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MOUNT ZION COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING (Affiliated to M.G University&Approved by A.I.C.T.E) Kadammanitta, Pathanamthitta Kerala-689649
CERTIFICATE
Certified that this is a bonafide record of the mini project work done by SAM SUNNY (56601) of SIXTH semester, Electronics &Communication Engineering, under Mahatma Gandhi University during the year 2010.
Project Guide
HOD
Internal Examiner
External Examiner
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
To bring something into existence is truly the work of ALMIGHTY. We thank GOD ALMIGHTY for making this venture a success. We express our wholehearted thanks to the Management of the college, Mr. Abraham Kalammannil, Chairman, for providing us an opportunity to do our studies in this esteemed institution. We thank our Principal, Prof.P.C.Mohandas for providing the facilities for our studies and constant encouragement in all achievements. At the outset we wish to place on record our sincere thanks to quite a few people without whose help, this venture would not have been a success. We would like to express profound gratitude to our Head of the department, Mr. Rangit Varghese, for his encouragement and for providing all facilities for carrying out this project. We express our highest regard and sincere thanks to our project Co-ordinators, Mr. Sreeji Krishnan, who provided the necessary guidance and serious advice to carry out this project. We also express my gratitude to our Project Guide, Mr. Sudheesh S.R, for her apt suggestions and support. Our sincere thanks to all the staff members of the department of Electronics and Communication who guided as throughout the entire course
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PREFACE
Because of the differences in our college level studies and industry level requirements, we are allotted a project to get knowledge about the on goings at industries. I did the mini project that covered up a practical knowledge of what I have studied so far in books. I did experienced an exposure to various electronics devices and equipments which I would not have able to get easily anywhere else. I learnt a lot about processes of communication like sampling, quantization, detection, error correction, broadcasting and reception of signals. All the topics which were dealt with in the project duration are mentioned in an easy manner here in the report which I am submitting to our college for reference purpose I am highly thankful to the college faculty and the management for the insertion of such a training period in our curriculum.
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CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION 2. BLOCK DIAGRAM
1. CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
2. COMPONENTSTUDY
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3. COMPONENTS LAYOUT
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REFERENCES APPENDIX
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LIST OF FIGURES
1. TRANSMITTER.. xii 2. RECEIVER xiii 3. SYMBOL OF OP AMP....xiv 4. SYMBOL OF IC 741... xv 5. NEGATIVE FEED BACK CONTROL CIRCUIT..xvi 6. CERAMIC CAPACITOR. xvii 7. 9V BATTERY....xviii 8. LASER TORCH...xix 9. REVERSE BIASED CIRCUIT....xxi 10.PHOTODIODE SYMBOL..xxii 11.PHOTODIODE CIRCUIT xxii 12. PHOTOTRANSISTOR SYMBOL.... xxv 13.PHOTOTRANSISTOR USED AS A PHOTODIODE..xxvi 14.COMPONENTS LAYOUT..xxxiv 15. PCB LAYOUTxxxiv
LIST OF TABLES
1. COMPONENTS REQUIRED FOR TRANSMITTERxxxvii 2. COMPONENTS REQUIRED FOR RECEIVER.xxxviii
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1. INTRODUCTION
Laser as a communication medium can provide a good substitute for the present day communication systems as the problem of interference faced in case of electromagnetic waves is not there and high deal of secrecy is available. Laser communications offers a viable alternative to RF communications for inter satellite links and other applications where highperformance links are a necessity. High data rate, small antenna size, narrow beam divergence, and a narrow field of view are characteristics of laser communications that offer a number of potential advantages for system design. The present paper involves the study of wireless, open channel communication system using laser a carrier for voice signals. Using this circuit we can communicate with your own neighbours wirelessly. Instead of RF signals, light from a laser torch is used as the carrier in the circuit. The laser torch can transmit light up to a distance of about 500 meters. The phototransistor of the receiver must be accurately oriented towards the laser beam from the torch. If there is any obstruction in the path of laser beam, no sounds will be heard from the receiver.
