Global Beauty: A Cross-Cultural Analysis of Beauty and its Implications for International Communicators

Paige Porter

JRLC 5080: International Mass Communications Dr. Leara Rhodes April 21, 2011

Porter 1 I. Introduction Evidence in the study of marketing supports the idea that consumers are attracted to beauty, which can change attitudes and perceptions towards brands and products. The globalization of brands and advertising is generating a standardization of communications and advertising. With this globalization, marketers are forced to examine whether there is a universal beauty type that is attractive to all cultures. Though cross-cultural standards of attractiveness do exist, the more culturally-perceptive the depiction of beauty, the more value and significance there will be with the target audience. Therefore, the most effective method of advertising combines a standardized message, with localized beauty types and cultural appeals. II. The Globalization of Advertising Campaigns Globalization refers to the interrelatedness of different places and people around the world. Mass media, including advertising, television, and the internet, play a central role in the conception of global consumption. According to Leslie, advertising agencies have been experiencing an intense increase in the globalization of campaigns since the 1980s (402). Globalization endows advertising agencies the responsibility of communicating across geographic and cultural boundaries of international markets. According to Sack, advertising thins out the meaning of place (qt. in Leslie, 413). A unified global advertising campaign is undoubtedly more cost-effective than targeting individual, unique cultural markets. The decline of the international economy has forced brands to limit their market research and standardize the messages intended for consumers. Standardization has lead to the emergence of the global brand, which can be defined as a brand that is easily marketable across cultural and international barriers.

Porter 2 It is interesting to note that many of the product categories conceptualized as most applicable to global advertising are targeted primarily at women. Beauty and household products and fashion figure prominently, and, according to advertisers, segments that have the most global orientation are mothers, professionals, the youth market, and the womens market for beauty. (Leslie, 417) Prior to global brands companies would market the product under different names in different countries. Brands and manufacturers would tailor the product, packaging or advertisements to fit the culture of the market. For example, Leslie mentions that Shell Motor Oil was introduced in Europe as Helix, which replaced local variations of the brand in France, Germany, and Italy (415). Globalization of brands has created a phenomenon in consumer culture. Research has shown that globally positioned brands are likely to have special credibility and authority (Alden, Steenkamp and Batra, 75). Consumers may purchase a global brand because it identifies them as a member in a specific global segment. It also can reinforce their self-image as cosmopolitan, knowledgeable and modern (Alden et al., 75). When purchasing and consuming these brands, consumers feel at one with global culture (Alden et al., 77). Examples of brands that have applied these strategies and feelings to advertisements include Sony, Philips, and Benetton. The standardization of advertisements has been criticized by many marketers and industry analysts who feel that brands are best received when associated with local cultural meanings and identities. The dispute between both concepts has created the emergence of glocal advertising. Glocal advertising creates more locally sensitive global advertisements. Agencies utilize their worldwide branches to gain insight: By involving creative staff from

Porter 3 around the world in the development and modification of a global advertising concept or image, advertising can be more easily adapted to particular places (Leslie, 416). For example, Proctor & Gambles all-in-one shampoo with conditioner is universally accepted as a time saver in a busy world (Alden et al., 75). This universal message was conveyed in the United States and Europe by a television spot showing a woman rushing into a locker room and slamming the door, but in Eastern countries the creative content was depicted differently. III. Universal View of Beauty by Women The standardization approach of advertising assumes there is a universal view of beauty. Many researchers who study women from a global perspective emphasize that beauty is relevant and important to female consumers globally because of womens universal desire for love and beauty (Seitz and Johar, 21). With this idea acting as a unifying global force, women around the world hold remarkably similar ideas of their own beauty, as well as the medias portrayal of beauty. Dove commissioned a study titled, The Real Truth About Beauty: A Global Report. After interviewing over three thousand women from all over the world, researchers found that sixty percent of women interviewed strongly agreed with the statement: Society expects women to enhance their physical attractiveness (Etcoff, Orbach, Scott, and D'Agostino, 25). Furthermore, more than two-thirds of women strongly agreed that: The media and advertising set an unrealistic standard of beauty that most women cant ever achieve (Etcoff et al., 27). According to the results, women from all over the world blame popular culture and mass media for the perpetuation of inauthentic beauty (Etcoff et al., 47). But they also agree that mass media can be a force for reconfiguring the former so that true beauty becomes the new standardwith unprecedented power to open minds and move emotions (Etcoff et al., 47).

