Declaration

I, Dismas HABUMUGISHA hereby declare to the senate of UP that this project proposal carried out at Umutara Polytechnic in Nyagatare sector is original work and has never been submitted anywhere for a similar award at any other institute of high learning.

Dismas HABUMUGISHA Signature of candidate ..

This proposal was approved by: Ms. Margaret TUMUSIIME Signature of Supervisor

Dedication
I

This document is dedicated to: Almighty god, my beloved father and mother, my sisters and brothers, my friends and colleagues, all people who have helped me this report is dedicated

Acknowledgements

II

First and foremost, I owe my thanks to the almighty God for his abundant blessing guidance and protection during my research proposal. I deeply acknowledge UMUTARA POLYTECNIC for providing all necessary facilities during research proposal period. I would thank all staff members of faculty of veterinary medicine for the good organization of this research proposal with documentary support and other various necessities. I shall remember my classmates with whom we shared happiness and hard ship at UP.My special acknowledge is extremely go to Ms. Margaret TUMUSIIME, my supervisor for her constant, guidance, constructive advices and all possible help rendered for the successful completion of my research proposal. Finally, I acknowledge all members of my family for their advice and financial support. I am so glad to express my acknowledge my friends for their moral support for successful completion of my research proposal.

Table of contents

Declaration...................................................................................................................... I Dedication....................................................................................................................... I ...................................................................................................................................... II III

Acknowledgements.........................................................................................................II Table of contents........................................................................................................... III List of tables................................................................................................................... V Abbreviation and acronomy...........................................................................................VI CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION.......................................................................................1 Background................................................................................................................. 1 1.1 Problem statement................................................................................................3 1.3 Objectives.............................................................................................................3 The specific objectives are:.....................................................................3 1.4 Research question.................................................................................................4 1.5 Justification............................................................................................................ 4 CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW..............................................................................5 2.1 General aspect on haemonchus.............................................................................5 2.1.1 Etiology.........................................................................................5 2.1.2 Life cycle.......................................................................................5 2.1.3 Epidemiology.................................................................................6 2.1.4 Pathogenesis...............................................................................7

2. 1. 5 Clinical signs ...............................................................................7 2.1.6 Diagnosis......................................................................................8 2.1.7 Treatment...................................................................................8

............................................................................................................8 2.1.8 Control..........................................................................................9 2.1.9 Economic Importance ....................................................................9 2.1.10 Prevalence of haemonchus from other researchers........................9 CHAPTER THREE: MATERIAL AND METHODS.................................................................10 3.1. Study area.......................................................................................................... 10 IV

3.2 Research design.................................................................................................. 11 3.3. Target population...............................................................................................11 3.3.1 Sampling techniques ...................................................................11 3.3.2 Sample size.................................................................................12 3.4 Data collection.....................................................................................................12 The following materials will be used in the study...................................12 3.5 Samples analysis................................................................................................13 Qualitative technique using simple test tube flotation method...............13 3.6 Data analysis....................................................................................................... 13 3.7 Limitation of the study.........................................................................................14 3.8 References.......................................................................................................... 14 3.9 Appendices.......................................................................................................... 17 3.9.1 Proposal budget..........................................................................17 3.9.2 Time frame of the study...............................................................17

List of tables

Table 1: Proposal budget

Table2: Time frame of the study

Abbreviation and acronomy

Ms: Miss UP: Umutara Polytechnic MINAGRI: Ministry of Agriculture BVM: Bachelor in veterinary Medicine
VI

Dr.: Doctor Prof: Professor Sp: species L1, L2, L3, L4: Larva stage1, 2, 3, 4 E.P.G: Eggs per Gram Ml: Milliliter %: Per center
O

C: Degree Centigrade

MM/an: Millilitre par an G: Gram WWW: World Wide Web Org: Organisation Doc: Document FRW: Franc Rwandais

