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Copyright 2006 American Scientic Publishers
All rights reserved
Printed in the United States of America
Journal of
Nanoscience and Nanotechnology
Vol. 6, 573590, 2006
Carbon Nanotube-Based Sensors
Niraj Sinha, Jiazhi Ma, and John T. W. Yeow
Department of Systems Design Engineering, University of Waterloo,

200 University Avenue (W), Waterloo, ON N2L 3G1, Canada
Sensors continue to make signicant impact in everyday life. There has been a strong demand for
producing highly selective, sensitive, responsive, and cost effective sensors. As a result, research
emphasis is on developing new sensing materials and technologies. Carbon nanotubes (CNTs)
have many distinct properties that may be exploited to develop next generation of sensors. This
manuscript reviews the distinct physical, electronic, and mechanical properties of CNTs. The main
thrust of this review is to highlight the present and future research and development work in the
area of carbon nanotube sensors for real-world applications. The technical challenges associated
with CNT-based sensors, which remain to be fully addressed, have also been outlined at the end
of the manuscript. This review aims to act as a reference source for researchers to help them in
developing new applications of CNT-based sensors.
Keywords: Single-Walled Nanotubes, Multi-Walled Nanotubes, Carbon Nanotube Sensors,
Sensor Applications.
CONTENTS
1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 573
2. Synthesis and Purication of Carbon Nanotubes . . . . . . . . . . . . 574
2.1. Carbon Arc-Discharge Technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 574
2.2. Laser-Ablation Technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 575
2.3. Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD) Technique . . . . . . . . . . 575
2.4. Purication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 576
3. Properties of Carbon Nanotubes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 577
4. Carbon Nanotube Based Sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 580
5. Applications of Carbon Nanotube Based Sensors . . . . . . . . . . . 583
5.1. Biomedical Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 583
5.2. Automotive Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 584
5.3. Food Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 584
5.4. Environmental Monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 585
5.5. Agriculture and Fishing Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 585
5.6. Manufacturing Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 586
5.7. Security and Others . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 586
6. Challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 586
7. Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 587
Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 587
References and Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 587
1. INTRODUCTION
Sensors are devices that detect or measure physical and
chemical quantities such as temperature, pressure, sound,
and concentration. The measurands are converted into an
electrical signal. The main requirements of a good sensor
are high sensitivity, fast response, low cost, high volume
production, and high reliability. Sensors continue to make
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.

signicant impact in everyday life with applications rang-
ing from biomedical to automotive industry. This has led to
intensive research activities across the world in developing
new sensing materials and technologies. With the advent
of nanotechnology, research is underway to create minia-
turized sensors. Miniaturized sensors can lead to reduced
weight, lower power consumption, and low cost. Materi-
als such as inorganic semiconductors are used in making
nanosensors. However, the discovery of carbon nanotubes
(CNTs) has generated keen interest among researchers to
develop CNT-based sensors for many applications. The
application of CNTs in next-generation of sensors has
the potential of revolutionizing the sensor industry due to
their inherent properties such as small size, high strength,
high electrical and thermal conductivity, and high specic
surface area.
1, 2
CNTs are hexagonal networks of carbon
atoms of approximately 1 nm diameter and 1 to 100
microns of length. They can essentially be thought of as a
layer of graphite rolled-up into a cylinder.
3
Depending on
the arrangement of their graphene cylinders, there are two
types of nanotubes: single-walled nanotubes (SWNTs) and
multi-walled nanotubes (MWNTs). SWNTs have only one
single layer of graphene cylinders; while MWNTs have
many layers (approximately 50), as shown in Figure 1.
4
Furthermore, the lms of synthesized CNTs can be aligned
or random in nature.
Although the use of CNTs for sensing applications is
promising, they are also associated with certain limitations.
The objectives of this article are: (i) to describe the synthe-
sis, purication, and properties of CNTs; (ii) to perform an
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Carbon Nanotube-Based Sensors Sinha et al.
(a)
(b)
Fig. 1. (a) Structure of SWNTs. (b) Structure of MWNTs. Reprinted
with permission from [4], http://www.lbl.gov. Lawrence Berkeley
National Laboratory.
extensive survey to highlight the areas where CNT-based
sensors can be applied; (iii) to outline the potential
challenges in commercializing CNT-based sensors; and
(iv) to suggest possible research areas for addressing
technical challenges associated with CNT-based devices.
Niraj Sinha obtained a B.Tech. degree in manufacturing engineering from NIFFT, Ranchi,
India, in 2000, and an M.Sc. degree in mechanical engineering from the University of
Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Canada, in 2004. He is currently pursuing his Ph.D. degree in the
Department of Systems Design Engineering at University of Waterloo, Ontario, Canada. His
current research interests are in the eld of developing nanodevices using carbon nanotubes.
Jiazhi Ma received the B.Eng. and M.Eng. degrees in electrical and computer engineering
from Tianjin University, Tianjin, China, in 2000 and 2003, respectively. She is currently
pursuing the Ph.D. degree in the Department of Systems Design Engineering at the Univer-
sity of Waterloo, Waterloo, ON, Canada. Her current research interests are in the eld of
developing novel sensors and devices using nanotechnology for biomedical applications.
John T. W. Yeow received his B.A.Sc. in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 1997,
M.A.Sc. and Ph.D. in Mechanical and Industrial Engineering in 1999 and 2003 respec-
tively, all from the University of Toronto. He is a recipient of the Micralyn Microsystem
Design Award in 2003, the NSERC Innovation Challenge Award in 2004, and the Douglas
R. Colton Medal for Research Excellence in 2005. He is currently an Assistant Professor in
the Department of Systems Design Engineering at the University of Waterloo. His research
interests include microsystem and nanodevice design.
2. SYNTHESIS AND PURIFICATION OF
CARBON NANOTUBES
Generally, three techniques are being used for producing
CNTs: (i) carbon arc-discharge technique;
1, 514
(ii) laser-
ablation technique;
1522
and (iii) chemical vapor deposition
(CVD) technique.
2337
In 1991, MWNTs were rst discov-
ered by Ijima by arc-discharge technique when he saw
ne threads in a bit of shoot under electron microscope.
1
The strands were very thin and long tubes of pure carbon.
SWNTs were synthesized for the rst time by Ijima and
Ichihashi
7
and Bethune et al.
8
in 1993 using metal cata-
lyst in arc-discharge method. Laser-ablation technique was
used by Thess et al.
15
in 1996 to produce bundles of
aligned SWNTs. For the rst time, catalytic growth of
MWNTs by CVD was proposed by Yacaman et al.
23
The
three techniques are discussed in detail below.
2.1. Carbon Arc-Discharge Technique
Two carbon electrodes are used in the carbon arc-discharge
technique to generate an arc by DC current. The electrodes
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Sinha et al. Carbon Nanotube-Based Sensors
are kept in a vacuum chamber and an inert gas is supplied
to the chamber. The purpose of the inert gas is to increase
the speed of carbon deposition. Initially, the two electrodes
are kept independent. Once the pressure is stabilized, the
power supply is turned on (about 20 V) and the positive
electrode is then gradually brought closer to the negative
electrode to strike the electric arc. On arcing, the elec-
trodes become red hot and a plasma forms. Once the arc
stabilizes, the rods are kept about a millimeter apart while
the CNT deposits on the negative electrode. The power
supply is cut-off and the machine is left for cooling once a
specic length is reached. The two most important param-
eters to be taken care of in this method are: (i) the control
of arcing current and (ii) the optimal selection of inert gas
pressure in the chamber.
38
Arc-discharge technique produces high quality CNTs.
While SWNTs can only be grown in presence of a catalyst,
MWNTs do not need a catalyst for growth. MWNTs can
be obtained by controlling the pressure of inert gas in the
discharge chamber and the arcing current. The by-products
are polyhedron shaped multi-layered graphitic particles in
case of MWNTs. High quality MWNTs having diameters
in the range of 2 to 20 nm and lengths of several microns at
the gram level were synthesized for the rst time by Ebbe-
sen and Ajayan.
6
A potential of approximately 18 V and
a helium pressure of about 500 Torr was applied by them.
Analysis by transmission electron microscopy (TEM)
revealed that the nanotubes consisted of two or more
carbon shells. The MWNTs produced by arc-discharge
method were highly crystalline and were bound together
by strong van der Waals forces. SWNTs with diameters
1 nm were synthesized by Ijima and Ichihashi
7
using a
gas mixture of 10 Torr methane and 40 Torr argon at a DC
current of 200 A and a voltage of 20 V. Bethune et al.
8
experimented with Co, Ni, and Fe as catalysts to synthe-
size CNTs by using carbon as anode at currents between
95 to 105 A and He pressures between 100 to 500 Torr.
The TEM analysis revealed that SWNTs of diameters
1.20.1 nm were obtained only with Co catalysts. Journet
et al.
12
optimized the SWNT growth by arc-discharge
technique by using graphite cathode (16 mm diameter,
40 mm long), graphite anode (6 mm diameter, 100 mm
long), mixture of catalysts (NiCo, CoY, or NiY),
helium pressure of 660 m bar, arcing current of 100 A,
and voltage drop of 30 V between the electrodes. The
deposited material consisted of high amount of entangled
carbon ropes of diameters 520 nm as revealed by scan-
ning electron microscopy (SEM). Li et al.
13
used modied
arc-discharge method, which used FeS as a promoter, to
synthesize SWNTs. The diameters of CNT bers obtained
were 5 to 20 jm and their length could reach up to 10 cm.
As evaluated by scanning electron microscopy, thermo-
gravimetric analysis, and Raman spectroscopy, the synthe-
sized SWNT bers were 80% pure by volume. Recently,
CNTs have been synthesized by arc-discharge in open air.
As this method does not require a controlled atmosphere,
therefore, the cost of production may be reduced.
14
2.2. Laser-Ablation Technique
In the laser-ablation technique for producing CNTs,
intense laser pulses are utilized to ablate a carbon target.
The pulsed laser-ablation of graphite in the presence of an
inert gas and catalyst forms CNTs.
15
The X-ray diffraction
(XRD) and transmission electron microscopy revealed that
the SWNTs produced by Thess et al.
15
using laser-ablation
were ropes (or bundles) of 5 to 20 nm diameter and tens
to hundreds of microns of length. Arepalli et al.
16
found
that individual nanotubes of lengths tens of microns are
formed in the vicinity of the target at the beginning. These
nanotubes subsequently coalesce into bundles. Based on
spectral emission and laser-induced uorescence measure-
ments, it was suggested by Scott et al.
17
that the carbon
for nanotube formation comes from direct ablation as well
as from carbon particles suspended in the reaction zone.
It was also proposed by them that the connement of
the nanotubes in the reaction zone within the laser beam
allows the nanotubes to be puried and annealed during
the formation process by laser heating. SWNTs and other
nanotubular structures (graphite nanocages and low aspect
ratio nanotubules) were synthesized by Braidy et al.
18
by
pulsed KrF laser-ablation of a graphite pellet at 500 Torr
argon pressure, 1150

