schematic diagram of a brushless DC motor with a three-phase stator winding is shown below. In the situation shown, the converter applies a pulse of voltage to the phase-a of stator. This leads to a current in the aa winding and a magnetic flux. The directions of magnetic fields of rotor and stator are as shown. The rotor magnetic field (and thus, rotor itself) moves to get aligned with the magnetic field of stator. If the situation is not changed, after alignment, rotor will stop like in a stepper motor. The torque that turns the rotor is given by:

Brushless DC Motor-2

d = k Br Bs
+

Vdc

Controller & Converter

a b c a' b' c'

c' b' a'

a
b
[3]

Br Bs
c

Rotor Position Signal


10Sep10 4

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However, if close to alignment, the voltage applied to aa winding is disconnected and a pulse of voltage is applied to bb winding, the magnetic filed of stator moves 60 and the magnetic field of rotor (and thus, rotor itself) will follow the stator field. If this disconnection from a phase and connection to the next phase continues, rotor will have continuous rotation in the direction of rotation of stator magnetic field. The information about the position of rotor is provided by a position sensor and used by the controller to supply gating pulses to the appropriate switches of the converter at specific positions of rotor.

Brushless DC Motor-3

Vdc

Controller & Converter

a b c a' b' c'

c' b'

Br Bs
a'

[3]

10Sep10

Rotor Position Signal

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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

Vdc
[1]

v
bb'

cc'

aa'

Controller & Converter

10Sep10 Rotor Position Signal

Brushless DC Motor-4

a b c a' b' c'


b' c' a'

Br Bs
c
b
[3]

The sequence of voltages applied to the proper phases of stator are shown below. The direction of rotation can be reversed by changing the sequence of excitation of phases of stator winding.

Brushless DC Motor-5
In brushless DC motors, commutation is not mechanical; instead, commutation between the stator coils is performed electronically. The controller and converter can control the speed of the motor as well as the direction of rotation. Brushless DC motors are available at low power levels. Brushless DC motors are more costly than the conventional brush DC motors. Brushless DC motors have the following advantages over brush DC motors:
Higher efficiency Higher reliability Lower maintenance requirement Much lower EMI Higher speed (in the order of tens of thousand rpm) Longer life

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10Sep10

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A brushless DC motor drive with speed dictated in open loop, by the input DC voltage, is shown below. The signals from the position sensors are used to control the converter in a six-pulse mode. The sequence of switching of IGBTs in the voltage-sourced converter shown below is identical to that in a 3-phase SCR converter bridge.

PSIM Example 1

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Speed is solely determined by input DC voltage. If the input DC voltage is fixed and not controllable, the speed cannot be changed.

Simulation Results

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A brushless DC motor drive with speed control based on input DC voltage adjustment (similar to brush DC motor) is shown below. The signals from the position sensors are used to control the converter in a six-pulse mode, the same way that an SCR converter is controlled. Note that realizing a controllable DC input voltage needs another converter.

PSIM Example 2

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The motor speed follows the speed command based on controlling the input DC voltage in a closed-loop control system, in the same way that a conventional DC motor is controlled by armature voltage adjustment.

Simulation Results

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A brushless DC motor drive with speed control based on a constant DC input voltage and PWM control is shown below.

PSIM Example 3

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Simulation Results

13

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Switched reluctance motor (SRM) is a machine with very simple structure. Only stator has windings, making SRM a singly-excited motor. Rotor is made of steel laminations, with no conductors or permanent magnet. This makes the rotor moment of inertia low, giving SRM fast acceleration capability. Switched reluctance motors main features are: simplicity, low-cost, robustness and capability of high-speed operation. Switched reluctance motors find applications in electric vehicles, aerospace and robotics. The doubly-salient structure of SRM (i.e., having salient poles on both stator and rotor) results in nonlinear characteristics, which complicates analysis and control of SRM.

Switched-Reluctance Motor-1

Rotor

Stator
[3]

10Sep10

14

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The name switched reluctance motor does not mean that reluctance is switched. It refers to the fact that phase currents are switched so that the rotor rotates due to the tendency of rotor poles to get aligned with excited stator poles and assume a position that corresponds to minimum reluctance. The SRMs are manufactured with different ratios of stator to rotor pole numbers. The SRM shown below has 6 poles on the stator and 4 poles on the rotor. It is called a 6/4 SRM. SRMs are made in single-phase, three-phase and four-phase structures. Higher number of phase is also possible. The SRM shown below is a three-phase SRM.

Switched-Reluctance Motor-2

Rotor Stator
[3]

10Sep10

15

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In the SRM shown below, two rotor poles are aligned with two diametrically opposite stator poles that are excited. When these two rotor poles are aligned with two stator poles, the other two rotor poles are out of alignment with respect to another pair of stator poles. When a new pair of stator poles are excited, the rotor poles that were not aligned before, get aligned with the newly excited stator poles. Rotor is rotated by sequentially exciting diametrically opposite stator poles through applying a current to the corresponding windings. From the SRM shown below, it can Stator be seen that it takes excitation of Rotor all three phases in sequence to rotate c a b the rotor through 90. b c Rotating the rotor through one revolution takes switching of each phase as many c b times as the number of rotor poles (4). a [3]
10Sep10 16

Switched-Reluctance Motor-3

ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

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The voltage equation for one phase of the SRM can be given as:

Switched-Reluctance Motor-4
d v = Ri + ( , i) dt

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where is the flux linkage per phase and the rotor position. The following assumptions are made to simplify the analysis:
The flux linkage at any rotor position varies linearly with current. There is no mutual inductance between the phases. The fringing effect is neglected. The flux crosses the air gap radially.

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Therefore, one can write: It can be shown that:

( , i) = L( )i

1 2 dL pd = i 2 d

10Sep10

17

Switched-Reluctance Motor-7
The developed torque will therefore be:
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1 2 dL d = = i 2 d
From the developed torque relation, one can conclude that:
The developed torque is proportional to the square of current. Therefore, the direction of current need not change to change the mode of operation form motoring to generating and vice versa. The fact that developed torque is proportional to the square of current, makes SRM behave like a series DC motor. SRM features a high starting torque. To operate an SRM as a motor, with positive torque, machine is operated in positive slope of inductance, i.e., dL / d >0. To operate an SRM as a generator, with negative torque, machine is operated in negative slope of inductance, i.e., dL / d <0.

pd

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10Sep10

18

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From the structure of SRM, the following diagram for the relation between the inductance and rotor position, at a fixed stator phase current, can be obtained. Stator Rotor Based on L = N 2 , as poles get aligned, L.
m

Switched-Reluctance Motor-8

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La

Inductance L
Overlapping (Motoring )

Aligned
Overlapping (Generating )

[3]

Unaligned

Unaligned

Lu
0
10Sep10

rotor

[4]

5 position

19

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0
i

In the following diagram, SRM is operated in the motoring mode. The current pulses are applied to the corresponding phase winding during the positive slope of L, i.e., dL / d >0.

