1

Sludge Characterization at Kadahokwa Water Treatment Plant, Rwanda

A. Uwimana a,* *, I. Nhapi a, U. G. Wali a, Z. Hoko b
a b

Faculty of Applied Sciences, National University of Rwanda, P.O. Box 117, Butare, Rwanda

Civil Engineering Department, University of Zimbabwe, P.O. Box MP 167, Mount Pleasant, Harare, Zimbabwe

Abstract One of the biggest challenges in Rwanda and in most developing countries is the management of sludge produced by various treatment processes and chemicals used in water treatment plants. In Rwanda because of rapid growing population associated with urbanization and industrialization, water treatment plants are facing the problem of treating highly loaded raw water (dissolved and suspended particles from erosive material) and have to use diverse chemicals in order to obtain drinking water which meets acceptable health standards. A study was carried to characterize the sludge produced at Kadahokwa water treatment, basing on specific processes and to develop basic scenarios for the use of the sludge in an environmentally friendly way. The Kadahokwa water treatment plant uses raw water from a catchment characterized by a high population density (more than 360/Km2), poor land use practices and massive erosion of hillslopes. The raw water used contains high concentrations of sediments and heavy metals. The sludge from the plant is directly discharged in wetland where is likely to pollute surface water, groundwater and change the local soil properties. The approach used in this study was to follow the evolution of the physico-chemical parameters in the sludge throughout the water purification processes. Samples were collected fortunately at different points of water treatment processes, for a period of four months and analyzed at National University of Rwanda using standards methods. The parameters analyzed are: arsenic, chromium, silver, nickel, copper, iron, fluoride, zinc, aluminum, nitrogen, Phosphorus, potassium, pH, and conductivity. The input/output relationships were established. These included plant water balance, plant sludge mass balance and plant mass balance for above elements. Using Microsoft Excel software and starting from raw water parameters and water treatment chemicals used, the model related to the sludge production, nutrients and heavy metals was developed to predict the potential sludge composition. The preliminary results on raw water had showed that the heavy metal concentration was relatively (compared with fresh water standards) high whereas the nutrients level was low. In the sludge the high level of As, Fe, Ni, Zn and F, showed the potential health hazard for the population living downstream. The high level of Aluminum concentration and electrical conductivity showed that the sludge can contribute in changing the local soil fertility. The low nutrients level showed that it is too difficult to use it as fertilizer for agricultural production. For effective sludge disposal, it was recommended that instead of using the sludge for crop production, it would be environmentally safe to immobilize the heavy metal content through such processes as brick making and road construction. Keywords: Environment, pollution, public health, sludge disposal, water

1. Introduction It will be a major challenge to halve by 2015 the proportion of people without sustainable access to safe drinking water (MDG7 target 10), child mortality (MDG4), improvement of maternal health (MDG5), and achievement of sustainable development (MDG7 target 9), without a sustainable environment (MDG7). Because of actual alarming water crisis especially due to water pollution; water utilities require to conduct source water assessments to determine the potential source of pollution. This should reduce or possibly eliminate the pollution of drinking water resources. Water purification processes make wastes which are sometimes hazardous to the public health and the environment. The sludge composition in water treatment plants is mainly determined by the geology, hydrology of the river basin, human activities in catchments and chemicals used in purification process. Consequently sludge produced from water
*

Corresponding author. Tel.: +250 08679745; fax: +250 530210. E-mail address: abias.uwimana@gmail.com (A. Uwimana)

2 purification processes may contain high concentrations of those chemical removed by the purification processes. Because of serious degradation of the environment in Rwanda, especially in terms of land use; water treatment plants face a problem of treating highly loaded raw water (colloids, dissolved and suspended solids from erosive material) using various chemicals in order to obtain drinking water which meets acceptable health standards. The increase in demand for drinking water implies in an increase in sludge production from water treatment plants (WTP). Despite the fact that this residue is generated by soil erosion in upstream locations, the required chemical treatment for its removal compels to correct disposal in order not to induce negative impact on the environment (Hoppen C. et al., 2005). Rwanda Public Utility for Production, Transmission and Distribution of Electricity and Water (ELECTROGAZ) is now boasting of 13 water treatment plants countrywide with a daily production of 39,845 m3. A consequence of the expansion and proliferation of water treatment facilities nationally is the increased generation of water treatment sludge that requires appropriate methods of disposal. Unfortunately in Rwanda, there is any system of disposal for the increasing water treatment sludge regularly produced from WTP. At the study area, the sludge from water treatment plant is rejected into the wetland where is likely to change the natural properties of the wetland and adversely affect communities living downstream. Therefore there is a strong demand for environmentally safe reuse of and effective disposal methods for contaminated sludge due to the increasing amount of sludge generated by the water treatment plant. Creating more efficient processes is one way that waste can be minimized and money saved. The main objective of this study is to characterize various streams of the sludge produced at Kadahokwa WTP. The specific objectives are: to analyze raw water in terms of basic physico-chemical characteristics; to characterise the water treatment chemicals; to characterize the sludge produced during the flocculation/coagulation and filtration system; to assess alternative uses or disposal of the sludge. This work limited to the characterisation of the following parameters: nickel, cadmium, lead, chromium, zinc, copper, iron, manganese, aluminum, nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, total carbon, cation exchange capacity, pH, electro-conductivity and turbidity. The identification of water treatment chemicals was based on container labels and information from Electrogaz. The proposition of effective disposal option was confined to literature-based analysis only.

