Types of Plastics 1. Thermosets Thermosets is a kind of plastics that they could not be resoftened by heating once formed.

This means they could not be reshaped. Thus, thermosets could not be reused. In the nature world, there are many natural thermosets, for example, wood, cotton, wool, hair and feathers. 1.1 Epoxy resins The invention of epoxy resin (EP) occurred in 1934 by P. Schlack who also invented nylon 6. The first cured (hardened) EP was discovered by P. Castan and the commercial EPs were sold at the end of the Second War Word. The majority of EPs are produced by the reaction products of bisphenol A and epichlorohydrin. They are often formulated with plasticizers, fillers, pigments, etc. and cured by crosslinking reactions. There are two types of curing. One is warm curing, which their oxirane and hydroxyl groups react with acid anhydrides. This means the anhydride is the crosslinking agent (hardener). Another is cold curing, which their oxirane and hydroxyl groups react with poly-functional amines. Generally, cured EPs have higher heat distortion temperatures, lower coefficients of thermal expansion and improved chemical resistance. However, cured EPs are relatively more expensive and their processes are more complex. The common applications of EPs are adhesives and coatings. For epoxy adhesives, they could be used in aircraft industry such as a glass fabric tape impregnated with adhesives and in civil engineering industry such as strengthening and repair of existing structure, like concrete crack repair. For coatings, they could be applied as maintenance and marine coatings, radiation cure coatings, powder coatings for pipe etc. 1.2 Phenolic Phenolic (Phenolic resins) is synthesized by phenol and formaldehyde, so it is also called phenolformaldehyde resin (PF). In 1872, Baeyer had polymerized poly (phenol-formaldehyde) but it didnt become a beneficial product until 1909 by Leo H. Baekelend. One of the most common PFs is Bakelite. Phenol and formaldehyde could raise chemical reaction by adding catalysis under two different types of conditions, that is, strongly acid conditions (pH 1-4) and basic conditions (pH 7-11). Acid catalysis

is added in strongly acid conditions and in the situation of adding excessive phenol, the pre-polymer of novolac could be gained. Conversely, pre-polymer of resole could be gained by using base catalysis and adding excessive formaldehyde under basic conditions. The pre-polymer of novolac could be cured by such crosslinking agents as paraformaldehyde or hexamethylenetetramine (HMTA), while heat curing is suitable for resole. Although the cost of PF production is low, its mechanical properties are not quite well, for example, low notched impact strength and brittle. PFs are widely applied in the fields of moulding powers, abrasive binders, coatings, foams, laminates etc. 1.3 Amino resins Amino resins include urea-formaldehyde (UF) resins and melamine formaldehyde (MF) resins, which are derived from ammonia. The first introduction of pure UF was in 1928 and its productions replaced the heavy cast-ion. Also UF was the first colourless thermosets compared to the dark coloured PFs at that time. On the other hand, MF became commercial products in 1939, which is much later than UF. Amino resins have outstanding properties. One is the light and permanent colours. The other one is high hardness, especially, MF which has the highest hardness among plastics. In addition, their electrical properties are very good. Amino resins are used for adhesives, coatings, and moulding powders etc., which are similar to PF. 1.4 Polyurethanes Polyurethanes (PUs) which contain the urethane group (-NH-CO-O-) were discovered by O. Bayer from the reaction of di-isocyanates and aliphatic diols (glycols). PUs could be used to form polyurethane fibres, called Perlon U, which have good acid resistance and lower water absorption. In addition, PUs could be used to produce polyurethane rubbers, which have high tensile strength and abrasion resistance. Moreover, polyurethane foams, which might be rigid, semi-rigid or flexible, could be obtained by PUs. Finally, PUs could be applied in the fields of adhesives and coatings. 1.5 Silicone resins Silicone resins are highly cross-linked siloxanes. The heat resistance and electrical insulation properties are very good. Silicone resins could be used for laminates; however, its mechanical properties are poorer than epoxy laminates. Also they could be applied in moulding powders.

