Introduction

Chapter 1

Mining is a process of extracting useful minerals from the surface of the Earth, including the seas. A mineral, with a few exceptions, is an inorganic substance occurring in nature that has a definite chemical composition and distinctive physical properties or molecular structure. (One organic substance, coal, is often discussed as a mineral as well.) Ore is a metalliferous mineral, or an aggregate of metalliferous minerals and gangue (associated rock of no economic value), that can be mined at a profit. Mineral deposit designates a natural occurrence of a useful mineral, while ore deposit denotes a mineral deposit of sufficient extent and concentration to invite exploitation. Coal is the most abundant fossil fuel on Earth. Its predominant use has always been for producing heat energy. It was the basic energy source that fuelled the Industrial Revolution of the 18th and 19th centuries, and the industrial growth of that era in turn supported the large-scale exploitation of coal deposits. Since the mid-20th century, coal has yielded its place to petroleum and natural gas as the principal energy supplier of the world. The mining of coal from surface and underground deposits today is a highly productive, mechanized operation. Mining in India is an important economic activity which contributes significantly to the economy of India.The country exports a variety of minerals,found in abundance in its geographically diverse regions,while it imports others not found in sufficient quantities within its geographical boundaries.India ranks 3rd in production of coal and lignite,2nd in barites,4th in iron ore,5th in bauxite and crude steel,7th in manganese oreand 8th in aluminium.

1.1

Hoisting System in Mines

A hoist is a device used for lifting or lowering a load by means of a drum or liftwheel around which rope or chain wraps. It may be manually operated, electrically or pneumatically driven and may use chain, fiber or wire rope as its lifting medium. The load is attached to the hoist by means of a lifting hook. In underground mining a hoist or winder is used to raise and lower conveyances within the mine shaft. Mines consist of two types of hoisting. They are: Cage Hoisting Skip Hoisting The basic difference between a cage hoisting and a skip hoisting is that in the case of a cage hoisting, the mineral, human, supplies and dirt are transported up and down the shaft in the mine car whereas in the case of skip hoisting, only the mineral is transported up a main shaft in special conveyances called skips without the use of mine car. Here we basically discuss about Cage Hoisting here as we predominantly deal with the testing of this system here. Mine hoist basically deals about hoisting of mining personnel or material or both in vertical and inclined shafts through cage (in the case of Cage Hoisting). There has been an increase in demand of a fast and effective communication between the mining opening and coal face in a cage hoisting system. Cage Hoisting system is presently used for human transport and for supplying materials needed for underground works in the mines.

In todays modern high production mines, both men and materials need to be transported in large volumes, safely, reliably, effectively and efficiently. Cages may be classified in various ways depending on their functions, structure and suspension arrangement. Cages may be divided on structural basis such as single deck cage, two deck cages, or multi deck cages as per need and demand. Mine hoisting systems consists of several critical components like friction wedge cable, connecting link, safety hook, apex plate, shackle, cage chain as a part of mine suspension gear as shown in fig 1.1. In underground mining a hoist or winder is used to raise and lower conveyances within the mine shaft. Modern hoists are normally powered using electric motors, historically with direct current drives utilizing solid-state converters (thyristors); however modern large hoists utilize alternating current drives that are variable frequency controlled. There are two principal types of hoists used in mining applications.They are : drum hoist and friction hoist. Drum Hoists Drum hoists are the most common type of hoist used in North America, South Africa and South America. When using a drum hoist the hoisting cable is wound around the drum when the conveyance is lifted. Singledrum hoists (Fig 1.1) can be used in smaller applications; however doubledrum hoists (Fig 1.2) easily allow the hoisting of two conveyances in balance (i.e. one skip being lifted while a second skip is being lowered). Drum hoists are mounted on concrete within a hoist room, the hoisting ropes run from the drum, up to the top of the head frame, over a sheave wheel and down where they connect to the conveyance (cage or skip).

Fig 1.1 Single drum hoist

Fig 1.2 Double drum hoist

Advantages Drum hoists require less routine maintenance than a friction hoist, because the haulage cable is fixed to the drum, and therefore have less downtime, and the maintenance regime is less sophisticated. Drum hoists can continue to operate if the shaft bottom gets flooded and less shaft depth is required below the loading pocket, unlike friction hoists where such flooding could cover the tail ropes etc. Because drum hoists do not have tail ropes, the hoisting system is more suited to slinging beneath a conveyance. Disadvantages Drum hoists take up more space than a friction hoist for the same service as all of the haulage cable must be accommodated on the drum when the hoist is fully raised. Drum hoists require rapid fluctuations in power demand, which can pose a problem if power is generated on site rather than provided through the main power grid.