2. Current sludge management options Sludge production is an unavoidable consequence of water and wastewater purification processes and creates problems for disposal. According to the type of the sludge, different operations are involved in treatment, reuse and disposal of the sludge. These include thickening, stabilization, conditioning, dewatering, incineration, land application and land filling. According to Andrew et al. (2005), waste minimization methods include source reduction (cleaner production), recycling and reclamation. Source reduction can be achieved through the purchase and use of smaller quantities and less toxic chemicals. Waste treatment can be used to reduce volume, mobility, and toxicity of hazardous wastes. According to Metcalf and Eddy (2003), land application of biosolids is defined as the spreading of biosolids on or just below the soil surface. Biosolids may be applied to agricultural land, forest land, disturbed land and dedicated land disposal sites. Metcalf and Eddy (2003), stated also that solids characteristics that affect their suitability for application to land and for beneficial use include organic content (usually measured as volatile solids), nutrients, pathogens, metals and toxic organics. The fertilizer value of the sludge which

3 should be evaluated where they are to be used as soil conditioner is based primarily on the content of nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium and micronutrients aid plants growth such as iron, manganese, copper and zinc (Metcalf and Eddy, 2003). According to Snyman (2006), the water treatment sludge is predominantly inorganic, displaying physical and chemical characteristics similar to those of fine structured soil while the wastewater sludge comprises relatively much of organic matter. According to Gregory (2006), in some cases natural water can contain elevated concentrations of trace elements such as arsenic, copper, lead and zinc. The aquatic life is also a significant source of numerous constituents of natural waters (Gregory, 2006). The treatment required is therefore dependent on the characteristics of the sludge. Treatment of sludge contaminated with high concentrations of heavy metals or toxic chemicals will be more difficult and the potential for re-use will be limited. Sludge from water treatment plants was traditionally disposed of to landfill but there is a growing interest in applying this waste to land as an alternative disposal option. In South Africa water treatment sludge was added to top soils at different rates. The findings on this investigation suggested that water treatment sludge can be applied to the soil at rate of at least 15%, to increase soil respiration without having a detrimental effect on microbial indicators of soil quality (Snyman, 2006). According to Hughes and Titshall (2005), land application of water treatment residue (WTP sludge) is becoming the preferred method of disposal when applied in optimum rates. A study was carried out in Dublin to identify the characteristics of dewatered alum sludge for phosphorus adsorption using KH2PO4 as model phosphorus source. The results showed that alum sludge is suitable for use as adsorbent for removal of phosphate from wastewater (Stemann et al, 2006). The Recycling of Aluminum (REAL) process was also tested as alternative for water treatment sludge management in Sweden. The potassium aluminum sulphate obtained is comparable to standards aluminum sulfate which can be used as coagulant in water treatment works (Snyman, 2006).

3. Material and Methods 3. 1 Study area description The Kadahokwa WTP was built in 1983 with a treatment capacity of 100m3/day. It was an extension of the Ngoma WTP constructed in 1950s to treat water from Huye source with a treatment capacity of 228m3/day. In 1997, the used pumping system (raw water) from intake has been replaced by the transport by gravity. In 2005, the Kadahokwa WTP rehabilitation and extension works were focused on increasing the overall water treatment capacity. The figure 3.1 in annexes shows some details of the actual Kadahokwa WTP infrastructure. In the Kadahokwa WTP input, the raw water inflow from intake is aerated by use of a waterfall, before the water treatment chemicals are added. The chemicals used are aluminum sulfate as coagulant, polymer as an aid coagulant, potassium permanganate as oxidizing agent, calcium hypochlorite as disinfectant and oxidizing agent and lime as pH corrector and hardness remover. Mixing of chemicals is performed by the baffles and the mechanized agitators. In sedimentation tank the heavy flocs are allowed to settle. The remaining impurities are detained in rapid sand filters and the clean water is stored in reservoirs and distributed by pumping. The sludge from sedimentation tank and filters is conveyed in the sludge dewatering bed where is allowed to dry. As shows the figure 3.2 and 3.3 in annexes the main processes of water purification are the following: river intake, aeration, coagulation/flocculation, filtration and dewatering of the sludge. The figure 3 in annexes shows the sludge dewatering bed at Kadahokwa WTP. In general Kadahokwa WTP is facing the following problems:

4 The catchment is not protected: there is not a water-supply catchment planning provision. The intakes are facing serious siltation problems and the raw water is high loaded with dissolved and suspended particulates such as sediments, dirty particulates, sand, silts and nutrients especially during heavy rains. The floats and the pipelines carrying the solution of chemicals are corroded due to their weak chemical resistance capacity; There is no washing system for the sludge dewatering bed, consequently it clogs often; There is no system for the sludge disposal. The sludge from water Kadahokwa water purification processes is rejected into the wetland where it can adversely affect the environment. 3.2 Sampling The samples were taken at different points of the Kadahokwa WTP shown by the figure 3.4. The sampling sites were: (1) input for raw water samples (RW), (2) chemicals feeder for water treatment chemicals, (3) samples between settling tanks and filters (WS), (4) sludge from settling tanks (SST), (5) sludge from filters (SF), (6) sludge from sludge dewatering bed (SDB), (7) clean water (CW), (8) effluent from sludge dewatered bed (ESDB). The liquids samples for total metal analysis were taken in plastic bottles and preserved using nitric acid while those for total nitrogen analysis were preserved at 4oC and to -10oC for total phosphorus. The SST (slurry) and the SDB (solids) were collected in the plastic bags. The dried SDB was sieved through a 250 m mesh sieve after having dried at 40oC in the oven until sample constant weight. Chemicals input (2) Settling tank (4) (3)

Raw water (1)

Filters (5)

(7)

Clean water Reserv

Distribution

Sludge dewatering bed (6)

Figure 1. Sampling sites AT Kadahokwa Water Treatment Plant

(8)

3.3 Laboratory analysis The samples for total metals determination have been digested using concentrated nitric acid concentrations were determined using Atomic Absorption Spectrometer; Perkin Elmer type. Aluminum samples were digested using sulphuric acid and colorimetric method was used to determine concentration. Samples for total nitrogen determination were digested and oxidized to nitrate by use of heated alkaline persulfate. The resulting nitrate was reduced to nitrite by cadmium granules. The nitrite was then determined by diazotation with sulfanilamide under acidic conditions to form a diazonium ion. The diazonium ion was coupled with N-(1naphtyl)ethylenediamine dihydrochloride. The resulting pink dye absorbs at 540 nm and is proportional to total nitrogen. Samples for total phosphorus were also digested using persafate to convert all forms of phosphorus to orthophosphoric compounds. These react with vanadate molbdate solution to form a phospho-vanado-molbdate solution whose coloration is proportional to the phosphorus concentration and measured at 880 nm. The pH, conductivity and turbidity were determined using pH-meter, conductmeter and Nephelometer respectively. The sludge total

5 solids were determined by weighing the dried material after having evaporated the sample to dryness in a drying oven operating at 105 oC. For dissolved solids measurement, a well-mixed sample was filtered through a standard glass fiber filter and the filtrate was evaporated to dryness in a weighed dish and dried to a constant weight at 180oC. The increase in dish weight represents the total dissolved solids. The volatile solids contents were determined by igniting to constant weight at 550oC the residue from total solids. The remaining solids represent the fixed solids while the weight lost on ignition is the volatile solids. The water treatment chemicals were identified using containers labels and information given by Electrogaz Authorities.

4. Results and discussions

4.1 Preliminary data The various streams of Kadahokwa WTP were first analyzed in terms of pH, conductivity, turbidity total solids, suspended solids, dissolved solids, fixed solids and volatile solids in order to have a general picture on the sludge characteristics. As shows the Table 1, the pH in Kadahokwa WTP streams was in range of 6.5 for RW to 7.45 for CW and SDB. This is due to the use of lime for pH rising. The pH observed in all Kadahokwa water treatment streams were in the WHO guidelines range (6-8). The conductivity of the various Kadahokwa water treatment streams varied in the range of 48.8 S / cm (for clean water) and 736 S / cm (for dewatering bed sludge). The dewatering bed sludge conductivity was higher than the freshwater guidelines for fishery purposes: it is suggested that the conductivity in freshwater bodies has to vary from 150500 S / cm (cvmp.westchestergov.com). Studies of inland fresh waters indicate that streams supporting good mixed fisheries have a range between 150 and 500 mhos/cm. Conductivity outside this range could indicate that the water is not suitable for certain species of fish or macroinvertebrates (USEPA, 2006). The turbidity in clean water was in range of 0.14 to 0.72 NTU. This is in acceptable turbidity WHO guidelines range (< 5 NTU). The turbidity values of 1.36 to 4.15 NTU of effluent from sludge dewatering bed are also in acceptable drinking water standards. Since, for effective water purification and management of the water purification processes, the ESDB can be recycled directly into the sedimentation tanks.
Table 1. KWTP sludge Characteristics in terms of pH, conductivity and turbidity and related WHO guidelines Sites pH pH WHO guidelin es 6-8 6-8 Conduct. ( S / cm ) Conduct. WHO guidelines ( S / cm ) < 1000 150-500 < 1000 150-500 Turbidity (NTU) Turb.WHO guidelines (NTU) > 20 <5