VII

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

Background

In East Africa, small ruminants play an important role in the livelihoods of rural poor farmers through the provision of food and household income (Verbeek et al., 2007). This largely stems from easy accessibility, high fertility and fecundity rates, prolific, early maturity and adaptability to different environments (Winrock International, 1983). In Rwanda, goats and sheep have an essential and overaching role in buttressing the lives of farmers. In 2007, the country had 1,270,903 goats and 371,766 sheep (MINAGRI, 2007). Optimal productivity of small ruminants is seldom reached in most developing countries mainly as a result of gastro-intestinal parasitosis. Gastrointestinal infections are responsible for significant losses globally particularly in the developing world where climatic conditions are conducive for their replication and multiplication (Waller, 1997). Haemonchosis (caused by Haemonchus) is primarily a disease of tropical and sub tropical regions, this parasite has adapted to conditions ranging from tropical areas to cold, mountainous regions. (Dorny, et al., 1996; Eckert and Hertzberg, 1994; Newton, 1995). However high humidity, at least in microclimate of the faeces and the herbage is also essential for larval development and their survival. It is a serious health problem, which causes lower production due to high morbidity, mortality and cost of treatment and control measures. The frequency and severity of the disease largely depends on the rainfall in any particular area. Surveys in countries around the world have shown that amongst domestic animals, sheep and Goats suffer more frequently from haemonchosis (Maqsood et al., 1996); Nwosu et al., (2007); Tariq et al., (2008). The disease caused by this parasite (Haemonchus) is prevalent wherever, sheep and goats are raised, but it exerts the greatest economic losses in temperate and tropical regions (Blood et al., 1979). An overall loss of 23.8% in meat and 40% in wool production has been reported in young sheep (Hussain and Akram, 1967). Apart from Haemonchus contortus there are other helminthes that can be found in small ruminants the most important of these are Ostertagia circumcincta, Trichostrongylus axei, and intestinal species of Trichostrongylus,
1

Nematodirus sp, Bunostomum trigonocephalum, and Oesophagostomum columbianum. Cooperia curticei, Strongyloides papillosus, Trichuris ovis, and Chabertia ovina also may be pathogenic in sheep. Small ruminant animals are adapted to different climates and the most varied conditions. Unfortunately, worm diseases are a major problem interfering with their production. A precise knowledge of the impact of infestation by haemonchus helminthes are the prerequisite to a better management of the infestation. This research proposal is about study of the prevalence of haemonchus helminthes in Nyagatare District at Nyagatare.

1.1 Problem statement In Rwanda, the livestock and animal husbandry in general is considered as a very important component of national economy. Generally animal husbandry development particularly small ruminants meet many constraints such as those due to infestation by gastrointestinal helminthes. Haemonchus contortus is known to adapt well to even harsh conditions, which makes it more difficult to eliminate. (Jacquiet, et al. 1998; White and Newton, 2001). Anemia and edema, or swelling, are key damages caused by this parasite. The Haemonchus contortus parasite can consume up to a tenth of an animals total blood volume in a day. Anemia is most easily identified in small ruminants by the color of the mucous membranes, particularly those in the lower eyelid. A normal animal will have healthy, red mucous membranes, while one heavily burdened with Haemonchus will exhibit light pink or white membranes. Edema may also occur in animals heavily burdened with Haemonchus. This accumulation of fluid will be most obvious as a swelling in the lower jaw, a condition known as bottle jaw. Because of the above effect there is need to conduct a study on prevalence of haemonchus in Goats and sheep at Nyagatare District.

1.3 Objectives

The general objective: To determine the prevalence of haemonchus in goats and sheep raised in Nyagatare District, at Nyagatare Sector. The specific objectives are:

To compare the level of infestation between sheep and goats, To compare the level of infestation of haemonchus in different sexes, and age group

1.4 Research question

Is there difference of infestation of haemonchus according to sexes or ages groups. Is there the difference of infestation of haemonchus between Goats and Sheep.

1.5 Justification

Raising sheep and goats in Africa and other continents generally and Rwanda particularly play a significant role in the food chain and overall livelihoods of rural households, where they are largely the property of women and their children. These animals can be reared for various reasons such as income generation, religious purpose, household consumption and hobby and as security against crop failure. The infection of haemonchus contortus parasites in those animals can cause significant economic loss leading to the poor health, reduced growth, and mortality of kids. There is little research done in Rwanda particularly about sheep and goats, so a need to determine prevalence and to establish the presence of haemonchus contortus in Nyagatare District at Nyagatare Sector.

