PARALLEL OPERATION WITH A NETWORK SYSTEM

The purpose of this discussion is to address the concerns of and the techniques required to successfully parallel synchronous generators to a network. This session is expected to give you an understanding of: Generator operating configurations Control of Prime Mover speed and real power Control of Generator voltage and reactive power In simple form, a generator set connected to some load is an islanded power system, and the operation of such an islanded system has been discussed. Voltage regulation maintains constant bus voltage, and speed governing maintains constant frequency. Load on the generator set is totally determined by the load demand. With only one source of power, there are no issues with load sharing. For voltage and frequency control, the simple functions of an automatic voltage regulator (AVR) and a speed governor will suffice to keep voltage and frequency of the power system on target, accommodating changes in load demand as needed. Increases in real or reactive power will cause changes in voltage and frequency, and the control circuits will adjust fuel and excitation to restore the nominal values. There is no need for any kind of load sharing equipment such as droop compensation.

Figure 1: Islanded Power System Next up in complexity is a system of two or more generators connected to a common bus. This configuration was covered with regard to excitation control when we spoke earlier in the course about generators operating in parallel. In this configuration, voltage droop or cross current compensation were methods used to share the reactive load. In this session, we will briefly discuss the application of governor controls that will provide for droop or isochronous load sharing of the real power.

Figure 2: Multiple Paralleled Generators Finally, the operation of one or more generators in parallel with a network, such as a utility power system, is often considered the most complex generator operation mode. This mode will be the focus of this session. Networks or BusWhats the difference?? A network consists of two or more buses connected together by one or more power lines whose impedance compared to the capacity of the network generating capacity cannot be neglected. Contrast this definition with that of a bus whose impedance is so low that it can be neglected. This difference makes analyzing the networks flow of current and the voltage drop calculations much more difficult than the paralleled generators with loads all connected to a common bus. When we are able to neglect the bus resistance and reactance, the solution to current flow and voltage drops is very simple. Large electric power systems typical of our electric utility can only be analyzed by considering them to be network systems. It would not be economically feasible to transport power the way utilities currently do if the connections between loads and generators were required to have resistance and reactance negligible compared to the system capacity. With the capacity of computers to perform complex calculations very quickly, however, the analysis of power system load flow is greatly simplified compared to the slide rule days. One way to simplify the analysis of network operation is to adopt the concept of infinite bus for the network. This assumption can be used if the capacity of the network at a point of interconnection is at least 10 times greater than the capacity of equipment connecting to the network. The concept holds true when the network voltage and frequency are not changed when real and reactive currents change at the point of connection. An example is a generator connected to a network, with generator size of 100kW and the connection point being an industrial plant served by a 10MVA transformer. With the transformer being fed from a line having a capacity of 150MVA, any changes in load flow caused by fuel or excitation changes at the 100kW generator will have no measurable effect on the voltage and frequency of the transformer secondary. This is also referred to as the stiffness of the grid. 2

Figure 3: Typical Paralleled System To control the real power flow from the 100kW generator, the problem has changed from the load sharing scheme needed for multiple generators serving an isolated load. Now the control scheme must regulate the real power load from the generator to the plant bus based on some other criteria than just load sharing. To perform this function, another block is added to the basic control loop of the speed governor establishing a desired kW load setpoint and adjusting fuel to the prime mover to maintain load at the set point value. Since this control loop is closed, stability of the control system must be provided for. The block diagram in Figure 4 illustrates a common way of providing the second control loop for regulating real power load. The set point may be a fixed value at or near full load, a control system designed to maintain steam pressure to a varying load while using the excess capacity of the prime mover to generate electricity, or to keep the utility power supply below some maximum demand limit. By regulating the generator load kW, any variation in frequency from the network will cause only momentary deviation in real load until the control loop senses the deviation in load and corrects by adjusting fuel.