RW SW SST SF SDB CW ESDB

6.50-6.89 6.68-7.10 6.90-7.18 7.05 6.68-7.20 7.00-7.45 7.00-7.03

60.2-120.1 74.8 317-356 83.1 714-736 48.8 109

30.40-175 4.04-18 0.14-0.72 1.36-4.15

6-8 6-8

In the Table 2, the results show that the Kadahokwa WTP sludge streams contain dissolved solids in the range of 1mg/L (for the stream coming from filters) to 500 mg (for dewatering bed sludge). This means that some dissolved matters are removed by the actual Kadahokwa treatment processes and accumulate in the sludge. The observed dissolved solids are less than

6 1000 milligrams per liter; guideline values for freshwater. However, in general more than 500mg/l of dissolved solids is undesirable for drinking and many industrial uses. The volatile solids were in the range of 16.1 % total solids for sedimentation tank sludge and 17.4% total solids for sludge from filters. The higher values of volatile solids in filters are attributed to the lower density and size of organic matter which sediment after the mineral matter. The observed volatile solids were lower than the typical values of volatile solids in biosolids. Evanylo (1999) stated that biosolids are about 50 percent mineral and 50 percent organic matter. This demonstrates that KWTP sludge is less organic than mineral.
Table 2. Characteristics of Kadahokwa water treatment sludge in terms of total solids, suspended solids, dissolved solids, fixed solids and volatile solids Sludge streams SST SF SDB Total solids (g/100mL or %*) 6.70 0.063 88.9% Suspended solids (g/100mL or %*) 6.38 0.058 Dissolved solids (g/100mL or %*) 0.21 0.001 0.5% Fixed solids (g/100mL or %*) 5.62 0.052 83.0% Volatile solids (g/100mL or %*) 1.08 or 16.1% 0.011or 17.4% 17.0%

4.2. Potential toxic metals accumulation in water treatment sludge

The Kadahokwa water treatment sludge was analyzed in various streams to investigate the heavy metals concentrations input and output. As shows the Table 3, at in put the heavy metals concentration in raw water was low and even below the detection limit. This is due to the lack of industrial activities and other important sources of heavy metal in catchment: the geology is only the source of all the heavy metals in Kadahokwa raw water. In the middle of the plant (WS), apart from lead (0.016-0.048 mg/L), other heavy metals were below the detection limit. This was attributed to good performance of the coagulation/flocculation process. All heavy metals sediment with the flocs and their concentrations were reduced below the detection limit. At output, the results showed that even though the raw water does not contain significant amounts of heavy metals, these were accumulated in the slurry sludge from sedimentation tank and much more in dried sludge from sludge dewatering bed. In effluent from sludge dewatering bed, a part from nickel (0.09 mg/L) and zinc (0.01mg/L), all heavy metals concentrations were below the detection limit. A strange increase of zinc and copper concentrations in clean water observed (the mean concentration in clean water was about 8 times more than the mean concentration in raw water) was attributed to the potential corrosion of the pipes or other water treatment or transport materials. The nickel showed a particular behavior of accumulating in filters and even it was not removed from ESDB. The inefficient nickel removal from clean water and its accumulation in SDB and even in ESDB showed that a special attention throughout the Kadahokwa water purification processes is needed because of its potential toxicity at low concentrations (> 0.02mg/L).
Table 3. Potential toxic metals concentrations (mg/L or mg/Kg*) in various streams of KWTP Sample s RW WS SST SF SDB* ESDB CW Zn 0.0018 5.478 0.0052 43.15 0.003 0.0014 Cr 0 0 3.13 0 29.9 0 0 Cu 0.0075 0 3.85 0.0045 40.85 0 0 Cd 0.001 0 0.27 0.001 1.1 0 0 Ni 0.03 4.4 0.102 42.3 0.09 0.0026 Pb 0.033 0.021 6.16 0.078 31.65 0 0

As shown by the Figures 2 and 3, in all the Kadahokwa streams, the concentrations of zinc and nickel were found the highest followed by copper and chromium. The concentrations of cadmium were found the lowest of the PTM. The results showed also that among all the Kadahokwa water treatment streams, the SDB contained the highest concentrations of heavy metals. In fact the moisture occupies the important part of the sludge on a volume and weight basis. Therefore the sludge dewatering process increases the chemical concentration in the sludge.

Evolution of PTM in Kadahokwa water treatment streams

P T M co n cen tratio n s in m g /L o r m g /K g * 50 40 30 20 10 0 RW WS SST SDB* ESDB
Zinc Chromium Copper cadmium lead nickel

Kadahokwa streams
Figure 2. Evolution of the PTM in various streams passing through SST

Evolution of PTM in Kadahokwa water treatment streams

50 PTM concentrations in mg/L or mg/Kg* Zinc 40 30 20 10 0 RW WS SF SDB* ESDB Kadahokwa streams CW Chromium Copper cadmium lead nickel