Inductance L

1 2 3 4
[4]

Switched-Reluctance Motor-9

pd

1 2 dL d = = i 2 d

rotor

5 position

20

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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

10Sep10

0
i

In the following diagram, SRM is operated in the generating mode. The current pulses are applied to the corresponding phase winding during the negative slope of L, i.e., dL / d <0.

Inductance L

1 2 3 4
[4]

Switched-Reluctance Motor-10

1 2 dL d = = i 2 d

pd

rotor

5 position

21

The nonlinear relationship

Switched-Reluctance Motor-11
( , i) = L( )i

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leads to the nonlinear relationship

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This makes it difficult to derive the current reference form the torque reference, which is obtained in the speed loop. It is normally required to use lookup tables or numerical techniques, which complicate the control. Block diagram of an SRM drive is shown below:
* nr

1 2 dL d = = i 2 d

pd

Speed Controller Torque Controller Rotor Position

i*
+ -

Current Controller

Converter

SRM

nr

Current Feedback

Differentiator

Encoder

[4]
10Sep10 22

Advantages of SRM are:

Switched-Reluctance Motor-12

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Windings on stator only lower cost, simpler cooling Low moment of inertia rotor high-speed operation, fast acceleration. No brushes, commutator and slip rings high reliability and low maintenance requirements Rotor has no winding or permanent magnet mechanically robust High power density, especially at high speed, compared with induction motor, permanent-magnet synchronous motor and brushless DC motor In case of failure of one or more phases, number of phases can be modified high reliability Only unidirectional current is required for driving SRM in both modes of operation and in both directions A wide variety of power electronic converters can be used for driving SRM Reduced power electronics size chance of integrating the converter within motor enclosure

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Disadvantages of SRM are:


Pulsating torque, high torque ripple and noise (reduced by proper control) Salient-pole rotor high frictional losses at high speeds Power electronic converter is absolutely necessary to drive the motor; 10Sep10 direct starting and operating from the line is not possible. 23

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Stepper motor is a special type of motor that is driven by the pulses produced by a digital control unit to control the angular position of the rotor precisely and in steps. Stepper motors find applications in head positioning of disc drives and printers. They are also used in robots and manipulators.

Stepper Motor-1

Stepper Motor-2
Stepper Motor Types:
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Variable-Reluctance Stepper Motor, Fig (a) Stator and rotor are made from soft steel. Permanent Magnet Stepper Motor, Fig (b) Stator is made from soft steel, but rotor is a permanent magnet. Hybrid Stepper Motors, Fig. (c) Stator is made from soft steel. Rotor is made from soft steel and is composed of two sections separated by a permanent magnet

Fig. (a), [5]


10Sep10

Fig. (b), [6]

Fig. (c), [6]


25

Stepper Motor-3 Variable-Reluctance Stepper Motor


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The stator and rotor are toothed. Windings wound around stator teeth are excited to produce magnetic poles to attract rotor teeth and dictate the position of rotor. The reluctance of the magnetic circuit composed of stator teeth, rotor teeth, and air gap, varies with the rotor position. variablereluctance stepper motor. When one or more stator windings are energized, the rotor will step forward or step backward to assume a position that corresponds to minimum reluctance in the path of magnetic flux.

10Sep10

26

Stepper Motor-4 Variable-Reluctance Stepper Motor


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Each pair of stator windings that are facing each other, are connected in series and constitute a phase. Each phase is energized by turning a semiconductor switch on and applying a DC voltage across the terminals of the two windings in series. In Fig. (a), a variable-reluctance stepper motor with 8 tooth in the stator core and 6 teeth in the rotor core has been shown. The phaseA windings have been energized and, as a result, rotor teeth 1 and 4 have been aligned with stator teeth 1 and 5, a position corresponding to minimum reluctance.

Fig. (a), [5]

10Sep10

27

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10Sep10

Stepper Motor-5 Variable-Reluctance Stepper Motor

Fig. (b) shows the case where phase-A windings have been deenergized and phase-B windings energized. A a result, rotor teeth 3 and 6 have been aligned with stator teeth 4 and 8. The angular step with respect to the previous (original) position is 15.

Fig. (b), [5]


28

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10Sep10

Stepper Motor-6 Variable-Reluctance Stepper Motor

Fig. (c) shows the case where phase-B windings have been deenergized and phase-C windings energized. A a result, rotor teeth 2 and 5 have been aligned with stator teeth 3 and 7. The angular step with respect to the previous position is 15 and with respect to original position is 30.

Fig. (c), [5]


29

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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

10Sep10

Stepper Motor-7 Variable-Reluctance Stepper Motor

Fig. (d) shows the case where phase-C windings have been deenergized and phase-D windings energized. A a result, rotor teeth 1 and 4 have been aligned with stator teeth 2 and 6. The angular step with respect to the previous position is 15 and with respect to original position is 45.

Fig. (d), [5]


30

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Stepper Motor-8 Variable-Reluctance Stepper Motor

Fig. (e) shows the case where phase-D windings have been deenergized and phase-A windings reenergized. A a result, rotor teeth 3 and 6 have been aligned with stator teeth 5 and 1. The angular step with respect to the previous position is 15 and with respect to original position is 60.

Fig. (e), [5]


31

Stepper Motor-9 Variable-Reluctance Stepper Motor


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The stepping sequence shown in Fig. (a) to Fig. (e) follows the switching sequence that energizes a stator winding and de-energizes the previous one. This sequence is repeated till the desired number of complete revolutions or fraction of a revolution is achieved. The clockwise direction of rotation of rotor is a result of energizing the stator windings in the sequence A-B-C-D. (step forward) Implementing the sequence D-C-B-A will reverse the direction of rotation of rotor. (step backward) The relative number of stator and rotor teeth determines the step angle according to the relation:

N s Nr N s Nr

360 [5]

In the stepper motor of Fig. (a) to Fig. (e),

86 = 360 = 15 [5] 8 6
10Sep10 32

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Stepper Motor-10 Variable-Reluctance Stepper Motor Half-Step Operation


A modified pulsing sequence can result in half-step operation. In the variable-reluctance stepper motor shown below, if the pulsing sequence is changed from A-B-C-D to A-A&B-B-B&C-C-C&D-DD&A, the rotor moves by 7.5 in a clockwise direction with each pulse. In Fig. (a), only phase-A winding has been energized.

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Fig. (a), [5]

10Sep10

33

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10Sep10

Stepper Motor-11 Variable-Reluctance Stepper Motor Half-Step Operation

In Fig. (b), both phase-A and phase-B windings have been energized. In Fig. (c), only phase-B winding has been energized.