Figure 4: Alternative Control Strategy To help explain this approach, let's review some basic governor controls. 3

Parallel Operation Of The Governor And Real Power In paralleling multiple generators it is important to recognize that there are two fundamental control loops: the governor control loop and the voltage regulator control loop. The governor controls the real power portion of the generator, kW=EL-L* 3*I*cos. 1000 First, let's discuss the governor controls. Definitions Before one can fully retain the information to be presented, it is imperative to recognize and understand the following terms. A: Droop: Refer to Figure 5. When a prime mover has a droop governor, the prime mover simply decreases in speed as load is applied. A droop governor will usually have between 3% to 10% droop. Figure 5 illustrates a governor with 3.3% droop. Notice the no load speed is set to 62 hz and at full load the prime movers speed has decreased to 60 hz.

Figure 5: Droop Governor (3.3% droop) B: Isochronous: Refer to Figure 6. When an engine has an isochronous governor, the prime mover will maintain its set speed throughout its entire horsepower range. An isochronous governor is said to have zero droop. Figure 6 illustrates a governor with zero droop. Notice the no load speed is set at 60 hz and at full load the prime movers speed remains at 60 hz.

Figure 6: Isochronous Governor

C: Real Power is horsepower produced from the prime mover converted to kilowatts by the generator. KW=EL-L* 3*I*cos. In this formula, cos is the power factor. 1000 D: Reactive Power is the power that is required by the inductive and capacitive loads. In a purely resistive load there is no reactive power. In a paralleled system the generators can produce reactive power which circulates among the generators called circulating current. Circulating currents are not desired and are controlled by the generator excitation. Paralleled Generators and kW Load Sharing Control With two or more generators operating in parallel, the load will demand the power it requires as long as the bus voltage and frequency are maintained. From the view at the load, power supply from one generator, two generators in parallel, or a generator and a utility, the view is the same as long as the bus voltage and frequency are maintained. For two or more generators connected in parallel, we can look to the solution offered for the AVR in the talk earlier this week of voltage droop. For control of real power (kW), two generators must have the ability to adjust fuel in response to load changes while somehow allowing for adjustment of the load sharing between two generators. The most common way, and the oldest technique is to use speed droop compensation to do the job. To see what speed droop really is, lets consider a single generator connected to a variable load. If the governor is selected and adjusted to provide 5% speed droop, the governor will cause the engine speed to be a function of the real power loading as illustrated by the droop curve below.

Figure 7: Generators Paralleled to Common Bus The graph illustrates the decrease in speed that will occur at any load in kW on the generator output. To utilize this scheme with multiple generators, a very common practice with droop governors is to set one machine as the lead machine by adjusting droop to zero (Isochronous or constant speed) droop. This machine is connected to the bus first and removed only when the bus is shut down. This machine will maintain bus frequency constant at any level of load within its capacity. If the load begins to approach the maximum 5

capacity of this lead unit, a second generator is started, synchronized, and paralleled with the lead unit. The second unit may have 3-5% droop set to allow for the adjustment of load by the operator.

Figure 8: Speed Droop With speed matched and phase angle matched, the breaker may be closed, and the second unit will be operating in parallel with no load. The operator may now adjust speed up to begin taking some of the load from the lead unit. The kW load will not change with added or removed load from the bus, as all changes in load demand will be picked up by the lead unit. With increasing load, if the lead unit again approachs its maximum capacity, it will be necessary to add a third generator to the bus, again operating in droop, set to the same droop as the second generator. It will be synchronized and loaded like the second unit, operating at fixed load with changes in load demand. When load decreases and the lead unit is operating too lightly loaded, a generator (the second or third machine) must be removed from the bus by unloading it and tripping its breaker. With electric governors, it is also possible to operate two or more governors in parallel without having in droop in speed, the so-called Isochronous control. With this type of control, an external module or a built-in governor circuit connected to measure generator volts and amps is able to measure kW load on the generator it is controlling. The external module is often referred to as a load sensing module. Connections to CTs and PTs on the output of the generator supply the necessary information to the governor control. The calculated kW load of the generator is compared with a voltage from the Load Lines tying all the governors of the generators able to operate together. This voltage is representative of the total demand of the load. Using the speed adjust, the operator can set the amount of load for each generator operating in parallel. Each generator, in turn, monitors the total load using the voltage level on the load lines and adjusts fuel to keep its proportional share of load as the load varies up and down. 6