C temperature, and a laser inten-
sity of 8 10
8
W/cm
2
. It was observed that relatively
high UV laser intensity was detrimental to the growth
of SWNTs. Takahashi et al.
19
synthesized multi-layered
MWNTs having tip angle of 1520
by using high vac-

uum laser-ablation. Graphite powder was dispersed on a Si
(100) substrate and CNTs were grown selectively at high
substrate temperature.
In general, some of the major parameters that determine
the amount of CNTs produced are: the amount and type of
catalysts, laser power and wavelength, temperature, pres-
sure, type of inert gas present, and the uid dynamics near
the carbon target.
3941
When synthesizing SWNTs, the by-
products in case of arc-discharge and laser-ablation tech-
niques are fullerenes, graphitic polyhedrons with enclosed
metal particles, and amorphous carbon.
40
2.3. Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD) Technique
In the CVD technique, CNTs are synthesized by imparting
energy to hydrocarbons. The imparted energy breaks the
molecule into reactive radical species in the temperature
range of 550750

C. These reactive species then diffuse
down to the substrate, which is heated and coated in a cat-
alyst (usually a rst row transition metal such as Ni, Fe,
or Co) where it remains bonded. This result in the forma-
tion of CNTs. The commonly used hydrocarbon sources
are methane, ethylene, and acetylene; while the com-
monly used energy sources are electron beam and resistive
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heating. Microtubules of up to 50 jm length of CNTs
were synthesized by Yacaman et al.
23
by catalytic decom-
position of acetylene over iron particles at 700

C. Li et
al.
24
used iron nanoparticles (embedded in mesoporous sil-
ica) as catalyst for large-scale synthesis of aligned CNTs.
The tubes were 50 jm long and well graphitized. A
CVD technique using microwave energy for synthesizing
MWNTs was developed by Varadan and Xie.
27
They used
acetylene as the hydrocarbon and cobalt as the catalyst at
a temperature of 700

C. MWNTs prepared by this pro-
cess had an average diameter of 20 to 30 nm and con-
sisted of 26 layers. A sequential combination of radio fre-
quency plasma enhanced CVD (RF PECVD) and thermal
CVD was utilized by Park et al.
28
CNTs were synthe-
sized on stainless steel plates from acetylene and hydrogen
gas mixture. Seidel et al.
32
synthesized dense networks of
SWNTs using Ni catalyst layers of 0.2 nm thickness by
thermal CVD at temperatures as low as 600

C. Based
on the interaction between the catalyst and its support, a
growth model for CVD synthesis was proposed. Accord-
ing to them, the fast growth rates of SWNTs during CVD
synthesis can only be explained by surface diffusion of
hydrocarbons on the catalyst support or along the CNTs.
Vohs et al.
34
used metal (Fe)-encapsulated dendrimers as
catalysts for low-temperature growth of CNTs. MWNTs
were synthesized at 175

C via decomposition of carbon
tetrachloride in supercritical carbon dioxide by them. CVD
technique with gas-phase catalyst delivery was used by
Wei et al.
35
to direct the assembly of carbon nanotubes
in a variety of predetermined orientations, building them
into one-, two-, and three-dimensional arrangements. This
could be useful in the manufacture of electromechanical
devices.
There are several parameters that affect the synthesis of
CNTs by CVD technique. The key parameters are the
nature of hydrocarbons, catalysts, and the growth tem-
perature. Most of the CVD techniques utilize ethylene or
acetylene as hydrocarbons for synthesizing MWNTs. It
was observed by Chaisitsak et al.
37
that both SWNTs and
MWNTs can be synthesized by optimizing the catalyst.
By optimizing the growth conditions, they synthesized
SWNTs of diameter 0.65 nm at a substrate temperature of
660

C. With regards to the effect of temperature, the den-
sity and growth rate of CNTs increase with an increase in
temperature. Also, the CNTs tend to be vertically aligned
as the temperature increases. Taguchi analytical model has
been applied by Maheshwar et al.
42
to optimize the effec-
tive parameters of CVD for controlling the production of
CNTs. Quantitative contributions of process parameters
as well as optimum factor levels have been obtained by
them using analysis of variance (ANOVA) and analysis
of mean (AOM) respectively. Although excellent align-
ment and positional control on the nanometer scale can be
achieved with the CVD technique, there are high defect
densities in the MWNT structures grown by this process.
It is most likely due to the lack of sufcient thermal energy
for annealing CNTs because of relatively low growth
temperature.
40
A comparison among these three CNT synthesis tech-
niques indicates that arc-discharge and laser-ablation meth-
ods produce high yields (>70%) of SWNTs, and the cost
of producing CNTs by arc-discharge method is cheaper.
However, the main disadvantages with these processes are:
(i) tangled CNTs are synthesized that make the purica-
tion and applications of CNTs difcult; and (ii) these pro-
cesses rely on evaporation of carbon atoms at temperatures
>3000

