CHAPTER 2.

LITERATURE REVIEW
INTRODUCTION
This chapter reviews relevant literatures and theories on career, career aspirations, career choices and career success. Furthermore, the influence of career choices and how career success is measured will be elucidated from literature. The chapter continues with the review of literature on the glass ceiling phenomenon and stereotyping in order gain an understanding of what the terms refers to, their prevalence and influence on individuals, organizations. Finally, a conclusion of the chapter is drawn.

2.1CAREER
A career can be described as the evolving sequence of a persons life and work experiences over time. (Hughes 2004, p.86) The definition of career is understood differently. The traditional definitions tend to restrict career to a professional work life which included progression. The notion and nature of careers was traditionally based on highly structured, hierarchical and rigid structure; and several researchers sought to broaden this conceptual definition and meaning of the term career. For example, Schein (1978) relates to career as anchors a motivational and or inspirational inner feeling for an individual. He mentioned that the career life cycles are made up of stages- fantasy, growth and exploration. Another view of career by Super (1980) defined career as the combination and sequence of roles played by a person during the course of a lifetime (p 282). Here the author discussed a group of nine roles that were non-formal or non-professional (i.e., parent, worker, spouse, child, student, citizen, pensioner and leisurite). Thus career is not limited to professionals but can also be referred to anyone who works outside of organizations (e.g., Richardson, 1993; Arthur, Hall, & Lawrence, 1989). Arnold (2001) gave a similar broadened conceptual definition of career as the sequence of employment-related positions, roles, activities and experiences encountered by a person (p. 116). Arthur, Khapova and Wilderom (2005); Hall (2004) in their studies, refereed to career as the unfolding sequence of an individuals work experience over time. This definition emphasizes on the centrality of the themes work and time. The definition doesnt adopt any static view of work

arrangements but rather focuses on the relevance of time instead. It is one of the widely accepted definitions of career (Baruch, 2004). The definition does not constraint the assumptions on where people work or what should determine career success. It accommodates a view of career success based on a persons upward mobility within an organization, but just as a special case of extensive possibilities. These can include the horizontal and upward mobility within recognized organizational or national contexts (Arthur, Khapova and Wilderom, 2005).

2.1.1 Career Perspectives

Careers is known to have two dimensions namely external (objective) and internal (subjective). The objective career (external) has to do with the sequence of an individuals work-related positions or offices within the respective organization (Groeneveld, 2009), while the subjective career (internal) reflects a persons own sense (values, interests and motives) of his or her career and valuing the sequence of positions (Groeneveld, 2009). It is the individuals interpretation of his/her own career or work situation at any point in time (Khapova, Arthur and Wilderom, 2007). A significant aspect of the subjective or internal careers is career aspirations which refers to peoples self concept, belief and values about themselves in the work environment with respect to their capability, worthy and significance in their occupations (Rosenberg, 1979).These notions have led to most of the corresponding concepts of career aspirations that have been researched in most career development studies. Examples are the internal career (Bigliardi, Petroni and Dormio, 2005; Ituma, 2006), career orientations (Igbaria, Kassicieh and Silver, 1996; Erdogmus, 2004; Kim, 2004; Buchanan, Kim and Basham (2007) and career anchors (Schein, 1978; Marshall and Bonner, 2003). Most research and theory about careers have evolved around the above mentioned dimensions. However, the internal (subjective) career seem to be more significant and being more increasingly recognized as it is expected for individuals to take greater responsibility for directing and interpreting their unfolding careers (Hall, 2002). A foundational and comprehensive model of career for understanding internal careers is Scheins career anchor theory. Schein (1987, p.158) defines a career anchor as that one element in our self-concept that we will not give up, even when forced to make a difficult decision.

Scheins career anchor theory assumes that individuals can only have one career anchor and when developed the anchor is unlikely to change. This leads to the suggestion that individuals will seek career or job opportunities that strengthens this anchor (Ituma and Simpson, 2006). This theory has received empirical support (e.g., Igbaria et al., 1991; Petroni, 2000) as well as several critiques (e.g. Feldman and Bolino, 1996). Feldman and Bolino (1996), were of the opinion that there is likely possibility of individuals possessing multiple relevant career anchors rather than the the notion of Schein that individuals can only have one stable career anchor, as individuals can have different career and life goals. Igbaria et al. (1991) noted that Scheins career anchor is a starting point from which to explore and develop understanding of individuals internal careers (career aspirations; career choices and career success) and the reaction of employees to various career development opportunities. Thus, the theory has been applied to different occupational groups (IT, accountant, academia) to understand the needs individuals aspire to fulfil (Ituma and Simpson, 2006; Cullen and Christopher, 2012; Agarwala, 2008). Although, it can be argued that Scheins anchor theory which is US-based and a reflection of its unique structures and institutions will be unlikely to fully capture career orientations of and career experiences individuals in different national context or a non-western context like developing countries e.g. Nigeria as a result of the likely impact of national culture and societal instituitions (Ituma and Simpson, 2006).