Figure 3. Evolution of the PTM in various sludge streams passing through filters

4.3 Nutrients accumulation in the water treatment sludge The chemicals accumulation in the sludge is a function of the properties of each chemical. As shown in table 2, the total nitrogen concentration at input (RW) is 10.72 mg/L. It increases up to 17.8 mg/L in the SST and becomes 851.65 mg/Kg in SDB. At output, it remains some amounts of nitrogen not removed (5.12 mg/L in CW and in ESDB). For phosphorus, the raw water contains 0.04mg/L and the concentration increases up to 4.11mg/L in the SST. In dried SDB, the concentration becomes 111 mg/Kg where as in ESDB and in CW the phosphorus concentration is below detection limit. This means that the phosphorus is strongly removed by water

8 purification process whereas certain amounts of nitrogen remain. This is due to the solubility of nitrogen compounds higher than the phosphorus compounds. The use of lime in water treatment works lead to the formation of tricalcium phosphate a water insoluble compound. The potassium accumulation in the sludge is relatively low and the concentration remaining in clean water and ESDB is about the same like the concentration at input. The potassium concentration in raw water is 1.427 mg/L, 1.626 mg/L in SDB effluent and 1.32 mg/L in clean water. Therefore, potassium compounds are in dissolved form more than nitrogen compounds more than phosphorus compounds.
Table 4. Nutrients concentrations in mg/L or mg/Kg* RW 10.72 0 1.427 WS 8.8 0 1.479 SST 17.8 4.11 74.3 SF 9.03 0.19 1.88 SDB* 851.65 111 372.05 ESDB 5.12 0 1.626 CW 5.76 0 1.32

N P K

4.4 The iron, manganese and aluminum concentrations As shows the table 5.5 and figures 5.3 and 5.4 in annexes iron was found to have the highest concentration: 5.027 mg/L in raw water, 92.64mg/L in the sludge from filters, 5647.3mg/L in the sludge from sedimentation tank and 45,067mg/Kg in the dewatering bed sludge. The manganese in raw water was 0.355mg/L, 424 mg/L in sludge from sedimentation tank and 1759 mg/Kg in the dewatering bed sludge. This is evident because those elements are known to be more abundant in earthen cluster than the potential toxic elements analyzed.
Evolution of iron and manganese concentrations in Kadahokwa water treatment streams

100000 Concentrations in mg/L or mg/Kg

45067

10000 1000

5647.3 1759 424

100 10
5.027

Manganese Iron

1
0.355

1.384 0.208

1.459 0.51

0.1 RW WS SST SDB* ESDB Kadahokwa water treatment streams

Figure 4. Evolution of manganese and iron concentrations in various sludge streams passing through SST

4.5 Effective options for sludge disposal at Kadahokwa water treatment plant Pollution prevention is an approach of reducing or eliminating waste at the source by modifying production processes, promoting the use of non-toxic or less-toxic substances, implementing

9 conservation techniques, and re-using materials rather than putting them into the waste stream (USEPA, 2007). Given that actually, the clean water production process is using less-toxic substances, the pollution prevention approach is focused on reusing effectively waste materials from Kadahokwa WTP. Table 5 compares the measured concentrations of some chemicals in different streams of Kadahokwa water treatment plant with the WHO normal levels of health significance in fresh water and drinking water.
Table 5. chemicals levels in some streams of Kadahokwa WTP compared with freshwater and drinking water WHO guidelines, 1993 (LENNTECH, 2007) Chemicals Al Cd Cr Cu Fe Pb Mn Ni Zinc RW (mg/L) 0.195 0-0.003 0 0.005-0.010 2.143-6.515 0-0.099 0.180-0.607 0.010-0.050 0-0.005 SDB (mg/Kg) 250 0.6-1.6 28.8-31.0 40.8-40.9 39230-50905 15.7-47.6 606-2910 33.6-45.8 42-44.3 ESDB 0.070 0 0 0 0.434-3.030 0 0.148-0.704 0.09 0-0.010 Freshwater limits (mg/L) < 0.001 < 0.002 0,5 - 50 < 0,02 WHO limits (mg/L) 0,2 0,003 0,05 2 No guideline 0,01 0,5 0,02 3

The results shows that the dewatering bed sludge contains high concentrations of the PTM and can serve as a source of pollution if not properly disposed of. Chemical weathering can occur in the sludge and loose the stable chemical combinations. Chemical weathering occurs because minerals are made more soluble and are changed in structure, causing easy fragmentation. Solubility changes are caused by: a) solution (usually in water); b) hydrolysis (the reaction of elements with water); and c) carbonation namely the reaction with HCO3- (University of Minnesota, 2007). Changes in the chemical structure of elements are brought about by hydration, oxidation, and reduction. Chemical weathering is faster where temperatures are higher and water is present. This explains why the actual practices of disposing of the sludge in wetland (temperature and moisture are high) have to be revised. The results in raw water have showed that some chemicals exceed by 50% the normal level found in fresh water. This was observed in the case of nickel and cadmium where the raw water content can increase up to 0.05 mg/L for nickel and 0.003 mg/L for cadmium. The normal concentration found in freshwater is less than 0.02 mg/L for nickel and 0.001 mg/L for cadmium (WHO, 1993). This raised the issue of the need of monitoring these elements in water resources around, because of their potential important geologic source in the Kadahokwa catchment. In ESDB nickel concentration (0.09 mg/L) was again observed to exceed the health based guideline of 0.02 mg/L for freshwater (WHO, 2007). This showed that a special attention for monitoring nickel content in Kadahokwa water treatment processes is needed to prevent the potential health hazard downstream. The figure 6.1, shows how in effluent from sludge dewatering bed and clean water, nickel, iron and manganese concentrations can exceed the USEPA (2002) drinking water limits (Liphadzi and Kirkham, 2006) or WHO guidelines (nickel*). This can endanger the public health of the community living downstream.

