Unit-3 Identifying use cases Object Analysis Classification Identifying Object relation ships Attributes and Methods.

Agenda Identifying Use Cases Object Analysis: Classification Identifying object relatio nships, Attributes and Methods.

1.Object oriented analysis Process: Identifying Use cases

Identifying the use cases: Goals The use-case approach to object-oriented analysis and the object-oriented analys is process. Identifying actors. Identifying use cases. Documentation.

What Is Analysis? Analysis is the process of transforming a problem definition from a fuzzy set of facts and myths into a coherent statement of a systems requirements.

Analysis The main objective of the analysis is to capture: a complete, unambiguous, and consistent picture of the requirements of the syste m and what the system must do to satisfy the users requirements and needs.

Where Should We Start? 1. Examination of existing system documentation. 2. Interviews. 3. Questionnaire . 4. Observation.

Requirements Difficulties Three most common sources of requirements difficulties are: 1. Incomplete requir ements. 2. Fuzzy descriptions (such as fast response). 3. Unneeded features.

The Object-Oriented Analysis (OOA) Process The process consists of the following steps: 1. Identify the actors: Who is using the system? Or, in the case of a new system, who will be using syst em?

The OOA Process (Cont) 2. Develop a simple business process model using UML activity diagram.

The OOA Process (Cont) 3. Develop the use case: What the users are doing with the system? Or, in the case of a new system, what users will be doing with the system? Use cases provide us with comprehensive documentation of the system under study.

The OOA Process (Cont) 4. Prepare interaction diagrams: Determine the sequence. Develop collaboration diagrams.

The OOA Process (Cont) 5. Classificationdevelop a static UML class diagram: Identify classes. Identify relationships. Identify attributes. Identify methods.

The OOA Process (Cont) 6. Iterate and refine: If needed, repeat the preceding steps. Develop UseCases, ADs Identify Actors prototyping Develop Interaction Diagrams Identify Classes, Relationships, Attributes & Methods Refine and iterate O-O Analysis

Developing Business Processes Developing an activity diagram of the business processes can provide us with an overall view of the system.

Use Case Model Use cases are scenarios for understanding system requirements. The use-case mode l describes the uses of the system and shows the courses of events that can be p erformed. Some Definitions User Human Users + Other Systems Use Case A piece of functionality Use-Case Mode l All the use cases Use-Case Driven Development process follows a flow

Product development is Use case driven: Capture the users needs (requirements - i n users context) - Helps in Project Scheduling Analyse to specify the needs Desi gn to realize the needs Implement to implement the needs Test to verify the need s Verified by Test1 Test3 Use case Driven Implemented by Realized by Use cases Specified by Design2 Design4 Design3 Test2 Test Design1 Implementation Analysis Design

Use Case Model (Cont) Use case defines what happens in the system when a use case is performed. The us e-case model tries to systematically identify uses of the system and therefore t he system s responsibilities.

Use Cases Under the Microscope "A Use Case is a sequence of transactions in a system whose task is to yield res ults of measurable value to an individual actor of the system." What is a Use Case again?

Use Case Key Concepts Use case. Use case is a special flow of events through the system. Actors. An ac tor is a user playing a role with respect to the system. In a system. This simpl y means that the actors communicate with the system s use case.

Use Case Key Concepts (Cont) A measurable value. A use case must help the actor to perform a task that has so me identifiable value. Transaction. A transaction is an atomic set of activities that are performed either fully or not at all.

Use Associations The use association occurs when you are describing your use cases and notice tha t some of them have common subflows. The use association allows you to extract t he common subflow and make it a use case of its own.

Extends Associations The extends association is used when you have one use case that is similar to an other use case but does a bit more or Is more specialized; in essence, it is lik e a subclass.