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2. BLOCK DIAGRAM
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4. CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
4.1 TRANSMITTER
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4.2 RECEIVER
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5. COMPONENT STUDY
5.1 OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER
An op amp is a high-gain, direct-coupled differential linear amplifier whose response characteristics are externally controlled by negative feedback from the output to the input. OP amps, widely used in computers, can perform mathematical operations such as summing, integration, and differentiation. OP amps are also used as video and audio amplifiers, oscillators, etc. in the communication electronics. Because of their versatility op amps are widely used in all branches of electronics both in digital and linear circuits. OP amps lend themselves readily to IC manufacturing techniques. Improved IC manufacturing techniques, the op amp's adaptability, and extensive use in the design of new equipment have brought the price of IC ops amps from very high to very reasonable levels. These facts ensure a very substantial role for the IC op amp in electronics. Fig shows the symbol for an op amp. Note that the operational amplifier has two inputs marked (-) and (+). The minus input is the inverting input. A signal applied to the minus terminal will be shifted in phase 180 at the output. The plus input is the non-inverting input. A signal applied to the plus terminal will appear in the same phase at the output as at the input. Because of the complexity of the internal circuitry of an op amp, the op amp symbol is used exclusively in circuit diagrams.
5.1.1 IC-741 3
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An operational amplifier often referred to as op Amp, is a very high gain high performance amplifier designed to amplify ac and dc signal voltages. Modern integrated circuit technology and large-scale production techniques have brought down the prices of such amplifiers within reach of all amateurs, experimenters and hobbyists. The Op Amp is now used as a basic gain element, like an elegant transistor, in electronic circuits. The availability of two input terminals simplifies feedback circuitry and makes the operational amplifier a highly versatile device. If a feedback is applied from the output to the inverting input terminal, the result is a negative feedback, which gives a stable amplifier with precisely controlled gain characteristics. On the other hand, if the feedback is applied to the non-inverting input, the result is positive feedback, which gives oscillators and multivibrator. Special effects are obtained by combination of both types of feedback.
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Fig 5.1.1.1. Negative feedback control circuit The above figure shows the basic circuit, including the negative feedback loop of an op amp. The output is fed back to the inverting input terminal in order to provide negative feedback for the amplifier. The input signal is applied to the inverting input. As a result, the output will be inverted. It is possible to operate the op amp as a non-inverting amplifier by applying the signal to the plus input. In this circuit the feedback network is still connected to the inverting input.
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The potentiometer is a resistor of variable resistance. It has three terminals; a fixed resistance is found between two of the terminals and the third terminal slides along the fixed resistor. Often, it is used to control the volume in an audio amplifier.
5.3 CAPACITOR:
The capacitor plays a crucial role in electronics -- it stores electrons for when they're needed most. Capacitors consist of two conducting plates placed near each other. Inside the capacitor, the terminals connect to two metal plates separated by a dielectric. The dielectric can be air, paper, plastic or anything else that does not conduct electricity and keeps the plates from touching each other..
They can store electric charge for later discharge. Direct current through a capacitor will charge the capacitor for a short time, and then stop flowing. Alternating current, because of the changing electric fields it generates, can flow across a capacitor.
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The DMM is an instrument that is able to measure voltage, current, and resistance in a circuit, or across circuit components and displays its measurements on a digital display.
Inside the battery itself, a chemical reaction produces the electrons. The speed of electron production by this chemical reaction (the battery's internal resistance) controls how many electrons can flow between the terminals. Electrons flow from the battery into a wire, and must travel from the negative to the positive terminal for the chemical reaction to take place. That is why a battery can sit on a shelf for a year and still have plenty of power unless electrons are flowing from the negative to the positive terminal, the chemical reaction does not take place. Once you connect a wire, the reaction starts.
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For this project we have removed the laser assembly from a small laser pointer. The power supply circuit is the green board attached to the brass laser head. We carry similar laser pointers in our catalog that are easily disassembled for this project. The power supply circuit came conveniently marked with a plus and a minus next to two holes in the board. We solder the black negative lead from the battery clip to the hole marked minus. We solder one of the coil leads to the hole marked plus. We solder the red positive lead of the battery clip to the other lead from the coil.