Frictional Hoist Friction (or Koepe) hoists are the most common type of hoist used in Europe, Asia and Australia. The friction hoist was invented in 1877 by Frederick Kope. Friction hoists are mounted on the ground above the mine shaft, or at the top of the head frame. Friction hoists utilize tail ropes and counterweights and do not have the haulage rope fixed to the wheel, but instead passed around it. The tail ropes and weights offset the need for the motor to overcome the weight of the conveyance and hoisting rope, thereby reducing the required horsepower of the hoisting motor by up to 30%, with the overall power consumption remaining the same. Friction hoists, unlike drum hoists, can and normally do use multiple ropes giving them a larger payload capacity, however since they require a larger safety factor, they are impractical for very deep shafts.

Fig 1.3 Friction hoist Advantages New friction hoists are less expensive than new drum hoists, and the lead time for delivery may be shorter as there is more competition for manufacturing. Multi-rope friction hoists have a larger lift capacity than a drum hoist. A friction hoist is smaller in diameter than a drum hoist for the same service, making it easier to ship and install than a drum hoist.

Disadvantages Balanced friction hoists are not suitable for hoisting from multiple loading pockets on different horizons within a shaft, and are generally not suitable for deep shafts. Friction hoists cannot operate at normal speeds if the shaft bottom is flooded and water reaches the tail ropes. Blair multi-rope hoist - The Blair multi-rope hoist is a variation of the double-drum hoist. It is used in extremely deep shafts as the second drums cable are used to balance the primary load.

Fig 1.4 Blair multi rope hoist The parts of a hoist and mine gear components are manufactured by small scale industries which undergo various metallurgical defects and mechanical processes. The manufacturing defects such as porosity, lamination, surface crack, internal crack, etc. lead to a faulty hoisting device in which the cracks may gradually increase and ultimately result into sudden failure of the whole system which may cause fatal injuries and damages.So,it is worth here to study the defects in material which are dicussed in next section 1.2 of this chapter.

1.2

Defects in material

Material defects are unwanted contaminants at the melting of steel, the steel forming or the heat treatment. Furthermore faults can occur by improper storage or subsequent processing. Material defects can appear in different forms. The material which is used for manufacturing should possess high yield strength, a high energy absorption factor (IZOD VALUE), good forging and machining properties and resistance to strain age hardening. There are several types of defects which may occur in a material during either manufacturing process or service. These defects in materials are broadly classified in two types. They are : manufacturing defects and service defects. Here,these defects are symmetrically listed in table 1.1.

Table 1.1 Different types of defects in materials

General Defects

Sheet & Plate Defects

Bars & Tubes Defects

Casting Defects

Forging Defects

Weld Defects

Processing Defects Service Defects

Normal Surface crack Internal Cracks Thickness Metallurgical Variation Thickness Lamination Holes Seams Pipe Cupping Inclusion Cold Shuts Surface Cracks Internal Shrinkage Holes Porosity Core Shaft Laps Inclusion Internal Burst Internal Flasks Crack Tears Shrinkage Cracks Slag Inclusion Lack of Fusion Porosity Lack of Penetration Heat Treatment Cracks Grinding Cracks Fatigue of Heat Cracks Stress Corrosion Blustering Thinning Corrosion Pits

A few defects have been discussed in details as below:

Shrinkage When adjacent thick and thin portions of a casting cool unevenly, and the portions shrink at varying rates, a discontinuity becomes evident. Thus the shrinking of the different portions at different rates gives rise to shrinkage. Gas Voids When gas is trapped in a casting, it naturally produces a void. The gas can erupt spontaneously from molten metal, and it can develop from water vapour or green sand in a mould. In addition, during the pouring of a mould, gas voids can form as a result of simple turbulence. These trapped gas and vapours lead to the variation in density at different portions thus leading to risks, when the components are put under service. Inclusions Inclusions usually exhibit lower density than gas voids. Theyre more diffused than gas voids and irregular in shape. Inclusions develop when low-density foreign matter and/or sand are entrapped in the molten metal and dont dissolve. Unfused Chaplets Chaplets are used to maintain cores in their correct position during the casting process. When a chaplet is not fused completely by the molten metal, a discontinuity is formed. Theses discontinuities are known as unused chaplets.

Hot Tear Excessive thermal stress in cooling metal may produce this tearing or rendering, thus leading to defects. Cracks Cracks are caused when metal fractures during or after solidification. Core Shift Sometimes, as molten metal is being poured, the core material shifts. In this way the core shifting takes place. Cluster Porosity Clusters of trapped gas cause cluster porosity. Excess Penetration When there is excess metal deposition at the root of the weld, penetration takes place. External Undercut These appear when theres a groove or channel in the surface of the plate along the edge of the weld. Internal (Root) Undercut An internal undercut is caused by a groove in the main object stretched along the edge, either at the bottom or at the inner surface of the weld. Tungsten Inclusions These are caused when small pieces of tungsten become trapped during the welding process.

