Study of Heat Exchangers in Different Hydraulic Circuit in HSM

ON

PROJECT GUIDE: Mr. Braj Kishor Kumar HSM Dept.

Arindam Paul SP No. VT0512134151

SUBMITTED BY:

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Study of Heat Exchangers in Different Hydraulic Circuit in HSM

It has been an immense pleasure and truly enriching experience doing my vocational training at TATA STEEL Ltd., Jamshedpur. I take this opportunity to thank all those people who have made this experience a memorable one. First, I would like to thank my guide Mr. BRAJ KISHOR KUMAR, HSM, who has been the guiding force behind the completion of this project and correcting various documents of mine with utmost attention and care. He ensured necessary correction as and when needed. I am heartily thankful to Mr. M. B. VICTOR JOSEPH and also thankful to MAYANK PANDEY for their co-operation, valuable support and proper guidance whenever I approached them in any problem. I am sincerely thankful to all staff members of HSM Dept. for their valuable help and guidance in the completion of my training. Finally, I am grateful for the support from TATA STEEL Ltd. as a whole for the opportunity and assistance they provided me to do my training here.

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Study of Heat Exchangers in Different Hydraulic Circuit in HSM

This report prepared at TATA STEEL Limited, Jamshedpur contains a detailed description of plate type Heat Exchangers in different hydraulic system in HSM Dept. The details of the project done as a part of practical training along with the details of the methodology and procedure adapted as a part of the project work is also presented in this report.

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Study of Heat Exchangers in Different Hydraulic Circuit in HSM

1. TITLE OF THE PROJECT

: STUDY

OF

HEAT

EXCHANGERS

IN

DIFFERENT HYDRAULIC CIRCUIT IN HSM

2.

DURATION OF THE PROJECT : 15-May-2012 TO 12-June-2012

3.

PROJECT GUIDE AT DEPT.

: Mr. Braj Kishor Kumar

4.

NAME OF THE TRAINEES

: Mr. Debarpan Saha : Mr. Arindam Paul : Mr. Soumya Kanti Mandal : Mr. Neeraj Kumar Singh

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Study of Heat Exchangers in Different Hydraulic Circuit in HSM

CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that M r . A r i n d a m P a u l , SP No-VT0512134151, Ref. No. VT20120025 has successfully completed his project at H.S.M. from 15 th May, 2012 to 12 th June, 2012. He has participated in a project titled STUDY OF HEAT EXCHANGERS IN DIFFERENT HYDRAULIC
CIRCUIT IN HSM. He has worked on the above subject and successfully

completed it. He is a diligent trainee of his batch and also an excellent team man. I wish him well in his future endeavors.

Braj Kishor Kumar (Project Guide) Manager, HSM Mechanical

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Study of Heat Exchangers in Different Hydraulic Circuit in HSM

Table of contents
WHAT IS HEAT EXCHANGER...7 FUNCTION OF HEAT EXCHANGER.7 WORKING PROCEDURE8 TYPES OF HEAT-EXCHANGER.9 4.1. PARRALEL FLOW, COUNTER FLOW & CROSS FLOW9 4.2. SHELL & TUBE TYPE HEAT EXCHANGER.11 4.2.1. THEORY & APPLICATIONS.11 4.3 .PLATE TYPE HEAT EXCHANGER.12 5. DIFFERENT PARTS OF PLATE TYPE HEAT-EXCHANGER & ITS WOKING PRINCIPLE13 5.1. DIFFERENT PARTS OF PLATE TYPE HEAT-EXCHANGER...13 5.2. PROCESS OF HEAT TRANSFER THROUGH CHANNEL PLATES.15 5.3. PRESSURE DROP-PROBLEM OF HEAT TRANFER THROUGH CHANNEL PLATES..16 5.4. DIFFERTENT TYPES OF PLATE TYPE HEAT-EXCHANGER..16 5.4.1. PARRALEL FLOW TYPE HEAT-EXCHANGER.16 5.4.2. DIAGONAL FLOW TYPE HEAT-EXCHANGER17 6. ADVANTAGES OF PLATE TYPE HEAT EXCHANGER18 7. GENERAL BLOCK DIAGRAM OF HYDRAULIC SYSTEMS20 8. HOW HEAT-EXCHANGER IS USEFUL IN HYDRAULIC SYSTEMS .21 9. STUDY OF DIFFERENT HEAT EXCHANGERS IN HSM DEPT.,TATA STEEL LTD..25 10. CONCLUSION28 1. 2. 3. 4.