5.7 MICROPHONE
Sound is an amazing thing. All of the different sounds that we hear are caused by minute pressure differences in the air around us. What's amazing about it is that the air transmits those pressure changes so well, and so accurately, over relatively long distances. It was a metal diaphragm attached to a needle, and this needle scratched a pattern onto a piece of metal foil. The pressure differences in the air that occurred when you spoke toward the diaphragm moved the diaphragm, which moved the needle, which was recorded on the foil. When you later ran the needle back over the foil, the vibrations scratched on the foil would then move the diaphragm and recreate the sound. The fact that this purely mechanical system works shows how much energy the vibrations in the air can have! All modern microphones are trying to accomplish the same thing as the original, but do it electronically rather than mechanically. A microphone wants to take varying pressure waves in the air and convert them into varying electrical signals. There 7
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are five different technologies commonly used to accomplish this conversion. We use condenser mic in our project.
5.9 PHOTODIODES
If a conventional silicon diode is connected in the reverse-biased circuit , negligible current will flow through the diode and zero voltage will develop across R1. If the diode casing is now carefully removed so that the diode's semiconductor junction is revealed, and the junction is them exposed to visible light in the same circuit, the diode current will rise, possibly to as
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high as 1 mA, producing a significant output across R1. Further investigation will show that the diode current (and thus the output voltage) is directly proportional to light intensity, and that the diode is therefore photosensitive. In practice, all silicon junctions are photosensitive, and a photodiode can be regarded as a conventional diode housed in a case that lets external light reach its photosensitive semiconductor junction. Fig.5.9.2 shows the standard photodiode symbol. In use, the photodiode is reverse biased and the output voltage is taken from across a series-connected load resistor. This resistor may be connected between the diode and ground, as in fig. 1, or between the diode and the positive supply line, as in fig.5.9.3
Fig 5.9.2 Photodiode symbol The human eye is sensitive to a range of light radiation, as shown in fig. 5.9.4. It has a peak spectral response to the color green, which has a wave length of about 550 nm, but has a relatively low sensitivity to the color violet (400 nm) at one end of the spectrum and to dark red (700 nm) at the other. Photodiodes also have spectral response characteristics, and these are determined by the chemistry used in the semiconductor junction material. Fig.5.9.4 shows typical response curves of a general-purpose photodiode, and infrared (IR) photodiode. Photodiodes have a far lower light-sensitivity than cadmium-sulphide LDRs, but give a far quicker response to changes in light level. Generally, LDRs are ideal for use in slowacting direct-coupled light-level sensing applications, while photodiodes are ideal for use in fast-acting AC-coupled signaling applications. Typical photodiode applications include IR remote-control circuits.
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A photodiode is a semiconductor diode that functions as a photo detector. Photodiodes are packaged with either a window or optical fibre connection, in order to let in the light to the sensitive part of the device. They may also be used without a window to detect vacuum UV or X-rays. A phototransistor is in essence nothing more than a bipolar transistor that is encased in a transparent case so that light can reach the base-collector junction. The phototransistor works like a photodiode, but with a much higher sensitivity for light, because the electrons that are generated by photons in base-collector junction are injected into the base, this current is then amplified by the transistor operation. A phototransistor has a slower response time than a photodiode however.
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forward bias direction. This is called the photovoltaic effect, and is the basis for solar cells in fact; a solar cell is just a large number of big, cheap photodiodes. Diodes usually have extremely high resistance when reverse biased. This resistance is reduced when light of an appropriate frequency shines on the junction. Hence, a reverse biased diode can be used as a detector by monitoring the current running through it. Circuits based on this effect are more sensitive to light than ones based on the photovoltaic effect. Avalanche photodiodes have a similar structure; however they are operated with much higher reverse bias. This allows each photo-generated carrier to be multiplied by avalanche breakdown, resulting in internal gain within the photodiode, which increases the effective responsivity of the device. Because of their greater band gap, silicon-based photodiodes generate less noise than germanium-based photodiodes, but germanium photodiodes must be used for wavelengths longer than approximately 1 m.