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 General aspect on haemonchus

2.1.1 Etiology

Haemonchosis caused by Haemonchus contortus is a predominant, highly pathogenic and economically important disease of sheep and goats (Mortensen et al., 2003). These parasites are common blood feeders that cause anemia and reduced productivity and can lead to death in heavily infected animals (Githigia et al., 2001). It has been estimated that each worm sucks about 0.05 ml of blood per day by ingestion (Urquhart et al. 2000). Microscopically, the male has asymmetrical dorsal lobe and barbed spicules; the female usually has a flap vulvae. In both sexes there are cervical papillae and a tiny lancet inside the oral capsule (Taylor et al., 2007).

2.1.2 Life cycle

Sheep and goats are generally affected by the same parasites, although certain parasites may affect one species more severely than the other, and treatment methods may vary between sheep and goats. Haemonchus contortus has a lifecycle that takes approximately 21 days to complete. The cycle begins when the larvae in the infective Larva stage3 (L3) of development are ingested from the grass and travel to the abomasum, or true stomach, of the host. Once in the abomasum the larvae will follow one of two paths. They may proceed with further larval stages and the eventual development into adults, or they will go into hypobiosis. This is an arrested development state that occurs when conditions are not conducive for the entire life cycle to be complete. When the L3 stage larvae enter the abomasum, provided that environmental conditions are favorable, they will molt into the L4 stage of larval development and will then molt once more into adults. Factors that induce the molting of the L4 larvae into adults include: greening of grass, a rise in
5

environmental temperature, rain following a drought period, increased estrogen levels in the host, and possible even a photoperiod stimuli. Once the molt into an adult form is complete adults then begin to lay eggs in the abomasum. During hypobiosis the L4 larvae hibernate in glands in the abomasum without developing further or causing problems for the host. They remain metabolically inactive until they receive signals that indicate it is time for them to resume development and then begin to lay eggs. The signals that spur the L4 larvae to come out of hypobiosis are the same signals mentioned above that indicate to them to develop in the first place. Once larvae leave hypobiosis, they resume the normal lifecycle and begin to lay eggs. Haemonchus adults require about 14 days to begin laying eggs in the stomach after reaching adulthood. The Haemonchus adult female can lay up to 5,000 eggs per day, and it is so difficult to control and so dangerous to sheep and goats. Females that have gone through hypobiosis over the winter generally resume development two to four weeks prior to lambing or kidding and begin to produce eggs. This phenomenon is called the periparturient rise in fecal egg counts. The eggs laid in the abomasum are expelled from the body via the feces. Eggs in the feces generally remain inactive for a few days in the environment, until the environment and temperature become favorable for the development of these eggs into larvae. The larvae hatch from the egg and then emerge from the pellets and move through larval stages L1, L2 and L3 of development. Once the larvae reach the L3 stage, the infective stage, they emerge from the fecal pellet and climb up onto blades of grass where they wait to be ingested by a grazing animal, thus completing the life cycle.

2.1.3 Epidemiology

Because larval development of Haemonchus contortus occurs optimally at relatively high temperatures, haemonchosis is primarily a disease of small ruminants in warm climates. However, since high humidity, at least in the microclimate of the faeces and the herbage, is also essential for larval development and survival, the frequency and severity of outbreaks of disease is largely dependent on the rainfall in a particular area (Dunn, 1992). The sudden occurrence of acute clinical haemonchosis appears to depend on two further factors. First, the high feacal worm egg output of between 2,000 and 20,000 eggs per gram (e.p.g), even in moderate infections, means that massive pasture populations of L3 may appear very quickly. Second, in contrast to many other helminth infections, there is little evidence that goats and sheep in endemic
6

areas develop an effective acquired immunity to Haemonchus contrortus, so that there is continuous contamination of the pasture (Taylor et al., 2007). In tropical areas such as East Africa, no significant degree of hypobiosis has been observed and this may be due to more frequent rainfall in this areas making such an evolutionary development unnecessary (Urguhart, 1989). The survival of Haemonchus contortus infection on tropical pastures is variable depending on the climate and degree of shade, but the infective larvae are relatively resistant to desiccation and some may survive for 1-3 months on pasture or in faeces (Marquardt, 2000).