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Study of Heat Exchangers in Different Hydraulic Circuit in HSM

Heat exchangers are the devices those facilitate the exchange of heat between the two fluids that are at different temperature while keeping them from mixing with each other. Heat exchangers are commonly used in practice in a wide range of applications, from heating and air-conditioning system in a household to chemical processing and power production in large plants. Heat exchangers differ from mixing chambers in that they do not allow the two fluids involved to mix. In a car radiator, for example, heat is transferred from the hot water flowing through the radiator tubes to the air flowing through the closely spaced thin plates outside attached to the tubes. Heat transfer in a heat exchanger usually involves convection in each fluid and conduction through the wall separating the two fluids. In the analysis of heat exchangers, it is convenient to work with an overall heat transfer coefficient (U) that accounts for the contribution of all these effects on heat transfer. The rate of heat transfer between the two fluids at a location in a heat exchanger depends on the magnitude of the temperature difference at that location, which varies along the heat exchanger. In the analysis of heat exchangers, it is usually convenient to work with the logarithmic mean temperature difference LMTD, which is an equivalent mean temperature difference between the two fluids for the entire heat exchanger.

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Study of Heat Exchangers in Different Hydraulic Circuit in HSM

The basic principle of heat exchanger is the energy flow between hot and cold streams. As a result the temperature of the hot fluid decreases increasing the temperature of the cold fluid. Normally the hot and cold streams are separated by a solid medium (in case of wall separating heat exchanger) which must have high conductivity. Heat transfer mode is by convection at two surfaces of the solid medium which are exposed to the hot and cold fluid and by conduction across the solid medium. For the efficient heat transfer process the thermal resistance for these conductive and convective heat transfers should be as low as possible. Proper design of the flow and the material of the solid medium reduce the thermal resistance. The proper choice of flow direction also improves the efficiency (ex. in counter flow the temperature difference between hot and cold fluid is higher compared to parallel flow at any position, thus equivalent temperature difference is also higher).Heat exchanger also may be of radiative type which involves radiative heat transfer.

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Study of Heat Exchangers in Different Hydraulic Circuit in HSM

Heat Exchanger

Contact basis

Physically

On the basis of flow direction

Direct Contact

Wall Separating Streams

Plate type

Shell & tube type

Parallel flow

Counter Flow

Cross Flow

The classification of heat exchanger is shown in the above chart. There are other heat exchangers like1. Adiabatic wheel heat exchangers 2. Plate fin heat exchangers 3. Fluidized bed heat exchangers 4. Spiral heat exchangers 5. Phase-change heat exchangers

Parallel and counter flow provide alternative arrangements for certain specialized applications. In parallel flow both the hot and cold streams enter the heat exchanger at the same end and travel to the opposite end in parallel streams. Energy is transferred along the length from the hot to the cold fluid so the outlet temperatures asymptotically approach each other. In a counter flow arrangement, the two streams enter at opposite ends of the heat exchanger and flow in parallel but opposite directions. Temperatures within the two streams tend to approach one another in a nearly linearly fashion resulting in a much more uniform heating pattern. Shown below the heat exchangers are representations of the axial temperature profiles for each. Parallel flow results in rapid initial rates of heat exchange near the entrance, but heat transfer rates rapidly decrease as the temperatures of the two streams approach one another. This leads to higher exergy Page | 9

Study of Heat Exchangers in Different Hydraulic Circuit in HSM loss during heat exchange. Counter flow provides for relatively uniform temperature differences and, consequently, lead toward relatively uniform heat rates throughout the length of the unit.

Another type of heat exchanger, which is specifically designed to realize a large heat transfer surface area per unit volume, is the compact heat exchanger. In compact heat exchangers, the two fluids usually move perpendicular to each other, and such flow configuration is called cross-flow. The cross-flow is further classified as unmixed and mixed flow, depending on the flow configuration, as shown in following Figure. In (a) the cross-flow is said to be unmixed since the plate fins force the fluid to flow through a particular interfin spacing and prevent it from moving in the transverse direction (i.e., parallel to the tubes). The cross-flow in (b) is said to be mixed since the fluid now is free to move in the transverse direction. Both fluids are unmixed in a car radiator. The presence of mixing in the fluid can have a significant effect on the heat transfer characteristics of the heat exchanger.