5.9.2 APPLICATIONS
P-N photodiodes are used in similar applications to other photodetectors, such as photoconductors, charge-coupled devices, and photomultiplier tubes. Photodiodes are used in consumer electronics devices such as compact disc players smoke detectors, and the receivers for remote controls in VCRs and televisions. In other consumer items such as camera light meters, clock radios (the ones that dim the display when its dark) and street lights, photoconductors are often used rather than photodiodes, although in principle either could be used. Photodiodes are often used for accurate measurement of light intensity in science and industry. They generally have a better, more linear response than photoconductors.
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5.10 PHOTOTRANSISTORS
The standard symbol of a phototransistor, which can be regarded as a conventional transistor housed in a case that enables its semiconductor junctions to be exposed to external light. The device is normally used with its base open circuit, in either of the configurations shown in fig. 5.10.2, and functions as follows.
Fig. 5.10.1Phototransistor symbol. .In practice, the collector and emitter current of the transistor are virtually identical and, since the base is open circuit, the device is not subjected to significant negative feedback. Consequently, the alternative fig. 5.10.2(b) circuit, in which R1 is connected to Q1 emitter, gives a virtually identical performance to that of fig. The sensitivity of a phototransistor is typically one hundred times greater than that of a photodiode, but is useful maximum operating frequency (a few hundred kilohertz) is proportionally lower
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than that of a photodiode by using only its base and collector terminals and ignoring the emitter, as shown in fig. Phototransistors are solid-state light detectors with internal gain that are used to provide analog or digital signals. They detect visible, ultraviolet and near-infrared light from a variety of sources and are more sensitive than photodiodes, semiconductor devices that require a pre-amplifier. Phototransistors feed a photocurrent output into the base of a small signal transistor. For each illumination level, the area of the exposed collectorbase junction and the DC current gain of the transistor define the output.
Fig. 5.10.3 Phototransistor used as a photodiode The base current from the incident photons is amplified by the gain of the transistor, resulting in current gains that range from hundreds to several thousands. Response time is a function of the capacitance of the collector-base junction and the value of the load resistance. Photodarlingtons, a common type of phototransistor, have two stages of gain and can provide net gains greater than 100,000. Because of their ease of use, low cost and compatibility with transistor-transistor logic (TTL), phototransistors are often used in applications where more than several hundred nanowatts (nW) of optical power are available. Selecting phototransistors requires an analysis of performance specifications. Collector current is the total amount of current that flows into the collector terminal. Collector dark current is the amount of collector current for which there is no optical input. Typically, both collector current and collector dark current are measured in milliamps (mA). Peak wavelength, the wavelength at which phototransistors are most
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responsive, is measured in nanometers (nm). Rise time, the time that elapses when a pulse waveform increases from 10% to 90% of its maximum value, is expressed in nanoseconds (ns). Collector-emitter breakdown voltage is the voltage at which phototransistors conduct a specified (nondestructive) current when biased in the normal direction without optical or electrical inputs to the base. Power dissipation, a measure of total power consumption, is measured in milliwatts (mW).
6. CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION
There are two sections: the transmitter board and the receiver board, both powered by a separate 9V battery or a fixed voltage power supply, depending on your needs. The transmitter board has an electret microphone module at one end, and the laser diode at the other end. The electronics modulates the intensity of the laser beam according to the output of the microphone. The laser diode has an inbuilt collimating lens, and is simply a module that connects to the transmitter board. The receiver uses a photodiode as the receiving element, and the onboard amplifier powers a small 4-36 ohm speaker. This board is therefore a high gain amplifier with a basic audio output stage. But what about results - are they better? Sure. Because this design uses a higher power (and visible) laser beam, the range is improved, and alignment is easier and not all that critical, especially over a few hundred meters. The quality of sound transmitted by the link is quite surprising. Clearly, this project is ideal for setting up a speech channel between two areas, say adjacent houses or offices on opposite sides of the street. Or you could use it as a link between the work shop and the house. For duplex (two way) communication, you'll obviously need two laser 'channels. An important feature of transmission by laser beam is privacy. Because a laser beam is intentionally narrow, it's virtually impossible for someone to tap into the link without you knowing. If someone intercepts the beam, the link is broken, signaling the interception. Fibreoptic cables also have high security, as it's very difficult to splice into the cable without breaking the link. However it's theoretically possible; so for the highest security, you probably can't beat a line-of-sight laser beam.