Fig. (b), [5] Fig. (c), [5]


34

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Stepper Motor-12 Variable-Reluctance Stepper Motor Microstepping


If in Fig. (b), phase-A and phase-B windings are energized by two different currents, rather than by equal currents, and the currents in the two active phases are incrementally increased or decreased between zero and maximum value, very small step angles can be achieved. Microstepping provides smooth operation and high-resolution positioning at low speed.

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Fig. (b), [5]

10Sep10

35

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10Sep10

Stepper Motor-13 Variable-Reluctance Stepper Motor Holding Torque

Holding torque is defined as the maximum load torque that can be applied to the shaft of an energized stepper motor without slipping poles. Fig. (a) shows a stepper motor when phase A is energized and the rotor has assumed the stable position shown.

Fig. (a), [5]

36

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Stepper Motor-14 Variable-Reluctance Stepper Motor Holding Torque


Fig. (b) shows the case where a mechanical torque is applied to the rotor and the rotor is forced to rotate through 15, i.e., one step. The force of attraction between the rotor teeth 1 and 4 and the stator teeth 1 and 5 develops a torque that tends to restore the original position of rotor, shown in Fig. (a). In fact, if the applied torque is removed, rotor flips back to the original position.

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10Sep10

Fig. (b), [5]

37

Stepper Motor-15 Variable-Reluctance Stepper Motor Holding Torque


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Fig. (c) shows the case where a mechanical torque is applied to the rotor and the rotor is forced to rotate through 30, i.e., two steps. This position is an unstable equilibrium position since the rotor teeth 1 and 4 experience the same force of attraction as the rotor teeth 3 and 6. As a result, the net restoring torque on the rotor is zero. If the applied torque is removed, the rotor may go two steps backward to the original position or move two steps forward to the position shown in Fig. (d).

Fig. (c), [5]

Fig. (d), [5]

10Sep10

38

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Stepper Motor-16 Variable-Reluctance Stepper Motor Holding Torque


The figure below shows the restoring torque versus the number of steps through which the rotor is forced to rotate under the influence of the externally-applied torque. This characteristic is called static torque curve. Maximum restoring torque corresponds to a one-step displacement with respect to the original position.

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Static Torque Curve [5]

10Sep10

39

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10Sep10

Stepper Motor-17 Variable-Reluctance Stepper Motor Drive

The figure below shows a drive circuit for a variable-reluctance stepper motor. Blocks F, C and D are filter, bidirectional counter and decoder, respectively. The signal produced by the decoder is given to a switch driver to turn the switch on and off, based on the control command received.

[5]
40

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The resolution of a stepper motor is expressed in terms of number of steps per revolution of the rotor. If is the step angle (deg./step), then: 360 Resolution = step / revolution The speed of a stepper motor is defined as follows: fp fp n= rev./ s = rpm 360 6 where fp is the stepping frequency or pulse rate (in pulse/s). Example: With a step angle of 15 and a pulse rate of 1800 pulse/s,
Resolution = Speed = 360

Stepper Motor-18 Variable-Reluctance Stepper Motor Resolution, Speed and Step Accuracy

360 = 24 steps / revolution 15

fp
6

Step accuracy is defined as the error introduced in rotor position of a stepper motor in a single step movement. Stepper motors are characterized typically by a step accuracy of 1-10% of the step size.
10Sep10 41

15 1800 = 4500 rpm 6

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10Sep10

Stepper Motor-19 Permanent-Magnet Stepper Motor

The figure below shows a simplified diagram of a permanentmagnet stepper motor.

[6]
42

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10Sep10

Stepper Motor-20 Hybrid Stepper Motor

The figure below shows a simplified diagram of a hybrid stepper motor.

[6]
43

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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

10Sep10

[5]

Stepper Motor-21 Hybrid Stepper Motor

The rotor has two toothed discs that contribute to the torque developed. These two discs are offset by half a tooth pitch and are separated by a permanent magnet. The permanent magnet causes the two discs to have opposite polarities. One disc has only south-pole teeth and the other disc has only north-pole teeth.

[5]
44

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10Sep10

In the hybrid stepper motor shown below, there are 4 stator teeth and 5 rotor teeth. The step angle can be calculated using the general formula introduced for variable-reluctance stepper motor.

[5]

45 360 = 360 = 18 = Ns Nr 45

Ns Nr

Stepper Motor-22 Hybrid Stepper Motor

45

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10Sep10

(a)

Figures (a) to (e) below illustrate the principle of operation of hybrid steppe motor. Note that the energization of stator windings with positive and negative current can make the stator teeth south or north pole. This is done by switching a positive or negative voltage across the winding to be energized.

(d) (b) [5] (c) (e)


46

Stepper Motor-23 Hybrid Stepper Motor

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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

10Sep10

Stepper Motor-24 Permanent-Magnet/Hybrid Stepper Motor Drive

The figure below shows a drive circuit for a permanent-magnet or hybrid stepper motor. The converter structure adopted allows for energization of stator windings with positive or negative current to produce south or north poles on the stator teeth based on the operating requirements.

[5]
47

Reference:
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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

[1] Stephen J. Chapman, Electric Machinery Fundamentals, 4th Edition, McGraw Hill, 2005. [2] M.A. El-Sharkawi, Fundamentals of Electric Drives, Brooks/Cole, Thomas Learning, 2000. [3] Switched Reluctance Motor Drives, http://www.fleadh.co.uk/srm.htm [4] Ismael El-Samahy, Simulation and Control of a Four-Quadrant Switched Reluctance Motor Drive for High Performance Applications, Masters Thesis, University of Waterloo, 2004. [5] Charles L. Hubert, Electric Machines: Theory, Operation, Applications, Adjustment and Control, 2nd Edition, Prentice Hall, 2002. [6] Theodore Wildi, Electrical Machines, Drives, and Power Systems, 5th Edition, Prentice Hall, 2002.

Mehrdad Kazerani, 2010

10Sep10

48

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Design and Applications of Power Electronic Converters


Prof. Mehrdad Kazerani Electrical and Computer Engineering University of Waterloo

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9Sep10

Outline

Snubber Circuits

Switch-Mode Operation Towards High Switching Frequency & High Efficiency Snubbers for Controllable Switches
Turn-On Snubbers Turn-Off Snubbers

Lecture 12 Snubber Circuits, Thermal Management, Gate/Base Drive Circuits

Over-Voltage Protection using Metal-Oxide Varistors (MOVs) Snubber Requirements of Controllable Switches Soft Switching

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Lecture 12 Snubber Circuits, Thermal Management, Gate/Base Drive Circuits


Outline Thermal Management
Introduction Heat Transfer Mechanisms Heat Transfer by Conduction
Thermal Resistance Analogy with Electric Circuits Combination of Thermal resistances Heat Capacity Transient Thermal Impedance Heat Sink selection Procedure

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9Sep10

Heat Sinks

Gate/Base Drive Circuits

Heat Transfer by Radiation Heat Transfer by Convection Combined Effect of Radiation and Convection Typical Heat Sink Characteristics Introduction A Practical IGBT Gate Drive Circuit Gate Resistance RG Base/Gate Drive Circuit Considerations 3

Switch-Mode Operation
In switch-mode operation, the switch is turned on and off under full load current and full source voltage. If the current and voltage transitions during turn-on and turn-off processes are assumed to be linear, the freewheeling diode is assumed to be ideal and the stray inductances are neglected, the switching waveforms do not show any overshoot.