Library Borrow books extends Inter library loan Circulation Clerk uses Checking Library Card uses Member Return Books Performing research Reading books Newspaper Purchasing Supplies Sup plier

Fully Developed Use Case Description Use Case Name: Scenario: Triggering Event: Brief Description: Checkout Movies Ch eckout movies at counter Customer brings movies to checkout counter When custome r brings movies to counter, clerk checks membership ID, clerk scans in each movi e identifier, takes payment, and notifies customer of return due date and time. Video clerk Add new member Clerk, Store manager Movie titles must exist Movie co py must exist Customer must exist (or Add new member must be invoked) Video Rent al and rental line items must be created Payment transaction must be created Sta tus of movie copy must be updated Video Rental must be connected to customer fam ily member Actors: Related Use Cases: Stakeholders: Preconditions: Postconditions:

Use Case Diagram Notation Actor Association Use Case Use case with Extension points <<Uses>> <<Extends>>

Types of Use Cases Use cases could be viewed as concrete or abstract. An abstract use case is not c omplete and has no initiation actors but is used by a concrete use case, which d oes interact with actors.

Identifying the Actors The term actor represents the role a user plays with respect to the system. When dealing with actors, it is important to think about roles rather than people or job titles.

Identifying the Actors (Cont) Candidates for actors can be found through the answers to the following question s: Who is using the system? Or, Who is affected by the system? Or, Which groups nee d help from the system to perform a task?

Identifying the Actors (Cont) Who affects the system? Or, Which user groups are needed by the system to perfor m its functions? These functions can be both main functions and secondary functi ons, such as administration. Which external hardware or other systems (if any) u se the system to perform tasks?

Identifying the Actors (Cont) What problems does this application solve (that is, for whom)? And, finally, how do users use the system (use case)? What are they doing with the system?

Guidelines for Finding Use Cases For each actor, find the tasks and functions that the actor should be able to pe rform or that the system needs the actor to perform. Name the use cases. Describ e the use cases briefly by applying terms with which the user is familiar.

Separate Actors From Users Each use case should have only one main actor. Isolate users from actors. Isolat e actors from other actors (separate the responsibilities of each actor). Isolat e use cases that have different initiating actors and slightly different behavio r.

Documentation An effective document can serve as a communication vehicle among the project s t eam members, or it can serve as initial understanding of the requirements.

Effective Documentation: Common Cover All documents should share a common cover sheet that identifies the document, th e current version, and the individual responsible for the content.

8020 Rule 80 percent of the work can be done with 20 percent of the documentation. The tri ck is to make sure that the 20 percent is easily accessible and the rest (80 per cent) is available to those (few) who need to know. 80% -

Familiar Vocabulary Use a vocabulary that your readers understand and are comfortable with. The main objective here is to communicate with readers and not impress them with buzz wo rds.

Make the Document as Short as Possible Eliminate all repetition; Present summaries, reviews, organization chapters in l ess than three pages; Make chapter headings task oriented so that the table of c ontents also could serve as an index.

Organize the Document Use the rules of good organization (such as the organization s standards, colleg e handbooks, Strunk and White s Elements of Style, or the University of Chicago Manual of Style) within each section.

Summary The main objective of the analysis is to capture a complete, unambiguous, and co nsistent picture of the requirements of the system. Construct several models and views of the system to describe what the system does rather than how.

Summary (Cont) Capturing use cases is one of the first things to do in coming up with requireme nts. Every use case is a potential requirement.

Summary (Cont) The key in developing effective documentation is to eliminate all repetition; pr esent summaries, reviews, organization chapters in less than three pages. Use th e 8020 rule: 80 percent of the work can be done with 20 percent of the documentat ion.

Object Analysis: Classification

Introduction OOA is a process by which we can identify classes that play a role in achieving system goals and requirements Various Approaches for identifying the classes Cla ssification: is the process of checking to see if an object belongs to a categor y or a class, is regarded as a basic attribute of human nature. Example: Classif ying the car

What is an Object An object Is an unique, identifiable, selfcontained entity that possesses operat ions and contains attributes Possesses all the know-how and information it needs to perform the services for which it was designed Is a "black box" which receiv es and sends messages

What is a Class ? A Class is a software template that defines the methods and variables to be incl uded in a particular kind of Object. Is a blue print used to create objects. As it is a blue print, at runtime it will not occupy any memory. Examples : Animal, Human being, Automobiles

Classes VS. Objects Class Class is a type/ template for similar objects Object Object is an instance of the class Class is purely a static concept, represented by program text Objects are run time / dynamic entities that occupy space in memory

... Intelligent classification is intellectually hard work, and it best comes ab out through an incremental and iterative process Booch

..There is no such thing as the perfect class structure, nor the right set of ob jects. As in any engineering discipline, our design choice is compromisingly sha ped by many competing factors. Booch

Point To Remember Two Issues A class is a specification of structure, behavior, and the descriptio n of an object. Classification is more concerned with identifying classes than i dentifying the individual objects ina system.