Slag Lines Slag lines are darker density lines that are irregular in width running parallel to the edge of the weld. Elongated cavities that contain slag or other low-density foreign matter will produce slag lines. Scattered Porosity Gas trapped in cavities produces scattered porosity. Mismatch Mismatches occur when plates are not aligned properly before welding. Longitudinal Cracks These cracks are discontinuities caused by fractures along the length of a weld. Transverse Cracks These cracks are caused by metal fractures that occur across a weld. Fatigue This occurs under the action of cyclic loading, when a crack initiates and grows. Although the fatigue limit of a material may be considered as a material property, the conditions of the surface and the rate of crack growth are factors of great practical significance, which are influenced by the operating conditions.

Fatigue starts with the formation of surface micro cracks with subsequent extension across and penetration into the body of the metal.

Non Destructive Testing

Nondestructive testing or Non-destructive testing (NDT) is a wide group of analysis techniques used in science and industry to evaluate the properties of a material, component or system without causing damage. The terms Nondestructive examination (NDE), Nondestructive inspection (NDI), and Nondestructive evaluation (NDE) are also commonly used to describe this technology. Because NDT does not permanently alter the article being inspected, it is a highly-valuable technique that can save both money and time in product evaluation, troubleshooting, and research. Common NDT methods include ultrasonic, magnetic-particle, liquid penetrant, radiographic, remote visual inspection (RVI), eddycurrent testing, and low coherence interferometry. NDT is a commonly-used tool in forensic engineering, mechanical engineering, electrical engineering, civil engineering, systems engineering, aeronautical engineering, medicine, and art.

Methods:

NDT methods may rely upon use of electromagnetic radiation, sound, and inherent properties of materials to examine samples. This includes some kinds of microscopy to examine external surfaces in detail, although sample preparation techniques for metallography, optical microscopy and electron microscopy are generally destructive as the surfaces must be made smooth through polishing or the sample must be electron transparent in thickness. The inside of a sample can be examined with penetrating electromagnetic radiation, such as X-rays or 3D X-rays for volumetric inspection. Sound waves are utilized in the case of ultrasonic testing. Contrast between a defect and the bulk of the sample may be enhanced for visual examination by the unaided eye by using liquids to penetrate fatigue cracks. One method (liquid penetrant testing) involves using dyes, fluorescent or non-fluorescing, in fluids for non-magnetic materials, usually metals. Another commonly used method for magnetic materials involves using a liquid suspension of fine iron particles applied to a part while it is in an externally applied magnetic field (magneticparticle testing). Thermoelectric effect (or use of the Seebeck effect) uses thermal properties of an alloy to quickly and easily characterize many alloys. The chemical test, or chemical spot test method, utilizes application of sensitive chemicals that can indicate the presence of individual alloying elements.

Application:

NDT is a method that has a very wide field of application. It is used to judge the quality of a material manufactured without destroying it. Non Destructive Testing is basically used to verify the finished products through several techniques before putting product into use. It is also used to detect fractures and all sorts of cracks and defects in welds or manufactured products.

Types of Non Destructive Techniques

There are various types of Non Destructive Techniques such as 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Visual Inspection Magnetic Particle Inspection Ultrasonic Testing Dye Penetrating Inspection Eddy Current Testing Radiography Testing Acoustic Emission

We shall discuss various processes one be one

Visual Inspection
Visual inspection is by far the most common non-destructive testing (NDT) technique. When attempting to determine the soundness of any part or specimen for its intended application, visual inspection is normally the first step in the examination process. Generally, almost any specimen can be visually examined to determine the accuracy of its fabrication. For example, visual inspection can be used to determine whether the part was fabricated to the correct size, whether the part is complete, or whether all of the parts have been appropriately incorporated into the device. While direct visual inspection is the most common non destructive testing technique, many other NDT methods require visual intervention to interpret images obtained while carrying out the examination. For instance, penetrant inspection using visible red or fluorescent dye relies on the inspectors ability to visually identify surface indications. Magnetic particle inspection falls into the same category of visible and fluorescent inspection techniques, and radiography relies on the interpreters visual judgement of the radiographic image, which is either on film or on a video monitor. The remainder of this article provides a summary of the visual testing method, which at the minimum requires visual contact with the portion of the specimen that is being inspected. In arriving at a definition of visual inspection, it has been noted in the literature that experience in visual inspection and discussion with experienced visual inspectors revealed that this NDT method includes more than use of the eye, but also includes other sensory and cognitive processes used by inspectors. Thus, there is now an expanded definition of visual inspection in the literature: Visual inspection is the process of