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A controllable Switch in a circuit

Switching Waveforms
9Sep10 4

Switch-Mode Operation (Cont.)


In practice, the diode cannot be assumed ideal and stray inductances cannot be neglected. As a result, overshoots in the voltage and current switching waveforms can be observed. This implies that switches with higher ratings are required to withstand the overvoltages and overcurrents.

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A controllable Switch in a circuit with stray inductances

Switching Waveforms

9Sep10

Switch-Mode Operation (Cont.)


Assume the switch to be ON before t0 and iC = Io. At t0, OFF-command is received by the switch. vCE starts rising at a slope determined by the switch and drive characteristics. At t1, vCE = Vd. Diode becomes forward biased and starts conducting and sharing the load current with the switch. iC starts falling, contributing to an additional LdiC/dt voltage across the switch.

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vCE = Vd L

diC dt

diC 0) dt

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At t3, when iC = 0, LdiC/dt = 0 and vCE settles at Vd. After t3, the diode carries Io. This situation remains unchanged till the switch receives an ONcommand at t4.

A controllable Switch in a circuit with stray inductances


9Sep10

Switching Waveforms
6

Switch-Mode Operation (Cont.)


At t4, ON-command is received by the switch. iC starts rising at a slope determined by the switch and drive characteristics. The load current Io starts being transferred from the diode to the switch. Due to diC / dt > 0, vCE suddenly drops to:

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vCE = Vd L

diC dt

diC 0) dt

vCE stays at the reduced level as long as iC is rising. iC exceeds Io due to the reverse recovery of the diode. iC reaches its peak value when the freewheeling diode recovers at t5 .

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iC , peak = I o + I rr

Upon recovery, the reverse voltage across the diode starts rising and the voltage across the switch starts falling. At t6, the reverse voltage across the diode is almost equal to Vd and vCE=VON . This situation remains unchanged till the switch receives an OFF-command.

A controllable Switch in a circuit with stray inductances


9Sep10

Switching Waveforms
7

Switch-Mode Operation (Cont.)


As seen, the switch turns on and off the entire load current under the entire source voltage. This mode of operation is known as SwitchMode Operation. The problems with switch-mode operation are:
High switch stress
Simultaneous occurrence of high voltage and high current values High diSW / dt at turn-on High dvSW / dt at turn-off

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High switching power losses due to simultaneous high voltage and current Electro-Magnetic Interference (EMI) due to large slopes

9Sep10

A controllable Switch in a circuit with stray inductances

Switching Waveforms
8

Towards High Switching Frequency & High Efficiency


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In order to work at high switching frequency, the problems with:


Switch stress, Switching losses, and EMI have to be solved. Snubbers are circuits composed of resistors, inductors, capacitors and diodes that are placed around switches. The fact that capacitors resist rapid changes in voltage is used to limit switch dv/dt. The fact that inductors oppose rapid changes in current is used to limit switch di/dt. Snubbers are dissipative in nature. Snubbers shift the power losses from the switch to the snubber circuit. With snubbers, operating at high switching frequency is made possible, but overall efficiency is not improved.
9Sep10

Mehrdad Kazerani, 2010

Snubbers:

A di/dt snubber

A dv/dt snubber

iSW
Idealized switching trajectory

vSW
9

Towards High Switching Frequency & High Efficiency (Cont.)


Soft Switching:

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In soft switching, a combination of special converter topologies and switching strategies is used to turn the switches on and off under zero voltage and/or current. Theoretically, this results in zero switching power loss. Zero voltage switching (ZVS) is a condition that implies switching under zero voltage. Zero current switching (ZCS) is a condition that implies switching under zero current. Some converter topologies have inherent soft switching capability. In most of the cases, auxiliary circuits are needed to make soft switching possible. Resonant circuits are used to create zero crossings for switch voltage and current so that the switching can be performed under zero voltage or zero current. Soft switching reduces switch losses, dv/dt, di/dt, and EMI, and enables the switch to use only a small part of the SOA.

iSW
Idealized switching trajectory

iSW
Idealized switching trajectory

vSW
Switch- Mode With Snubber With Soft Switching

vSW

9Sep10

10

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9Sep10

Turn-on Snubbers:

[1]

Snubbers for Controllable Switches

Turn-on snubbers are used to reduce turn-on switching losses and Limit the peak reverse recovery current of freewheeling diode.

The main component in the turn-on snubber is a series inductor that limits the rate of rise of switch current during turn-on process.

A controllable switch with turn-on snubber


11

At turn-on, as long as the switch current is rising, the voltage across the switch stays at a reduced level below Vd. The drop in switch voltage is:
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Turn-on Snubber (Cont.)


vSW Io di = Ls = Ls dt tri
di dt
for large Ls

ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

If the snubber inductance is large enough, the drop in switch voltage will be almost equal to Vd. Therefore,

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Vd Ls

This means that slope of switch current is controlled by Ls. Note that the reduction of di/dt results in avoiding the simultaneous occurrence of high voltage and high current and thus, avoiding large switching losses at turn-on.

[1] A controllable switch with turn-on snubber [1] Switch current and voltage waveforms at turn-on

9Sep10

12

Turn-on Snubber (Cont.)


During switch ON-state, energy is stored in Ls. This energy is given 1 by: 2

WON =

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This energy will be dissipated in RLs during OFF-state of the switch. Ls and RLs are designed based on the following criteria:
Turn-on snubber causes an over-voltage across the switch at turn-off. The magnitude of the maximum over-voltage is:

Ls I o

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vSW ,max = RLs I o


For safe operation of the switch,

Vd + RLs I o VOFF state , Limit

A controllable switch with turn-on snubber

[1]

9Sep10

13

Turn-on Snubber (Cont.)


Turn-On Snubber Recovery: The current in Ls must decay to below 10% of Io during the shortest OFF-state period of the switch so that the turn-on snubber will be effective again in the next turn-on. During OFF-state,

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Ls iLs = I o e , = RLs

For iLs to drop below 0.1Io during switch OFF-state,

tOFF state ,min 2.3


This is the condition for the recovery of the turn-on snubber. Note: Ls must be able to carry Io.

