4.

FURNACES
Syllabus Classification General fuel economy measures in furnaces:, excess air, heat distribution, temperature control, draft control, Waste heat recovery.

What is a Furnace?
A furnace is an equipment to melt metals for casting or heat materials for change of shape ( rolling, forging etc) or change of properties (heat treatment).

Types and classification of furnaces

Based on the method of generating heat: combustion type (using fuels) and electric type

According to mode of heat transfer

Open fire place furnace Heated through liquid medium Forging

Furnace classification

Re-rolling

According to mode of charging

Periodical Continuous

(Batch / continuous

pusher) Pot Glass tank melting (regenerative / recuperative)

Mode of heat recovery

Recuperative Regenerative

Characteristics of an Efficient Furnace

Furnace should be designed so that in a given time, as much of material as possible can be heated to an uniform temperature as possible with the least possible fuel and labour. To achieve this end, the following parameters can be considered. Determination of the quantity of heat to be imparted to the material or charge. Liberation of sufficient heat within the furnace to heat the stock and overcome all heat losses Transfer of available part of that heat from the furnace gases to the surface of the heating stock. Equalisation of the temperature within the stock. Reduction of heat losses from the furnace to the minimum possible extent.

Furnace Energy Supply

The products of flue gases directly contact the stock, so type of fuel chosen is of importance. For example, some materials will not tolerate sulphur in the fuel. Also use of solid fuels will generate particulate matter, which will interfere the stock place inside the furnace. Hence, majority of the furnaces use liquid fuel, gaseous fuel or electricity as energy input. Melting furnaces for steel, cast iron use electricity in induction and arc furnaces. Non-ferrous melting utilizes oil as fuel.

Oil Fired Furnace

Furnace oil is the major fuel used in reheating and heat treatment furnaces LDO is used in furnaces where presence of sulphur is undesirable.(No problom with sulphur ) Furnaces operate with efficiencies as low as 7% as against upto 90% achievable in other combustion equipment such as boiler. This is because of the high temperature at which the furnaces have to operate to meet the required demand. For example, a furnace heating the stock to 1200oC will have its exhaust gases leaving atleast at 1200oC resulting in a huge heat loss through the stack. However, improvements in efficiencies have been brought about by methods such as preheating of stock, preheating of combustion air and other waste heat recovery systems.

Typical Furnace System

Forging Furnaces
Used for preheating billets and ingots to attain a forge temperature. The furnace temperature is maintained at 1200 to 1250oC. Forging furnaces, use an open fireplace system and most of the heat is transmitted by radiation. The typical loading in a forging furnace is 5 to 6 tones with the furnace operating for 16 to 18 hours daily. The total operating cycle can be divided into (i) heat-up time (ii) soaking time and (iii) forging time. Specific fuel consumption depends upon the type of material and number of reheats required.

Rerolling Mill Furnace

Batch type furnace: Used for heating up scrap, small ingots and billets weighing 2 to 20 kg. for batch type rerolling. Charging and discharging of the material is done manually and the final product is in the form of rods, strips etc. Operating temperature is1200 oC. Total cycle time can be categorized into heat-up time and rerolling time. Specific fuel consumption varies from 180 to 280 kg. of coal / tonne of heated material. Continuous Pusher Type: The process flow and operating cycles of a continuous pusher type is the same as that of the batch furnace. Operating temperature is1250oC. The material or stock recovers a part of the heat in flue gases as it moves down the length of the furnace. Heat absorption by the material in the furnace is slow, steady and uniform throughout the crosssection compared with batch type.