examination and evaluation of systems and components by use of human sensory systems aided only by mechanical enhancements to sensory input as magnifiers, dental picks, stethoscopes, and the like. The inspection process may be done using such behaviours as looking, listening, feeling, smelling, shaking, and twisting. It included a cognitive component wherein observations are correlated with knowledge of structure and with descriptions and diagrams from service literature. The human eye is one of mankinds most fascinating tools. It has greater precision and accuracy than many of the most sophisticated cameras. It has unique focusing capabilities and has the ability to work in conjunction with the human brain so that it can be trained to find specific details or characteristics in a part or test piece. It has the ability to differentiate and distinguish between colours and hues as well. The human eye is capable of assessing many visual characteristics and identifying various types of discontinuities*. The eye can perform accurate inspections to detect size, shape, colour, depth, brightness, contrast, and texture. Visual testing is essentially used to detect any visible discontinuities, and in many cases, visual testing may locate portions of a specimen that should be inspected further by other NDT techniques. Many inspection factors have been standardized so that categorizing them as major and minor characteristics has become common. Surface finish verification of machined parts has even been developed, and classification can be performed by visual comparison to manufactured finish standards. In the fabrication industry, weld size, contour, length, and inspection for surface discontinuities are routinely specified. Many companies have mandated the need for qualified and certified visual weld inspection. This is the case particularly in the power industry, which requires documentation of training and qualification of the inspector. Forgings and castings are normally inspected for surface indications such as laps, seams, and other various surface conditions.

Inspection Requirements:

Requirements for visual inspection typically pertain to the vision of the inspector; the amount of light falling on the specimen, which can be measured with a light meter; and whether the area being inspected is in anyway obstructed from view. In many cases, each of these requirements is detailed in regulatory code or other inspection criteria. Mechanical and/or optical aids may be necessary to perform visual testing. Because visual inspection is so frequently used, several companies now manufacture gages to assist visual inspection examinations. Mechanical aids include: measuring rules and tapes, callipers and micrometres, squares and angle measuring devices, thread, pitch and thickness gages, level gages, and plumb lines. Welding fabrication uses fillet gages to determine the width of the weld fillet, undercut gages, angle gages, skew fillet weld gages, pit gages, contour gages, and a host of other specialty items to ensure product quality. At times direct observation is impossible and remote viewing is necessary which requires the use of optical aids. Optical aids for visual testing range from simple mirrors or magnifying glasses to sophisticated devices, such as closed circuit television and coupled fibre optic scopes. The following list includes most optical aids currently in use: Mirrors (especially small, angled mirrors)

 Magnifying glasses, eye loupes, multi lens magnifiers, measuring magnifiers Microscopes (optical and electron) Optical flats (for surface flatness measurement) Borescopes and fibre optic borescopes Optical comparators Photographic records Closed circuit television (CCTV) systems (alone and coupled to borescopes/microscopes) Machine vision systems Positioning and transport systems (often used with CCTV systems) Image enhancement (computer analysis and enhancement) Before any mechanical or optical aids are used, the specimen should be well illuminated and have a clean surface. After the eyeball examination, mechanical aids help to improve the precision of an inspectors vision. As specifications and tolerances become closer, callipers and micrometres become necessary. The variety of gages available help to determine thread sizes, gap thicknesses, angles between parts, hole depths, and weld features. As it becomes necessary to see smaller and smaller discontinuities, the human eyes require optical aids that enable inspectors to see these tiny discontinuities. However, the increased magnification limits the area that can be seen at one time, and also increases the amount of time it will take to look at the entire specimen. Mirrors let the inspector see around corners or past obstructions. Combined with lenses and placed in rigid tubes, borescopes enable the inspector to see inside specimens such as jet engines, nuclear piping and fuel bundles, and complex machinery. When the rigid borescope cannot reach the desired area, flexible bundles of optical fibres often are able to access the area. Figure 2 shows visual inspection using a fibre optic borescope. Some of the flexible borescopes have devices that permit the observation end of the scope to be moved around by a control at the eyepiece end. Some are also connected to CCTV systems so that a large picture may be examined and the inspection recorded on videotape or digitally. When the video systems are combined with computers, the images can be improved which may allow details not observable in the original to be seen.

Practical Considerations: Visual inspection is applicable to most surfaces, but is

most effective where the surfaces have been cleaned prior to examination, for example, any scale or loose paint should be removed by wire brushing, etc. Vision testing of an inspector often requires eye examinations with standard vision acuity cards such as Jaeger, Snellen, and colour charts. Vision testing of inspectors has been in use for about 40 years. Although many changes in NDT methods have taken place over the years and new technologies have been developed, vision testing has changed little over time. Also little has been done to standardize vision tests used in the industrial sector.