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Study of Heat Exchangers in Different Hydraulic Circuit in HSM

A shell and tube heat exchanger is the most common type of heat exchanger in oil refineries and other large chemical processes, and is suited for higher-pressure applications. As its name implies, this type of heat exchanger consists of a shell (a large pressure vessel) with a bundle of tubes inside it. One fluid runs through the tubes, and another fluid flows over the tubes (through the shell) to transfer heat between the two fluids. The set of tubes is called a tube bundle, and may be composed by several types of tubes: plain, longitudinally finned, etc.

Two fluids, of different starting temperatures, flow through the heat exchanger. One flows through the tubes (the tube side) and the other flows outside the tubes but inside the shell (the shell side). Heat is transferred from one fluid to the other through the tube walls, either from tube side to shell side or vice versa. The fluids can be either liquids or gases on either the shell or the tube side. In order to transfer heat efficiently, a large heat transfer area should be used, leading to the use of many tubes. In this way, waste heat can be put to use. This is an efficient way to conserve energy. Heat exchangers with only one phase (liquid or gas) on each side can be called one-phase or single-phase heat exchangers. Two-phase heat exchangers can be used to heat a liquid to boil it into a gas (vapor), sometimes called boilers, or cool a vapor to condense it into a liquid (called condensers), with the phase change usually occurring on the shell side. Boilers in steam engine locomotives are typically large, usually cylindrically-shaped shell-and-tube heat exchangers. In large power plants with steam-driven turbines, shelland-tube surface condensers are used to condense the exhaust steam exiting the turbine into condensate water which is recycled back to be turned into steam in the steam generator.

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Study of Heat Exchangers in Different Hydraulic Circuit in HSM

Plate and frame (or just plate) type heat exchanger has found widespread use, which consists of a series of plates with corrugated flat flow passages. The hot and cold fluids flow in alternate passages, and thus each cold fluid stream is surrounded by two hot fluid streams, resulting in very effective heat transfer. Also, plate type heat exchangers can grow with increasing demand for heat transfer by simply mounting more plates. They are well suited for liquid-to-liquid heat exchange applications, provided that the hot and cold fluid streams are at about the same pressure.

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Study of Heat Exchangers in Different Hydraulic Circuit in HSM

1. SUPPORT COLUMN:The two bars are suspended between the frame plate, to which in most cases the piping is connected, and a support column. 2. CONNECTIONS:Holes matching the piping lead through the frame plate, permitting the media to enter into the heat exchanger. Threaded studs around the holes secure the pipes to the equipment. Depending on the application, metallic or rubber-type linings may protect the edges of the holes against corrosion. 3. TIGHTENING BOLTS:With the package of thin plates hanging between the frame plate and the pressure plate, a number of tightening bolts are used to press the thin plates together bringing them into metallic contact, and to compress the gaskets enough to seal off the narrow passages which have now been formed between the plates. 5. GUIDING BAR:The plates hang from a carrying bar at the top and are kept in line by a guiding bar at the bottom. Page | 13

Study of Heat Exchangers in Different Hydraulic Circuit in HSM 6. GASKET:These plates are called channel plates. A groove along the rim of the plate and around the ports hold a gasket, usually made of a rubber-type material. Heat is transferred through the surface which is contained by the gasket, except for some small areas near the corners. The number of plates in your heat exchanger is determined by the size of the heat transfer surface required.

The GASKET is molded in one piece. The material is normally an elastomer, selected to suit the actual combination of temperature, chemical environment and possible other conditions that may be present Different parts of gasket:The one-piece gasket consists of: 1. One field gasket 2. Two ring gaskets 3. Links The field gasket is by far the larger part containing the whole heat transfer area and the two corners connected to it. The ring gaskets seal off the remaining two corners. These three pieces are held together by a few short links, which have no sealing function at all. Their purpose is simply to tie the pieces together and to add some support in certain areas. On some plate heat exchangers, the gasket is held in place on the plate by means of a suitable cement or glue.