2.2CAREER ASPIRATIONS
Career aspirations are defined as a construct embodying individuals occupational identity and desired career goals (Danziger and Eden, 2006). Several authors have different description and perception of career aspiration. Career aspirations are highlighted as an important individual factor as they shape the individuals career journey (Schein, 1996). Accordingly, Schein (1978) suggested that the self perception of an individual with regards to his/her abilities, attitudes, talents, values and needs determines the kind of career that matches their personality and what they intend or aspire to achieve from their chosen or respective career.

Career aspirations are referred to as the individuals desires or expectations pertaining to career (Rasdi, Ismail and Garavan, 2011). Aspiration is defined as the strength of an individuals motivation to achieve progressively higher or conversely lower goals based on the experiences of success and failure, his own and of others who constitute his reference models (Vig and Singh, 2000, p. 4), in view of this definition, the expected level of achievement could be referred to as aspiration. Danziger and Eden, (2006, p.115) argued that career aspirations are linked to individuals expectations of occupations and jobs and the perceptions of the individuals are ideas and judgments, which are a product of a mental process of organizing, integrating, and recognizing phenomena. This definition recognizes the idealistic career goals which are the desired career aspirations and the mental process of developing the career aspirations over years. Dazinger and Eden (2006) refer to the difference between the idealistic or desired career aspirations and the development of career aspiration as the expectation gap. Litzky and Greenhaus (2007) highlighted in their studies that the career aspirations of individuals acts as a motivational force that triggers effort and determination towards achieving set goals or targets. Further, Khallad (2000) and Watson et al. (2002) mentioned that factors such as gender, occupation, socioeconomic status and educational level have a significant influence on individual career aspirations.

2.3

CAREER SUCCESS

Career success can be defined as the positive outcome or perceived achievement of an individuals career experiences: accomplishing perceived or desired work-related outcomes (Arthur, Khapova and Wilderom, 2005). The achievement of specific desired work-related results and aspirations in an individuals career and work experiences over time implies a successful career (Okurame and Balogun, 2005; Dolan, Bejarano and Tzafrir, 2011). Baruch (2004) described individual career success as a set of desired outcomes, which vary between individuals. He further explained that individuals are motivated by the prospect of these different outcomes in their careers.

Igbaria, Kassicieh, and Silver (1999) noted that an individuals elucidation and interpretation of career success depends on the particular career orientation of the person. They were of the view that career aspirations, perceptions, values and effective reactions to work-related experiences form aspects of the internal (subjective) career that have heavily influences job commitment, satisfaction and retention within an organization. This study supports Scheins (1978) concept of career anchors that an individuals career decisions and choices are determined by the internal career, which will then lead to the individuals objective and subjective career success. Career success as a career outcome is described as having both objective and subjective dimensions (Gattiker & Larwood, 1988; Judge et al., 1995; Nabi, 1999; 2003; Baruch, 2004; Breland et al., 2007). It is measured along these two dimensions: external, objective visible indicators and subjective internal individual perception (Groeneveld, 2002; Hall and Chandler 2005; Heslin 2005; Ng, et al., 2005; Baruch and Quick 2007; Abele and Spurk 2009).

2.3.1 Objective Career Success

The objective career success refers to the external categories in a profession that is publicly accessible (Arthur, Khapova and Wilderom, 2005), and typically illustrates the steps or movements toward success. These movements can either be horizontal (increased job security) or hierarchical (promotions and different job title). Objective career success is mostly concerned with individuals observable, directly measurable and verifiable (Abele and Spurk, 2009) achievements in terms of income, position, promotion or hierarchical status, upward functional mobility or progression, occupational status and performance (Hall 2002; Groeneveld, 2002; Dette, et al., 2004; Heslin 2005; Ng, et al., 2005; Dries, Pepermans and Carlier 2008). Compared to subjective career success (which is perceptual and evaluative criteria), the objective career success is neutral and not biased in empirical assessment as its most widely used indicators such as salary, status and promotions can be both externally assessed by means like work records and confirmation from employees (Dette, Abele and Renner, 2004). These indicators reflect societal norms and understandings regarding how successful a career is, and are objective in the sense of being socially shared (Abele, Spurk and Volmer, 2010) instead of an individual evaluation that is central to a subjective description of career success (Arthur, Khapova and Wilderom,