Photograph of material being Visually Tested

Photograph of material being Visually Tested

Magnetic Particle Inspection

Magnetic particle inspection (MPI) is a non-destructive testing (NDT) process for detecting surface and subsurface discontinuities in ferroelectric materials such as iron, nickel, cobalt, and some of their alloys. The process puts a magnetic field into the part. The piece can be magnetized by direct or indirect magnetization. Direct magnetization occurs when the electric current is passed through the test object and a magnetic field is formed in the material. Indirect magnetization occurs when no electric current is passed through the test object, but a magnetic field is applied from an outside source. The magnetic lines of force are perpendicular to the direction of the electric current which may be either alternating current (AC) or some form of direct current (DC) (rectified AC). The presence of a surface or subsurface discontinuity in the material allows the magnetic flux to leak. Ferrous iron particles are applied to the part. The particles may be dry or in a wet suspension. If an area of flux leakage is present the particles will be attracted to this area. The particles will build up at the area of leakage and form what is known as an indication. The indication can then be evaluated to determine what it is, what may have caused it, and what action should be taken, if any. Magnetic-particle inspection is based on the fact that when a ferromagnetic material is magnetized, discontinuities that lies in a direction generally transverse to the direction of the magnetic field cause a leakage field to form at and above the surface. The presence of the leakage field, and therefore the presence of the discontinuity, is detected by finely divided ferromagnetic particles applied over the surface. Some of the particles are gathered and held by the leakage field. The magnetically held particles form an outline of the discontinuity and generally indicate its location, size, shape, and extent. Magnetic particles are applied over a surface either as dry particles, or as wet particles in a liquid carrier such as water or oil. The magnetic-particle method is a sensitive means to locate small, shallow surface cracks. Those large enough to be seen by the naked eye can produce an indication, but very wide cracks do not produce a particle pattern if the surface opening is too wide for the particles to bridge. Discontinuities that do not actually break through the surface also are indicated in many instances within certain limitations. Fine, sharp discontinuities close to the surface (a long stringer of non-metallic inclusions, for example) can produce an indication. However, indications of deeper discontinuities are less distinct.

A bar being tested by Magnetic Particle Inspection

Magnetic limitations The operator must be aware of certain limitations of magnetic particle inspection. For example, thin coatings of paint and nonmagnetic coverings, such as plating, adversely affect sensitivity. Other limitations: Work piece material must be ferromagnetic. The direction of the magnetic field must intercept the principal plane of the discontinuity at right angles for best results. This could require two or more sequential inspections with different magnetizations. Demagnetization following inspection often is necessary. Post cleaning to remove remnants of magnetic particles and carrying solutions on the surface could be required after testing and demagnetization. Inspection of very large parts could require very large current. Local heating and burning of finished parts and surfaces at the points of electrical contact is possible if care is not taken. Experience and skill are required to interpret the significance of magnetic-particle indications.

a.

b.

c.

Leakage fields between two pieces of a broken bar magnet (a) with magnet pieces apart, and (b) with magnet pieces together (simulating a flaw). (c) Leakage field at a crack in a bar magnet.

Magnetic fields Horseshoe magnet: When a magnetic material is placed across the poles of a horseshoe magnet having square ends (forming a closed or ring like assembly), the magnetic lines of force flow from the North Pole through the magnetic material to the South Pole (see Fig. 1a). Magnetic lines of force flow preferentially through magnetic material rather than through nonmagnetic material or air. The magnetic lines of force are enclosed within the ring like assembly because no external poles exist, and iron filings or magnetic particles dusted over the assembly are not attracted to the magnet even though lines of magnetic force are flowing through it. If one end of the magnet is not square, leaving an air gap between the magnet end and the magnetic material, the poles still attract magnetic materials. Magnetic particles cling to the poles and bridge the gap between them, as shown in Fig. 1b. A radial crack in a round magnetized piece creates north and south magnetic poles at the edges of the crack. Magnetic particles are attracted to the poles created by such a crack, forming an indication of the discontinuity. The magnetic fields at cracks and other physical and magnetic

discontinuities in the surface are called leakage fields. The strength of a leakage field determines the number of magnetic particles that will gather to form indications; strong indications are formed at strong fields, and vice versa. The density of the magnetic field determines its strength and is partly governed by the shape, size, and material of the part being inspected.

(a) Horseshoe magnet with a bar of magnetic material across poles forms a closed, ring like assembly, which will not attract magnetic particles. (b) Ring like magnet assembly with an air gap, to which magnetic particles are attracted.

Bar magnet: A straight piece of magnetized material (bar magnet) has a pole at each end. Magnetic lines of force flow through the bar from the South Pole to the North Pole. Because the magnetic lines of force within the bar magnet run the length of the bar, it is said to be longitudinally magnetized or to contain a longitudinal field. If a bar magnet is broken into two pieces, a leakage field with north and south poles is created between the pieces, as shown in Fig. 2a. The field exists even if the fracture surfaces are brought together (see Fig. 2b). If the magnet is cracked but not broken completely into two pieces, a similar result occurs. A north and a South Pole form at opposite edges of the crack, just as though the break were complete (see Fig. 2c). It is this field that attracts the iron particles that outline the crack. The strength of the poles is different from that of the completely broken pieces; it is a function of the crack depth and the width of the air gap at the surface. Circular magnetic field: Electric current passing through any straight conductor such as a wire or bar creates a circular magnetic field around the conductor. The passage of current through a ferromagnetic conductor induces a magnetic field in both the conductor and surrounding space. Apart magnetized in this manner is said to have a circular field or to be circularly magnetized, as shown in Fig. 3a. Longitudinal magnetization: Electric current also can create a longitudinal magnetic field in magnetic materials. When current is passed through a coil of one or more turns, a magnetic field is established lengthwise, or longitudinally, within the coil, as shown in Fig.