The Challenge of Classification Intelligent classification is intellectually hard work and may seem rather arbit rary. Martin and Odell have observed in object-oriented analysis and design, tha t In fact, an object can be categorized in more than one way.

Employer Employee Pet Owner Good Credit Risk

Approaches for Identifying Classes The noun phrase approach. The common class patterns approach. The use-case drive n approach. The class responsibilities collaboration (CRC) approach.

Noun Phrase Approach Using this method, you have to read through the Use cases, interviews, and requi rements specification carefully, looking for noun phrases.

Noun Phrase Strategy (Cont) Change all plurals to singular and make a list, which can then be divided into t hree categories. Relevent Classes Fuzzy Classes Irrelevent Classes

Noun Phrase Strategy (Cont) It is safe to scrap the Irrelevant Classes. You must be able to formulate a stat ement of purpose for each candidate class; if not, simply eliminate it. You must then select candidate classes from the other two categories.

Guidelines For Identifying Classes The followings are guidelines for selecting classes in your application: Look fo r nouns and noun phrases in the problem statement. Some classes are implicit or taken from general knowledge.

Guidelines For Identifying Classes (Cont) All classes must make sense in the application domain. Avoid computer implementa tion classes, defer it to the design stage. Carefully choose and define class na mes.

Guidelines For Refining Classes Redundant Classes: Do not keep two classes that express the same information. If more than one word is being used to describe the same idea, select the one that is the most meaningful in the context of the system.

Guidelines For Refining Classes (Cont) Adjective Classes: Does the object represented by the noun behave differently wh en the adjective is applied to it?

Guidelines For Refining Classes (Cont) If the use of the adjective signals that the behavior of the object is different , then make a new class. For example, If Adult Membership and Youth Membership b ehave differently, than they should be classified as different classes.

Guidelines For Refining Classes (Cont) Attribute Classes: Tentative objects which are used only as values should be def ined or restated as attributes and not as a class. For example the demographics of Membership are not classes but attributes of the Membership class.

Guidelines For Refining Classes (Cont) Irrelevant Classes: Each class must have a purpose and every class should be cle arly defined and necessary. If you cannot come up with a statement of purpose, s imply eliminate the candidate class.

Identifying a list of candidate classes Take a coherent, concise statement of the requirement of the system Underline it s noun and noun phrases, that is, identify the words and phases the denote thing s This gives a list of candidate classes, which we can then whittle down and mod ify to get an initial class list for the system

In this particular case we discard Library, because it is outside the scope of our system Short term loan, because a loan is really an event, which so far as we know is not a useful object in thi s system Member of the library, which is redundant Week, because it is a measure , not a thing Item, because it is vague (we need to clarify it) Time, because it is outside the scope of the system System, because it is part of the meta-langu age of requirements description, not a part of domain Rule, for the same reason

This leaves: Book Journal Copy (of book) Library member Member of staff

Common Class Patterns Approach This approach is based on the knowledgebase of the common classes that have been proposed by various researchers.

Candidate Classes - Events These are points in time that must be recorded and remembered. Things happen, us ually to something else, at a given date and time, or as a step in an ordered se quence. For example order which is an event that must be remembered.

Candidate Classes - Organization The organizational units that people belong to. For example, accounting departme nt might be considered as a potential class.

Candidate Classes - People and Person (Roles and Roles Played) The different roles users play in interacting with the application.

Candidate Classes - People (Cont) It can be divided into two types (Coad & Yourdon): Those representing users of t he system, such as an operator, or a clerk;

Candidate Classes - People (Cont) Those people who do not use the system but about whom information is kept. Some examples are Client, Employee, Teacher, Manager.

Candidate Classes - Places These are physical locations, such as buildings, stores, sites or offices that t he system must keep information about.

