An isotropic radiator is a hypothetical source radiating power equally in all directions.

For a given element spacing, the phase shift between any two element currents can be chosen to give perfect cancellation in any desired direction. This is called "null placement". The bore sight direction is at zero azimuth and elevation angles and is the direction of strongest radiation in the polar pattern. Boresight: direction(s) of maximum gain, or directivity, or radiated field strength The main beam consists of the radiation between boresight direction and the first null. The azimuth angle is measured between the boresight direction and the radiation direction in the horizontal plane. The elevation angle is measured between the boresight direction and the radiation direction in the vertical plane. The side lobes consist of continuous regions of radiation between nulls, discounting the main beam. Nulls are directions in which there is no radiation. Vertical polarization occurs when the electric field vector has components in the vertical direction An isotropic source radiates equally in all directions in both azimuth and elevation angles while an omnidirectional antenna radiates uniformly in all azimuth directions, but has a deep null in the orthogonal elevation direction.

Describe what is meant by the term "array antenna". Define the terms "array factor", "element pattern", and "pattern multiplication". The "array pattern" or "array factor" is the polar radiation plot of a hypothetical collection of isotropic sources placed on the array antenna grid or pattern, and each fed with the same amplitude. Array factor: The radiation pattern of a collection of isotropes placed on the element centres and fed with the same amplitudes and phases as are applied to the actual elements of the array. The "element pattern" is the pattern of any of the similar elements and does not depend on the location of the element within the grid. "Pattern multiplication" can then be used to find the total array antenna polar radiation pattern, by multiplying the gain of the element by the gain of the array of isotropes for every particular direction of propagation. The requirements are that

the element patterns are all identical, and that the actual currents on the elements (allowing for inter-element couplings) are used to determine the array factor. "Pattern multiplication":- point wise multiplication of the "element pattern" by the "array pattern" to obtain the total radiation pattern for the antenna array. An active array consists of elements each of which is driven by a physical feed. Passive arrays have one element actively driven, and the others couple to it electromagnetically through the near field.
The half power beamwidth is the angular separation between the half power points on the

The Half Power Beamwidth (HPBW) is the angular separation in which the magnitude of the radiation pattern decrease by 50% (or -3 dB) from the peak of the main beam.
antenna radiation pattern, where the gain is one half the maximum value. Return Loss: Is a way of expressing mismatch. It is the logarithmic ratio measured in dB that compares the power reflected by the antenna to the power that is fed into the antenna from the transmission line.

Beamwidth: This is the angular separation from which the magnitude of the radiation pattern decreases to zero. Classification of antennas
Frequency of operation and size Directivity: omnidirectional, sectorial or directive Physical construction: Application: point-to-point or point-to-multipoint

BENEFITS OF ANTENNA TILTING Minimize interference lower noise floor increase capacity Ensures a dominant pilot signal in handover regions Improve Call Success Rate in terms of Accessibility Reduce dropped call rate Control coverage more effectively that changing pilot power