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Study of Heat Exchangers in Different Hydraulic Circuit in HSM

Functions of parts of gasket:As already demonstrated, the two media are effectively kept apart by the ring and field gaskets. To prevent intermixing of the media in the corner areas where field and ring gaskets are very close to each other, the link pieces have a number of slots which opens the area between the field and ring gaskets to atmosphere. Any leakage of media across either gasket will escape from the heat exchanger through the slots. Precautions using gaskets:It is important that these openings are kept clear. If they are not, there is a risk that should a leak occur in that region of the plate, there might be a local pressure build-up, which could allow one medium to mix with the other. Care should be taken not to cut or scratch the gaskets while handling plates.

The purpose of the equipment is to transfer heat from one medium to another. Heat passes very easily through the thin wall separating the two media. The novel pattern into which the plate material has been formed not only gives strength and rigidity, but greatly increases the rate of heat transfer from the warmer medium to the metal wall and from the wall to the other medium. This high heat flow through the walls can be seriously reduced by the formation of deposits of various kinds on the wall surfaces. The pattern of corrugation on plates induces highly turbulent flow.

The turbulence gives strong resistance to the formation of deposits on the plate surface; however, it cannot always eliminate fouling. The deposits may increase the total wall thickness substantially, and they consist of materials that have a much lower thermal Page | 15

Study of Heat Exchangers in Different Hydraulic Circuit in HSM conductivity than the metal plate. Consequently a layer of deposits can severely reduce the overall heat transfer rate.

Pressure drops are wasted energy. All pipe systems and equipment included in them offer resistance to media flowing through them. Some pressure drop is unavoidable, but for a given PHE it should be kept as close as possible to the designed value. The formation of deposits on the heat transfer surfaces instantly leads to a reduction of the free space between the plates. This means that more energy is needed to get the desired flow through the equipment.

Plate type heat exchangers are generally classified in two categories depending upon the direction of flow Parallel flow Diagonal flow

When a package of plates are pressed together, the holes at the corners form continuous tunnels or manifolds, leading the media (which participate in the heat transfer process) from the inlets into the plate pack, where they are distributed in the narrow passages Page | 16

Study of Heat Exchangers in Different Hydraulic Circuit in HSM between the plates. Because of the gasket arrangement on the plates, and the placing of A and B plates alternately, the two liquids enter alternate passages, e.g. the warm liquid between even number passages, and cold liquid between odd number passages. Thus the media are separated by a thin metal wall. In most cases the liquids flow in opposite directions. During the passage through the equipment, the warmer medium will give some of its heat energy to the thin wall, which instantly loses it again to the colder medium on the other side. The warmer medium drops in temperature, while the colder one is heated up. Finally, the media are led into similar hole-tunnels at the other end of the plates and discharged from the heat exchanger.

The working principle of diagonal flow plate type heat exchanger is same as parallel flow plate type heat exchanger. The difference between them is the direction of flow of water and oil between two plates. The direction of oil and water is shown in the above figure. The heat exchange between oil and water is more than the parallel flow plate type heat exchanger.

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Study of Heat Exchangers in Different Hydraulic Circuit in HSM

Compact design delivers greater efficiency With densely-packed surface area and overall superior thermal efficiency, plate type Heat Exchangers use up to 80% less floor space and often weigh 10 times less than shell-and-tube exchangers. Plus, they use less surface area to transfer the same heat. That makes them easier, safer, faster, more efficient and far more economical to ship, handle, install and use. Close temperature approach In the plate type heat exchanger two fluids can be delivered due to true countercurrent flow, which directs the two media in opposite directions across the plate. This results in maximum temperature differences and minimum heat transfer surface requirements. In fact, temperature approaches as close as 1 to 2F can be obtained. No cross-contamination Due to the gasket design of the Plate Heat Exchanger units are well-suited to applications where inter-leakage is a critical concern. Hot and cold media circuits are individually gasketed with the area in between vented to the atmosphere, assuring the integrity of both circuits. Low hold-up volume Plate Heat Exchanger users enjoy shorter response times and more accurate process control. This advantage is the direct result of inherent design considerations that allow for an internal volume of up to 80% less than tubular designs. Minimum Fouling Uniform flow and high fluid turbulence is achieved due to the design of plates which also minimizes fouling. The continual scrubbing action taking place in this type of heat exchangers eliminates the need for frequent cleanings required by other types of heat exchangers. Ease of maintenance This is due in large part to reduced fouling, but, in addition, low media holdup also allows for easy drainage. Since connections are usually made to the front of the unit, piping can stay in place when the unit is opened, and all of the components can be removed within the length of the frame, minimizing downtime. Expandability Plate Heat Exchangers are designed to expand with heat transfer needs. It can be done by simply loosening the compression bolts and adding the plates what are needed. That's flexibility is far beyond the fixed capacity of other exchangers which would be rendered obsolete in similar circumstances.