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Where the transmission distance is no more than meter of so, a LED (or two for increased power) can be substituted for the laser diode. For instance, where the link is being used for educational purposes, such as demonstrating fibre-optic coupling, or the concept of communication over a light beam. Obviously the security of the transmission is much lower as LEDs transmit light in all directions. While this laser link can be
adapted for use as a perimeter protector. Now to a description of how it all works, it's really very simple. We'll start with the transmitter.
6.1TRANSMITTER
A laser diode needs a certain value of current, called the threshold current, before it emits laser light. A further increase in this current produces a greater light output. The relationship between output power and current in a laser diode is very linear, once the current is above the threshold, giving a low distortion when the beam is amplitude modulated. For example, the 65Onm 5mW laser diode used in this project has a typical threshold current of 3OmA and produces its full output when the current is raised by approximately 1OmA above the threshold to 4OmA. Further increasing the current will greatly reduce the life of the laser diode, and exceeding the absolute maximum of 8OmA will destroy it instantly. Laser diodes are very fragile and will not survive electrostatic discharges and momentary surges! However, if used within specifications, the typical life of one of these lasers is around 20,000 hours. In the transmitter circuit (Fig.1) the laser diode is supplied via an adjustable constant-current source. Note that the metal housing for the laser diode and the lens also acts as a heat sink. The laser diode should not be powered without the metal housing in place. The increasing the voltage at VR1 reduces the laser current. The setting of VR1 determines the quiescent brightness of the laser beam, and therefore the overall sensitivity of the system. The electric microphone is powered through R1 and is coupled to the non inverting input of 1C1 a via capacitor. This input is held at a fixed DC voltage to give a DC output to bias.
6.2 RECEIVER
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The transmitted signal is picked up by the photo detector diode in the receiver (shown in Fig.2). The output voltage of this diode is amplified by the common emitter amplifier around T4. This amplifier has a gain of 20 or so, and connects via VR2 to IC2, an LM386 basic power amplifier IC with a gain internally set to 20.This IC can drive a speaker with a resistance as low as four ohms, and 35OmW when the circuit is powered
from a 9V supply. Increasing the supply voltage will increase the output power marginally. Incidentally, the photodiode used for this project has a special clear package, so it responds to visible light, and not just infrared.
6.3 MICROPHONE
Sound is an amazing thing. All of the different sounds that we hear are caused by minute pressure differences in the air around us. What's amazing about it is that the air transmits those pressure changes so well, and so accurately, over relatively long distances. It was a metal diaphragm attached to a needle, and this needle scratched a pattern onto a piece of metal foil. The pressure differences in the air that occurred when you spoke toward the diaphragm moved the diaphragm, which moved the needle, which was recorded on the foil. When you later ran the needle back over the foil, the vibrations scratched on the foil would then move the diaphragm and recreate the sound. The fact that this purely mechanical system works shows how much energy the vibrations in the air can have! All modern microphones are trying to accomplish the same thing as the original, but do it electronically rather than mechanically. A microphone wants to take varying pressure waves in the air and convert them into varying electrical signals. There are five different technologies commonly used to accomplish this conversion: 6.3.1 Condenser microphones - A condenser microphone is essentially a capacitor, with one plate of the capacitor moving in response to sound waves. The movement changes the capacitance of the capacitor, and these changes are amplified to create a measurable signal. Condenser microphones usually need a small battery to provide a voltage across the capacitor.