Porter 4 With an agreement that the media perpetuates an unrealistic standard of beauty, researchers study whether there is a global standard of beauty or beauty type. Identifying specific physical characteristics considered attractive across cultures and nationalities is difficult. However: There is wide consensus about standards of attractiveness between ages, races, and nationalities (Bjerke and Polegato, 119). In support, Cunningham found that cross-culturally consistent, predictive variables of perceived female attractiveness were large eye height, facial narrowness, and smile height (qt. in Bjerke and Polegato, 267). Women seek to imitate trends produced by mass media that portray imagery of idealized, beautiful women. Womens universal desire for beauty is evidence that the ideal self is a reality that transcends every culture. Bjerke and Polegato emphasize: There is a continuing need to match female self-images and brand images in more congruent waysPeople have a desire to link themselves to brands of clothes, cars, drinks, and food to create an identity and image around themselves (869). It is therefore logical that the beauty type presented in an advertisement should be similar to the consumers ideal self-image. This concept, though valid and effective, reveals the vicious cycle of beauty advertising. Women do not feel that the beauty portrayed in advertisements is attainable, yet when looking to buy products and brands, they are attracted to only those that are considered beautiful. Marketing theory understands that: Attraction to the beauty of the endorser creates a response ranging from simple appreciation of beauty to purchasing and consumption to emulation of trends created by the advertising (Lin and Yeh, 66). With a competitive global market, brands must compete for the attraction of the consumer, and therefore must present the most beautiful model or representative of the brand. This never-ending cycle of the pursuit of beauty connects women across world divisions.

Porter 5 IV. Variation in the Ideal Self-Image Between Cultures Opponents of the standardization approach of advertising call attention to the crosscultural variation in the ideal self-image. Obvious differences in beauty ideals are exhibited across the globe. Some Asian cultures value porcelain skin, while scarification is a beauty process in some African cultures. In order to develop an understanding of cultural constructions of beauty, marketers and advertisers must study gender roles in international markets. The perception of beauty types are different possibly due to cultural differences related to the concept of beauty (Bjerke, Rosendahl, Gopalakrishna, and Sandler, 123). An individuals concept of beauty is guided by the society and culture that surround his or her development. This variation can cause issues when standardizing an advertising message across cultures, and therefore serves as a defense for the localization approach. Advertisers face obstacles to standardization particularly when working across the Eastern and Western division. There are noticeable differences between beauty ideals and portrayals of women when comparing advertisements from these two regions of the world. Femininity is defined differently in each sector: To be feminine in the United States is to be attractive, deferential, unaggressive, emotional, nurturing, and concerned with people and relationshipsIn Confucian cultures femininity is associated with virtue and modesty (Frith, Shaw and Cheng, 56). Womens portrayals in Chinese advertising wear less sexually suggestive clothing than women in U.S. advertising, while other studies report that sex appeal is used more often in French than in U.S. advertisements (Frith et al., 58). Another study showed that in conservative Asian countries like Malaysia and Indonesia, only Caucasian women are used in lingerie advertising as it would be unseemly for a local woman to be shown partially undressed (Frith et al., 58).

Porter 6 Other than the portrayal of women in advertisements, the beauty products being advertised also differ between Eastern and Western cultures. In a study of magazine advertisements, Frith, Shaw and Cheng found that Asian magazines were dominated by advertisements promoting beauty products aimed at improving womens hair, skin, and face, while U.S. magazines featured more clothing advertisements (66). This study implies that Eastern cultures perceive beauty as being associated with facial attractiveness, while Western cultures associate beauty with the body. Frith, Shaw and Cheng suggest that this could be an influence of traditional Daoist beliefs emphasizing the insignificance of human forms compared to the importance of nature (65). Thus, while traditional Western art portrays the female body as a sexual icon, traditional Chinese art portrays women clothed in loose robes, and the face and the hairbecome the central focus (Frith et al., 65). V. Doves Campaign for Real Beauty: A Successful Glocal Beauty Campaign With the concepts of glocalization in mind, Unilever developed a Campaign For Real Beauty for its personal hygiene and beauty product, Dove. The campaign is an example of a successful beauty product campaign that utilizes a standardized message, with localized visual elements and integrated promotions. Fernando Acosta, the senior VP for Dove said that the campaign, works globally because it is anchored in true understanding and insights (qt. in Wentz, 2). In order to gain these insights, Dove commissioned the previously mentioned study, The Real Truth About Beauty: A Global Report. Doves mission in commissioning the study was to explore empirically what beauty means to women today and why that is (Etcoff et al., 3). After interviewing 3,200 women in ten countries, Dove found that women around the world held similar views of beauty, but that responses differed when defining the components of beauty and what they would like to see portrayed in the media. According to the results, only two