2.1.4 Pathogenesis

Essentially the pathogenesis of haemonchosis is that of an acute hemorrhagic anaemia due to the blood-sucking habits of the worms. Each worm removes about 0.05 ml of blood per day by ingestion and seepage from the lesions so that a sheep or a goat with 5000 Haemonchus contortus may loose about 250 ml daily. In acute haemonchosis, anemia becomes apparent for about 2 weeks after infection and is characterized by a progressive and dramatic fall in the packed red cell volume. When the females are affected, the consequent agalactia may result in the death of the suckling animals (Dunn, 1992). At necropsy, between 2,000 and 20,000 worms may be present on the abomasal mucosa which shows numerous small hemorrhagic lesions. The abomasal contents are fluid and dark brown due to the presence of altered blood. The carcass is pale and oedematous and the red marrow has expanded from the epiphyses into the modularly cavity. Less commonly, in heavier infections of up to 30,000 worms, apparently health sheep or goats may die suddenly from severe hemorrhagic gastritis (hyper acute haemonchosis). Perhaps as important as acute haemonchosis in tropical areas is lesser known syndrome of chronic haemonchosis. The continual loss of blood from small persisting burdens of several hundred worms is sufficient to produce clinical signs associated primarily with loss of weight, weakness and in appetence rather than marked anaemia (Urguhart, 1989). 2. 1. 5 Clinical signs

In hyperacute cases, the animals die suddenly from hemorrhagic gastritis .Acute haemonchosis is characterized by anaemia, variable degree of oedema, of which the submandibular form and ascites are most easily recognized, lethargy, dark coloured feaces and falling wool. Diarrhea is not generally a feature. Chronic haemonchosis is associated with progressive weight loss and weakness, neither severe anaemia nor gross oedema being present (Taylor et al., 2007).

2.1.6 Diagnosis

The history and clinical signs are often sufficient for the diagnosis of the acute syndrome especially if supported by fecal worm eggs counts. At Necropsy, attention is centred on both the abomasum and the marrow changes in the long bones are also useful. In hyperacute haemonchosis, only the abomasums may show changes since death may have occurred so rapidly that marrow changes are minimal (Hall, 1996). Diagnosis of chronic haemonchosis is more difficult because of the concurrent presence of poor nutrition and confirmation may have to depend on the gradual disappearance of the syndrome after anthelmintic treatment (Marquardt, 2000).

2.1.7 Treatment

When acute outbreak has occurred the small ruminants should be treated with one of the derivative of Benzimidazoles, Levamizole or Ivermectin and immediately moved to pasture not recently grazed by goats. When the original pasture is grazed again, prophylactic measures should be undertaken, as enough larvae may have survived to institute a fresh cycle of infection. Chronic haemonchisis is dealt with in similar fashion. If possible the new pasture should have a good nutrition value; alternatively some supplementary may be given (Urguhart, 1989).

2.1.8 Control

In the tropics and subtropics, this varies depending on the duration and number of periods in the year when rainfall and temperature permit on pasture a high level of Haemonchus contortus larvae to develop. At such times, it may be necessary to use an anthelmitic at intervals of 2-4 weeks depending on the degree of challenge. Goats are treated at least once at the start of the dry season and preferably also before the start of prolonged rain to remove persisting hypobiotic larvae whose development could pose a future threat .For this purpose, one of the modern Benzimidazoles or Ivermictin is recommended (Taylor et al., 2007). 2.1.9 Economic Importance