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Exceedence of some metals in clean water and SDB effluent at Kadahokwa WTP 1.6 1.4 1.2 Kadahokwa 1 clean water 0.8 Kadahokwa 0.6 ESDB 0.4 drinking water 0.2 limits 0 Ni* Fe Metals Mn

Concentrations in

Figure 5. Comparisons of metals concentrations in clean water and SDB effluent with the drinking water limits (USEPA, 2002) or (WHO guidelines, 1993*)

In general the potential threats associated with the actual sludge disposal are the following: the Kadahokwa SDB can be a potential source of the PTM (by weathering) if not properly disposed like is actually being rejected into wetland; the concentration of nickel in ESDB was observed to exceed the freshwater standards for public health safety; iron and manganese in effluent from SDB were observed to exceed the drinking water limits (USEPA 2002) or (WHO guidelines). The iron in clean water was also exceeding the drinking water limits. This can endanger the public health of the community living downstream; The sludge electrical conductivity (725 S / cm ) was observed to exceed the favorable range (150-500 S / cm ) suitable for certain aquatic species like fish and macroinvertebrates (USEPA, 2006). The SDB dissolved solids of 500 mg/L seems to be less than 1000 mg/L; guideline values for freshwater. However in general more than 500 mg/l of dissolved solids is undesirable for drinking and many industrial uses. These threats associated with the actual sludge disposal considered together with the sludge nutrients values were taken as basic scenarios for public health protection and the use of the sludge in an environmentally and economically friendly way. Therefore it was suggested that the actual sludge disposal (rejecting of the sludge in wetland) have to be banned and replaced by other sludge disposal options (like agricultural recycling and Real process) which are economic and environmental sustainable.

4.6 Agricultural recycling Among the factors influencing the management of the sludge the stability, degree of pollutant concentration, extent and cost of processing, local geography, climate and land use, public acceptance and regulatory constraint are the preeminent (Michigan University, 2001). According Hughes and Titshall (2005), the recycling to agricultural land is usually considered to be the best practicable environmental option for the sludge disposal options. Considering the regulations set

mg/L

11 in different country for land application (Table 6) ; the presence of the potential toxic metals (zinc, chromium, copper, cadmium and lead) in Kadahokwa water treatment sludge was below the toxicity threshold level for land application but nickel was violating the very strict Holland regulations. This demonstrated the ability to recycle these water treatment residues for crop production. However nickel will be given a special attention in determining the agronomic application rates. According to Snyman, (2006), sludge that complies with A pollutants class may be used in agricultural practices without carrying out soil analyses as long as agronomic application rates (up to a maximum load of 10 tons/ha/month are not exceeded). These results indicated that the Kadahokwa water treatment sludge is within permissible levels to be land applied, if the Holland regulation for nickel (very stringent) is to be neglected before South Afica limits.
Table 6. Comparison of PTM concentrations (mg/Kg) in the Kadahokwa SDB with the regulations limits set in different countries (zsoy et al, 2006 and Snyman, 2006). Samples and countries Kadahokwa SDB EU limits USA limits Holland limits China South Africa limits Class A Class B Class C Zn 42-44.3 4,000 7,500 300 500-1000 <2,800 2,8007,500 >7,500 Cr 28.8-31.0 None None 75 600-1000 <1,200 1,2003,000 >3,000 Cu 40.8-40.9 1,750 4,300 75 250-500 <1,500 1,5004,300 >4,300 Cd 0.6-1.6 40 83 125 5-20 <40 40-85 >85 Ni 33.6-45.8 400 420 30 100-200 <420 420 >420 Pb 15.7-47.6 1,200 840 100 300-1000 <300 300-840 >840