3b. The nature and direction of the field around the conductor that forms the turns of the coil produce longitudinal magnetization. Magnetic flux direction To form an indication, the magnetic field must approach a discontinuity at a sufficiently large angle to cause the magnetic lines of force to leave the part and return after bridging the discontinuity. An intersection approaching 90 degrees produces the best results. For this reason, discontinuity direction, size, and shape are important. The direction of the magnetic field and the strength of the field in the area of the discontinuity also are important for optimum results. Figure 4a illustrates a condition in which the current is passed through the part, causing formation of a circular field. Under normal circumstances, there would be no indication of the presence of a discontinuity such as one designated A in Fig. 4a because it is regular in shape and lies in a direction parallel to that of the magnetic field. A discontinuity having an irregular shape and predominantly parallel to the magnetic field, B, has a good chance to form a weak indication. Where the predominant direction of the discontinuity is at a 45 degree angle to the magnetic field, such as at C, D, and E, the conditions are more favourable for detection regardless of the shape of the discontinuity. Discontinuities whose predominant directions, regardless of shape, are at a 90 degree angle to the magnetic field (F, G, and H) produce the most pronounced indications. Figure 4b shows a bar that has been longitudinally magnetized. Discontinuities L, M, and N, which are at about 45 degrees to the magnetic field, would produce detectable indications, as they would in a circular field. Discontinuities J and K would display pronounced indications, but discontinuities P, Q, and R would probably not be detected. Magnetization methods In magnetic-particle inspection, the magnetic particles can be applied to the part while the magnetizing current is flowing, a technique known as the "continuous method. When the magnetic particles are applied after the current has ceased to flow, depending largely on the magnetization retention (residual magnetism), it is called the "residual method." If residual magnetism does not provide a leakage field strong enough to produce readable indications when magnetic particles are applied to the surface, the part must be continuously magnetized during application of particles. Consequently, the residual method can be used only on materials that retain sufficient magnetism, usually harder materials. The continuous method is the only method used on low-carbon steels and iron, which retain little residual magnetism, having little or no retentivity.

Photograph of Magnetic Particle Inspection Machine of NDT

A material having defect detected by Magnetic Particle Inspection

Ultrasonic Testing
Ultrasonic Testing (UT) uses high frequency sound energy to conduct examinations and make measurements. Ultrasonic inspection can be used for flaw detection/evaluation, dimensional measurements, material characterization, and more. To illustrate the general inspection principle, a typical pulse/echo inspection configuration as illustrated below will be used. In ultrasonic testing (UT), very short ultrasonic pulse-waves with center frequencies ranging from 0.1-15 MHz and occasionally up to 50 MHz are launched into materials to detect internal flaws or to characterize materials. The technique is also commonly used to determine the thickness of the test object, for example, to monitor pipework corrosion.

Working:

In ultrasonic testing, an ultrasound transducer connected to a diagnostic machine is passed over the object being inspected. The transducer is typically separated from the test object by a couplant (such as oil) or by water, as in immersion testing. There are two methods of receiving the ultrasound waveform, reflection and attenuation. In reflection (or pulse-echo) mode, the transducer performs both the sending and the receiving of the pulsed waves as the "sound" is reflected back to the device. Reflected ultrasound comes from an interface, such as the back wall of the object or from an imperfection within the object. The diagnostic machine displays these results in the form of a signal with an amplitude representing the intensity of the reflection and the distance, representing the arrival time of the reflection. In attenuation (or through-transmission) mode, a transmitter sends ultrasound through one surface, and a separate receiver detects the amount that has reached it on another surface after traveling through the medium. Imperfections or other conditions in the space between the transmitter and receiver reduce the amount of sound transmitted, thus

revealing their presence. Using the couplant increases the efficiency of the process by reducing the losses in the ultrasonic wave energy due to separation between the surfaces.