The major problem lies within the agricultural industry. These parasites cause great economic losses in domestic animals, specifically sheep, and goat. Because Haemonchus contortus is a blood sucker, it can induce anemia and edema. Also, the hemolytic proteins that the parasite releases can lead to other intestinal disturbances. The host will often die with major infections. And then the Haemonchus contortus exerts greatest economic losses in temperate and tropical regions (Blood et al., 1979). An overall loss of 23.8% in meat and 40% in wool production has been reported in young sheep (Hussain and Akram, 1967). 2.1.10 Prevalence of haemonchus from other researchers

On epidemiology study of haemonchosis in sheep and goats under different managemental conditions, studies were performed at various Abbattoirs, livestock farms and veterinary hospitals in the districts of Lahore, Gujranwala, Sheikhupura and Kasur in Punjab province. Post-mortem examinations of slaughtered animals were carried out and abomasa were checked for the presence of the parasites. The date of collection, the number of total and infected animals was recorded, the age sex, area of such animals was also maintained. During the studies the seasonal prevalence was recorded. For this purpose the year was divided into 4 seasons as follows: winter (November-February), spring (March- April), summer (May9

August), and autumn (September- October). The prevalence of haemonchosis in relation to temperature, humidity, age and sex was also maintained. Faecal samples were examined by direct smear, flotation and sedimentation techniques for the presence of Haemonchus eggs (Muhammad F Q et al, 2009) The study carried out to investigate the prevalence and seasonal trend of the Haemonchus contortus in sheep and goats in the Potohar areas of northern Punjab, Pakistan different breeds were examined by the modified McMaster technique. Results revealed that the infection was significantly (P<0.05) higher in sheep compared to goats. The peak infection level was recorded during rainy season (July-October). On the other hand, low infection level was noted from December upto May.

CHAPTER THREE: MATERIAL AND METHODS

3.1. Study area

Nyagatare is a district (akarere) in Eastern Province, Rwanda. Its capital is Nyagatare city, the former capital of the now defunct Umutara province. Its borders are Uganda in the North, Tanzania in the East, Gatsibo District (Eastern Province) in the South, and Gicumbi of Northern Province in the West. It is the largest district in Rwanda, and it lies in an area of grassy plains, and low hills, with excellent views in all directions, including the mountains of southern Uganda and, on a very clear day, the Virunga volcano range. The district has a higher temperature compared to the other parts of
10

the country. It also receives lower precipitations. Nyagatare district is divided into 14 sectors (imirenge): Gatunda, Kiyombe, Karama, Karangazi, Katabagemu, Matimba, Mimuli, Mukama, Musheli, Nyagatare, Rukomo, Rwempasha, Rwimiyaga and Tabagwe. The District of Nyagatare is characterized, in general, by lowly inclined hills separated by dry allies for a long period of the year (June-October). The District is located in the granite low valley whose altitude is 1513, 5m. District is characterized by two main seasons: one long dry season that varies between 3 and 5 months with an annual average temperature varying between 25,3C to 27,7C. The monthly distribution of the rains varies from one year to another. Annual rain falls are both very weak (827 mm/an) and very unpredictable to satisfy the needs in agriculture and livestock. The river is the main water reserve for the people and the cattle in the large dry land. There is no other consistent river that can be exploited by the population in Nyagatare. The District of Nyagatare contains half of Akagera National Park where a vast number of Wild life is found including buffalo, Antelopes and more other ruminants. The District also accommodates a huge variety of birds such as birds of prey, guinea-fowl, partridges, heroes and so forth. The hares, Wild boars, monkeys and more other small beasts of the rodent family are rarely found in the wooden savanna and in the natural vegetation. There, in the River Umuvumba, you will find Hippopotamus. 3.2 Research design Laboratory based diagnosis

3.3. Target population 3.3.1 Sampling techniques

During collection of the fecal sample for studying, and basing on population of animals (sheep and Goats) found in Nyagatare Sector, and then to calculate sample size the formula of Yamane (1967) will be used with the confidence level of 90% as follows:

11

Description: n=Sample size N=Population size e=the level of precision corresponding in 10%

3.3.2 Sample size According to formula and basing also to the population size found in Nyagatare sector of 1658 sheep and goats, a sample size will be considered by taking of 94 both sheep and goats conveniently. According to age for Goats and Sheep fewer than 10 months will be considered as young.