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Study of Heat Exchangers in Different Hydraulic Circuit in HSM

Flexibility The widest variety of plate sizes helps us deliver maximum economy for any size application. Because of the variety of plates sizes is offered, the most economical designs for all types of heat transfer applications is provided.Several plate sizes for each connection size is also provided. In addition, plates are pressed in the patterns that are best suited to optimizing the performance of the system. By combining the right plate geometry, patterns and connections the heat exchanger can be customized to achieve a design that is ideal for application.

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Study of Heat Exchangers in Different Hydraulic Circuit in HSM

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Study of Heat Exchangers in Different Hydraulic Circuit in HSM

There are many reasons which are responsible for the generation of heat in any hydraulic or fluid system. Fluid systems generally produce heat by converting mechanical energy or fluid pressure energy. Friction is the process of conversion because molecular friction generates heat in a sheared fluid. Effect of high viscosity of the working fluid The higher the viscosity of the working fluid, the more heat this friction produces because of higher frictional resistance. For example, frictional drag acts on the fluid as it courses through orifices, restricted passages etc. But viscosity is greatly affected by the temperature. Generally higher the temperature, lower the viscosity and vice-versa.

The heat generated by the friction is either dominated by the cold atmospheric condition or not causing two different results which are following.

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Study of Heat Exchangers in Different Hydraulic Circuit in HSM

Effect of Low viscosity of the working fluid Low viscosity fluid also contributes to heat generation because it inherently fails to maintain a crucial lubrication film between moving surfaces. This failure to separate the running surfaces results not only in wear (abrasion and adhesion of the two surfaces) but also in excessive leakage. The resulting wear increases the frictional loss and the rise of temperature of the working fluid. A viscous cycle of thermal failure is shown in the which shows how the rise in temperature is gradually assisted by lowering the viscosity of the working fluid.

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Study of Heat Exchangers in Different Hydraulic Circuit in HSM

Viscous Cycle of Thermal Failure

The effect of the temperature rise The result of the frictional effect first causes the loss of energy in terms of heat. The heat which is dissipated increases the temperature of the working fluid gradually with the number of cycle. There are some other reasons of temperature rise like hot atmospheric condition, presence of any heat source near the hydraulic system etc. which assist the viscous cycle of thermal failure. No matter how careful designers of fluid systems are, excessive heat generation sometimes occurs. If a machine like a hydraulic system has an overall efficiency of 80 percent, rough approximations would indicate that the amount of generated heat for an average fluid system is equal to 20 percent of the connected shaft power. This heat must be dissipated to the surroundings in some way, otherwise the fluid temperature will keep rising until the system either stabilizes (where the heat dissipated to the environment balances the heat generated by the system) at some undesired elevated temperature or destroys itself. When the rise in temperature crosses particular limit oil gets hot and breaks down. It looks dark and smells burnt. Thermally degraded oil is thinner and much less slippery than new oil definitely fails to serve its purpose further. So in every hydraulic system it is required to maintain the temperature of the working fluid within a working range. Page | 23

Study of Heat Exchangers in Different Hydraulic Circuit in HSM

Heat exchanger for maintenance of temperature within a range The first avenue of escape from generated heat is by natural dissipation. With natural cooling, heat in the system fluid dissipates into the surrounding air, primarily by conduction and convection. But in most of the cases it is not enough to serve the purpose in the industry. to relieve the system fluid of excess heat and lower its operating temperature heat exchangers are used. It uses coolant medium and involves the transfer of heat from the working fluid to reduce its temperature. Thus it can used again for the subsequent cycles.