C.
43
In addition to materials scale-up, CVD tech-
nique offers controlled synthesis of aligned and ordered
CNTs.
44, 45
Although the microstructure of the CNT tips
synthesized by CVD technique have well-formed caps
compared to other techniques, they often have interrupted
graphite layers. In applications such as scanning probe
microscopy, tips are very important. Although CVD pro-
cess appears technologically easier, the required quality of
tips can be made by arc-discharge method.
46
2.4. Purication
In all the above mentioned preparation methods, the
nanotubes come with a number of impurities, which
depend on the technique used. The purity of CNTs can be
evaluated qualitatively using Raman spectroscopy,
47
while
near infrared spectroscopy can be used for the quantita-
tive assessment.
48
The most common impurities are car-
bonaceous materials, whereas metals are the other types
of impurities generally observed.
38
The impurities can be
puried by oxidation in the carbon arc-discharge technique
as the carbonaceous impurities have high oxidation rates.
However, when 95% of the starting materials are oxidized,
only 10 to 20% of the remaining material comprises pure
nanotubes.
49
For purication by oxidation, generally two
approaches are followed: (i) gas phase purication
49, 50
and
(ii) liquid phase purication.
5153
Low yield of purication
by gas phase oxidation was observed by Ebbesen et al.
49
Therefore, Hiura et al.
51
attempted liquid phase oxida-
tion for more homogeneous oxidation. Kim et al.
53
used
nitric acid, sulphuric acid, and their mixture as oxidants.
As observed by scanning electron microscopy (SEM),
puried SWNTs of length less than 2 jm were obtained.
TEM conrmed that the SWNTs were puried with little
damage on the surface and metal catalysts were efciently
removed. The size distribution was characterized by them
with eld-ow fractionation (FFF) method. A purica-
tion technique for SWNTs that are synthesized by pulsed
laser-ablation technique was proposed by Bandow et al.
54
They used a cationic surfactant and trapped SWNTs on
a membrane lter. 90% purity by weight after purica-
tion was observed by them. However, the technique was
microscale in nature and was not found very useful for
purifying large batches. A macroscale technique was pro-
posed by Rinzler et al.
55
to overcome this limitation. The
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purication process proposed by them can be scaled to
industrial levels of throughput when such volumes of
SWNT material become available. For the SWNTs grown
by CVD of carbon monoxide, a purication process has
been developed by Xu et al.,
56
which consisted of son-
ication, oxidation, and acid washing. MWNTs grown by
CVD technique were subjected to wet and dry oxidation by
Biro et al.
57
to remove impurities and traces of catalysts.
It was observed that the KMnO
4
/H
2
SO
4
aqueous oxidation
procedure was effective in reducing the Co catalyst while
moderately damaging the outer wall of CNTs.
Some other techniques have also been used to purify
CNTs. CNTs were boiled in nitric acid aqueous solutions
by Dujardin et al.
58
to remove amorphous carbon and
metal particles. SWNTs with more than 90% purity were
generated by Shelimov et al.
59
using ultrasonically assisted
microltration from amorphous and crystalline carbon
impurities and metal particles. A scalable purication
method for SWNTs was developed by Harutyunyan
et al.
60
using microwave heating in air followed by treat-
ment with hydrochloric acid. Microwave-assisted puri-
cation has been used by Ko et al.
61
for purication of
MWNTs. Raman spectroscopy and thermogravimetric
analysis revealed that a temperature of 180

C was suitable
for the purication of CNTs. It was observed that puri-
cation temperatures above 180

C decomposed the nano-
tubes, while temperatures below 180

C were not effective
in removing impurities. A protocol for the characterization
of SWNTs material quality has been proposed by Arepalli
et al.
62
It consumes less than 30 mg of material and the
amount of residual metal catalyst is determined directly.
Numerical measures have been established by them for
parameters (such as homogeneity and thermal stability) for
easy comparison of SWNT materials.
However, all the purication methods change the struc-
tural surfaces of CNTs. This may result in change in the
electrical and mechanical properties of puried nanotubes.
Therefore, the main thrust of the research should be in the
area of producing puried CNTs in a single-step process
to conserve the fascinating features of CNTs.
3. PROPERTIES OF CARBON NANOTUBES
As the applications of CNTs are related to some of their
specic properties, an overview of their properties is very
important before exploring their potential applications. For
example, CNTs can be used as lters for ltration of bac-
terial contaminants such as Escherichia coli from water
and heavy hydrocarbons from petroleum because of their
exceptional thermal and mechanical stability and high sur-
face area.
63
Although SWNTs are structurally similar to a
single layer of graphite (that is a semiconductor with zero
band gap), they can be either metallic or semiconducting
depending upon the tube diameter and the chirality (the
sheet direction in which the graphite sheet is rolled to form
Fig. 2. Armchair, zigzag, and chiral nanotubes. Reprinted with permis-
sion from [3], M. S. Dresselhaus et al., Science of Fullerenes and Carbon
Nanotubes, Academic Press, New York (1996). 1996, Elsevier.
a nanotube cylinder).
64, 65
The diameter (J) and the chiral
angle (0) can be obtained by an integer pair (n, m) using
Eqs. (1) and (2).
66
J =
o
m
2
+mn+n
2
r
(1)
0 =arctan
3n
2m+n
(2)
where o is the lattice constant in the graphite sheet.
The relation between n and m denes three categories of
CNTs: (i) armchair (n =m and chiral angle equal to 30
);
(ii) zigzag (n = 0 or m = 0 and chiral angle = 0
); and
(iii) chiral (other values of n and m and chiral angles
between 0
and 30
).
67
Figure 2 shows all the three cate-
gories of CNTs.
3
All armchair nanotubes are metals, as
well as those with nm=3] (] being a nonzero integer).
All others are semiconductors, which have the band gap
that is inversely related to the diameters of the nanotubes.
68
MWNTs are either nested CNT shells
69
or have cinna-
mon roll like structure.
70
For the development of molecu-
lar electronics, methods have been proposed by Banerjee
et al.
71
to separate metallic and semiconducting SWNTs.
The dielectric responses of the carbon nanotubes are
found to be highly anisotropic. Owing to their nearly one
dimensional electronic structure, the electronic transport in
metallic SWNTs and MWNTs occurs ballistically (with-
out scattering) over long lengths. This enables nanotubes
to carry high currents with negligible heating.
72, 73
It was
observed through experiments by Wei et al.
74
that MWNTs
can carry high current densities up to 10
9
10
10
A/cm
2
and can conduct current without any measurable change
in their resistance or morphology for extended periods
of time at temperature up to 250