2005). Objective achievements like income or hierarchical status are proxies for performance. Many studies tend to use only income as the measure for objective success. However, it is argued that objective criteria for success such as income and status can be a less valid indicator for career success as they can be affected by factors that can be deficient and beyond an individuals control. For example, as a result of substantial differences in countries such as the power structures, economic and social stratification, taxation systems and markers of status, the objective success experienced in some occupations are more strongly affected (Hollenbeck and McCalls (2003). Furthermore, individuals in occupations like teachers and academic mentors base their objective success not in either income or status but rather other attainments like hard data on the learning and in terms of achievement of their pupils (Parsons, 2002; McGrath, 2003). These potential deficiencies in objective success measurement are commonly dealt with by measuring the subjective career success of individuals in conjunction with their objective attainments (Heslin, 2005).

2.4.1 Subjective Career Success

The subjective or internal is generally referred to as the personal satisfaction one achieves in his/her career or ones job related accomplishments (Orser and Leck, 2010). It is defined as an individuals feelings (actual and anticipated) of career-related attainment across a broader time frame that exceeds ones immediate job satisfaction as well as a wider range of outcomes (not objective), such as recognition or sense of identity (Greenhaus, Callanan, & Godshalk, 2000; Law, Meijers, & Wijers, 2002). The subjective career success is concerned with self-career related evaluation and internal apprehensions, across any dimensions that are relevant to a person (Arthur, Khapova and Wilderom, 2005). Subjective career success is typically measured using selfperception of career accomplishments and expected career prospects (Dries et al. 2008). Individuals evaluate their career success with regard to personal criteria such as their career aspirations and ambitions. Interpretations of career success vary amongst individuals as well as their views on career concepts in terms of direction and frequency of movement within an organization or any workplace. Examples of other criterias for subjective career success are job satisfaction or career satisfaction (Arnold & Cohen, 2008).

Some studies have confirmed that both objective career success and subjective career success are interrelated (Judge, Kammeyer-Mueller and Bretz 2004; Ng et al. 2005; Tu et al. 2006). Previous studies like Gattiker and Larwood (1988), Peluchette (1993), Nabi (2003), Maimunah and Roziah (2006) and Hennequin (2007) stressed the relevance of examining the subjective career success together with objective career success as a result of their implications to the quality of working life and psychological wellbeing of employees. Similarly this study will examine both subjective and objective measures of career success by measuring the subjective career success of individuals in conjunction with their objective attainments as suggested by Heslin (2005).

2.4

CAREER CHOICES

For a career choice to take place, there are two conditions that needs to be available: firstly, the availability of an alternative career option and secondly, is the individual preference between the career options (Agwarla, 2008; Ozbilgin, Kusku and Erdogmus, 2005). Most researchers are of the opinion that personality traits and demographic variables form the basis for which individual career choice behaviors are predicted (Ozbilgin, Kusku and Erdogmus, 2005). Consequently, in an attempt to ascertain career choice influencing factors, studies have focused largely on the aptitudes, interest, opportunities etc of individuals. Few research reports that career choices of individuals are often constrained by socio-cultural, economic and political changes (.Swanson and Gore, 2000; Brown and Associates, 2002; Sullivan & Baruch, 2009; Wong and Liu, 2010). Hence, career choice is not unbridled (Agarwala, 2008). There are numbers of career options available for individuals at any given point in time and they are likely to be influenced by several factors including external factors (economic status, labor market etc), individual factors (family background, attitude and cultural values, education etc.), (Agarwala, 2008; Ozbilgin et al., 2005; Ozkale et al., 2004; Kyriacou et al., 2002). By making the most of ones abilities, interests, passions, thoughts and skills, an individual would be capable of reaching a realistic career choice (Agarwala, 2008). This aligns with the suggestion of Schein (1978) that the self perception of an individual about his/her needs, values, abilities, talents, skills