Candidate Classes - Tangible Things and Devices Physical objects, or group of objects, that are tangible, and devices with which the application interacts. For example, cars, pressure sensors.

Candidate Classes - Concepts Concepts are principles or ideas not tangible but used to organize or keep track of business activities and/or communications.

Use-case Driven Approach Once the system has been described in terms of its scenarios, we can examine the textual description or steps of each scenario to determine what objects are nee ded for the scenario to occur.

Use-case Driven Approach To identify objects of a system and their behaviors, the lowest level of executa ble use cases is further analyzed with a sequence and collaboration diagram pair . By walking through the steps, you can determine what objects are necessary for the steps to take place.

Sequence Diagram Notation Actor Class Synchronous message Asynchronous message Focus of Control Return mes sage Termination lifeline

C lie n t A T M M a c h in e B a n k C lie n t In s e rt A T M c a rd R e q u e s t P IN R e q u e s t P IN n u m b e r V e r ify P IN N u m b e r B a d P IN N u m b e r B a d P IN N u m b e r M essage E je c t A T M c a r d R e q u e s t ta k e c a rd T a k e c a rd D is p la y m a in s c r e e n

B a n k C lie n t A T M M a c h in e A ccount C h e c k in g A c c o u n t R e q u e s t K in d E n te r K in d R equest A m o c e s s T r a n s a c t io n T r a n s a c t io C a s h R equest Take C ash Take C ash R e q u e r m in a t e P r in t R e c e ip t W it h d r a w it h d r a w S u c c e s s fu l ount E n te r A m o u n t P r n s u c c e e d D is p e n s e s t C o n t in u a t io n T e C h e c k in g A c c o u n t W

5: Process Transaction Account ATM Machine:Definition 2: Enter Kind 4: Enter Amount 13: Terminate Bank Client 8: Transaction succeed 1: Request Kind 3: Request Amount 9: Dispense Cash 7: Wit hdraw Successful Checking Account 6: Withdraw Checking Account 10: Request Take Cash 11: Take Cash 12: Request Continuation 14: Print Receipt

COLLABORATION DIAGRAM A Collaboration is a name given to the interaction among two or more classes\obj ects. Collaboration Diagram show objects and their links to each other, as well as how messages are sent between the linked objects.

COLLABORATION DIAGRAM CONT., Collaboration shows the implementation of an operation or the realization of a use case. The focus here is on Message.(Hence numbered) 5o focus on message means that the y focus on object roles instead of time, and therefore explicitly shown in the d iagram.

COLLABORATION DIAGRAM

COLLABORATION DIAGRAM PURPOSE Collaboration Diagrams are useful when we want to refer to a particular interact ion. To illustrate the coordination of object structure and flow of control.

COLLABORATION DIAGRAM VS SEQUENCE DIAGRAM Both show the interaction between the objects\classes. If time is the most important aspect to emphasize, choose seque nce diagrams. If the role is the most important aspect to emphasize, choose coll aboration diagram

CRC Cards CRC stands for Class, Responsibilities and Collaborators developed by Cunningham , Wilkerson and Beck. CRC can be used for identifying classes and their responsi bilities.

Process of the CRC Technique Identify Classes responsibility Iterate Identify Collaboration Assign responsibility

Collaborations An object can accomplish either a certain responsibility itself, or it may requi re the assistance of other objects. If it requires an assistance of other object s, it must collaborate with those objects to fulfill its responsibility.

CRC Cards (Cont) CRC cards are 4" x 6" index cards. All the information for an object is written on a card. ClassName Responsibilities ... ... Collaborators

CRC Cards (Cont) CRC starts with only one or two obvious cards. If the situation calls for a resp onsibility not already covered by one of the objects: Add, or Create a new object to address that responsibility.

Guidelines for Naming Classes The class should describe a single object, so it should be the singular form of noun. Use names that the users are comfortable with. The name of a class should reflect its intrinsic nature.

Guidelines for Naming Classes (Cont) By the convention, the class name must begin with an upper case letter. For comp ound words, capitalize the first letter of each word - for example, LoanWindow.