C. This points to the
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potential of CNTs as interconnects in large-scale integrated
nanoelectronic devices. In another study, Koratkar et al.
75
found that the temperature sensitivity of vertically aligned
MWNT lms was independent of heating/cooling rates and
without hysteresis. It was conceived from the results that
miniaturized temperature sensors can be designed using
such aligned MWNT lms. However, gas adsorption and
collisions affect the electrical transport in SWNTs. The
effects of gas adsorption and collisions on the thermo-
electric power and resistivity of mats of tangled SWNT
bundles were studied by Sumanasekera et al.
76
They found
that the degassed metallic SWNTs in a bundle are n type.
It was also observed that the gas collisions with the nano-
tube wall increase thermoelectric power and resistivity.
The electrical and electronic properties of nanotubes
are affected by distortions like bending and twisting.
Pentagon-heptagon pair is introduced in CNTs by
bending, which results in metalmetal and semiconductor-
metal nanoscale junctions that can be used for nano-
switches.
77, 78
The effect of bending becomes important
when bending angles are more than 45
. At this stage,
kinks appear in the structure of the tube, resulting in
the reduction in conductivity of CNTs.
79
However, the
presence of a metal nanowire inside the nanotube greatly
suppresses the tube-buckling instability. In this case,
increased tube diameter leads to an increase in the bending
strength.
80
A model has been developed by Wang et al.
81
to study the elastic buckling of individual MWNTs under
radial pressure. The critical pressure predicted by the
model has been found in good agreement with the exper-
imental results. A band gap opens upon twisting, which
turns metallic CNTs to semiconducting. CNT structures
collapse when twisted above a certain angle.
82
Also, super-
conductivity in SWNTs has been observed but only at low
temperatures.
83
Doping of CNTs provide various possibil-
ities for controlling their physical properties. Doped CNTs
can nd applications in nanoelectronics, spintronics, eld
emission, nonlinear optics, and chemical sensors.
84
CNTs
align themselves along eld lines under high electric elds,
as shown in Figure 3. The relative magnitude of the eld
responsible for polarization and directed motion has been
found to be dependent on the morphology of the nanotubes
used. These observations may lead to novel electrome-
chanical applications for CNTs.
85
Mechanically, CNTs are currently the strongest known
bers because the carboncarbon bond observed in
graphite is one of the strongest in nature. Elastic properties
of CNTs can be obtained from experiment by assum-
ing them structural members. The Youngs modulus (a
measure of stiffness) of individual MWNTs was rst deter-
mined by Treacy et al.
86
They estimated the Youngs mod-
ulus of isolated CNTs by measuring the amplitude of their
intrinsic thermal vibrations in the transmission electron
microscope (TEM). The average value of Youngs mod-
ulus was found to be 1800 GPa. However, the technique
Fig. 3. (a) Response of long SWNT strands to an electric eld. (b) Long
MWNT ropes under the inuence of an electric eld. Reprinted with
permission from [85], N. Koratkar et al., J. Nanosci. Nanotechnol. 4, 69
(2004). 2004, American Scientic Publishers.
used by them had some limitations such as: (i) for reliable
TEM detection, the thermally excited vibrations must be
neither too large nor too small resulting in the restriction
of the diameter and length of CNT samples, and (ii) this
technique cannot determine the strength (the maximum
force per unit area) and the toughness (the elastic energy
stored or absorbed by a material) of CNTs. Atomic force
microscopy (AFM) was used by Wong et al.
87
to determine
the mechanical properties of MWNTs by pinning them at
one end to molybdenum disulde surfaces. The average
value of Youngs modulus was found to be 1280 GPa.
Falvo et al.
88
observed that MWNTs can be bent repeat-
edly through large angles without undergoing catastrophic
failures by using the tip of an atomic force microscope.
All these studies suggest that multilayered CNTs are very
strong in nature and are remarkably exible and resis-
tant to fracture when subjected to large strain. Recently,
Gaillard et al.
89
have shown that the Youngs modulus can
be measured in individual CVD grown MWNTs by elec-
trostatically driving it into resonance. The bending mod-
ulus was found relatively more sensitive to wall defects
than the nanotube diameter. However, a comparison of
these studies indicates that the values of the mechani-
cal parameters are quite confusing. For instance, a study
by Lourie and Wagner
90
reported the Youngs modulus
of SWNTs as 28003600 GPa and that of MWNTs as
17002400 GPa; whereas studies by Yu et al.
91, 92
reported
the Youngs modulus of SWNTs between 3201470 GPa
and that of MWNTs between 270950 GPa. The reason
behind different numerical values is that some researchers
use the total occupied cross sectional area for dening the
Youngs modulus, while others use the much smaller van
der Waals area.
65
Because of their low density (1.3 g/cm
3
),
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materials made of nanotubes are lighter. At the same time,
they are more durable. As CNTs have very high aspect
ratio, CNT structures are susceptible to structural insta-
bility. However, SWNTs have better dened shapes of
cylinder than MWNTs, and hence, have less possibili-
ties of structure defects. Therefore, SWNT is preferred
over MWNT for carrying out research and for developing
applications.
It is extremely challenging to measure the tensile
strength of CNTs. Yu et al.
91, 92
found the tensile strength
of SWNT bundles in the range of 13 to 52 GPa, whereas
the value was in the range of 11 to 63 GPa for MWNTs. In
case of MWNTs, it was observed that only the outermost
layer breaks during the tensile load testing process. Wong
et al.
87
measured the bending strength of large-diameter
MWNTs. According to them, bending strength is the strain
determined at the initial buckling point because the stiff-
ness drops signicantly at this point. The average value of
bending strength determined by them was 14.28.0 GPa,
while the maximum value was 28.5 GPa. Bending prop-
erties of SWNT bundles were studied by Jaroenapibal
et al.
93
by observing the mechanical resonance in a trans-
mission electron microscope. The diameters and lengths
of the SWNT bundles ranged from 15 to 70 nm, and
from 1 to 10 jm, respectively. Tunable AC signals were
applied to capacitively actuate the bundles. Resonant fre-
quencies ranging from 0.2 to 9 MHz were observed in
bundles. They calculated an effective bending modulus of
76 4 GPa by application of Euler-Bernoulli beam the-
ory to their experimental data. A compressive strength
of 100150 GPa and a compressive strain of 5% was
found by Lourie et al.
94
as a result of compressive load-
ing of MWNTs. It was also observed that the fracture
strength and the elastic limit of nanotubes depend on their
chirality.
95, 96
It was found that temperature plays a key role in the
strength of CNTs because motion of dislocations is ther-
mally activated. CNTs are brittle at low temperature, irre-
spective of their diameter and helicity. However, CNTs
exhibit exibility at room temperature due to their high
strength and the distortion capability of hexagonal network
for relaxing stress.
97
At high temperature, spontaneous for-
mation of double pentagon-heptagon (or 5/7) pairs were
observed in strained CNTs. It was found that such defects
depend on the chirality of CNTs and are energetically
favored in defect-free armchair nanotubes when the tensile
strain is greater than 5%. These defects constitute the
onset of the possible plastic deformation of CNTs.
98
It
is important to mention here that the high strength and
high stiffness properties of an individual SWNT does not
necessarily imply that CNT structures will have the same
properties.
69
CNTs show good load transfer characteristics with metal
matrix composites. Efcient load transfer between a matrix
and CNTs plays a key role in the mechanical properties
of composites and can lead to the development of many
superstrong nanocomposites. However, poor load transfer
behavior of CNTs in tension compared to compression was
observed because only the outermost nanotubes are loaded
in tension due to weak interlayer bonding.
97
In another
study, MWNTs were used as reinforcing phase in a poly-
acrylonitrile (PAN) ber matrix to produce a PAN-derived
carbon/MWNT composite ber. Signicant mechanical
property increases were recorded for the composite bers
compared with the samples with no MWNT reinforce-
ment: break strength +31%, initial modulus +36%, yield
strength +46%, energy to yield +80%, and energy to
break +83%.
99
Also, the mechanical properties of CNTs
and their polymer nanocomposites have been reviewed
extensively by Miyagawa et al.
100
Viscoelasticity in carbon
nanotube composites was studied by Suhr et al.
101
Based
on the direct shear testing, they concluded that nanotube
llers offer great improvement in damping without sacri-
cing mechanical properties and structural integrity.
The specic heat and thermal conductivity of CNTs are
dominated by phonons as the electronic contribution is
negligible due to low density of free charge carriers.
102
The experiments by Yi et al.
103
revealed linear dependence
of the specic heat of MWNTs on the temperature over
the entire temperature interval (10 to 300 K). MWNTs and
bundles of SWNTs with average diameter of 1.3 nm were
used by Mizel et al.
104
to measure the specic heat in the
temperature range 1 - T - 200 K. While MWNTs exhib-
ited graphite-like behavior, SWNT bundles had steep tem-
perature dependence at low temperatures. The specic heat
of SWNT bundles was measured by Lasjaunias et al.
105
down to a temperature of 0.1 K. The presence of sub-
linear temperature dependence of specic heat, dominant