Furnace efficiency Direct method:

The efficiency of furnace can be estimated by measuring the amount of fuel needed per unit weight of material. Thermal efficiency of the furnace = Heat in the stock
Heat in the fuel consumed for heating the stock

The quantity of heat to be imparted (Q) to the stock can be found from

Q
Where

=
Q = m = Cp = t1 = t2 =

m x Cp (t1 t2)
Quantity of heat of stock in Kcal Weight of the stock in Kg Mean specific heat of stock in kCal/kgoC Final temperature of stock desired, oC Initial temperature of the stock before it enters oC

Indirect Method
Method: Similar to the method of evaluating boiler efficiency by indirect method. Furnace efficiency is calculated after subtracting sensible heat loss in flue gas, loss due to moisture in flue gas, heat loss due to openings in furnace, heat loss through furnace skin and other unaccounted losses Parameters : hourly furnace oil consumption, material output, excess air quantity, temperature of flue gas, temperature of furnace at various zones, skin temperature and hot combustion air temperature. Instruments - infrared thermometer, fuel efficiency monitor, surface thermocouple.

Thermal efficiencies for common industrial furnaces

Furnace Type 1) Low Temperature furnaces a. 540 980 oC (Batch type) b. 540 980 oC (Continous type) c. Coil Anneal (Bell) radiant type d. Strip Anneal Muffle 2) High temperature furnaces a. Slot forge b. Pusher, Roll down or Rotary c. Batch forge d. Car Bottom 3) Continuous Kiln a. Hoffman b. Tunnel c. Transverse-arch Annular 4) Ovens a. Indirect fired ovens (20 oC-370 oC) b. Direct fired ovens (20 oC-370 oC) Typical thermal efficiencies (% ) 20-30 15-25 4-7 7-12

5-12 7-14 5-10 7-12

25-93 21-82 26-96

35-40 35-40

Furnace Efficiency Calculation: Example

An oil-fired reheating furnace has an operating temperature of around 1340oC. Average fuel consumption is 400 litres/hour. The flue gas exit temperature is 750 oC. Air is preheated from ambient temperature of 40 oC to 190 oC through an air pre-heater. The furnace has 460 mm thick wall (x) on the billet extraction outlet side, which is 1 m high (D) and 1 m wide. The other data are as given below. Find out the efficiency of the furnace by both indirect and direct method.
Exit flue gas temperature Ambient temperature Preheated air temperature Specific gravity of oil Average fuel oil consumption Calorific value of oil Average O2 percentage in flue gas = = = = = = = = 750oC 40oC 190oC 0.92 400 Litres / hr 400x0.92 =368 kg/hr 10000 kCal/kg 12%

Furnace Efficiency (Direct Method)

Furnace Efficiency (D irect M ethod) H eat input H eat output = = = = = 400 litres / hr 368 kg/hr m x Cp x T 6000 kg x 0.12 x (1340 40) 936000 kCal

Efficiency

= 936000 x 100 / (368 x 10000) = 25.43 % = 25% (app) = 75% (app)

Losses

Furnace Efficiency (Indirect Method)

1. Sensible Heat Loss in Flue Gas: Corresponding excess air = = = = = = = = = = = = =
=

(O2 x 100) / (21 O2) 133% excess air 14 kg 14 x 2.33 kg / kg of oil 32.62 kg / kg of oil m x Cp x T Weight of flue gas 32.62 + 1.0 = 33.62 kg / kg of oil. Specific heat Temperature difference 33.62 x 0.24 x (750 40) 5729 kCal / kg of oil 5729 /1000 = 57.29%

Theoretical air required to burn 1 kg of oil Total air supplied Sensible heat loss m Cp T Heat loss
% Loss % Heat gain by combustion air

Net % sensible heat loss in flue gas

32.62 x 0.24 x (190 40) --------------------------------x 100=1174% 10000 = (57.29 11.74) %= 45.55%

2. Loss Due to Evaporation of Moisture Present in Fuel % Loss = M {584 + 0.45 (Tfg-Tamb)} -----------------------------GCV of Fuel

x 100

=1.36%

3. Loss Due to Evaporation of Water Formed due to Hydrogen in Fuel % Loss = 9 x H2 {584 + 0.45 (Tfg-Tamb)} ---------------------------------------- x 100 GCV of Fuel