3.4 Data collection

The following materials will be used in the study Beakers (250ml), a tea stainer measuring, cylinder or other container graded by volume, fork, a stand, test tube, microscope, slides and cover slips, balance and teaspoon, flotation fluid (40g of salt in 100ml of distilled water), formalin solution, laboratory coat, Pasteur pipettes. Fecal samples will be collected directly from the rectum of the animal using gloves; about 15g of faeces will be collected and put in a container then each sample will be labeled according to species, age, and sexes and then the samples will be transported to laboratory for analysis and kept in a refrigerate.

12

3.5 Samples analysis

When the samples will be transported to laboratory for analysis, the technique for separating known as qualitative technique will be used. In qualitative, simple test tube flotation method will be used. Qualitative technique using simple test tube flotation method

This method is a qualitative test for the detection of nematode eggs in the feces. After that the samples will be arrived in the laboratory, approximately 5g of faeces well weighted for every sample will be putted into container1, 20ml flotation fluid will poured into container1, and the faeces will be mixed with flotation fluid thoroughly with a fork, then the resulting faecal suspension will poured through a tea strainer into container2. And the faecal suspension will be poured into a test tube from container2; the test tube will be placed in a stand, and gently top up the test tube with the suspension, leaving a convex meniscus at the top of the tube and carefully a cover slip will placed on top of the test tube; the test tube will be standed for 20 minutes, then carefully the coverslip will be left off from the tube, together with the drop of fluid adhering to it, and immediately the coverslip will be placed on a microscope slide. Then after the eggs will be observed for haemonchus contortus on a microscope and the result will be recorded according to animals species, age and sexes with numbering of Haemonchus eggs for every focusing.The later will be helping in determination of the level of infestation by haemonchus after categorize each animal according to heavy, moderate and light stages.

3.6 Data analysis

The results will be analysed by using GenStat discovery 12th edition program and Microsoft Excel. The average number of eggs per animal will be calculated and comparison analyzed using analysis of variance (ANOVA).
13

3.7 Limitation of the study

This research proposal will be carried out to determine the prevalence of Haemonchus contortus in sheep and goats. It will be limited by lacking of some equipment and information facilities, some farmers will be refusing to assess to their animals and some of the parts of the study will be left untouched due to time and transporting facilities.

3.8 References

1. Dr W.J.A.Payne.(1985). Diseases and Parasites of Livestock in the Tropics 2and Edition.233-

234 pages
2. Allonby E W. 1974. Ovine haemonchosis: Epidemiology, clinical signs and diagnosis. In: G

M Urquhart and J Armour (eds.), Helminth diseases of cattle, sheep and horses in Europe. Robert Maclehose and Company, London, UK 3. Dr. Nshimiyimana Juvenal, Dr. Nyilimana Carine, Dr.Septiple Jeanne dArc and Dr. Mutandwa Edward (2010). An analysis of the dynamics of Gastro-intestinal nematode infection in small ruminants in the northern province of Rwanda.
4. Verbeek, E., E. Kanis, R.C. Bett and I.S. Kosgey, 2007.Socio-economic factors influencing

small ruminant breeding in Kenya. Livest. Res. Rural Dev., 19(6)

5. Waller, P.J., 1997. Nematode parasite control in the tropics/subtropics: The need for novel

approaches. Int. J. Parasitol., 27: 1193-1201/

14

6. Winrock International, 1983. Sheep and goats in developing countries: Their present and potential role. World Bank,Washington DC, USA. 7. MINAGRI, 2007. Strategic Plan for Agricultural Transformation in Rwanda, Document Prepared by GECAD, Kigali, Rwanda. 8. Taylor, M.A., R. Coop and R. Wall, 2007. Veterinary Parasitology. 3rd Edn., Blackwell Publishing, UK. 9. Zafar Iqbal, Masood Akhtar, M. Nisar Khan & M. Riaz*:prevalence and economic significance of haemonchosis in sheep and goats slaughtered at faisalabad abattoir/http://pakjas.com.pk/upload/64888.pdf
10. Dunn, A.M., 1992. Veterinary Helminthology. 2nd Edn., William Heinemann Medical Books,