and attitude reveals the career that is best fit and matches up with their personality and the expected outcomes (aspirations) from their career. Findings from the research conducted by Ng, Burke, and Fiksenbaum, L. (2008) carried out among MBA students in the US indicated that the national cultures and values were significant influences the career choice and career prospects of the students. A survey conducted by Monica and Kate (2005) among information technology students showed that parental education and choices of career and education played the most significant role in influencing the children's career choices in information technology field. Likewise, Agarwala (2008) who surveyed among a population of management students in India concluded that fathers played the most significant role in influencing the career choice of their child. Carpenter and Foster (1977) and Beyon et al. (1998) proposed a three dimensional model of career choices which is one of the most widely used classification in career choices studies. They divided career choices into; intrinsic (e.g. interest in the job, personally satisfying work); extrinsic (e.g. availability of jobs, prestigious or high earning occupations), interpersonal (e.g. parental influence and significant others). A study by Gokuladas (2009) which focused on the Southern geographic zone of India was conducted among undergraduate engineering student to determine the factors their first-career choice, indicated that intrinsic reasons was the main driver for male students career choices while extrinsic reasons had the most influence on female students. This highlights gender differences in individual career choices. Also, the studies found that students from urban areas were more likely to be influenced by intrinsic factors whereas those from the rural/semi urban areas were more likely to be influenced either by extrinsic or interpersonal reasons Again, Agarwala (2008) explored the factors influencing management students in India, where she found out that intrinsic reason such as skills and competencies were the most influencing factors affecting the first-career choice of students rather than extrinsic or interpersonal reasons. Another longitudinal study of engineering students by Edvardsson Stiwne (2005) explained that students are influenced by extrinsic factors e.g. job market conditions

Recent empirical study by Choo, Norsiah and Tan (2012), conducted in a Malaysian manufacturing plant to determine the factors influencing the career choices among R&D engineers, found that perceptions of person-job fit and financial rewards were the main factors that were most influential in their career choice.

2.5

GLASS CEILING

Glass ceiling is a phenomenon mainly used in signifying and explaining an invisible impenetrable barriers preventing the upward or vertical movement of individuals in the society or organisation. The ceiling is a metaphorical term that refers to the ceiling preventing individuals in the minority group (e.g. women) from entering into the labor market and from gaining access to the top management and senior positions (Tlaiss and Kauser, 2010). The glass ceiling helps to explaining the reasons for the lack of or poor representation in leadership, top management and decision-making staus (Abidin et.al, 2008). It is mainly used to describe the difficulties women experience in both reaching executive position in any organization or climbing to higher societal positions. An explanation for the glass ceiling concept is considered to be organisational culture and leadership positions being heavily occupied by men (Cullen and Christopher, 2012). Individuals especially those in the minority group that are able to get through the front door of managerial hierarchies still perceive they have to exhibit specific characters(e.g. leadership styles) and take actions in line with masculine stereotype associated with the qualities of being a good manager (Powell and Butterfield 2002). Individuals who are aspire to attain senior positions in corporations (private or public), education and nonprofit organizations are in some cases faced with impeding factors preventing them achieving their aspirations and succeeding in their different careers as a result of the glass concept (Lockwood, 2004). Oakely (2000) was of the opinion that two vital rationalizations were significant for the continuation of glass ceiling in organizations they include: societal cultural and behavioral issues and those related to existing barriers in organizations. Another foremost sign of the effects of glass ceiling is gender-biased compensation. Further to this, a study by the Global Gender Report (2009) on the gender gap between women and men on

economic participation confirmed an existing wide gap, with only 59 per cent of the gap been closed. Furthermore, a more recent study cited by Okafor, Fagbemi and Hassan (2011) found that; women failed to progress to senior managerial positions in ratio to their number in the workplace; negative perception of female superiors from their subordinates; prevalence unfavorable attitudes of male superiors toward having female in managerial position and a high probability rate of a female employee not promoted to top executive slot irrespective of her proven abilities exceeding that of her male counterparts. Characteristics of organizations with glass ceiling as identified by Fagenson-eland and Parker (1998) as follows: non-supportive working for female employees, draw attention to gender differences, low female participation in group or team activities as a result of gender differences, little or no career advancement support for female employee to prepare them for decision making positions or management positions. Suggested ways by which glass ceiling can be prevented could be; for organizations to identify and eradicate the cultural practices that are gender-biased as well as any type of gender prejudice (seems to be in favor of group of individuals (e.g. men) in the echelons of the organisational power. Mainiero and Sullivan (2005) in their studies highlighted the need for organizations to examine the level of balance and security made available to their both male and female employee so as to ensure professional women get as much experience as their male counterparts. Thus reducing gender differences and enhancing motivation for female career advancement.