1.6 Unsaturated polyesters Unsaturated polyesters (UP) are achieved by the chemical reaction of maleic anhydride with diols. UP resins could be reinforced with short glass fibres, which may reduce the shrinkage and increase the service temperatures. 2. Thermoplastics Thermoplastics are plastics that the structures are not cross-linked network. Generally, the basic structures are long chains. They could be resoftened by heat and hardened by cooling, so they could be recycled. 2.1 Polyethylene Polyethylene (PE) is a kind of simple thermoplastic derived from ethylene with a repeating structure of CH2CH2. The melting point of PE is in the range of 108-132 . Generally, there are three types of PE depending on density, including low (LDPE, 0.910-0.925 g/cm3), medium (MDPE, 0.925-0.940 g/cm3) and high (HDPE, 0.940-0.965 g/cm3). However, there exists very low density PE (VLDPE, 0.88-0.912 g/cm3), linear low density PE (LLDPE, 0.915-0.940 g/cm3) and ultra-high molecular weight PE (UHMWPE). UHMWPE is actually the HDPE with a higher molecular weight. Different types of PE have different mechanical properties because the mechanical properties depend on the molecular weight and density. VLDPE is mainly used in film applications because of its high elongation ability. LDPE is also applied in the domain of films, especially films for packaging. Compared to LDPE, LLDPE has strengthened tensile property, similarly mainly used as films, like grocery bags and shopping bags. HDPE, which has higher tensile strength in comparison to LDPE and MDPE, however, domains many fields in industries, such as bottles, toys, food containers, plastic bags etc. on the other hand, UHMWPE which could be used for chemical processing equipment and lubrication coatings has excellent abrasion resistance, impact strength and stress cracking resistance but the process of production is relatively difficult due to its high melt viscosity. 2.2 Polypropylene Polypropylene (PP) is a kind of milky white thermoplastic with a density around 0.900-0.915 g/cm3. There are two primary forms of PP, that is atactic and isotactic forms. Atactic PP is soft and rubberylike. The application is therefore restrained. Nevertheless, the isotactic PP is hard and tough because

the same side methyl groups are allowed to improve the crystallite structure. In addition to the hardness and toughness, the fatigue resistance and impact resistance of isotactic PP is excellent. PP could be used in many fields such as packaging, textile and furniture industry. In packaging industry, PP could be applied in bottles, food/chemical packaging and non-woven green bags. In textile industry, PP could be used in woven clothing, which is similar to cotton. In furniture industry, PP could be utilized to fabricate chairs and decorative panels. 2.3 Polyvinyl chloride Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) is a kind of thermal sensitive thermoplastic. The recommended service temperature is often under 60. In addition, during the process of PVC production, thermal stabilizers are usually added because the melt temperature of PVC is close the degradation temperature. Adding the thermal stabilizers could help prevent degradation by HCl emission. There are two primary forms of PVC, including rigid PVC and plasticized PVC. Rigid PVC is unmodified PVC whose stiffness is high, higher than PE and PP. It could be used for house siding, extruded pipe, credit card etc. But on the other hand, plasticized PVC is modified by low molecular weight plasticizers to obtain a range of flexibility depending on the type and the amount of plasticizers added. It could be used for floor mats, garden hose, shrink wrap etc. 2.4 Polystyrene Polystyrene (PS) is a kind of transparent, brittle, hard thermoplastic with a density around 1.054-1.070 g/cm3. The general purpose PS (GPPS) made from styrene is well resistant in water, inorganic chemicals, alcohol. However, its impact strength is low because of its brittleness. In order to improve its impact strength, PS is modified by rubber such as butadiene. This kind of PS is called high impact PS (HIPS). The impact strength of HIPS depends on the rubber content. As the rubber content increases, the impact strength increases but the stiffness and service temperature decrease. HIPS could be used for home electric cases, toys, and video/audiocassettes. Another common type of modified of PS is expanded PS foam. The major part of the manufacture of PS foam is the expandable beads which contain a gas-releasing chemical. When heated, the beads could expand up to 45 times of the origin volume due to the released gas. The applications of PS foams are mainly in thermal insulation and packaging, for example, food trays. 2.5 Polycarbonates