=9.13%

4. Heat Loss due to Openings: Heat loss due to openings can be calculated by computing black body radiation at furnace temperature, and multiplying these values with emissivity (usually 0.8 for furnace brick work), and the factor of radiation through openings. Use figure 4.2 for black body radiation losses Use figure 4.3. For Factor of radiation through openings

Figure 4.2 Graph for determining black body radiation at a particular temperature

Figure 4.3 Factor for determining the equivalent of heat release from openings to the quality of heat release from perfect black body

4. Heat Loss due to Openings:

The shape of the opening is square and D/X The factor of radiation (Refer Figure 4.3) Black body radiation corresponding to 1340oC (Refer Figure 4.2 On black body radiation) Area of opening Emissivity Total heat loss = 1/0.46 = 2.17 = 0.71 = 36.00 Kcal/cm2/hr = 100 cm x 100 cm = 10000 cm2 = 0.8 = 36 x 10000 x 0.71 x 0.8 = 204480 Kcal/hr = 20.45 kg/hr = 20.45 /368 x 100 = 5.56 %

% of heat loss

5. Heat Loss through Skin:

5. Heat Loss through Skin: a. Heat loss through roof and sidewalls: Total average surface temperature Heat loss at 122 oC Total area of heating + soaking zone Equivalent oil loss = 122oC = 1252 Kcals / m2 / hr = 70.18 m2 = 1252 kCal / m2 / hr x 70.18 m2 = 87865 kCal/hr = 8.78 litres / hr = 8.08 kg/hr = 80oC = 740 kCal / m2 / hr = 12.6 m2 = 740 kCal / m2 / hr x 12.6 m2 = 9324 kCal/hr = 0.93 litres / hr = 0.86 kg/hr

b. Total average surface temperature of area other than heating and soaking zone Heat loss at 80oC Total area Equivalent loss of fuel oil

c) Heat loss through burner walls and changing end cover= 1.19 kg/hr

Total loss of fuel oil Total percentage skin loss 6. Unaccounted Loss

= a + b + c = 10.12 kg/hr = 10.12 / 368 = 2.75%

These losses comprises of heat storage loss, loss of furnace gases around charging door and opening, heat loss by incomplete combustion, loss of heat by conduction through hearth, loss due to formation of scales.

Furnace Efficiency (Indirect Method) 1. Sensible Heat Loss in flue gas 2. Loss due to evaporation of moisture in fuel 3. Loss due to evaporation of water formed from H2 in fuel 4. Heat loss due to openings 5. Heat loss through skin = 45.55% = 1.36 % = 9.13 % = 5.56 % = 2.75%

6. Unaccounted losses = 10.65% ( Assessed by subtracting summation of losses 1 to 5 from the losses worked out by direct method i.e. [75 (45.55+1.36+9.13+5.56+2.75) ] ) Total losses Furnace Efficiency = 75% = 100 75 = 25 %

General Fuel Economy Measures in Furnaces

1) Complete combustion with minimum excess air 2) Correct heat distribution 3) Operating at the desired temperature 4) Reducing heat losses from furnace openings 5) Maintaining correct amount of furnace draught 6) Optimum capacity utilization 7) Waste heat recovery from the flue gases

1) Complete Combustion with Minimum Excess Air

The amount of heat lost in the flue gases depends upon amount of excess air. In the case of a furnace carrying away flue gases at 900oC, % heat lost is shown in table :
Table Heat Loss in Flue Gas Based on Excess Air Level

Excess Air 25 50 75 100

% of total heat in the fuel carried away by waste gases (flue gas temp. 900oC) 48 55 63 71

2)Correct Heat Distribution

Prevent flame impingement. To avoid high flame temperature,damage of refractory and for better atomization

Heat distribution in furnace

Align burner properly to avoid touching the material To reduce scale loss Alignment of burners in furnace

3)Operating at Desired Temperature

Temperature for Different Furnaces

Slab Reheating furnaces Rolling Mill furnaces Bar furnace for Sheet Mill 1200oC 1200oC 800oC
CORRECT TEMPERATURE ENSURES GOOD QUALITY PRODUCTS. TEMPERATURE HIGHER THAN REQUIRED WOULD ONLY USE UP MORE FUEL