After having realized the inoffensive characteristics of the Kadahokwa SDB for land application, the next step was to check the nutrients value of the sludge. After Evanylo, (1999), the main fertilizer benefits are through the supply of nitrogen, phosphorus and lime. The sludge content in these elements is used to evaluate the sludge potentiality of being used as soil conditioner. In the dried sludge from SDB, the total content (on a weight basis) was ranging from 0.58% to 1.11% for total nitrogen, 0.11% for total phosphorus and 0.296 to 0.448% for potassium. These values are strictly low compared with the typical values of commercial fertilizers for nutrients (N, P, K /5, 10, 10) to be land applied. However as shows the Table 7, the range of micronutrients concentrations required for normal plant growth (0.5 to 5.0 ppm for iron, 0.1 to 0.5 ppm for manganese, 0.02 to 0.2 for zinc and 0.001 to 0.05 for copper) were more than 10 times lower than the micronutrients in the SDB. The results on cation exchange capacity showed also that the sludge can improve the nutrients and water holding capacity of the soil. The cation exchange capacity serves as indicator of the activity of cations like calcium, magnesium, potassium, and sodium in the soil. Consequently iron, manganese, zinc, copper, calcium, magnesium, and sodium in the sludge were found to be an important micronutrients source, essential for plant growth. This suggested that the Kadahokwa water treatment sludge can be land applied (as micronutrients source) supplemented with chemical fertilizers, manure or sewer waste for supplying nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium.

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Table 7. Comparison of measured micronutrients concentrations in dewatering bed sludge with the required concentration ranges for normal plant growth Micronutrients Iron Manganese Zinc Copper Measured concentration in ppm (parts per million) 39,230-50,903 608-2910 42-44.3 40.8-40.9 Required Concentration (ppm) for normal plant growth 0.5 to 5.0 0.1 to 0.5 0.02 to 0.2 0.001 to 0.05

However it is known that lime stabilized sludge reduces the plant phosphorus availability in soil because it provides additional sorption sites for phosphorus (Erdincler and Seyhan, 2006). Nevertheless when sludge is applied supplemented by an important fertilizer having a reasonable phosphorus levels, the reduced availability of phosphorus might be seen as advantage for the control of phosphorus in terms of eutrophication. Lower soluble phosphorus levels may then offer a positive environmental effect because of the fixed phosphorus avoided to pollute water bodies. Therefore it is to suggest that land application of Kadahokwa water treatment sludge should be an economic and environmental way of disposal when supplemented with a source of phosphorus because it retains it for a long time and then can control phosphorus eutrophication from agricultural activities. 4.7 Aluminum recycling The measured aluminum concentration of 250 mg/Kg in the sludge was relatively high so that the Recycling of Aluminum (REAL) process as tested in Sweden can be suggested as alternative for sludge recycling. As mentioned Snyman (2006), the process comprises four steps: in the first step, the aluminum hydroxide of the water treatment sludge is dissolved in sulphuric acid. In a second step, an ultra filtration will separate all suspended matter and large molecules, leaving a concentrate of 15- 20% dry solids. The third step, consists of concentrating permeate in a nano filter; the concentration of aluminum will be high enough to be precipitated in fourth step with potassium aluminum sulphate. The potassium aluminum sulphate obtained is comparable to standards aluminum sulphate which can be used as coagulant in water treatment works (Snyman, 2006). The residues of the process must be checked for potential toxic metals concentration and agriculturally recycled if complies with the regulations. 4.8 Sludge incineration for brick formation The incineration is aimed to eliminate the volatile matter and kill pathogens and is applied for highly contaminated sludge. Sludge incineration is not desirable especially for the following reasons: 1. it is one of the most expensive method in terms of energy consumed and is then applied for highly contaminated sludge; 2. incineration carries the health risk associated with the release of volatile trace elements into the atmosphere; 3. Incineration produces a certain amount of carbon dioxide, a greenhouse gas whose release to the atmosphere contributes in global warming and the potential benefits of nutrients recycling are lost. But because the Kadahokwa sludge volatile contents are low, the carbon dioxide concentration released should be low. Therefore it can be suggested to use it in brick formation, but this should be the last sludge disposal option. To be successful, the economic recovering of project and engineering technical feasibility have first to be assessed. the engineering feasibility to check on Kadahokwa sludge to determine the brick formation feasibility include shrinkage test, weight

13 loss on ignition, water absorption, compressive strength, water absorption, apparent density and apparent porosity tests.

7. Conclusions and recommendations

The various streams of Kadahokwa WTP were analyzed in terms of PTM (nickel, chromium, iron copper, zinc), other metals (iron, manganese and aluminum), nutrients (total nitrogen, total phosphorus and potassium) and parameters like pH, electro-conductivity and turbidity. The results of this study have shown the following: 1. the Kadahokwa water treatment sludge is more mineral than organic; 2. the Kadahokwa water treatment sludge respects the pH WHO guidelines (6-8); 3. the electro conductivity and the total dissolved solids content in the Kadahokwa water treatment sludge are higher than the guidelines for freshwater; 4. apart the nickel violating the Holland regulations, all the potential toxic metals analyzed were below the required limits for land application. But high for freshwater guidelines to be rejected in wetland. 5. Nickel was observed to exceed the regulations in all Kadahokwa water treatment streams; 6. the Kadahokwa water treatment sludge is an important source of micronutrients (iron, manganese, zinc and copper), essential elements for plants growth; 7. the Kadahokwa water treatment sludge is a poor source of the major nutrients (nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium); 8. The Kadahokwa water treatment sludge is an important source of aluminum. From above results, it has suggested the following: 1. the actual practices of disposing water treatment sludge in wetland has to be abandoned; 2. a special attention is needed for monitoring the nickel levels in Kadahokwa catchment and throughout the Kadahokwa water purification processes; 3. the Kadahokwa water treatment sludge can be used as soil amendment for micronutrients. The major nutrients (N, P, K) have to be supplied by other source like commercial fertilizers manure or sewer wastes. This should supply nutrients to the plant and control the phosphorus eutrophication; 4. the aluminum sulfate used as coagulant in Kadahokwa water purification processes can be recycled from the sludge using REAL process; 5. the brick formation from Kadahokwa water treatment sludge must be taken as the last alternative of Kadahokwa sludge disposal. But the engineering feasibility and economic recovering of the project must first be assessed for sustainability.