below 1 K, was observed. This dependence could not
be understood and warrants further investigation into the
thermal properties of CNTs. For measuring thermal con-
ductivities of CNTs to isotopic and other atomic defects,
the domination of phonons leads to unusual sensitivity of
the experiments.
106
Kim et al.
107
determined that at room
temperature, the thermal conductivity for an individual
MWNT (>3000 W/mK) is greater than that of graphite
(2000 W/mK). It was observed by Zhang et al.
108
that the
value of heat conductivity of zigzag nanotube is maximum,
while the chiral nanotube has a minimum value. They also
found that the thermal conductivity of SWNTs depends on
their length, radius, temperature, and chirality. Therefore,
nanoscale devices with different heat conductivities can be
made with nanotubes of different chirality.
Properties of CNTs were briey reviewed in this section.
Even though the properties of CNTs have been studied
extensively in recent years, only tip of the iceberg has been
addressed. A database of properties of CNTs as a func-
tion of concentration and type of defects, chemical envi-
ronment, and temperature should be established to reap
maximum benet.
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4. CARBON NANOTUBE BASED SENSORS
As mentioned earlier in this manuscript (Section 1), advan-
tage of CNTs over other materials are due to their small
size, high strength, high electrical and thermal conductiv-
ity, and high specic area. Therefore, several manuscripts
have been published utilizing CNTs as the sensing mate-
rial in pressure, ow, thermal, gas, optical, mass, posi-
tion, stress, strain, chemical, and biological sensors.
109177
Liu and Dai
109
demonstrated that piezoresistive pressure
sensors can be realized with CNTs. They grew SWNTs
on suspended square polysilicon membranes. When uni-
form air pressure was applied on the membranes, a change
in resistance in the SWNTs was observed. Moreover, the
membrane was restored to its original condition when
the gas was pumped out, indicating that the process is
reversible. Dharap et al.
110
argued that the conventional
sensors have disadvantage that they are discrete point,
xed directional, and are not embedded at the material
level. To overcome these limitations, they developed a
CNT lm sensor for strain sensing on macro scale. The
sensor was based on the principle that the electronic prop-
erties of CNTs change when subjected to strains. As ran-
domly oriented bundles of SWNTs were used by them, the
lm was isotropic in nature. The isotropic nature of CNT
lms helps in measuring strains in multiple locations and
in different directions. The experimental results revealed
nearly linear relationship between the measured change
in voltage and the strains in CNT lms when they are
subjected to tensile and compressive stresses. Wu et al.
111
demonstrated using rst-principle quantum transport cal-
culations, molecular-dynamics simulation and continuum
mechanics analysis that hydrostatic pressure can induce
radial deformation, and therefore, electrical transition of
SWNTs. A pressure-induced metal-to-semiconductor tran-
sition in armchair SWNTs was observed, which provides
a basis for designing nanoscale tunable pressure sensors.
Sotiropoulou and Chaniotakis
112
developed an ampero-
metric biosensor using CNTs as immobilization matrix.
Aligned MWNTs were grown on platinum (Pt) substrate to
develop the biosensor. The platinum substrate served as the
transduction platform for signal monitoring. The schematic
diagram of the CNT array biosensor is shown in Figure 4.
The arrays were puried by treatments with acid or air.
The acid treatment resulted in the removal of impurities
including amorphous carbon that occurred during the pro-
duction process. The lengths of the nanotubes were also
reduced by approximately 50%. Air oxidation resulted in
the peeling of the outer graphite layers from the nanotubes.
SEM images of the Pt-aligned CNT arrays are shown in
Figure 5. After immobilization of the enzyme (glucose oxi-
dase in this case), the response and sensitivity of the acid-
treated sensor was found to be very high when compared
to the air-treated sensor. In their study, Ghosh et al.
113
pro-
posed a ow sensor based on SWNTs. The SWNT bun-
dles, having average tube diameter of 1.5 nm, were densely
e
Pt
O
O
H
O
O
H
O
O
H
O
O
H
O
O
H
O
O
H
O
O
H
O
O
H
O
O
H
O
O
H
O
O
H
O
O
H
O
O
H
O
O
H
O
O
H
O
O
H
O
O
H
O
O
H
O
O
H
O
O
H
O
O
H
O
O
H
O
O
H
O
O
H
Gluconic Acid
Glucose
O
O
H
O
O
H
O
O
H
O
O
H
O
O
H
O
O
H
Fig. 4. Schematic diagram of the CNT array biosensor. Reprinted with
permission from [112], S. Sotiropoulou and N. A. Chaniotakis, Anal.
Bioanal. Chem. 375, 103 (2003). 2003, Springer Science and Business
Media.
packed between two metal electrodes. The sensor used for
the experiment was 1 10
3
m long, 2 10
4
m thick,
and 210
3
m wide. It was observed that SWNTs produce
electrical signal in response to uid ow directly. This is
due to the direct scattering of the free carriers from the
uctuating coulombic elds of the ions or polar molecules
in the owing liquid. It was found through experiments
that the ionic strength of the owing liquid signicantly
affected the induced voltage.
The study by Kong et al.
114
revealed that the electrical
resistance of semiconducting SWNTs dramatically changes
when exposed to gaseous molecules such as nitrogen diox-
ide (NO
2
), ammonia (NH
3
), and oxygen (O
2
). It was found
that the response times of nanotube sensors are at least
an order of magnitude faster than those based on solid-
state sensors. Apart from their small size, semiconducting
SWNTs operate at room temperature with sensitivity as
high as 10
3
. This forms a basis for building semiconducting
Fig. 5. SEM images of Pt-aligned CNT arrays. (a) In original state,
(b) after acid treatment, and (c) after air oxidation. Reprinted with permis-
sion from [112], S. Sotiropoulou and N. A. Chaniotakis, Anal. Bioanal.
Chem. 375, 103 (2003). 2003, Springer Science and Business Media.
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SWNTs-based chemical sensors. However, Modi et al.
115
argued that the carbon nanotube gas sensors based on elec-
trical conductance changes have certain limitations, such
as poor diffusion kinetics, inability to identify gases with
low adsorption energies, and low capability to distinguish
between gases or gas mixtures. They also noted that the
conductance of CNTs is highly sensitive to changes in
moisture, temperature and gas-ow velocity. To overcome
these limitations, they proposed gas ionization sensors fea-
turing the electrical breakdown of a range of gases and
gas mixtures at the tips of CNTs. The cathode used for
the purpose was aluminium and the anode was vertically
aligned MWNT lm (2530 nm in diameter, 30 jm in
length, and 50 nm separation between nanotubes) grown
on SiO
2
substrate. The electrodes were separated by a
glass insulator. The sensors developed by them were found
to have good selectivity and sensitivity, and were unaf-
fected by various environmental conditions (moisture, tem-
perature, and gas-ow). Snow et al.
116
demonstrated that
the capacitance of SWNTs is highly sensitive to a wide
range of vapors and, therefore, fast, low-power sorption-
based chemical sensors can be formed using this mecha-
nism. In another study, Jang et al.
117
proposed a chemical
sensor employing laterally grown MWNTs as the active
sensing element. The completed MWNT based gas sen-
sor is shown in Figure 6. It was found that the electri-
cal resistance of MWNTs changes upon exposure to air
or NH
3
, as shown in Figure 7. They observed that an
increase in measurement temperature and gas concentra-
tion resulted in fast response time and higher sensitivity.
Surface acoustic waves (SAWs) sensors coated by CNTs
were fabricated by Penza et al.
118
for chemical detection of
volatile organic compounds (such as ethanol, ethyl acetate,
and toluene in nitrogen). CNT-coated SAW sensors were
found to be highly sensitive during experiments. A gas
sensor comprising of MWNT-silicon dioxide (SiO
2
) com-
posite was demonstrated by Ong et al.
119
The sensor was
built on the principle that the conductivity and permittivity
of the composite changes with the absorption of different
gases in the MWNT-SiO
2
layer. The humidity, tempera-
ture and concentrations of carbon dioxide, oxygen, and
Fig. 6. Photograph of completed MWNT based chemical sensor.
Reprinted with permission from [117], Y. T. Jang et al., Sens. Actuators B
99, 118 (2004). 2004, Elsevier.
(a)
(b)
Fig. 7. (a) Electrical resistance of sensor by cycling chamber atmo-
sphere from air to vacuum. (b) Resistance of sensor vs time in a NH
3
ows. Reprinted with permission from [117], Y. T. Jang et al., Sens.
Actuators B 99, 118 (2004). 2004, Elsevier.
ammonia can be determined by tracking the frequency
spectrum of the sensor with a loop antenna. It has the
advantage of allowing remote monitoring conditions inside
the opaque, sealed containers. Santhanam et al.
120
devel-
oped a chemical sensor using a nanocomposite of MWNTs
and poly (3-methylthiophene). Upon exposure to different
chloromethanes, the sensor showed a change in electrical
resistance. The response time of the sensor was found to
be 60 to 120 sec.
Wong and Li
121
manipulated bulk MWNTs by AC elec-
trophoresis to form resistive elements between Au micro-
electrodes and demonstrated that MWNTs can potentially
serve as temperature sensors. The IV measurements
revealed power consumption in jW range when MWNTs
were used in constant current conguration. This indicates
that CNTs could be a promising material to fabricate ultra
low power consumption thermal sensors. Barone et al.
122
developed near-infrared optical sensors based on SWNTs
making use of the fact that CNTs uoresce in a region
of the near infrared where human tissue and biological
uids are particularly transparent to their emission. Li and
Chou
123
developed SWNT-based sensors to measure strain
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and pressure at nanoscale on the basis of the shift in