Bogey type annealing furnaces- 650oC -750oC

4) Reducing Heat Loss from Furnace Openings

Heat loss through openings consists of direct radiation and combustion gas that leaks through openings. Keeping the doors unnecessarily open leads to wastage of fuel Inspection doors should not kept open during operation Broken and damaged doors should be repaired
The heat loss from an opening can be calculated using the formula: Q=4.88 x ( T )4 x a x A x H k.Cal/hr 100 T: absolute temperature (K), a: factor for total radiation A: area of opening,

5)Maintaining correct amount of furnace draught

Negative pressures : air infiltration- affecting air-fuel ratio control, problems of cold metal and non-uniform metal temperatures, Positive Pressure: Ex-filtration -Problems of leaping out of flames, overheating of refractories,burning out of ducts etc.

6) Optimum capacity utilization

There is a particular loading at which the furnace will operate at maximum thermal efficiency. Best method of loading is generally obtained by trial-noting the weight of material put in at each charge, the time it takes to reach temperature and the amount of fuel used. One reason for low loading is the mismatching of furnace dimension with respect to charge and production schedule. Loading of the charge should be arranged so that it receives the maximum radiation and hot gases are efficiently circulated around. Rate of oxidation is depends on time, temperature, and free oxygen content. The possible increase in surface defects can lead to rejection of the product. It is therefore essential that coordination between the furnace operator, production and planning personnel be maintained.

7) Waste heat recovery from the flue gases

Sensible heat in flue gases can be used following Charge preheating Preheating of combustion air Utilizing waste heat for other process to generate steam/hot water

Charge Pre-heating
Since raw materials are usually at room temperature, they can be heated sufficiently using high-temperature gas to reduce fuel consumption.

Preheating of Combustion Air

For a long time, the preheating of combustion air was not used except for large boilers, metal-heating furnaces and high-temperature kilns. This method is now being employed in compact boilers and compact industrial furnaces as well.

Details of Air Preheaters

Type Exhaust gas temp limitation Metallic recupera tor Flue installati on Convectiv e: multitubu lar; other Radiative (radiative & convectiv e) 1,000 oC or below Preheated air temp 300-600oC

Object furnace
Heating, heat treatment, industrial &furnaces -do

Recuperat ive

Chimne y installati on Ceramic (tile) recuperator Regenerat ive General

1,000-1,300 oC

-do

1,200-1,400 oC 1,000-1,600 oC 600 oC or below

400-700oC

Soaking & glass

pit

6001,300oC 100-300 oC

Rotary regenerative

Coke oven, hot blast stove & glass kiln Boiler, hot blast stove

8. Minimizing Wall Losses

& Minimum refractory losses
About 30% of the fuel input to the furnace generally goes to make up for heat losses in intermittent or continuous furnaces. The appropriate choice of refractory and insulation materials is needed for high fuel savings in industrial furnaces. The extent of wall losses depend on: Emissivity of wall Thermal conductivity of refractories Wall thickness Whether furnace is operated intermittently

continuously

or

Radiation Heat Loss from Surface of Furnace

The quantity (Q) of heat release from a reheating furnace is calculated with the following formula: Q = a x ( tl - t2 )5/4 + 4.88 E [ ( t1 + 273 )4- ( t2 + 273 )4 ] 100 100 where a : factor regarding direction of the surface of natural convection ceiling = 2.8, side walls = 2.2, hearth = 1.5 tl : temperature of external wall surface of the furnace (C) t2 : temperature of air around the furnace (C) E: emissivity of external wall surface of the furnace

9.Use of Ceramic Coatings

The benefits of applying a high-emissivity ceramic coating:Rapid heat-up Increased heat transfer at steady state Improved temperature uniformity Increased refractory life Elimination of refractory dust.

10. Fish Bone Diagram for Energy Conservation Analysis in Furnaces