5. Reference list S / cm (cvmp.westchestergov.com). A. Erdincler and L.D. Seyhan (2006). Agricultural use of municipal wastewater sludges: phosphorus availaibility of biological excess phosphorus removal sludges. Water Sciences and Technology, V. 54 N. 5, IWA Publishing 2006, pp 131-138. Andrew D. Eaton, Lenores S. Clesceri, Eugene W. Rice, Arnold E. Greenberg (2005). Standards Methods for the examination of water & wastewater. American public health Association (APHA). 21st edition, Centennial Edition. Washngton, USA. G. zsoy, F. B. Dilek and F. D. Sanin (2006). An investigation of agricultural use potential of wastewater sludges in Turkey case of heavy metals. Department of environmental Engineering, Middle East Technical University, 06531, Ankala, Turkey.

14 G.K. Evanylo (1999). Agricultural Land Application of Biosolids in Virginia, Extension Specialist, Department of Crop and Soil Environmental Sciences, Publication Number 452301, Virginia State University. HG Snyman (2006). Water Science and Technology, Sustainable Management of Residues from Water and Waste Treatment.V. 54 N.5 2006, IWA Publishing. Hoppen, C., Portella, K. F., Joukoski, A. et al., (2005). Disposal of centrifuged sludge from Water Treatment Plant (WTP) in concrete matrix: an alternative method for environmental protection. Cermica, Apr./June 2005, vol.51, no.318, p.85-95. ISSN 0366-6913. Hughes, J. C., Titshall, L. W. (2006). Characterization of some South African water treatment residues and implications for land application. Soil Science, School of Environmental Sciences, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Private Bag X01, Scottsville 3209, South Africa, Water SA, 2005 (Vol. 31) (No. 3) 299-307. John Gregory (2006). Particles in water, Properties and Process. Taylor & Francis Group CRC Press. New York, USA. Lee W. Jacobs and Deliana S. McCreary (2001). Utilizing Boisolds on Agricultural land. Michigan State University, Department of Crop and Soil Sciences, Michigan, USA. LENNTECH (2007). WHOs drinking water standards, 1993 M. S. Liphadzi and M. B. Kirkham, (2006). Heavy metals displacement in EDTA-assisted phytoremediation of biosolids soil. Water Reasearch Commission, 395 Frederica Street, Rietfontein, Pretoria, Water Science and Technology, V.54, IWA Publishing, pp 147-153. Metcalf & Eddy (2003). Wastewater Engineering, Treatment and Reuse. Fourth edition, Mc Graw Hill, New York, USA. Michigan State University (2001). Utilizing Biosolids on Agricultural land. Extension Bulletin E-2781, December 2001, USA. Pinarli V. and Kaymal G. (1994). An innovative sludge disposal option-reuse of sludge by incorporating in construction materials, Ondokuz Mayis University, dep. environmental eng., Samsun 55139, Turquie. S.W. Stemann, P. van Rensburg, N.E.Ristow, M.C. Wentzel, R.E. Loewenthal and G.A. Ekama (2006). Agricultural use of wastewater sludge and land disposal, Research Group, Department of Civil Engineering, University of Cape Town, Rondebosch, 7701, Cape Town, South Africa. Spinosa and K. Wichmann (2006). European developments in standardizations of sludge physical parameters. Hamburg University of Technology, Hambourg, Germany. United States Environmental Protection Agency (2006). Monitoring and Assessing Water Quality. www.epa.gov University of Minnesota (2006). Soil weathering. Regents of the University of Minnesota, USA. Y. Yang, D. Tomlinson, S. Kennedy and Y. Q. Zhao (2006). Dewatered alum sludge: a potential adsorbent for phosphorus removal. Centre for Water Resources Research, School of Architecture, Landscape and Civil Engineering, University College Dublin, Earlsfort Terace, Dublin 2, Ireland.

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8. Annexes

Figure A1. Kadahokwa Water Treatment Plant

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River

River intake alum, chlorine, permanganate and polymer feeder

Aeration waterfall

Lime feeder

Coagulation/floc culation tank Settling tank

Filters Clean water reservoir

Sludge dewatering bed

Figure A2. Kadahokwa WTP flow scheme

Figure A3. Sludge dewatering bed photo