resonant frequency of carbon nanotube resonator when
subjected to a strain resulting from an external loading.
Simulation studies by atomistic modeling revealed that
the resonant frequency shifts are linearly dependent on
the applied axial strain and the applied pressure. It was
also found that the reduction in tube length and diameter
enhances the sensitivities of sensors. A room tempera-
ture sensor based on carbon nanotubes and nanobres was
developed by Roy et al.
124
CNTs and nanobres were
grown by them on silicon substrate using acetonitrile and
water as electrolyte at an applied DC potential of 20 V.
Good sensing properties of lms at room temperature
were found. Chopra et al.
136
have reported the develop-
ment of microwave resonant sensors coated with either
SWNTs or MWNTs for detection of ammonia. The exper-
iments revealed that SWNT sensors were more sensitive
than the MWNT sensors. The sensor system designed by
them is suitable for applications that prohibit the use of
physical connections or require non-destructive testing. In
their study, Someya et al.
141
reported alcohol vapor sen-
sors based on SWNT eld effect transistors (FETs). The
structure of the FET-sensor and the corresponding exper-
imental geometry are schematically shown in Figure 8.
The drain current measurements as a function of time are
shown in Figure 9. When the saturated ethanol vapor is
delivered to the surface, a sharp spike is observed after a
few seconds and then the current decreases and reaches
a steady value. Recently, new chemical sensors based on
single-stranded DNA (ss-DNA) as the chemical recogni-
tion site and SWNT eld effect transistors as the electronic
read-out component have been proposed by Staii et al.
144
These sensors were able to detect variety of gases with
rapid response and fast recovery times. The schematic of
the experimental setup and the gases used in the experi-
ment are shown in Figure 10. Figure 11 shows the change
in sensor current upon exposure to different gases. These
sensors are self-regenerating: samples maintain a constant
Fig. 8. Cross sectional structure of the FET-based sensor and the experi-
mental geometry. Reprinted with permission from [141], T. Someya et al.,
Nano Lett. 3, 877 (2003). 2003, American Chemical Society.
Fig. 9. Drain current measurements as a function of time with a source-
drain bias of 100 mV and a gate bias of 10 V. Reprinted with per-
mission from [141], T. Someya et al., Nano Lett. 3, 877 (2003). 2003,
American Chemical Society.
response with no need for sensor refreshing for approxi-
mately 50 gas exposure cycles. These features make these
sensors suitable for applications ranging from homeland
security to disease diagnosis. In another study, an elec-
trochemical sensing platform based on the integration of
redox mediators and CNTs in a polymeric matrix has
been developed by Zhang and Gorski.
151
The incorpora-
tion of CNTs decreased the overpotential for the mediated
Fig. 10. (a) Schematic of experimental setup. (b) Gases used in the
experiment. Reprinted with permission from [144], C. Staii et al., Nano
Lett. 5, 1774 (2005). 2005, American Chemical Society.
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Fig. 11. Change in sensor current upon exposure to different gases.
Reprinted with permission from [144], C. Staii et al., Nano Lett. 5, 1774
(2005). 2005, American Chemical Society.
process by an extra 0.30 V and reduced the response time
from 70 seconds to approximately 5 seconds. The concept
of CNT-facilitated redox mediation in polymeric matrixes
can nd useful applications in electrochemical devices
Table I. Summary of CNT sensing ability to different gases/agents.
Gas/agent Ref. Gas/agent Ref.
NH
3
[114], [115], [117], CO [137], [147],
[119], [136], [137], [174], [175]
[143], [152], [153],
[161]
CO
2
[119] NO [165]
O
2
[115], [119], [137] He [115], [137]
NO
2
[114], [139], [150], Glucose [112], [135],
[152], [163], [165], [140], [142],
[176] [146], [149],
[168], [169]
CH
4
[124] H
2
O
2
[158], [169]
H
2
[132], [177] SF
6
[159]
N
2
[115], [137] Air [115], [117]
Ar [115], [137] DNA [171], [172]
Ethanol [116], [118], [141], Methanol [116], [144]
[146], [165]
Choline [158] Nitrotoluene [150]
Chloromethane [115], [120] Acetylene [165]
Propionic Acid [144] Trimethylamine [144]
Dinitrotoluene [116], [144] Dimethyl [116], [144]
phosphonate
Organophosphorus [160] Other chemical [116], [118],
pesticides vapors [129], [130],
[131], [137],
[155], [157],
[173]
such as sensors, biosensors, and biological fuel cells and
reactors.
Several types of carbon nanotube sensors were reviewed
in this section. A summary of sensing ability of different
gases/agents is given in Table I. The next section will
outline the present and future applications of CNT-based
sensors.
5. APPLICATIONS OF CARBON NANOTUBE
BASED SENSORS
In past, several studies have been reported indicating
potential applications of CNTs.
2, 43, 65, 66, 178181
However,
this manuscript attempts to report, exclusively, the existing
and future applications of CNT-based sensors. The follow-
ing sections detail the areas where CNT-based sensors can
be potentially applied.
5.1. Biomedical Industry
It is believed that CNTs incorporated sensors can bring
dramatic changes to the biomedical industry. There are cer-
tain cases such as diabetes, where regular tests by patients
themselves are required to measure and control the sugar
level in the body. Children and elderly patients may not be
able to perform this test properly. Another similar example
is regular tests of persons exposed to hazardous radiations
or chemicals. The objective in these cases is to detect
the disease in its early stage so that appropriate clinical
action can be taken. According to Bhargava,
182
implantable
sensors can be useful in health assessment. CNT-based
nanosensors have the advantages that they are thousands of
times smaller than even MEMS sensors and consume less
power. Also, they are less sensitive to variations in temper-
ature (compared to silicon piezoresistors).
183
This enables
them to perform better in many of the biomedical sens-
ing applications. Therefore, CNT-based nanosensors are
highly suitable as implantable sensors. Implanted sensors
can be used for monitoring pulse, temperature, blood glu-
cose, and diagnosing diseases.
184186
Besides, CNTs can be
used for repairing damaged cells or killing them by target-
ing tumors by chemical reactions. Implantable nanosensors
can also monitor hearts activity level and regulate heart-
beats by working with an implantable defribulator.
187
CNT-
based nanobiosensors may also be used to detect DNA
sequences in the body.
171
These instruments detect a very
specic piece of DNA that may be related to a particular
disease.
172
Therefore, these sensors can possibly diagnose
patients as having specic sequences related to a cancer
gene. The use of CNT-based sensors will avoid problems
associated with the current much-larger implantable sen-
sors, which can cause inammation, and eliminate the
need to draw and test blood samples. The devices can be
administered transdermally, or through the skin, avoiding
the need for injections during space missions.
188
Biosen-
sors can also be used for monitoring total cholesterol in
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blood.
164
CNT chemical sensors for liquids can be used for
blood analysis (for example, detecting sodium or nding
pH value).
189
As pressure sensors incorporating CNTs are fabricated,
they can nd application in many diagnostic and ther-
apeutic devices. Pressure sensors can be used in eye
surgery, hospital beds, respiratory devices, patient mon-
itors, inhalers, and kidney dialysis machines.
190, 191
Dur-
ing eye surgery, uid is removed from the eye and, if
required, cleaned and replaced. Pressure sensors measure
and control the vacuum that is used to remove the uid,
and provide input to the pumps electronics by measuring
barometric pressure. Hospital bed mattresses for burn vic-
tims consist of pressure sensors that regulate a series of
inatable chambers. To reduce pain and promote healing,
sections can be deated under burn areas. Pressure sensors
can also be used for sleep apnea (a cessation of breathing
during sleep) detection. The pressure sensor monitors the
changes in pressure in inated mattresses. If no movement
is found for a certain period of time, the sleeper is awak-
ened by an alarm.
191
Pressure sensing technology is used
in both invasive and noninvasive blood pressure monitors.
Many patients who use inhalers activate their inhalers at
inappropriate time resulting in insufcient dose of medica-
tion. Pressure sensors in the inhalers identify the breathing
cycle and release the medication accordingly.
190
During
kidney dialysis, blood ows from the artery to the dialy-
sis machine and after cleaning ows back into the vein.
Waste products are removed from the blood through osmo-
sis and move across a thin membrane into a solution that
has bloods mineral makeup.
192
Using pressure sensors, the
operation of the dialysis system can be regulated by mea-
suring the inlet and outlet pressures of both the blood and
the solution. Intelligent pressure sensing systems play an
important role in portable respiratory devices that consist
of both diagnostic (spirometers, ergometers, and plethys-
mographs) and therapeutic (ventilators, humidiers, nebu-
lizers, and oxygen therapy equipment) equipments. They
serve patients with disorders of asthma, sleep apnea, and
chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. These equipments
measure pressure by known uid dynamic principles.
190
CNT-based ow sensors can be used in micromachines
that work in a uidic environment such as heart pacemak-
ers that need neither heavy battery packs nor recharging.
113
Flow sensors can also be used for precise measurements
of gases utilized by respiratory apparatuses during surgery
and automatic calculation of medical treatment fees based
on the output data leading to reduced hospital costs and