An ultra-sonic testing being done

Ultrasonic testing is often performed on steel and other metals and alloys, though it can also be used on concrete, wood and composites, albeit with less resolution. It is a form of nondestructive testing used in many industries including aerospace, automotive and other transportation sectors. A typical UT inspection system consists of several functional units, such as the pulser/receiver, transducer, and display devices. A pulser/receiver is an electronic device that can produce high voltage electrical pulses. Driven by the pulser, the transducer generates high frequency ultrasonic energy. The sound energy is introduced and propagates through the materials in the form of waves. When there is a discontinuity (such as a crack) in the wave path, part of the energy will be reflected back from the flaw surface. The reflected wave signal is transformed into an electrical signal by the transducer and is displayed on a screen. In the applet below, the reflected signal strength is displayed versus the time from signal generation to when an echo was received. Signal travel time can be directly related to the distance that the signal travelled. From the signal, information about the reflector location, size, orientation and other features can sometimes be gained.

Advantage and Disadvantage of Ultrasonic Testing

Ultrasonic Inspection is a very useful and versatile NDT method. Some of the advantages of ultrasonic inspection that are often cited include:

It is sensitive to both surface and subsurface discontinuities. The depth of penetration for flaw detection or measurement is superior to other NDT methods. Only single-sided access is needed when the pulse-echo technique is used. It is highly accurate in determining reflector position and estimating size and shape. Minimal part preparation is required. Electronic equipment provides instantaneous results. Detailed images can be produced with automated systems. It has other uses, such as thickness measurement, in addition to flaw detection.

As with all NDT methods, ultrasonic inspection also has its limitations, which include:

Surface must be accessible to transmit ultrasound. Skill and training is more extensive than with some other methods. It normally requires a coupling medium to promote the transfer of sound energy into the test specimen.

Materials that are rough, irregular in shape, very small, exceptionally thin or not homogeneous are difficult to inspect. Cast iron and other coarse grained materials are difficult to inspect due to low sound transmission and high signal noise. Linear defects oriented parallel to the sound beam may go undetected. Reference standards are required for both equipment calibration and the characterization of flaws.

Dye Penetration Testing

The Dye Penetrant Method is used to detect discontinuities which are open to the surface of the material being examined. This method may be used on both ferrous and nonferrous materials. Dye Penetrant examination may be used for the detection of surface discontinuities such as cracks, seams, laps, cold shuts, laminations and porosity, Matrix provides both visible and fluorescent Dye Penetrant Examination Services. The dye penetrant testing can be used to locate discontinuities on material surfaces. A highly penetrating dye on the surface will enter discontinuities after a sufficient penetration time, and after removing the excess dye with a developing agent, the defects on the surface will be visible. This method is frequently used for the detection of surface breaking flaws in non ferromagnetic materials. The subject to be examined is first of all chemically cleaned, usually by vapour phase, to remove all traces of foreign material, grease, dirt, etc. from the surface generally, and also from within the cracks. Next the penetrant (which is a very fine thin oil usually dyed bright red or ultra-violet fluorescent) is applied and allowed to remain in contact with the surface for approximately fifteen minutes. Capillary action draws the penetrant into the crack during this period. The surplus penetrant on the surface is then removed completely and thin coating of powdered chalk is applied. After a further period (development time) the chalk draws the dye out of the crack, rather like blotting paper, to form a visual, magnified in width, indication in good contrast to the background. The process is purely a mechanical/chemical one and the various substances used may be applied in a large variety of ways, from aerosol spray cans at the most simple end to dipping in large tanks on an automatic basis at the other end. The latter system requires sophisticated tanks, spraying and drying equipment but the principle remains the same.

4.3 Advantages of Dye Penetrant Testing Simplicity of operation. Best method for surface breaking cracks in non-ferrous metals. Suitable for automatic testing, with reservation concerning viewing. (See automatic defect recognition in Magnetic Particle Inspection) It is a Quantative operation. 4.4 Disadvantages of Dye Penetrant Testing Restricted to surface breaking defects only. Decreased sensitivity. Uses a considerable amount of consumables.

Eddy Current Testing

Eddy-current testing uses electromagnetic induction to detect flaws in conductive materials. There are several limitations, among them: only conductive materials can be tested, the surface of the material must be accessible, the finish of the material may cause bad readings, the depth of penetration into the material is limited, and flaws that lie parallel to the probe may be undetectable. In the field of NDT the coil is called the inspection probe. The magnetic field that is generated by the eddy currents can be detected using this same probe. We can monitor the magnetic field being produced by these eddy currents with an instrument called an eddy scope. If there is a change in the magnetic field from the eddy currents, we can tell that we have found some sort of defect in the material that we are testing. When the instrument sees a change in the magnetic field generated by the eddy currents, it displays a change in the signal on the screen.