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7. WORKING
In all of the laser communicators on this page, the laser light is amplitude modulated. This simply means that the amount of light the laser emits varies over time. To understand what is going on, it helps to consider how a loudspeaker makes sound. A loudspeaker is a paper cone attached to a coil of wire that sits in a magnetic field from a strong permanent magnet. When an electric current flows in the loudspeaker coil, the coil becomes an electromagnet, and it moves toward or away from the permanent magnet. As it moves, the paper cone pushes on the air around it, compressing the air in front of it, and expanding the air behind it. Waves of compressed and expanded air travel to your ear, and cause your eardrum to move in time to the movements of the paper cone. The laser communicator adds two components to the loudspeaker concept. We take the electrical signal that goes to the loudspeaker, and connect it instead to the laser, so the laser gets brighter and dimmer as the electric current varies. The second component is the receiver, which converts the light back into an electric current. This current varies in time with the first current, because the amount of light that it receives is varying in time. This second electric current is used to move the paper cone of a loudspeaker, just as before. However, now the loudspeaker can be quite a distance away from the original electric current, without any wires connecting the two.
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PCB fabrication involves the following steps. 1) First the layout of the PCB is generated using the software ORCAD. First step involves drawing the circuit CIS which is a section of ORCAD. Then the layout is obtained using layout plus. This layout is printed on a paper. 2) This printed layout is transferred to a Mylar sheet and touched with black ink. 3) The solder side of the Myler sheet is placed on the shining side of the copper board and is placed in a frame. It is than exposed to sunlight, with the Mylar sheet facing the sunlight. 4) The exposed copper board is put in hydrogen peroxide solution. It is then put in hot water; shook till unexposed region becomes transparent.
5)
This is put in cold water and then the rough side is struck in to the skill screen. This is then pressed and dried well.
6)
The plastic sheet of the five - star is removed leaving the pattern on the screen.
7)
A copper clad sheet is cut to the size and cleaned. This is then placed under the screen.
8)
Acid resist ink is spread on the screen, So that the pattern of the tracks and pad is obtained on the copper clad sheet. It is dried.
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9)
The dried sheet is then etched using ferric chloride solution till all the unwanted copper is etched away.
10)
The unwanted resist ink is removed using sodium hydroxide solution, holes are then drilled.
11)
The components are soldered neatly on the board without dry soldering
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9. COMPONENTS LAYOUT
9.1 TRANSMITTER
9.2 RECEIVER
Fig.14
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10.2 RECEIVER
Fig 15
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12.1 TRANSMITTER:
NAME OF THE COMPONENT Resistance (8.2 K) Resistance (1.8 M) Resistance (10 K) Resistance (15 K) Resistance (82 ohm) Variable Resistance (1 M) Capacitor (1 mf) Capacitor (0.1 mf) Capacitor (470 mf) Capacitor (1000 mf) Semiconductor T1 BC548 Semiconductor T2 BD139 Condenser MIC IC UA741 PCB Table 1
QUANTITY 2 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
12.2 RECEIVER:
Sl.No. 1. 2
QUANTITY 1 1
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3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19.
Resistor (470 K) Resistor (2.2 K) Resistor (1 K) Resistor (10 K) Variable resistor (50 K) Capacitor (0.01 mf) Capacitor(47 pf) Capacitor (0.1 mf) Capacitor (1 mf) Capacitor (100 mf) Capacitor(10mf) Capacitor(470 mf) Semiconductor 2N5777 Semiconductor BC549 LM 386 P.C.B 8 ohm Speaker Table 2
1 2 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 2 1 1 1 2 1 1 1
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these, only two are used, shown on the circuit. Take care when soldering the laser in place, as too much heat can destroy it. The diode can be mounted on the board, or connected with leads to it. Connect a clip lead to the inside of the laser pointer where the battery touched. Usually there is a small spring to which you can attach the clip lead. The other end of the battery usually connects to the case of the laser. Since there are many different styles of laser pointer, you may have to experiment with clip lead placement to get the laser to work with the new external battery pack. You may also have to hold down the laser's push button switch by wrapping a rubber band or some wire around it. Finally, connect the speaker and 9V battery clips, then check over the boards for any soldering errors or incorrectly installed components
13.2 TESTING
First of all, it's most important that you don't look directly into the laser beam. If you do, it could cause permanent eye damage. Also, you are responsible for the safety of others near the laser, which means you must stop others from also looking into the beam, and take all necessary safety steps. This is covered by legislation. Both the receiver and the transmitter can be powered by separate 9V batteries or suitable DC supplies. Before applying power to the transmitter PCB, set VRI to its halfway position, to make sure the laser current is not excessive. To be totally sure, you could set VRI fully anticlockwise, as this setting will reduce the laser current to zero. Then apply power to the board. If the laser doesn't produce light, slowly adjust VRI clockwise. The laser diode should emit a beam with an intensity adjustable with VRI. At this stage, keep the beam intensity low, but high enough to clearly see. If you are not getting an output, check the circuit. You won't see the laser beam intensity change with the modulating signal. To check that the system is working, place the two PCBs on the workbench, spaced a meter or go apart. You might need to put a sheet of paper about 2Omm in front of the photodiode to reduce the intensity of light from the laser beam. Set the volume control 3
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of the speaker to about halfway. If the volume control setting is too high you'll get acoustic feedback. Move the laser diode assembly so the beam points at the receiver's photodiode. It's useful to adjust the beam so it's out of focus at the photodiode, to make alignment even easier. You should now be able to hear the speaker reproducing any audio signal picked up by the microphone. .