more accurate calculation.
5.2. Automotive Industry
Because of the quest to improve performance, reduce
cost, and enhance the reliability, sensors have a substantial
utility in the automotive industry and their inuence is
expected to increase while designing the vehicles of the
future.
193
They are used to acquire information about
vehicle parameters such as pressure, vehicle altitudes,
ow, temperature, heat, humidity, speed and acceleration,
exhaust gas, and engine knock and torque. Apart from
enabling new desirable features, CNT-based sensors are
simply replacing old technologies with cheaper and more
reliable devices.
It has been mentioned earlier in this manuscript
(Section 4) that many sensors such as pressure, ow, ther-
mal, gas, and chemical sensors can be realized using
CNTs. A pressure sensor can be used to determine when
an air lter is dirty. This can be done by measuring the
pressure difference at the lters air intake and on the other
side of the diaphragm. They can also be used to calcu-
late mass airow rate, engine speed and air temperature
by measuring the pressure from intake fold. Pressure mea-
surements are often used for altitude compensation. In
vehicles tted with active-suspension systems, a pressure
sensor may be required to control variable-stiffness air
springs or possibly adjustable dampers.
194
Crash sensing is very important from sensing point of
view. Sensors with fast response features are required in
this case as the decision to re air bags should be made
in fractions of seconds.
195
CNT-based sensors can be
very useful in this case. Vehicle dynamic control (VDC),
rollover detection, and antitheft systems are other impor-
tant areas where CNT-based sensors can be potentially
applied. VDC systems assist the driver when the automo-
bile starts skidding. CNT-based sensors can be employed
to detect the lateral sliding of the vehicle. If lateral sliding
is detected, single-wheel braking or torque reduction can
be used to get the vehicle back in line. Rollover detec-
tion is rapidly being adopted by vans, trucks, and sports
utility vehicles manufacturers because of their higher cen-
tre of gravity.
195
CNT-based sensors can be used to nd
the roll angle and roll rate to determine if the vehicle is
tipping over.
To prevent stealing of cars, antitheft systems are pro-
vided by the automakers. Conventional antitheft systems
incorporate tilt detection systems. The drawback with
this system is that its not possible to park the car at
higher inclinations. Also, conventional sensors dont per-
form well in the widely varying automotive temperature
environment.
195
CNT-based sensors can nd promising
applications in this case. Other areas, where CNT-based
sensors can nd application are ignition control, headway
control, transmission control, vehicle navigation, tyre con-
dition, and cabin air quality monitoring.
5.3. Food Industry
Sensors and biosensors have been widely used in food
industry to provide safety and quality control of food prod-
ucts as the contamination of foods caused by bacterial
pathogens may result in numerous diseases.
196
Efcient
quality assurance is becoming increasingly important in
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the food industry. On one hand, consumers expect ade-
quate quality at a given price, good shelf-life, and high
safety; on the other hand, food producers are increasingly
asking for efcient control methods, in particular through
on-line and at-line quality sensors to satisfy consumers and
regulatory requirements, and to improve production feasi-
bility, quality sorting, automation, reduction of production
time and production cost. These factors are acting as a
driving force for the development of new sensors and sens-
ing systems. By taking advantages of nanotechnology and
unique properties of carbon nanotubes, and by avoiding the
main disadvantages of conventional methods (such as mul-
tistep assay and time consuming processing), CNT-based
sensors and biosensors show great potential for applica-
tions in the food industry.
CNT-based biosensors can be used in meat freshness
evaluation. Luong et al.
197
reported a MWNT-based bio-
sensor for non-mediator detection of putrescine. 3-Amino-
propyltriethoxysilane (APTES) solubilized MWNTs were
coated on glassy carbon electrodes to impose the interac-
tion and electron exchange between redox-enzymes and
electrode interface. The APTES modied CNTs served as
an immobilization matrix for putrescine oxidase (POx).
Apart from CNT-based biosensors, CNT-based gas sen-
sors can also be used for meat freshness monitoring during
shipment, storage, and processing. After constant storage,
certain volatile components (such as ethyl acetate) are
released due to the initial bacterial putrefaction of meat.
198
By detecting the concentration of these chemicals, the
quality of meat can be controlled. Philip et al.
173
reported a
CNT/Polymer gas sensor that can detect different organic
vapors including ethyl acetate. The sensing material in
this gas sensor is CNT/polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA)
composite thin lm. Experimental results show that the
resistance changes of surface-modied MWNT/PMMA
response to ethyl acetate is in the order of 30. The use of
a CNT-based gas sensor provides a non-destructive, non-
contact method of food analysis, which is highly desirable
for quality control in food industry.
CNT-based chemical sensor can be used to detect unde-
sired chemical residues resulting from animal drugs, food
additives, herbicides, pesticides, and other environmen-
tal contaminants in raw and processed foods. Promising
research areas for CNT-based sensors include evaluation
of the quality of fruits and vegetables by detecting their
damage.
5.4. Environmental Monitoring
CNT-based gas sensors can offer improved performance in
real-time monitoring of combustible gas alarms, gas leak
detection/alarms, biowarfare (e.g., monitoring explosives
such as TNT or RDX and nerve agents such as GB or VX),
environmental pollution monitoring, and cooking controls,
etc. Unlike conventional solid-state gas sensors, which
require relatively high temperatures to achieve signicant
sensitivity for gas molecules, CNT-based miniaturized gas
sensors can work at room temperature.
114
Moreover, not
limited by the microfabrication techniques, gas sensors
based on CNTs can be built in different geometry and offer
reliable response.
174
CNT-based carbon monoxide (CO) sensor
147, 174, 175
can
be used to control ventilation system in car parks. In car
parks, mechanical ventilation systems with exhaust fans
are installed to ensure that the level of CO does not exceed
safe limits. According to the different level of CO con-
centration detected by CO sensor, the fans in ventilation
system can be triggered either starting or stopping or oper-
ating with variable speed drives. The circumstances where
signicant diesel trafcs are expected, CNT-based NO
2
sensor can be applied.
176
CNT-based optical sensors can provide useful tools for
remote in-situ monitoring. Their small size would make
them suitable for sensing intracellular/intercellular physio-
logical and biological parameters in microenvironments.
199
CNT-based electrochemical biosensor can be used for
wastewater monitoring.
200
The results of wastewater real
samples tests were found to be in good agreement with
the results of other genotoxicity tests, which conrmed the
applicability of the CNT biosensor for real samples.
5.5. Agriculture and Fishing Industry
Besides medical and domestic applications for human
comfort, another signicant application of CNT-based
humidity sensors is to monitor humidity in green house
agriculture. Humidity and temperature conditions impact
the quantity and quality of the product directly. Exper-
imental results have shown that MWNT-coated quartz
crystal microbalance humidity sensor can monitor relative
humidity over the range of 597% RH with a response and
recovery time of about 60 and 70 seconds respectively.
157
In addition, in green house and controlled environment
garden (CEG) atmospheres, carbon dioxide (CO
2
) is uti-
lized by plant for photosynthesis in which CO
2
and water
combine with the aid of light energy to form sugar. Some
of these sugars are converted into complex compounds that
increase dry solid plant substances for continued growth
to nal maturity. However, plants may not grow properly
if the concentration of CO
2
is too high because the CO
2
would dissolve in water making carbonic acid, which fur-
ther makes the soil and air too acidic. CNT-based CO
2
sensors can be used to monitor the concentration of CO
2
within the green house or CEG to achieve an optimal envi-
ronment for plants growth.
119
CNT-based pressure sensors can be used for uniform
spraying of liquid fertilizer, insecticides, and herbicides.
A spraying system, usually pulled by a tractor, consists of
a tank, pump, associated valves, and a series of nozzles
spaced at equal intervals. Pressure sensor is used to sense
nozzle pressure. According to the variation of the tractor
speed, a microprocessor controls liquid pressure in order to
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achieve uniform spraying of chemicals. Farmers will ben-
et from uniform spraying by avoiding additional expense
of fertilizers and pesticides, and resultant high crop yields.
In shing industry, good pH balance of water quality
ensures survival and growth of cultured shes and shrimps.
CNT-based pH sensors can be used to determine pH value
when selecting location for farming so as to avoid abnor-
mality in shing grounds and hatcheries.
201
5.6. Manufacturing Industry
CNT based hydrogen gas sensor can be used in hydrogen
monitoring and control for petroleum transformation, weld-
ing, rocket engines, and fuel cells. Recent research shows
that raw SWNTs and palladium modied SWNT thin lms
are good sensing materials for hydrogen sensing.
132
The
sensor has high sensitivity to hydrogen over a wide tem-
perature range (from room temperature to 170