[1] A controllable switch with turn-on snubber

9Sep10

14

Turn-off Snubber
Turn-off snubber;
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Reduces switch stress during turn-off by reducing dv/dt and Keeps switch voltage low while switch current is high during turn-off process. As current drops, voltage is allowed to rise. Avoiding simultaneous occurrence of high voltage and high current is the key to reduction of switching losses.

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The main element of turn-off snubber is a capacitor that limits the rate of rise of voltage across the switch at turn-off to a safe value.

[1]

A controllable switch with turn-off snubber


9Sep10 15

Turn-off Snubber (Cont.)


When the switch receives an OFF-command, its resistance rises. As a result, load current Io find an easier path through Ds, Cs, and the source. As the switch current falls, the capacitor current rises. As a result, the capacitor voltage builds up as well. Note that the capacitance of the snubber capacitor determines the rate of rise of voltage across the switch. The capacitor can be designed in such a way that switch dv/dt is maintained below the limit.

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A controllable switch with turn-off snubber [1]


9Sep10

Switch current and voltage waveforms at turn-off [1]


16

Depending on the size of the capacitor, three different cases can happen:
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Turn-off Snubber (Cont.)

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Small Cs: Capacitor voltage reaches Vd before capacitor current reaches Io. As soon as Capacitor voltage reaches Vd, the freewheeling diode will be forward biased. The capacitor current drops to zero and diode conducts the current Io - iC. Base Cs: Capacitor voltage reaches Vd at the same time as capacitor current reaches Io. As soon as Capacitor voltage reaches Vd, the freewheeling diode will be forward biased. The capacitor current drops to zero and diode current jumps to Io. Large Cs: Capacitor current reaches Io before capacitor voltage reaches Vd. Switch current falls to zero and capacitor will take the entire load current. The capacitor charges up to Vd, capacitor current falls to zero and diode current jumps to Io.

[1] A controllable switch 9Sep10 with turn-off snubber [1] Switch current and voltage waveforms at turn-off
17

The Effect of Turn-off Snubber on Turn-on process:


At turn-on, before diode recovers, the switch voltage is equal to Vd. Upon diode recovery, the switch voltage starts dropping. As the snubber capacitor has been charged to Vd during turn-off and is at a higher potential with respect to the switch, the capacitor starts discharging through Rs and the switch. Almost all of the energy stored in the capacitor will be dissipated in Rs, with almost no dissipation in the switch as the switch voltage has already dropped to zero. The peak value of the discharge current can be designed to be less than the peak of diode reverse recovery current so that the switch does not experience any current above the level that it would experience without a turn-off snubber. In this way, the adverse effect of turn-off snubber on turn- on process is eliminated.

Turn-off Snubber (Cont.)

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Controllable switch with turn-off snubber [1] Switch current and voltage waveforms at turn-off
9Sep10

[1]

18

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9Sep10

WR =

Rs is chosen such that

Vd (= iRs , peak ) I rr , I rr 0.2 I o Rs

Turn-off Snubber Design: Design of Rs

The energy dissipated in Rs at turn-on is:

Controllable switch with turn-off snubber

Note that one should have Io+Irr<ISW,peak

Turn-off Snubber (Cont.)

[1]

1 Cs Vd2 2

Switch current and voltage waveforms at turn-off [1]


19

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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

9Sep10

Turn-off Snubber Design: Design of Cs

With Rs selected, Cs is chosen based on the following criteria:

Controllable switch with turn-off snubber

Keeping turn-off trajectory within Safe Operating Area (SOA) Keeping Wtotal=WR+WSW as low as possible.

Turn-off Snubber (Cont.)

[1]

Switch current and voltage waveforms at turn-off [1]


20

Turn-off Snubber (Cont.)


Turn-off Snubber Design: Fine-tuning of design
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The initial selections of Rs and Cs have to be refined to make sure that Cs is discharged to a low voltage (e.g., 0.1Vd) during the shortest ONstate time in operation so that turn-off snubber will be effective again in the next turn-off. During ON-state period,

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vCs = Vd e , = Rs Cs
For the capacitor voltage to reach below 0.1Vd in the shortest ON-state period, one must have:

tON state ,min 2.3


This is the condition for the recovery of the turn-off snubber.

9Sep10

21

Example
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In the circuit shown below, the IGBT switch has the following parameters: dv VDSM = 600 V, IDM = 100 A, DS lim = 800 V/s, and trv = 0.4 s. dt The circuit parameters are: Vd = 400 V, Io = 75 A and fsw = 20 kHz. The duty cycle d varies in the range of 0.2 to 0.6. Assume the diode to be ideal. Is a turn-off snubber required for the IGBT? If you answered no to part (a), stop here; otherwise, continue. Draw a turn-off snubber circuit for the switch. Design a turn-off snubber with a safety factor of 1.5 to dvDS dt . (Assume that the snubber capacitor is large enough so that the capacitor current reaches Io before capacitor voltage reaches Vd.) Does the snubber have enough time to recover?

9Sep10

22

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(a)

Io i

Solution

trv v Vd

dvSW Vd dv 400 = = = 1000V / s DS lim (= 800 V / s ) dt trv 0.4 106 dt

Therefore, a turn-off snubber is required to reduce the rate of rise of voltage below the limit.

23

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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

9Sep10

(b)

IGBT with turn-off snubber

Solution (Cont.)

24

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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

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dt

dvCs

dvCs
max =
Io tfi

dt max =
dvSW 1 1 max = iCs ,max = Io dt Cs Cs

(c) It is assumed that Cs>Cs1. Therefore, with a turn-off snubber, the following diagram can be drawn.

For safety factor of 1.5 to dv/dt, choose a capacitance value that results in:

Cs =
1 dvSW lim 1.5 dt
vCs Io

iSW iCs

Solution (Cont.)

Io 75 = = 0.141 106 F = 0.141 F = 141nF 1 1 dvSW (800V / s ) lim 1.5 1.5 dt


25

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(c), Cont. For Rs,

But,

(d) For recovery, one must have:

tON state,min 2.3 s , s = Rs Cs

s = Rs Cs = (16) (0.141106 ) = 2.256 106 s


tON = dTsw , Tsw =

Io +

75 +

Solution (Cont.)

Rs ,min =

1 f sw

Vd = I DM Rs ,min 400 = 100 Rs ,min 400 = 16 25

26

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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

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As

But,

tON state,min = 0.2Tsw =

(d), Cont. As d varies between 0.2 and 0.6, tON-state varies between 0.2Tsw and 0.6Tsw. One must have:

the turn-off snubber will recover.