 Finding classes is not easy. The more practice you have, the better you get at i dentifying classes. There is no such thing as the right set of classes. Finding cl asses is an incremental and iterative process. Summary

 Unless you are starting with a lot of domain knowledge, you are probably missing more classes than you will eliminate. Naming a class is also an important activ ity. The class should describe a single object, so it should be a singular noun or an adjective and a noun. Summary (Cont)

Identifying Object Relationships, Attributes, and Methods

Goals Analyzing relationships among classes. Identifying association. Association patt erns. Identifying super- and subclass hierarchies.

Introduction Identifying aggregation or a-part-of compositions. Class responsibilities. Ident ifying attributes and methods by analyzing use cases and other UML diagrams.

Objects contribute to the behavior of the system by collaborating with one anoth er. Grady Booch

In OO environment, an application is the interactions and relationships among it s domain objects. All objects stand in relationship to others, on whom they rely for services and controls.

 Three types of relationships among objects are: Association. Super-sub structure (also known as generalization hierarchy). Aggre gation and a-part-of structure. Objects Relationships

Associations A reference from one class to another is an association. Basically a dependency between two or more classes is an association. For example, Jackie works for Joh n.

Associations (Cont) Some associations are implicit or taken from general knowledge.

Guidelines For Identifying Associations Association often appears as a verb in a problem statement and represents relati onships between classes. For example a pilot can fly planes.

Guidelines For Identifying Associations (Cont) Association often corresponds to verb or prepositional phrases such as part of, next to, works for, contained in, etc.

Common Association Patterns Common association patterns include: Location Association: next To, part of, con tained in, ingredient of etc. : For example cheddar cheese is an ingredient of t he French soup.

 Communication associationtalk to, order to. For example, a customer places an ord er with an operator person. C u sto m e r O p e r a to r Common Association Patterns (Cont) O rder

Eliminate Unnecessary Associations Implementation association. Defer implementation-specific associations to the de sign phase. Ternary associations. Ternary or n-ary association is an association among more than two classes

Eliminate Unnecessary Associations (Cont) Directed actions (derived) associations can be defined in terms of other associa tions. Since they are redundant you should avoid these types of association.

Eliminate Unnecessary Associations (Cont) Grandparent of Ken can be defined in terms of the parent association. John G rand P arent of K en John P arent of B r ia n P arent of K en

 Recall that at the top of the class hierarchy is the most general class, and fro m it descend all other, more specialized classes. Sub-classes are more specializ ed versions of their super-classes. Superclass-Subclass Relationships

 Look for noun phrases composed of various adjectives on class name. Example, Mil itary Aircraft and Civilian Aircraft. Only specialize when the sub classes have significant behavior. Guidelines For Identifying Super-sub Relationships: Topdown

 Look for classes with similar attributes or methods. Group them by moving the co mmon attributes and methods to super class. Do not force classes to fit a precon ceived generalization structure. Guidelines For Identifying Super-sub Relationships: Bottom-up

Guidelines For Identifying Super-sub Relationships: Reusability Move attributes and methods as high as possible in the hierarchy. At the same ti me do not create very specialized classes at the top of hierarchy. This balancin g act can be achieved through several iterations.

 Avoid excessive use of multiple inheritance. It is also more difficult to unders tand programs written in multiple inheritance system. Guidelines For Identifying Super-sub Relationships: Multiple inheritance

Multiple inheritance (Cont) One way to achieve the benefits of multiple inheritance is to inherit from the m ost appropriate class and add an object of other class as an attribute. In essen ce, a multiple inheritance can be represented as an aggregation of a single inhe ritance and aggregation. This meta model reflects this situation. Multiple Inheritance Single Inheritance Aggregation

A-Part-of Relationship Aggregation A-part-of relationship, also called aggregation, represents the situation where a class consists of several component classes.

A-Part-of Relationship Aggregation (Cont) This does not mean that the class behaves like its parts. For example, a car con sists of many other classes, one of them is a radio, Car but a car does not beha ve like a radio. Engine Radio Carburetor

A-Part-of Relationship Aggregation (Cont) Two major properties of a-part-of relationship are: transitivity antisymmetry

Transitivity If A is part of B and B is part of C, then A is part of C. For example, a carbur etor is part of an engine and an engine is part of a car; therefore, a carbureto r is part of a car.