C).
177
CNT based strain and pressure sensors can be used for
strain and pressure measurements in manufacturing indus-
try. For example, in aircraft manufacturing, strain mea-
surement of the skin of aircraft is critical. Strain and
pressure sensors play an important role in this area. Dharap
et al. reported a SWNT lm sensor for macro scale strain
sensing.
110
In their experiments, a SWNT lm was embed-
ded into brass specimen and external probes were used
to sense multidirectional and multiple location strains.
A nearly linear response of voltage change was achieved
to the change of strains in the SWNT lm.
CNT-based sensors can also be used in the integrated
circuits (IC) industry for IC performance evaluation.
Wright et al.
202
have proposed CNT-based sensors for car-
rying out IC performance monitoring functions in the sub-
strate level as well as on the problem of interfacing the
molecular devices with the existing metallic circuitry of
the ICs. This approach of identication of failed ICs on
electronic circuit boards would drastically reduce the cost
of the test equipment development and maintenance.
5.7. Security and Others
High sensitivity and low power consumption make CNT-
based sensors suitable, especially, for high accuracy and
battery-powered applications, e.g., military. Since puri-
ed CNTs have very large surface area (1587 m
2
/g)
203
and extremely high conductivity, CNT composite show
low threshold and sharp slope of percolation conductivity
around the threshold. Thus, the sensors using CNT com-
posite as sensing materials have higher sensitivity.
204
CNT-based sensors can be potentially applied in defense
and homeland security.
144
They can be deployed in
unmanned defense systems such as unmanned aerial
vehicles. The meaning of security here is twofold: (i)
security from infectious diseases and (ii) security from
bombs and weapons at the ports of entry. Infectious dis-
eases are becoming a matter of national security for many
countries.
199
In the past, movement of infectious dis-
eases such as SARS, TB, and malaria across borders
have adversely affected the industrial production, agricul-
tural output, and social and economic stability. CNT-based
biosensors can be used to detect these diseases at the ports
of entry. CNT-based chemical sensors can be used as elec-
tronic noses to detect hidden bombs, chemical weapons
in luggage, vehicles, and aircraft.
116, 144
These electronic
noses can sense the vapors emitted by explosives and
chemical weapons. They are smaller and less expensive
than training bomb-snifng dogs, which are presently used
in airport, maritime ports and border. The advantages of
the electronic noses allow them to be widely deployed in
potential terrorist targets in larger numbers.
A MWNT infrared detector has been fabricated and
tested by Liu et al.
205
The response time of the detector is
about 400 ms to a 250 W infrared lamp source placing
50 cm away. Theoretical analysis implies that CNTs can be
used to fabricate high-density focal plane array for infrared
detection and those infrared sensors have a broad wave-
length response range, low-noise level, and good com-
patibility with semiconductor fabrication process. Besides
the above mentioned applications, CNT-based acoustic and
optical sensors can be used for breath alcohol detection at
room temperature.
206
6. CHALLENGES
Within fteen years of the discovery of CNTs, the merits
of CNT-based sensors have shown strong potential to make
huge impact in future sensor industry. However, the real-
world opportunities of these sensors will not emerge and
unfold overnight. There remain challenges to be addressed
before the full potential of CNTs for sensor applications
can be realized. For example, the production of pure and
uncontaminated nanotubes is very costly. There are only
few companies that produce CNTs for commercial appli-
cations. In addition to it, there is a lack of detailed under-
standing of growth mechanism of CNTs.
207
As a result,
an efcient growth approach to structurally perfect nano-
tubes at large scales is currently not available. Secondly,
it is difcult to grow defect-free nanotubes continuously
to macroscopic lengths.
40
Thirdly, control over nanotubes
growth on surfaces is required in order to obtain large-
scale ordered nanowire structures. Currently, dispersion
of CNTs onto a polymer matrix is very difcult. CNTs
agglomerate because of intrinsic van der Waals attraction
among the tubes, coupled with their high aspect ratio and
surface area.
44
Finally, controlling the chirality of SWNTs
by any existing growth method is very difcult.
40
Recently,
Wang et al.
208
have demonstrated the continued growth of
SWNTs from ordered arrays of open-ended SWNTs in a
way analogous to epitaxy. Although a pathway for con-
trol over both the diameter and chiral angle during syn-
thesis has been demonstrated, the process has been found
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sensitive to SWNT surface conditions and extraneous envi-
ronmental species. Therefore, in short, the optimization of
production parameters and the control on the growth of
nanotubes is to be mastered.
In addition to the challenges at the fabrication level,
the low dimensional geometry results in structural insta-
bility, which is an important issue because at larger
strains, CNTs are prone to buckling, kink forming, and
collapse.
69
Another issue concerning the use of CNTs
is their toxicity.
209, 210
On the basis of their experiments,
researchers have suggested that CNTs possess health risks.
They reasoned that humans can potentially be exposed
to CNTs by inhalation because unprocessed CNTs are
lightweight and, therefore, can become airborne. If CNTs
reach the lung, they can agglomerate and ll the air pas-
sages that may lead to suffocation. It was shown by Larn
et al.
211
that exposure to SWNTs leads to the development
of granulomas in rodents. Another study has revealed that
the exposure of cultured human skin cells to SWNTs
results in oxidative stress and loss of cell viability.
212
This
is not unexpected since graphite and carbon materials have
been associated with increased dermatitis and keratosis.
These reports warrant an in-depth study about the toxi-
cology of CNTs to come up with a nal conclusion with
respect to their acceptance by the human immune system.
Lastly, the time from proof of concept in the laboratory
of the CNT-based devices to the commercial market place
should be reduced as the competition from other novel
materials and technologies continue to emerge.
7. CONCLUSIONS
Research activity in the areas related to CNTs has seen
phenomenal growth in the last one and half decade. In this
paper, an attempt has been made to provide the most con-
temporary overview possible of CNT-based sensors and
their potential applications. The exceptional properties,
which allow CNTs to be used in sensors and other devices,
have also been reviewed. The use of CNT will increase
the sensitivity and dynamic range of sensors. The devel-
opments of integrated circuits, which can detect, convert,
process, and amplify minute signals, is required from the
microelectronic community. We need an effective interface
to the nano-material in order to extract the embedded sig-
nals. It is expected that many applications of CNT-based
sensors will be explored in future as the interest of the
nanotechnology research community in this eld increases.
However, CNTs have yet to cross many technological hur-
dles in order to fulll their potential as the preferred mate-
rial for sensor applications.
Acknowledgments: The rst author would like to
thank Dr. D. Das, University of Ottawa, for critical review
of the manuscript. The authors would also like to thank
Prof. N. Koratkar and Prof. M. Misra for their help in the
form of sending reprints of their articles.
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Received: 21 September 2005. Accepted: 12 October 2005.

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