Polycarbonate (PC) has high transparency and relatively high melting point at about 200. It was discovered by Einhorn in 1898 via phosgene process, but Bischoff and von Hedenstrm generated it via ester exchange process in 1902. One of the excellent properties of PC is high impact strength, which is much higher than safety glass at the same thickness. PC sheets therefore could be used to replace glass in buildings. In addition, PC is able to be used for safety goggles, helmets and bullet resistance. The optical properties of PC are also outstanding, so lens, skylights, sunscreens and lamp housings for street or traffic lights are often made from PC. Further popular usage of PC is milk bottles for babies due to its good thermal properties. 2.6 Polyamides The trade name of polyamide (PA) is nylon. The first nylon is nylon 6, 6 produced by Carothers and his partners at Du Pont in 1935. In 1940, nylon 6 was born. In 1955 and 1960, nylon 11 and 12 came out. However, the common general purpose types of nylon are nylon 6 and 6, 6. The raw material of nylon 6 is caprolactam derived from petroleum and natural gas. The Casting techniques could be used to produce large mouldings of nylon 6, like gears, bumper covers and propellers for marine craft. The service temperature is around 180. Nylon 6, 6 is the reaction product of adipic acid and 1, 6-hexamethylenediamine. The service temperature of it is higher, up to 199. Nevertheless, the UV resistance of nylon 6 and 6, 6 are not very good, so the stabilizers are often added such as carbon black. Although the mechanical properties of nylon 6 and 6, 6 are not bad, for example, high tensile strength and hardness, they could be increased much after filled by glass fibre. The main application of nylon is to be used as fibre for clothing, tire cords, ropes, carpets etc. In addition, nylon could be widely used in electrical industry in telecommunications, for example, for circuits, relays, contact makers, drive units, socket devices etc. 3. Rubber Generally, there are two main classification of rubber, including natural rubber and synthetic rubber. Both of them are often needed to vulcanization which is under 140-180 for minutes to hours. Before vulcanization, the rubber is a long chain molecule structure with low resiliency and strength. The application is therefore restrained. However, after vulcanization the rubber has good properties and wide utilizations. In addition, fillers are always added into rubber in order to improve stiffness.

3.1 Natural rubber Natural rubber (NR) could be derived from approximately 500 species of plants. One of the most excellent species is the tree Hevea brasiliensis, so natural rubber is also named Hevea rubber. The latex of the bark of the rubber tree contains useful ingredient, that is, isoprene, which has cis-1, 4 configuration. The real ingredient of natural rubber is polyisoprene, a long chain molecule. The long chain molecules are usually required to be cross linked to obtain a three dimensional network. The process of crosslinking is called vulcanization, commonly including polysulfide crosslinking and more monosulfidic crosslinks. After vulcanization, the resiliency and strength of NR could be improved. Thus, NR has good resilience and high tensile strength. In addition, NR has good electrical properties and it is resistant to wear, tear, cut-through and acids, alkalis. But on the other hand, NR is easily to be attacked by oxidative and ozone although carbon black is always added to protect from UV radiation. The service temperature of NR is from about -50 to 100. It is widely used for engine mounts because it could eliminate vibrations. Also it is outstanding for tyres, especially aeroplanes and racing car wheels due to its low heat build-up. 3.2 Polyisoprene rubber Polyisoprene rubber (IR) is synthesised as copying the structure of natural rubber. The properties are therefore similar to NR. This means IR has high tensile strength, good abrasion resistance and it is also easily attacked by ozone. However, due to both cis-polyisoprene and trans-polyisoprene obtained, there are different utilizations of these two kinds of polyisoprene. For example, cis-polyisoprene could be widely used for tyres which are similar to NR, while trans-polyisoprene could be applied in golf ball covers and hot-melt adhesives. 3.3 Polysulfide rubber Polysulfide rubber (SR) is a kind of thermoset elastomer. It is the reaction product of organic dihalide and aqueous solution of sodium polysulfide. SR is well resistant to gases, hydrocarbon solvents, aliphatic liquids, so it is often used for solvent-carrying hose, printers rolls and newspaper blankets. However, its resiliency and abrasion resistance are poor and the tensile strength is low. Compared to NR, the abrasion resistance of SR is just half of that of NR. The service temperature is approximately ranging from -55 to 150. 3.4 Nitrile rubber