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Study of Heat Exchangers in Different Hydraulic Circuit in HSM

Hydraulic cellar

Heat No. of No. of Plate Maximum Oil Oil Water Water Purpose exchanger plates plates packed working inlet outlet inlet outlet served specification as per found length pressure temp. temp. temp. temp. to circuit found Type- P2-FH Serial No.30107-76-777 Capacity50.2 kW Type- P2-FH Serial No.30101-61-584 Capacity50.2 kW Type- P2-FH Serial No.30101-73-719 Capacity60 kW Type- P2-FH Serial No.30101-61-586 Capacity60 kW 31 98 330 mm 10 kg./sq.cm. 33oC 31.5oC 25oC 27oC Slab charging

H1

H2

31

31

110 mm

6 kg./sq.cm.

25oC

24oC

20.5oC 22.5oC Slab dischargi ng

H3

38

68

246 mm

10 kg./sq.cm.

37oC

33oC

23oC

26oC

Edger roughing Mill

H4

38

38

134 mm

6 kg./sq.cm.

34oC

30oC

21.5oC 24oC

Manipula tor

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Study of Heat Exchangers in Different Hydraulic Circuit in HSM

Hydraulic cellar

Heat No. of No. of Plate Maximum Oil Oil Water Water Purpose exchanger plates plates packed working inlet outlet inlet outlet served specification as per found length pressure temp. temp. temp. temp. to circuit found Type- P2-FH Serial No.30101-32-976 Capacity120 kW Type- P2-FH Serial No.30101-61-582 Capacity140 kW Type- P2-FH Serial No.30101-32-976 Capacity60 kW Type- P2-FH Serial No.30101-73-723 Capacity140 kW 85 105 380 mm 10 kg./sq.cm. 42oC 37oC 22.5oC 25.5oC Coiling box

H5

H6

31

85

302 mm

6 kg./sq.cm.

31oC

29oC

20.5oC 24oC

Finishing mill

H7

38

97

326 mm

6 kg./sq.cm.

35.5oC 33oC

22.5oC 25.5oC Finishing mill

H8

125

163

575 mm

10 kg./sq.cm.

40.5oC 36.5oC 22oC

25oC

Finishing mill

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Study of Heat Exchangers in Different Hydraulic Circuit in HSM

Hydraulic cellar

Heat No. of No. of Plate Maximum Oil Oil Water Water Purpose exchanger plates plates packed working inlet outlet inlet outlet served specification as per found length pressure temp. temp. temp. temp. to circuit found Type- P2-FH Serial No.30101-73-722 Capacity140 kW Type- P2-FH Serial No.30101-73-721 Capacity140 kW Type- P2-FH Serial No.30106-74-501 Capacity120 kW Type- P2-FH Serial No.30101-61-583 Capacity200 kW 125 125 455 mm 10 kg./sq.cm. 34oC 31.5oC 20oC 24oC Down coiler 1

H9

H9A

125

125

438 mm

10 kg./sq.cm.

34oC

31.5oC 20oC

24oC

Down coiler 2

H10

85

153

556 mm

10 kg./sq.cm.

43.5oC 40.5oC 22.5oC 29oC

Coil conveyor -1

H11

133

465 mm

6 kg./sq.cm.

42oC

37oC

25.5oC 27.5oC Coil conveyor -2 to 6

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Study of Heat Exchangers in Different Hydraulic Circuit in HSM

In the study of heat exchangers in different hydraulic circuits we came to know what type of heat exchangers are generally useful in an industry, how different types of heat exchangers work, where the heat exchanger should be placed, at what pressure a heat exchanger generally work, what kind of problems can arise in a heat exchanger etc. And especially why we need a heat exchanger in a hydraulic system. In the industry we have also learnt how an industry is really operating. There we came to know how hydraulic cylinders operate, why and where filtration is needed in a hydraulic system, function of direction control valve etc. and all these are beyond of our bookish knowledge. Our theoretical knowledge would be incomplete without watching an industry running and how theoretical knowledge is incorporated in the real world just like making strips in HSM dept. by rolling the slabs and this process does not only include manufacturing knowledge of ours, it also includes the other topics of mechanical engineering like hydraulics, lubrication, material science and other branches of engineering also like electrical and others. These all are possible due to the help from our guide Mr. Braj Kishor Kumar and also Mr. M.B. Victor Joseph. Whenever we needed a help we got them. And we should not deny the co-operation of the workers of HSM Dept. of TATA STEEL Ltd. And above all there was a hand of authority was always there with us. Lastly we want to thank them all for their co-operation in gathering knowledge about heat exchanger and without their help our project would be incomplete.

********** THE END **********

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