2.6CULTURE
The cultural background of individuals often determines their experiences at early socialisation and later influences their attitudes and behaviors, which is also reflected in their occupational roles (Fagenson, 1986; Harragan, 1977; Horner, 1972; Riger and Galligan, 1980; Schein, 1973, 1975). Through this process of socialization, male and female gender acquire their prescribed role-relate skills and engage in activities that are likely to be required of them so as to be afforded opportunities and to achieve positive outcomes as deemed necessary (Eagly, Wood and Diekman, 2000b; Ismail and Ibrahim, 2007). Omadjohwoefe (2011) in his study of the Nigerian archetype, argued that despite the fact that gender difference been a human invention, it forms the basis of gender role differentiation which

highlights the female gender as playing an inferior role to the male gender. He further opined that female employees in highly skilled jobs are highly regarded, but nonetheless, they faced difficulties in moving upwards the ladder or to certain high ranking position in Nigeria; which is mainly attributed to the sharp believes and traditional practices inherent in the existing largely stereotypic value system . Agbalajobi (2010) pointed out that notwithstanding the vital roles played by women in Nigeria (mother, time manager, social and political activists) and their population in the country, they are not given the desired recognition in addition to the fact that they are in most cases discriminated against. This is also attributed to the cultural stereotypes, sharp believes, traditional practices as already identified by Omadjohwoefe (2011). Consequently, the patriarchal societal structure existent in the country tends to place women at a disadvantage. With limited success achieved thus far in eradicating these negative stereotypical believes and practices, the career advancement opportunities for female employees in Nigeria is adversely affected (Omadjohwoefe, 2011).

2.6.1 GENDER STEREOTYPE

Stereotypes are cognitive schema and clusters of perceived personality traits applied to social groupings (DeLamater and Myers, 2007). Stereotypes is the notion that certain members of a group will possess the traits and behavioral characteristics that are attributes and expected of individual members of that group(Cleveland et al.,2000; Bono and Duehr 2006). Gender is strongly linked to the concern of stereotyping and refers to the socially constituted inter-relationships between both sexes. Gender stereotypes reflect shared social beliefs, values and norms that dictate the characteristics and behaviors (roles) which are ascribed to individuals (men and women) based on their gender or sex (Eagly and Carli, 2003). Danziger and Eden (2007) argued that the gender differences between male and females does have a significant influential impact on the eventual career accomplishment, despite both sexes possessing the same academic and education level. Research in social psychology (Desert & Leyens, 2006; Smith & Bond, 1999; Williams & Best, 1986) has shown that stereotypical beliefs are widely shared and present in all cultures that have

been studied. For example, a study conducted by North-Samardzic and Taksa (2011) to examine the impact of gender culture on womens career trajectories in the Australian finance sector argues that there is a significant influence of gender culture in some organizations that imposes pressure on women to comply with masculine behavioral norms. While interviewing women in Australia, Anne Ross-Smith (2009) found evidence that women were reticent and ambivalent to promotions in their career and this was having a negative impact on their career advancement. The evidence was also in line with previous studies conducted by Powell and Butterfield (2003) which found that the career aspirations to top management of male university students in the US was significantly higher compared to female students in the same study. Wellington, Kropf and Gerkovich (2003) highlighted the findings of a research conducted in the US by Catalyst, an orgainsation focused on improving opportunities for women in business, which found evidence that women had a low desire to advance to senior level positions which also acted as a barrier to their career progression into decision making or more senior roles in their respective careers. A research in Scotland conducted by Gammie et al. (2008) in Six big accounting orgainsations showed that women had a different attitude may have a negative impact on their career progression, they further proposed that such attitudes may be as a result of inherent factors in the female gender. Further, evidence indicated that the women in the orgainsations appear to lack the drive and ambition compared to their male peers. The women described the men as confident, career-oriented and ambitious, whereas describing themselves as hardworking, loyal and dedicated. Furthermore, the study also found that the accounting firms maintained a macho culture in respect to long working hours which tend to a problematic issue for female employees with family who are trying to balance their work and private life. The lack of drive and ambition attitude of the female employees indicated above in the accounting profession appeared to be a reaffirmation of previous research findings carried out by Gammie et al. (1997) where the study found that women in comparison to men had a lower expectation or prospects of being promoted to partner within an interval of five yrs. When asked of their promotion prospects, 93% of men had expected to be promoted while 73% of women expected to be promoted. Thus, indicating lower career progression expectations of women.