Solution (Cont.)

tON state,min 2.3 s

2.3 s = 2.3 2.256 106 = 5.19 106 s = 5.19 s

tON state,min (= 10 s ) 2.3 s (= 5.19 s)

0.2 0.2 = = 105 s = 10 s f sw 20 103

27

Over-Voltage Protection using Metal-Oxide Varistors (MOVs)


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Metal-Oxide Varistors (MOVs) are devices (normally made of Zinc-Oxide) whose resistance varies with the applied voltage. MOV represents an open circuit as long as the voltage across it is at the normal level. MOV represents a low resistance when experiencing an over-voltage. In this case, the MOV provides a low-resistance path for the current and maintains a safe voltage across the thyristor. MOVs are used in power systems as surge arresters connected in parallel to the power lines to protect the equipment against over-voltages caused by lightning and switching.

A switch with turn-off snubber and MOV


9Sep10 28

Snubber Requirements of Controllable Switches


All three types of snubbers can be used with controllable switches at the same time. The most common combination is:
Turn-on snubber Turn-off snubber MOV

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Snubber requirements vary from one switch type to another. The goal of semiconductor industry is to reduce snubber requirements of the evolving switches. To do this, the switch has to have high dv/dt and di/dt capabilities. IGBTs feature low snubber requirements. Usually, a small capacitor across the collector-emitter terminals would be sufficient.

9Sep10

29

Soft Switching
Soft Switching: Turning controllable switches on and off at zero voltage and/or current. Zero-Voltage Switching (ZVS): Switching at zero voltage. Zero-Current Switching (ZCS): Switching at zero current. Soft switching requires special converter topologies and switching strategies. Soft switching results in:
Less switch stress Lower switching losses Less EMI

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Some converter topologies have inherent soft switching property. In other topologies, soft switching is implemented through auxiliary means. Resonant-Mode Converters are a class of converters which use L-C resonant circuits to shape the voltage and current waveforms to achieve ZVS and/or ZCS. Different combinations of converter topologies and switching strategies have been developed to achieve this goal.

9Sep10

30

Thermal Management - Introduction Advanced Training Centre in Electrical Power Engineering Processing ECE 663:in Electrical Power Engineering Electric Centre Energy Power Advanced Training Centre in Electrical Power Engineering Advanced Training Electronic ConvertersEngineering Power Electronic Converters: Design and Applications Mehrdad Kazerani, 2007

The switching and conduction losses in semiconductor devices turn into heat. This increases the internal temperature of the device. Semiconductor devices are very sensitive to heat. The internally-generated heat has to be transferred to the ambient for proper and safe operation of the semiconductor device. Reliability of semiconductor devices depends on the internal operating temperature. Failure rate of semiconductor devices doubles for each 1015C temperature rise above 50C. The maximum allowable junction temperature in semiconductor devices is around 125C. Operating the device at a temperature higher than 125 , can result in device malfunction. Semiconductor devices are cooled by heat-sinks through natural convection and radiation, or through forced convection (using fans), or through forced conduction (using liquid coolants). Temperature monitoring, control and protection are very important for semiconductor devices. Converters, which are made of semiconductor devices, are tested to ensure proper operation at full-load and the highest ambient temperature indicated on the nameplate. The test in which the converter is placed in an oven and exposed to the highest specified operating temperature, at full-load, for a specified period of time, is called burn-in test and is a common practice.
9Sep10 31

ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

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Normally, the heat transfer inside the semiconductor device takes place by conduction, whereas heat transfer through heat-sink is performed by radiation and convection.
Conduction Radiation Convection

Heat Transfer Mechanisms

The internally-generated heat of semiconductor devices is transferred to the ambient through three different mechanisms:

32

Heat Transfer by Conduction


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Heat transfer inside semiconductor switches takes place through conduction. The thermal power conducted through a piece of material with the length d, cross-sectional area A, and thermal conductivity , is related to the temperature difference between the two ends, as: A
Pcond =

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A material with high thermal conductivity () is a material that can conduct a large amount of heat with a small temperature difference between the two ends. The unit of is: W-m-1 C-1. For 90% pure Aluminum, =220 W-m-1 C-1.

T , (T = T2 T1 )

Heat Transfer by Conduction


9Sep10 33

Thermal Resistance
Thermal resistance R is defined as:
R =

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The thermal resistance corresponding to conduction is defined as:


R ,cond . = T d = Pcond . A

T P

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The unit of thermal resistance is C / W. Thermal resistance represents the resistance of a material against heat flow. The smaller the thermal resistance is, the easier heat can flow through the material. Power semiconductor devices are made to have small thickness (d) and large cross-sectional area (A). This results in low R . High power devices such as SCRs are made in hockey-puck shape to have low R (R < 1 C / W) and get cooled through both surfaces.

9Sep10

34

Analogy with Electric Circuits


There is an analogy between the thermal systems and electric circuits. This analogy can be used to derive a simple equivalent electric circuit for a complicated thermal system. Then, the equivalent circuit can be used to study the behaviour of the thermal system and solve for unknowns such as temperature and heat flow. Thermal Electrical

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Pcond. I
R
+ +

T V

R R
R

I
V2 V1

Pcond .

T2 _

T1 _

Pcond . =

T (= T2 T1 ) R

I=

V (= V2 V1 ) R
35

9Sep10

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Pcond .

Junction

Tj R jc

Combination of Thermal Resistances

In multi-layer and/or multi-branch structures, the thermal system can be represented by series and parallel combinations of thermal resistances.

By KVL,
+

Case

Tc

R cs

Sink

Ts
_ _

R sa
+

Ta

Series Resistors: R ja = R jc + R cs + R sa
Ambient

T j Ta = Pcond . ( R jc + R cs + R sa )
36

Heat Capacity
R is a parameter characterizing a material in steady-state. In transients, another parameter called heat capacity is used with thermal resistance to represent the thermal characteristic of the material. Heat capacity per unit volume is defined as: dQ Cv = dT where Q is the heat energy density and T is the material temperature. Heat capacity of the material is:

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Cs = Cv Volume
The unit of Heat capacity is: J/K. The combination of thermal resistance and heat capacity forms the transient thermal impedance. The effect of heat capacity is that sharp rises in thermal power do not cause abrupt temperature rises. This delay has a protective role for the device. Junction
Pcond Tj R jc

Case
Cs 2

Tc

R cs

Sink
Cs 2

Ts

R sa

Ambient

Ta

Cs1

9Sep10

37

Transient Thermal Impedance


Transient Thermal Impedance Z is defined as the change in the temperature difference between two points (e.g., Tj-Ts) over the time period of a step change in power dissipation divided by the magnitude of the step change. T Z = P The unit of Z is C/W. As a result of heat capacity in the thermal system, the device junction temperature Tj rises gradually following a sudden change in power dissipation due to overload, power-up, and power-down. As a result of heat capacity, the pulse current rating of semiconductor devices is greater than their continuous current rating.
P

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P t
T t

T
Heating Cooling t

The effect of heat capacity on temperature rise following a rise in power dissipation
9Sep10 38

Heat Sinks
The heat is transferred from the device junction to the case through conduction. If no other cooling mechanism is used, Tj-Ta will be small and a small power can be dissipated with a specific value of Rja according to the formula:
R = T T P= P R

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This means that the device cannot work at its rated power. Heat sinks allow heat transfer through radiation and convection. They introduce a very small R in series with Rjs, but allow a large Tj-Ta, which results in a large power to be dissipated. As a result, the device can be operated at higher power levels, up to its rated power. Semiconductor device manufacturers keep Rjc as low as possible. The user has to make sure that Rca is made as low as possible in the most economic way.