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LED is not focused, and simply spreads everywhere, so a reflector might help the sensitivity. Warnings The laser diode in this project is a class 3B laser and you should attach a warning label to the transmitter.. Remember that, as for any hazardous device, the owner of a laser is responsible for its proper use.
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3. The receiver should be kept away from bright lights. You may put a piece of wax paper in front of photo transistor to keep the LASER from swamping it.
15. ADVANTAGES
1. Less costly 2. Circuit can be easily constructed 3. High data rate 4. No communication licenses required. 5. The laser transmission is very secure because it has a narrow beam. 6. There are no recurring line costs. 7. Compatibility with copper or fiber interfaces and no bridge or router requirements. 8. Lasers can also transmit through glass, however the physical properties of the glass have to be considered. 9. Narrow beam divergence 10.Laser transmitter and receiver units ensure easy, straightforward systems alignment and long-term stable, service free operation, especially in inaccessible environments, optical wireless systems offer ideal, economical alternative to expensive leased lines for buildings.
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16. DISADVANTAGES
1. To avoid 50Hz hum noise in the speaker, keep the phototransistor away from AC light sources such as bulbs. The reflected sunlight, however, does not cause any problem. But the sensor should not directly face the sun.
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18. APPLICATIONS
1. Using this circuit we can communicate with our neighbors wirelessly 2. It can be used in inaccessible areas. 3. In future it can be commissioned in satellites for communication. 4. It can be used in conference halls.
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19. CONCLUSION
After the successful working of the project, it can be concluded that this project is suitable for easily communication. There can be further up gradations in the project which could lead to a much better system for communication. Some of the possible ways are as follows:Instead of the short range laser, high range lasers can be used which range a few hundred meters. Provisions have to be made for cases when there is no heavy traffic.
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REFERENCES
1. [Online] // wikipedia. - www.wikipedia.com. 2. [Online] // circuitstoday. - www.circuitstoday.com. 3. [Online] // electronics schematics. - www.electroschematic.com. 4. [Online] // electronics for you. - www.efy.com. 5. D.ROY CHOUDHARY SHALIN B. JAIN LINEAR INTEGRATED CIRCUITS [Book]. - DELHI : NEW AGE INTERNATIONL PUBLISHERS, THIRD EDITION 2009. 6. ELECTRONICS FOR YOU MAGAZINE [Book]. 7. GUPTA J.B. ELECTRONICS DEVICE & CIRCUITS [Book]. - INDIA : S.K. KATARIA & SONS, FIRST EDITION DEC 2000. - Vol. 1. 8. KUMAR N. SURESH ELECTRONICS DEVICE & CIRCUITS [Book]. - 2008. 9. MEHTA V.K. PRINCIPLES OF ELECTRONICS [Book]. 10. NAVAS K.A. ELECTRONICS LAB MANUAL [Book]. - [s.l.] : Rajath publishers, 2008. - Vol. 1&2. 11. RAI A. VALLAVE ELECTRONICS DEVICE & CIRCUITS [Book]. - 2007.
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APPENDIX
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