In line with the attitude of women found in the research above, a recent study by Dolan, Bejarano and Tzafric, (2011), conducted to explore the effect of gender in the relationship between individuals aspirations and career success among male and female engineers in Peru indicated a positive relationship between the individual career aspirations and career success for the male, but not necessarily for females. Female participants were more interested with secure career orientations with a preference for a balance between work and family than the men, thus reflecting and confirming the significant difference gender does make.

2.6.2 OCCUPATIONAL GENDER STEREOTYPE

Occupations are been perceived as being performed principally by male and females and thus requiring feminine or masculine attributes in order for an individual to be effective in fulfilling that role (Gurgao, ca2006). Further studies confirms that certain class of jobs/occupations are been created which are subject to societal stereotypes as a result of sex segregation (Gutek 1988 in Miller, Neather, Pollard and Hill 2004a cited Gurgao ca2006). Scheins (1975) early work highlights that the characteristics and skills required for the managerial position in orgainsations was ascribed closely to the male sex without a recognition of the need to judge on the basis of individual merits, thereby sex-typing the role as a male occupation (Schein, 1973, 1975, 2001, 2006; Schein et al., 1989). Studies by Lyness and Heilman (2006), Wood (2008) and Schein (1975) demonstrates that there is a perceived incongruity between the attributes stereotypically considered to be necessary to fulfill the roles that are sex-typed as male, and the attributes that are ascribed to men and women. Attributes such as strength in decision making, desiring responsibility, forcefulness, ambition and objectivity are often assumed to reside in men, and these qualities are commonly considered to be necessary fulfill roles sex-typed as male; examples of such roles are management and leadership positions. However, qualities such as supportive, affiliation, nurturing and relationship oriented are ascribed to females, and these attributes are historically perceived as not suited and associated with the decision-making role of management and leadership. Previous studies spanning three decades have shown that

management role is strongly associated with a male gender type, hence giving more confidence to male managers and management student alike of achieving managerial success (Schein, 2001). Research studies have confirmed the prevalence of such gender stereotypical views and gender prejudice which are in favor of the male gender are in the higher echelons of organisational power and are capable of exerting significant influence on the career progression of females in the work place. For example, wood (2008), in her study of gender stereotypical attitudes on women career advancement in Australia, found that management roles were gender stereotyped, which thereby influencing attitudes toward the appropriateness of females in management and leadership roles. This study further confirms that of Schein (1973, 1975), which reported that management roles are seen as more appropriate for a male, and such gender stereotypical attitudes were instrumental in impeding the career prospects of females gaining entry into management role.

2.7CONCLUSION
Careers unfold over time and career success is measured using either subjective (intrinsic) or objective (extrinsic) career components. Although, each of the components are interdependent, previous research studies confirms that the duality of both career success measures (subjective and objective) make each relevant to the other and influence each other over time. Thus, most career researchers have argued the importance of considering and assessing both perspectives of career as the depth of the career success construct can be better seen from looking through both lenses at the same time. The criteria mainly used by research studies for objective career success includes salary or income, promotions and hierarchical or occupational status. While the most common criteria of subjective success is ones interpretation or assessment of career achievement and experience, for instance, career or job satisfaction and comparative judgments (Arnold & Cohen, 2008). As suggested by career researchers (e.g., Arthur,Khapova, & Wilderom, 2005; Heslin, 2005) this research would assess both the subjective and objective career success using criteria from each of both career aspects. It was also found that individuals had different perception of the conception of career and career success. Further finding also supported the idea of gendered careers. Female employees were more

motivated by subjective (intrinsic) aspects of the job while their male counterparts were motive by the extrinsic (objective) aspects of the job (Groeneveld, 2009). This highlights the relevance of comparing the subjective and objective career perceptions of both male and female in the case study of this research to confirm the idea of gendered careers and further assess if this would have a possible influence on the career progression of female employees. The literature review further revealed that individual career aspirations are truly intrinsic and is a significant influence on the direction of ones career. Research confirmed that successful managers from different organizations attributed their success to strong desire and motivation to succeed. The research further indicated that they possessed strong beliefs, values and interest that were in conformance to their career aspirations (Rasdi et al 2009). Thus, confirming that individual career aspirations are significant to career behavior of an individual which at the long run determines ones career success. This would aid the objective of this study in finding out if female employees possess a strong or low desire to succeed and aspire to progress in their career; and to find evidence if a low desire or lack of aspiration may act as a barrier to their career progression.