In a standard eddy current testing a circular coil carrying current is placed in proximity to the test specimen (electrically conductive).The alternating current in the coil generates changing magnetic field which interacts with test specimen and generates eddy current. Variations in the phase and magnitude of these eddy currents can be monitored using a second 'search' coil, or by measuring changes to the current flowing in the primary 'excitation' coil. Variations in the electrical conductivity or magnetic permeability of the test object, or the presence of any flaws, will cause a change in eddy current and a corresponding change in the phase and amplitude of the measured current. This is the basis of standard (flat coil) eddy current inspection, the most widely used eddy current technique. However, eddy-current testing can detect very small cracks in or near the surface of the material, the surfaces need minimal preparation, and physically complex geometries can be investigated. It is also useful for making electrical conductivity and coating thickness measurements.

Radiography Testing
This method is based on the same principle as medical radiography in a hospital. A piece of radiographic film is placed on the remote side of the material under inspection and radiation is then transmitted through from one side of the material to the remote side where the radiographic film is placed.

The major objective of radiographic testing of metals is the disclosure of defects that adversely affect the strength of the product. Hoisting Components are a product form that often receive radiographic inspection since many of the defects produced by the casting process are volumetric in nature, and are thus relatively easy to detect with this method. These discontinuities of course, are related to casting process deficiencies, which, if properly understood, can lead to accurate accept-reject decisions as well as to suitable corrective measures. Since different types and sizes of defects have different effects of the performance of the casting, it is important that the radiographer is able to identify the type and size of the defects. ASTM E155, Standard for Radiographs of components has been produced to help the radiographer make a better assessment of the defects found in components. The process used to produce the standard radiographs have been destructively analysed to confirm the size and type of discontinuities present.

The radiographic film detects the radiation and measures the various quantities of radiation received over the entire surface of the film. This film is then processed under dark room conditions and the various degrees of radiation received by the film are imaged by the display of different degrees of black and white, this is termed the film density and is viewed on a special light emitting device. Discontinuities in the material affect the amount of radiation being received by the film through that particular plane of the material. Qualified inspectors can interpret the resultant images and record the location and type of defect present in the material. Radiography can be used on most materials and product forms, e.g. welds, castings, composites etc. Radiographic testing provides a permanent record in the form of a radiograph and provides a highly sensitive image of the internal structure of the material.

Radiography is split into two main categories 1) Radiographic Testing 2) Radiographic Interpretation The radiographic testing course is for NDT personnel who execute the practical inspection using radioactive material or radiation emitting devices. The radiographic interpretation course is designed purely for the interpretation of the resultant radiographic image. However, to understand the principles of image formation, sensitivity and correct techniques the general theory syllabus is the same for both courses. Radiographic Testing Radiographic Testing is split into specific product sectors for certification at Level 1 and 2, this is 1) Welds 2) Castings Each of these categories is further split into sub groups 1) Light Metal X-ray 2) Dense Metal X-ray (and/or Gamma ray) 3) Light and Dense Metal, both X-ray and Gamma ray

Acoustic Emission
Acoustic Emission (AE) refers to the generation of transient elastic waves produced by a sudden redistribution of stress in a material. When a structure is subjected to an external stimulus (change in pressure, load, or temperature), localized sources trigger the release of energy, in the form of stress waves, which propagate to the surface and are recorded by sensors. With the right equipment and setup, motions on the order of picometers (10 -12 m) can be identified. Sources of AE vary from natural events like earthquakes and rock bursts to the initiation and growth of cracks, slip and dislocation movements, melting, twinning, and phase transformations in metals. In composites, matrix cracking and fibre breakage and debonding contribute to acoustic emissions. AEs have also been measured and recorded in polymers, wood, and concrete, among other materials. Detection and analysis of AE signals can supply valuable information regarding the origin and importance of a discontinuity in a material. Because of the versatility of Acoustic Emission Testing (AET), it has many industrial applications (e.g. assessing structural integrity, detecting flaws, testing for leaks, or monitoring weld quality) and is used extensively as a research tool. Acoustic Emission is unlike most other non-destructive testing (NDT) techniques in two regards. The first difference pertains to the origin of the signal. Instead of supplying energy to the object under examination, AET simply listens for the energy released by the object. AE

tests are often performed on structures while in operation, as this provides adequate loading for propagating defects and triggering acoustic emissions. The second difference is that AET deals with dynamic processes, or changes, in a material. This is particularly meaningful because only active features (e.g. crack growth) are highlighted. The ability to discern between developing and stagnant defects is significant. However, it is possible for flaws to go undetected altogether if the loading is not high enough to cause an acoustic event. Furthermore, AE testing usually provides an immediate indication relating to the strength or risk of failure of a component. Other advantages of AET include fast and complete volumetric inspection using multiple sensors, permanent sensor mounting for process control, and no need to disassemble and clean a specimen. Unfortunately, AE systems can only qualitatively gauge how much damage is contained in a structure. In order to obtain quantitative results about size, depth, and overall acceptability of a part, other NDT methods (often ultrasonic testing) are necessary. Another drawback of AE stems from loud service environments which contribute extraneous noise to the signals. For successful applications, signal discrimination and noise reduction are crucial.