Nitrile rubber (NBR) is the copolymer of butadiene and acrylonitrile. The ratio of butadiene to acrylonitrile could be controlled for different applications because the ratio has an effect on their properties. Commercially, acrylonitrile content could be 20, 28, 33, 40 and 50%. The higher acrylonitrile content leads to better oil, solvent and heat resistance but worse low-temperature flexibility. Consequently, the ratio could be changed depending on specific applications. For examples, NBR with higher acrylonitrile content could be used in hoses and ink rolls. In addition, the tensile strength and abrasion resistance of NBR are good. The service temperature is varying from -30 to 120. 3.5 Poly-chloroprene rubber Poly-chloroprene rubber (CR) is also called neoprene rubber. It has high tensile strength inferior to NR and excellent oil resistance little inferior to NBR. It also has outstanding ozone, oxidation and flame resistance. But on the other hand, the low-temperature flexibility of CR is poor because it crystalizes quickly at low temperature. CR could be used for car radiator hoses, seals, shoe soles and conveyor belts etc. The service temperature of CR is up to 250. 3.6 Styrene-butadiene rubber Styrene-butadiene rubber (SBR) is the block copolymer of styrene and butadiene and is a kind of thermoplastic elastomer. It has better abrasion and weathering resistance than NR but has lower tensile strength and less resilient than NR. It also has better solvent resistance. The dominant application of SBR is automobile tyres. In addition, SBR could be used for hoses, belts, footwear and wire covering etc. The service temperature of SBR is approximately ranging from -60 to 70. 4. Composite Composites constitutes of two or more distinct components and manifest two or more distinct phases, usually a continuous phase (matrix) and a discontinuous phase. Between phases, there is a noticeable interphase. In terms of polymer composites, the matrix is polymeric materials, while the dispersed phase could be polymeric or non-polymeric materials. However, polymer composites are different from polymer blends because none of the polymer blends components represent physically distinct shape even though the blends might be two or more phases. The dispersed phase is regarded as filler. Generally, there are two types of fillers including inactive filler (extender, i.e. calcium carbonate) and active filler (reinforcement, i.e. glass fibre). Adding the active fillers could improve the mechanical properties like strength, stiffness and toughness of matrix materials. Regarding of the classification of composites, there are particulate composites, fibrous composites and laminated (laminar) composites.

4.1 Particulate composites Particulate composites mean the fillers dispersed in polymer matrix are particles, like silica, carbon black, calcium carbonate, lead, aluminium etc.. These particles could be in a wide range of shapes, configurations and sizes. 4.1.1 Calcium carbonate filled composites

Calcium carbonate filler is a kind of common filler used in polymeric matrix. It is often used in phenolic resins and PVC products. 4.1.2 Carbon black reinforced composites

Carbon black is outstanding for reinforcing elastomers. One of the most significant effectiveness is on improving the life expectancy of tyres remarkably. 4.2 Fibrous composites Fibrous composites are fibre reinforced composites that the dispersed fillers are fibre reinforcements. The common types of reinforcements are glass fibre, carbon fibre, Kevlar fibre and ceramic fibre. 4.2.1 Glass fibre reinforced composites

Glass fibre reinforced composites mean the matrix materials are filled with glass fibres. Regarding of the fibre length, there are short and long glass fibre. However, regarding of the fibre properties, there are E-glass and S-glass. E for electrical, thus, E-glass has good electrical properties, while S for strength, S-glass therefore has high strength and modulus. E-glass fibre composites could be used for automobile bodies, tubes or pipes, surfboards and the booms on cherry pickers etc. S-glass fibre composites could be applied in fields of pressure bottles, rocket-motor cases and missile shells. The most common matrix materials for glass fibre are epoxy and polyester. 4.2.2 Carbon (or graphite) fibre reinforced composites