9Sep10

39

Heat Transfer by Radiation


Stefan Boltzmanns Law relates the thermal power that can be radiated (from a surface to the ambient) to the emissivity of the surface, surface area, and temperatures of the heat sink and the ambient.
Prad = 5.7 108 E A(Ts4 Ta4 )

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where Prad = radiated power in W E = emissivity of the heat sink surface (E = 0.05 for polished Aluminum, E = 0.9 for black oxide coated Aluminum) A = outer surface area in m2 Ts and Ta = surface and ambient temperatures in K. Based on the original definition of R, one can find the thermal resistance associated with radiation as:
R ,rad = T T = Prad 5.7 108 E A(Ts4 Ta4 )

Note that in calculating the surface area participating in radiation, sections facing each other are not considered, as radiation is ineffective in the case of facing surfaces.

9Sep10

40

Heat Transfer by Convection


For a vertical surface of height dvertical < 1 m, the thermal power that can be transferred through convection (from a surface to the ambient) is related to surface area, temperature difference between the surface and the ambient, and vertical height as: where Pconv = heat power transferred through convection in W T = temperature difference between the surface and surrounding air in K or C. A = outer surface area in m2. Based on the original definition of R, one can find the thermal resistance associated with convection as:
R ,conv 1 d vertical = 1.34 A T
1/ 4

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Pconv

(T )1.25 = 1.34 A (d vertical )0.25

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Note that in convection cooling, the effective surface area is reduced by a factor Fred due to the small spacing between the cooling fins. Fred is usually found from the curves supplied by the manufacturers that draw Fred versus distance between cooling fins.

9Sep10

41

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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

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Combined Effect of Radiation and Convection

As radiation and convection join to facilitate heat transfer from the heat sink to the ambient, their combined effect in terms of thermal resistance will be that of the equivalent resistance of two parallel-connected resistances.
R sa = R ,rad R ,conv R ,rad + R ,conv

42

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A Heat Sink with fan

Heat Sinks

A Heat Sink
43

A Heat Sink with mounted devices

Mounting Surface

Cooling Fins

Heat Sink Selection Procedure


Calculate Ploss = Pswitching + Pconduction under rated conditions. Find Rja from:

R ja =

T j ,max Ta ,max Ploss

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Obtain Rjc from manufacturers data sheets. Rcs depends on how the case is connected to the heat sink. Usually, a thermal compound or an insulator is used between the case and the heat sink. The job of this additional layer is to provide electrical isolation while facilitating heat transfer from the case to the heat sink. Thermal compounds also fill the pores of the case and heat sink materials, as air is not a good heat conductor. R sa = R ja ( R jc + R cs ) Find Rsa from: Select a proper heat sink using the information supplied by heat sink manufacturers.

9Sep10

Different heat sink structures and their Rsa for a specific volume

44

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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

9Sep10

Typical Heat Sink Characteristics-1

The graph shows the thermal resistance Rsa for a specific heat sink structure versus the length of the heat sink for three different classes. Note that for higher thermal power to be dissipated through heat sink, a heat sink with smaller Rsa per unit length has to be used.

A heat sink structure and its characteristic curves


45

Typical Heat Sink Characteristics-2


The graph shows the thermal resistance Rsa for a specific heat sink structure versus air velocity when using a cooling fan. Note that as the air velocity increases, the thermal resistance of the heat sink drops. This shows the advantage of forced cooling against natural cooling. Using liquid coolants has the same effect on thermal resistance.

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A heat sink structure and its characteristic curves

9Sep10

46

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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

A MOSFET is switching a current of 10 A and a voltage of 100 V at f s = 40 kHz . ton = 200 ns , toff = 300 ns , d = 0.8 and Von state = 2V . T j ,max = 125 C , R , jc = 1 C / W , R ,cs = 0.5 C / W and Ta,max = 35 C . What is the maximum allowable R ,sa ? How much are TC and Ts ? (a)
R = T Pcond .

Example

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Solution
T j ,max Ta ,max Pswitchingc + Pconduction

R , jc + R ,cs + R ,sa =

1 Pswitching = Vd I o f s (tc ,on + tc ,off ) 2 1 = 100 10 40 103 (200 + 300) 109 = 10 W 2 Pconduction = Von state I o d = 2 10 0.8 = 16 W 125 35 R , sa ,max = (1 + 0.5) = 1.96 C / W 10 + 16

9Sep10

47

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(b)

9Sep10

TC = T j R , jc Pcond . = 125 1 26 = 99 C TC Ts = R ,cs Pcond .

T j TC = R , jc Pcond .

Solution (Cont.)

Ts = TC R ,cs Pcond . = 99 0.5 26 = 86 C

48

Gate/Base Drive Circuits - Introduction Advanced Training Centre in Electrical Power Engineering Processing ECE 663:in Electrical Power Engineering Electric Centre Energy Power Advanced Training Centre in Electrical Power Engineering Advanced Training Electronic ConvertersEngineering Power Electronic Converters: Design and Applications Mehrdad Kazerani, 2007

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The basic function of gate/base drive circuits is to turn semiconductor switches on and off. The location of drive circuits is between the control circuit and the switch. The requirements of gate/base drive circuits are:
Amplification of the switch control signal to the level required for turning the switch on and off Providing electrical isolation between the control and power circuits Driving the switch successfully into ON and OFF states Minimizing turn-on and turn-off times Providing over-current protection for the switch Generating an output signal compatible with the switch type (voltage-controlled or current-controlled) Being available at a reasonable cost Being placed as close as possible to the switch Isolation stage Signal amplification stage Optocoupler, Transformer, or Fiber Optics

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The structure of gate/base drive circuits is composed of two main parts: Isolation is provided by:

9Sep10

49

A Practical IGBT Gate Drive Circuit


In the gate drive circuit shown below,
isolation between control and power circuits is provided through an optocoupler. a single-ended floating 20V supply is used to make a +15V and a -5V at the output for high noise immunity and fast switching. IGBT is turned on by applying a +15V between its gate and source. IGBT is turned off by applying a -5V between its gate and source. a gate resistor is used to limit the gate current at turn-on and turn-off. An overcurrent protection circuit senses the drain voltage. When the ON-signal has been received by drive circuit, the drain-source voltage is expected to be low. If it is high, in the presence of an ON-signal, it implies a high current going through the IGBT developing a high voltage across its drain and source terminals. When an overcurrent is detected, the driver turns the switch off and saves the switch.