London, ISBN-10:0433079517/PubMed .
11. B.,Mukasa-Mugerwa E and Scholtens R.C.(1987) Seasonal Changes in Nematodes Faecal

Egg Counts Sheep in EthiopianHighland, ILCE Bulletin, 29:9-11. International Tekelye Livestock Center for Africa, Addis ababa, Ethiopia /http://www.ispub.com/journal/theinternet-journal-of-veterinary-medicine/volume-7-number-1
12. Jacquiet, P., J. Cabaret, E. Thiam, D. Cheikh. 1998. Host range and the maintenance of

Haemonchus spp. in an adverse, arid climate. International Journal for Parasitology, 28: 253261.
13. White, G., S. Newton. 2001. A single chain variable reason immunoglobin library from the

abomasal lymph node of sheep infected with the gastrointestinal nematode parasite Haemonchus contortus . Veterinary Immunology and Immunopathology, 78: 117-129.
14. Blood, D.C., J.A. Henderson and a.M.Radostits. 1979. Veterinary Medicine.5th E d., Bailliere

Tindall, London, UK/ 15. Hussain, M.Z. and M. Akram. 1967. Hostparasite relationship. 1. Studies on the productivity of sheep as affected by haemonchosis. Pak. J. Sci. 5: 247-251/http

15

16. Maqsood, M., Z. Iqbal and A. H. Chaudhary (1996) Prevalence and intensity of Haemonchosis with reference to breed, sex and age of sheep and goats. Pakistan. Vet. J., 16(1): 41-43/.
17. Mortensen, L. L., L. H. Williamson, T. H. Terrill, R. Kircher, M. Larsen and R. M. Kaplan,

(2003). Evaluation of prevalence and clinical implications of anthelmintic resistance in gastrointestinal nematodes of goats. JAVMA 23: 495500/ Urquhart G. M., J. Armour, J. L. Dunca, A. M. Dunn, F. W. Jennings, (2000). Veterinary Parasitology, 2nd Edition. Blackwell Science Ltd. London
18. Nwosu C.O., P.P. Madu and W.S. Richards (2007): Prevalence and seasonal changes in the

population of gastrointestinal nematodes of small ruminants in the semi-arid zone of northeastern Nigeria. Vet. Parasitol.,144:118124/
19. Tariq K.A., M.Z. Chishti, F. Ahmad, and A.S. Shawl, (2008): Epidemiology of gastro-

intestinal nematodes of sheep managed under traditional husbandry system in Kashmir valley Vet. Parasitol., 158: 138143/
20.

Muhammad Fiaz Qamar, Azhar Maqbool*, Muhammad Sarwar Khan, Nisar Ahmad and

Muhammad Akram Muneer (2009): Epidemiology of Haemonchosis in sheep and Goats under different managemental conditions vol2.
21. Dorny, P., A. Batubara, M. Iskander, V. Pandey. 1996. Helminth infections of sheep in North

Sumatra, Indonesia. Veterinary Parasitology, 61: 353-358.

22. Eckert, J., H. Hertzberg. 1994. Parasite control in transhumant situations. Veterinary

Parasitology, 54: 103-125.

23. Newton, S. 1995. Progress on vaccination of Haemonchus contortus . International Journal

of Parasitology, 25: 1281-1289.

16

3.9 Appendices 3.9.1 Proposal budget ITEMS Transport Internet Ream of printing Typing and printing charges Binding of books Communication Insurance Total

QUANTITY 6 times 50hrs 2reams 5of 40pages 6books 30 cards 6months

UNITY 10,000 400 3,000 400 1000 1000 2,500

TOTALCOST/FRW 60,000 20,000 6,000 80,000 6,000 30,000 15,000 217000

3.9.2 Time frame of the study June Month July October September

17

Activities

Research proposal, data collection and analysis Report Submission writing,

18