Porter 7 percent of women described themselves as beautiful. Interestingly, women in Japan were the most likely to rate their physical attractiveness poorly. The study also revealed specific body parts different cultures associated with beauty, as well as insights related to physical insecurities (Etcoff et al., 45). The knowledge gained from the study allowed Dove to create standardized messages that speak to all women as a collective market. The messages simply identify womens hang-ups associated with their self-image. A print advertisement in the U.S., for example, shows a woman with freckles ( see fig. 1). The copy reads, Flawed? Or flawless? Another print advertisement in Chile depicts a woman with a larger nose, with copy that reads, Nose job? Or unnecessary? (see fig. 2). Other messages point out culturally defined beauty flaws such as weight, curves, wrinkles, hair color, breast size, and cellulite. These standardized messages strike chords with every woman around the world, as all women find flaws with their self-image. The standardization also connects women across the world, and makes them feel part of the global marketplace. Doves success comes not only from its insight into little human truths, but also from its localized approach at tailoring advertisements and promotions to match the self-images of its various target markets. Women generally associate brands with their ideal self-image. What Dove aimed at was most closely matching the brand and model with womens actual self-image. This was a shocking and innovative approach that actually proved to be very effective. An extension of the campaign that targets young girls produced a spot titled, Little Girls, which premiered during the Super Bowl in the U.S. in 2006. It shows little girls who hate their freckles, want to be blond or fear theyre fat (Wentz, 2). The spot was also released in Germany in October in a coordinated media buy that scheduled the ad for precisely 8:14pm on every

Porter 8 German TV channel (Wentz, 2). An Asian version of the advertisement still runs in South Korea and includes local touches such as a Korean girl who thinks her non-Western eyelids are unattractive (Wentz, 2). Along with the advertising campaign, Dove integrated local promotions that resonate with the local consumers: Local country initiatives, such as working with the Girl Scouts in the U.S., are linked in strategy and direction by a global steering group (Wentz, 2). In Chile, a guerilla marketing technique turned Dove soapboxes inside out (see fig. 3). The outside of the package said, The beauty comes from within. When users opened the box, they could see that the outside of the package was printed on the inside and vice-versa. Another guerilla marketing technique in Germany targeted school-aged girls (see fig. 4). Inside locker rooms at schools, Dove marketers placed fixed scales that read, Beauty cannot be measured in kilos. Dove also created Real Beauty Workshops which are designed to promote self-esteem among young girls. Women in certain regions can sign up on Doves website to host a workshop for girls in their area. These promotions and initiatives personalize the Dove brand and perfectly utilize the localization approach. After discovering that Japanese women responded differently to many of the questions during Doves study, marketers at Dove tailored a campaign to specifically fit the Asian markets. The campaign was centered on promoting Japanese womens self-esteem. Three hundred women were hand-picked to take part in the Real Beauty Seminar. Voting boxes were placed at the seminar to trigger conversation about beauty. Exercises were used to build self-confidence and positive thinking. Beauty activities with makeup and hair styling encouraged group interaction. The women were then asked to take part in Doves guerilla marketing event. The women were divided into groups and taken to various areas of Shinjuku, Japans busiest shopping district. The

Porter 9 women all donned wigs of long blonde hair. Coordinated by radios and central leaders, the groups simultaneously made their ways to the central square in Shinjuku. Passersby would stare in curiosity as the groups arrived at the square from all directions. In one large sea of blonde hair, the women threw their wigs in the air to celebrate the launch of Doves new Campaign for Real Beauty in Japan (see fig. 5). The event was immediately covered by Japanese media, which encouraged discussion about womens low self-esteem (Dove Real Beauty Tour). Doves campaign in Japan features the standardized format of advertisements, with localized models and beauty issues (fig. 6). VI. Implications for Advertisers and International Communicators Advertising allows audiences to study the nuances and cultural interpretations of beauty across the globe. Furthermore: Good advertisements in recent visual media are like magic mirrors in fairytalescreatively using an intimate knowledge of cultural contextsthey portray just the right blend of cultural meaning, societal values, and personal dreams to appear to reflect the wants of individuals while still reaching wide audiences (Lin and Yeh, 61). This journalistic function of advertising increases the importance of culture-related research. Consumers seek cultural symbols from advertisements: People may desire to think globally but, as a result of globalization, actually become aware of their specific local values. People increasingly identify with their local or regional communities (Zubcevic, Luxton and Reid, 2). Advertising for the beauty industry proves to be most amicable for the standardization approach. With this in mind, marketers and brand strategic planners must research their target audiences to discover what elements of an advertisement best catch the various consumers attention. When tailoring beauty and fashion advertisements to the receivers of the message, Seitz and Johar found that perfume advertisements were more highly standardized than both