Antisymmetry If A is part of B, then B is not part of A. For example, an engine is part of a car, but a car is not part of an engine.

Where responsibilities for certain behavior must reside? Does the part class belong to problem domain? Is the part class within the syste m s responsibilities?

where responsibilities ...(Cont) Does the part class capture more than a single value? If it captures only a sing le value, then simply include it as an attribute with the whole class. Does it p rovide a useful abstraction in dealing with the problem domain?

A-Part-of Relationship Patterns Assembly An assembly-Part situation physically exists. For example, a French soup consist s of onion, butter, flour, wine, French bread, cheddar cheese, etc.

A-Part-of Relationship Patterns Container A case such as course-teacher situation, where a course is considered as a conta iner. Teachers are assigned to specific courses.

A-Part-of Relationship Patterns Collection-Member A soccer team is a collection of players. Football Team Player

Class Responsibility: Identifying Attributes and Methods Identifying attributes and methods, like finding classes, is a difficult activit y. The use cases and other UML diagrams will be our guide for identifying attrib utes, methods, and relationships among classes.

Identifying Class Responsibility by Analyzing Use Cases and Other UML Diagrams Attributes can be identified by analyzing the use cases, sequence/collaboration, activity, and state diagrams.

Responsibility How am I going to be used? How am I going to collaborate with other classes? How am I described in the context of this system s responsibility? What do I need t o know? What state information do I need to remember over time? What states can I be in?

 Assign each responsibility to the class that it logically belongs to. This also aids us in determining the purpose and the role that each class plays in the app lication. Assign Each Responsibility To A Class

Object Responsibility: Attributes Information that the system needs to remember.

Guidelines For Identifying Attributes Of Classes Attributes usually correspond to nouns followed by possessive phrases such as co st of the soup.

Guidelines For Identifying Attributes Of Classes (Cont) Keep the class simple; only state enough attributes to define the object state.

Guidelines For Identifying Attributes Of Classes (Cont) Attributes are less likely to be fully described in the problem statement. You m ust draw on your knowledge of the application domain and the real world to find them.

Guidelines For Identifying Attributes Of Classes (Cont) Omit derived attributes. For example, don t use age as an attribute since it can be derived from date of birth. Drive attributes should be expressed as a method .

Guidelines For Identifying Attributes Of Classes (Cont) Do not carry discovery of attributes to excess. You can always add more attribut es in the subsequent iterations.

Object Responsibility: Methods & Messages Methods and messages are the work horses of object-oriented systems. In O-O envi ronment, every piece of data, or object, is surrounded by a rich set of routines called methods.

Identifying Methods by Analyzing UML Diagrams and Use Cases Sequence diagrams can assist us in defining the services the objects must provid e.

Identifying Methods (Cont) Bank Client ATM Machine Account Checking Account Request Kind Enter Kind Request Amount Enter Amount Process Transaction Transact ion succeed Dispense Cash Request Take Cash Take Cash Request Continuation Termi nate Print Receipt Withdraw Checking Account Withdraw Successful

Identifying Methods (Cont) Methods usually correspond to queries about attributes (and sometimes associatio n) of the objects. Methods are responsible for managing the value of attributes such as query, updating, reading and writing.

Identifying Methods (Cont) For example, we need to ask the following questions about soup class: What servi ces must a soup class provide? And What information (from domain knowledge) is s oup class responsible for storing?

Identifying Methods (Cont) Let s first take a look at its attributes which are: name preparation, price, pr eparation time and oven temperature.

Identifying Methods (Cont) Now we need to add methods that can maintain these attributes. For example, we n eed a method to change a price of a soup and another operation to query about th e price.

Identifying Methods (Cont) setName getName setPreparation get Preparation setCost getCost setOvenTem e getOvenTemperature setPreparationTime getPreparationTime

Summary We learned how to identify three types of object relationships: Association Supe r-sub Structure (Generalization Hierarchy) A-part-of Structure

Summary (Cont) The hierarchical relation allows the sharing of properties or inheritance. A ref erence from one class to another is an association. The A-Part-of Structure is a special form of association.

Summary (Cont) Every class is responsible for storing certain information from domain knowledge . Every class is responsible for performing operations necessary upon that info rmation.