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A Fuji gate drive circuit for IGBT


9Sep10 50

Gate Resistance RG
The gate resistor limits the gate current at turn-on and turn-off. As RG is decreased, turn-on and turn-off become faster. As RG is increased, turn-on and turn-off become slower. As RG is decreased, the switch stress is increased. When selecting the value of RG, a compromise has to be made among the switching speed, switch stress, and overcurrent protection malfunction. In most of the cases, one important factor in the selection of RG is the switching losses. An optimum value for RG is a value that results in the lowest value of switching loss. If the turn-on and turn-off speeds are to be controlled independently, a polarized gate drive circuit has to be used. When turning on by applying a positive voltage between the gate and source, the diode in series with RG1 is forward biased and RG1 will control the turn-on speed. When turning off by applying a negative voltage between the gate and source, the diode in series with RG2 is forward biased and RG2 will control the turn-off speed. During ON and OFF states, the gate-to-source capacitor is charged to the applied voltage. When changing the state of the switch, the capacitor voltage affects the gate current at the moment of switching. This has to be considered when finding the value of RG to limit the gate current at turn-on and turn-off.

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One gate resistor for both turn-on and turn-off


9Sep10

Polarized gate resistor circuit for independent turn-on and turn-off


51

Minimizing Stray Inductance:


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Base/Gate Drive Considerations

ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

The length of the wire connecting the drive circuit to base/gate of the semiconductor switch has to be minimized. This implies that the drive circuit has to be located as close as possible to the switch. It is specially important to minimize the length of the wire connecting the drive circuit to emitter/source/cathode of the switch. A long connector will result in a large enough stray inductance that can affect the speed of switching and cause undesirable oscillations. To minimize the stray inductances, all power semiconductor devices are treated as four-terminal devices. Two terminals (base and emitter or gate and source or gate and cathode) are dedicated to the switch drive signal and the other two terminals (collector and emitter or drain and source or anode and cathode) are the power terminals. Semiconductor switch manufacturers provide extra emitter or source or cathode terminal to facilitate short connecting wires and stray inductance reduction.
4-terminal structure of semiconductor switch
9Sep10 52

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Base/Gate Drive Considerations (Cont.)


Shielding of Connecting Wires:
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If the connecting wires to the control terminals of the switch are far apart, a loop is formed in which noise can be induced. To reduce the inductive noise pick up by the connecting wires to the control terminals of the switch, a pair of twisted wires or a shielded cable can be used. This is specially important if it is not possible to place the driver and switch close to each other. Using a twisted pair of connecting wire can reduce the stray inductance as well.

4-terminal structure of semiconductor switch


9Sep10 53

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An IGBT is to be driven by the drive circuit shown below. Find a range for RG (gate resistance) such that:

Do you choose the minimum value in the range forRG? Why? How do you make the choice of gate resistance values for turn-on and turn-off independent of each other? What is a bipolar gate resistor configuration?

I G ,ON 1.0 A I G ,OFF 1.5 A

Example

54

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Solution

(a) During turn-on and on-state, the following circuit diagram is valid:

During turn-off and off-state, the following circuit diagram is valid:

55

Solution (Cont.)
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ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

Mehrdad Kazerani, 2010

Assume IGBT is initially in off-state. CGS is charged to vGS=-5 V. At turn-on, the moment +15 V is applied by the driver, a high IG flows to the gate to charge up CGS to +15 V. This corresponds to the highest positive IG. Therefore, 15 + 5 20 I G ,on,max = = RG RG During on-state, vGS remains at +15 V and IG is almost zero. At turn-off, the moment -5 V is applied by the driver, a high IG flows from the gate to discharge CGS to 0 and charge it to vGS=-5 V. This corresponds to the highest negative IG. Therefore,

I G ,off ,max

5 + 15 20 = = RG RG

9Sep10

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Advanced Training Centre in Electrical Power Engineering Processing ECE 663:in Electrical Power Engineering Electric Centre Energy Power Advanced Training Centre in Electrical Power Engineering Advanced Training Electronic ConvertersEngineering Power Electronic Converters: Design and Applications Mehrdad Kazerani, 2007
Mehrdad Kazerani, 2010

ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

9Sep10

To make sure that IG,on < 1 A, we must have: 20 < 1 RG > 20 RG

To make sure that IG,off <1.5 A, we must have:

20 < 1.5 RG RG > 13.33

Solution (Cont.)

Therefore using any gate resistance so that RG >20 will make the operation safe.

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Solution (Cont.)
Advanced Training Centre in Electrical Power Engineering Processing ECE 663:in Electrical Power Engineering Electric Centre Energy Power Advanced Training Centre in Electrical Power Engineering Advanced Training Electronic ConvertersEngineering Power Electronic Converters: Design and Applications Mehrdad Kazerani, 2007

ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

(b) Usually, the minimum value of RG is not chosen, since it can result in a high di/dt at turn-on. This could snap off the freewheeling diode during reverse recovery, generating a voltage spike (v=Lstray di/dt), which could lead to a voltage breakdown. A curve in IGBT specifications plots switching times (ton, toff, tr, tf) versus RG under certain conditions. RG is chosen to be at least equal to the value that corresponds to the lowest switching time or highest speed. A lower RG value results in shorter switching times and causes stress on the switch. Too large RG can cause excessive losses and slow turn-on.

Mehrdad Kazerani, 2010

9Sep10

58

Solution (Cont.)
Advanced Training Centre in Electrical Power Engineering Processing ECE 663:in Electrical Power Engineering Electric Centre Energy Power Advanced Training Centre in Electrical Power Engineering Advanced Training Electronic ConvertersEngineering Power Electronic Converters: Design and Applications Mehrdad Kazerani, 2007

ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

(c) In order to make the choices of RG for turn-on and turn-off independent of each other, a bipolar gate resistor circuit is used. The configuration of the bipolar gate resistor circuit is as follows:

Mehrdad Kazerani, 2010

RG,on is chosen to be larger than RG,off. In part (a), RG,on > 20 and RG,off > 13.33 . Turn-off is primarily controlled by the recombination of minority carriers in the N-region of the IGBT and gate driver has a limited effect on it.
9Sep10 59

Advanced Training Centre in Electrical Power Engineering Processing ECE 663:in Electrical Power Engineering Electric Centre Energy Power Advanced Training Centre in Electrical Power Engineering Advanced Training Electronic ConvertersEngineering Power Electronic Converters: Design and Applications Mehrdad Kazerani, 2007
Mehrdad Kazerani, 2010

ECE 463: Design and Applications of Power

[1]

9Sep10

Reference:
Mohan, Undeland and Robbins, Power Electronics: Converters, Applications, and Design, 3rd Edition, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2003.

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