Porter 10 apparel and cosmetic advertisements (21). This is due to the simplicity of the message in perfume ads, which relays a universal benefit. It is more difficult to relay the benefits of apparel and cosmetics across cultures because the feelings associated with these products must be explained with text or caption. A glocal cosmetics campaign would perhaps standardize the visual elements of the advertising message, while tailoring the copy to fit the culture of specific markets. With any advertisement, different types of beauty, posture and appeal should be carefully selected to match domestic and foreign audiences (Lin and Yeh, 61). While local beauty types are defined, the recent developments in social media allow consumers to personally connect with each other across the world. The constant flow of ideas and images is creating many unique ways to perceive beauty, rather than one standard global ideal type. Scholars agree that: Today we are confronted with multiple ideals of beauty reflecting the proliferation of lifestyles, cultures, and ethnic groups that comprise popular culture Western standards are evolving to include more ethnically diverse templates, reflecting a mix of African, Asian, Arabic and Hispanic beauties (Zubcevic et al, 1). This idea is encouraging to advertisers and international communicators. Using beauty types from different cultures could possibly strike consumers in a way that connects them to the global community, just like social media. VI. Conclusion Ideally, for advertising communication to be meaningful to its target audience, it must reflect the cultural customs and ideal self-images of the local consumers. Marketing and business strategies of companies around the world are occupied with globalization, and face many obstacles when choosing between the standardization and localization approaches to advertising. As Doves Campaign for Real Beauty demonstrated, a standardized message with localized

Porter 11 beauty types combined with integrated local promotions and initiatives, proves to be the most effective method of marketing communication. As women demand media using models of diverse appearances and cultures, advertisers must choose whether to heed the demands or to continue using ideal beauty types that prove to be effective.

Porter 12 Works Cited

Alden, D.L., E.M. Steenkamp, and R. Batra. "Brand Positioning Through Advertising in Asia, North America, and Europe: The Role of Global Consumer Culture." Journal of Marketing. 63.1 (1999): 75-87. Web. 16 Apr 2011. Bjerke, R., and R. Polegato. "Cross-Cultural Meanings of Healthy and Beautiful in Words, Beauty Types, and Products: Implications for International Advertising." Journal of Promotion Management. 7.1 (2001): 117-138. Web. 16 Apr 2011. Bjerke, R., and R. Polegato. "How Well Do Advertising Images of Health and Beauty Travel Across Cultures? A Self-Concept Perspective." Journal of Psychology and Marketing. 23.10 (2006): 865-884. Web. 16 Apr 2011. Bjerke, R., T. Rosendahl, P. Gopalakrishna, and D. Sandler. "Ad Element Liking and Its Relationship to Overall Ad Liking: A European Cross-Cultural Investigation." Journal of Promotion Management. 12.1 (2005): 97-128. Web. 16 Apr 2011. Dove Real Beauty Tour. TheTRANSFORMERSjapan. YouTube. 2008. Web. 19 Apr 2011. Etcoff, N., S. Orbach, J. Scott, and H. D'Agostino. The Real Truth About Beauty: A Global Report. Dove/Unilever, 2004. 1-48. Web. 16 Apr 2011. Frith, K., P. Shaw, and H. Cheng. "The Construction of Beauty: A Cross-Cultural Analysis of Women's Magazine Advertising." Journal of Communication. 55.1 (2005): 56-70. Web. 16 Apr 2011. Leslie, D.A. "Global Scan: The Globalization of Advertising Agencies, Concepts, and Campaigns." Economic Geography. 71.4 (1995): 402-426. Web. 16 Apr 2011.

Porter 13 Lin, C., and J. Yeh. "Comparing Society's Awareness of Women: Media-Portrayed Idealized Images and Physical Attractiveness." Journal of Business Ethics. 90.1 (2009): 61-79. Web. 16 Apr 2011. Seitz, V.A., and J.S. Johar. "Advertising Practices for Self-Image Projective Products in the New Europe." Journal of Consumer Marketing. 10.4 (1993): 15-26. Web. 16 Apr 2011. Wentz, L. "'Real Beauty' Gets Global Breakout Via Evolution." Advertising Age. 8 Jan 2007: S7. Web. 16 Apr 2011. Zubcevic, N., S. Luxton, and Mike Reid. "Beauty and the Diversification in Society: Impact on Communication Effectiveness." Australian and New Zealand Marketing Academy Conference 2006. Yunus Ali and Maria van Dessel: Brisbane, ANZMAC. 2006. 1-5. PDF.

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