Carbon fibre reinforced composites mean the matrix materials are filled with carbon (or graphite) fibres. Carbon fibres could be derived from polyacrylonitrile (PAN), pitch and rayon. Regardless of PAN-based, pitch-based or rayon-based carbon fibre, the mechanical properties are not the same. According to specific properties, there are high strength carbon (HS carbon) and high modulus carbon (HM carbon). Carbon fibre composites could be used in domain of aerospace and sporting-goods like

tennis rackets and skis. In particular, carbon fibre epoxy could be used for airframe, reducing the weight of planes. 4.2.3 Ceramic fibre reinforced composites

Ceramic fibres with good properties, for example, boron fibres, silicon carbide (SiC) fibres and aluminium oxide (Al2O3) fibres are widely used as fillers. Similar to carbon fibre composites, boron could be used in sporting-goods equipment such as tennis rackets and fishing rods. Boron fibre reinforced epoxy also could be used for aircrafts. Although the mechanical properties of SiC fibres are similar to boron fibres, SiC fibre composites are often used as filler for metal and ceramic matrix materials rather than resin. 4.3 Laminated (laminar) composites The structure of laminated composites could be demonstrated simply that layers of matrix material bind layers of reinforcement (i.e. fibre) together. The interphase is between the layer of matrix and the layer of fibre. 4.4 Hybrid composites If the reinforcement or matrix of composites is the combination of two or more than two different components, these composites are called hybrid composites, for example, carbon-glass fibre hybrid composites. Literatures [1] D. Feldman & A. Barbalata 1996, Synthetic Polymers: technology, properties, applications, Chapman & Hall, London, p 186-194, p 222-223, p 235-236, p 318, p330, p 331-333, p 338-339, p 344-345. [2] Hans-Georg Elias 2003, An Introduction to Plastics, 2nd edn, Wiley-VCH, Germany, p 279-280, p 275-276, p 278, p 380, p 381. [3] J. A. Brydson 1989, Plastics Materials, 5th edn, Mid-country Press, London, p777-780. [4] D. R. Askeland 1994, The Science and Engineering of Materials, 3rd edn, PWS Publishing, Boston, p 468, p 511, p 533. [5] J. H. Dubois 1944, Plastics, revised edn, American Technical Society, Chicago, p 23, p 49, p61-62.

[6] W. J. Patton 1976, Plastic Technology: theory, design and manufacture, Reston Publishing, Virginia, p 51, p 82, p 106. [7] S. S Schwartz & S. H. Goodman 1982, Plastics Materials and Process, Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York, p 81, p 90, p 255, p 311, p313. [8] C. A. Harper & E. M. Petrie 2003, Plastics Materials and Processes: a concise encyclopedia, John Wiley &Sons, Hoboken, New Jersey, p 364-365, p 366-367, p 420-421, p428-430, p434, p 443, p 444-445, p 446, p452-453, p535 . [9] D. V. Rosato 1993, Rosatos Plastics Encyclopedia and Dictionary, Oxford University Press, Hanser, p 494, p 560, p 562,p 568-569, p 570, p 571, p 573-574, p728. [10] R. J. Crawford 1985, Plastics and Rubbers: engineering design and applications, Mechanical Engineering Publications, London, p 10-11, p 67-69. [11] J. I. Kroschwitz 1987, Polymers: an encyclopedic sourcebook of engineering properties, John Wiley & Sons, New York, p 62, p 83, p 83-87, p 91. [12] J. C. Salamone 1996, Polymeric Materials Encyclopedia, CRC Press, Boca Raton, p 1378. [13] R. B. Seymour 1991, Reinforced Plastics: properties and applications, ASM International, p 5659. [14] M. H. Datoo 1991, Mechanics of Fibrous Composites, Elsevier Science Publishers, London and New York, p 1. [15] T. Richardson 1987, Composites: a design guide, Industrial Press, New York, p 5-7. [16] D. D. L. Chung 1994, Carbon Fibre Composites, Butterworth-Heinemann, Boston, p 201.