Figure 9: Governor with LSM But our real interest here is operating a generator in parallel with a network, such as a utility grid. In this case, the utility can be considered like the lead machine in our previous example, operating at a fixed frequency regardless of the load. Therefore, the generator being connected to the load bus can be equipped with a droop governor system, with droop adjusted between 3-5%, and the operator may synchronize, connect the generator in parallel with the network, and with the speed droop characteristic, the operator can increase the set point of the speed governor and take on load. Because the utility frequency is very stable, it is easy to set the desired load and expect it to remain constant. Only some change in the utility frequency would cause the load to change. Using the example of 5% droop, a change in frequency on the grid of 1% will cause a change in the generator load of 20% of the generator rating.

Figure 10: Parallel With Utility Grid 7

Instead of a droop governor, if the generator is equipped with an electric governor with isochronous load sharing capability, could the generator be paralleled and operated on the utility network? Yes, and in two different ways. One way is to equip the utility with a load sharing module (LSM) and connect the load sharing lines between the generator LSM and the utility LSM. Connected in this fashion, the utility and the generator would share the load, with the sharing ratio determined by the PT and CT ratios used to feed the two LSMs.

Figure 11: Generator and Utility with Isochronous Sharing A second way to use the Isochronous speed governor is to feed a dc voltage, adjustable by a control by the operator, to set the voltage to the LSM to load up the generator when it is connected on line. Since the speed governor LSM compares its kW load to the voltage on the load lines, the load line voltage will cause the generator to take on load until its LSM sees equal load to the load line voltage. With this connection, the kW load is maintained constant at a level determined by the operator. To operate the generator at no load, one may short out the load lines. Opening up this switch to allow a fixed voltage on the load lines then ramps up the load on the generator, but this contact should only be opened when the generator is on line and paralleled to the utility. The utility is once again acting as the lead generator and must supply the additional load as required. This mode of operation is often referred to as Base Loading, but this term is most often applied to large utility power generators used to operate the generator at or near rated load continuously for most economical operation.

Figure 12: Base Loading the Generator Another mode of operation for a generator connected to a utility is the Peak Shaving mode. In this mode of operation, it is required for the utility to supply all power up to some maximum limit, then the generator is required to pick up all load in excess of the limit. To implement this system, the LSM may be used to measure the output kW of the generator. Next, if a signal (dc voltage) is applied to the load lines representing the power demand that exceeds the limit, then the generator output will follow the variations in load that exceed the maximum limit. Using the load lines in the right way allows a versatile control of the generator loading, if a black box exists to supply the necessary signals to the LSM. This function is sometimes referred to as import control, meaning the control of power imported from the utility grid.

Figure 13: System 1 (Generator Bus Constant)

While operating the onsite generators in a peak shaving application, it might be necessary to "sequence" the generators by determining when to start a specific generator and have it start to supply load. This sequencing can be done by some external means. For example, a distributed control system might be utilized to determine which generators are to be operated at what loads and in what order. A PLC also can be used for this task, and some generator control devices can be used to accomplish this control scheme.

Figure 14: Typical load sharing interconnection 10

If the controller has a Demand Start/Stop feature, it can be utilized to determine the control of the generators. If the system demand is above the configured level setting for the specified time, and sequencing is enabled, the unit will start, close its breaker, and take on load at the programmed load rate. Note that the unit will not start if sequencing is not enabled. If the unit is the only one on the load, it will provide the full load. If the load drops below the Stop level for the specified time, the unit will unload at the programmed load rate, open its breaker, and stop. Sequencing also can be determined by parameters including Engine Run Time, Generator Size, and even the generator's Hours to Maintenane level.

Figure 15: Base Load the Utility One other mode of operation may be used, referred to as export control. In this mode, the power supplied to the utility grid may be regulated. Up to this point, all the operations we have contemplated have primarily assumed that utility power would always be supplied in some quantity to an electric supply system that happens to also include a generator. But it may be necessary in some applications to sell power to the utility. This operation causes power to flow into the utility system during operation of the generator, with the expectation that the utility will pay for the power exported from the generator. If it is required to maintain a constant flow of power from the generator, we saw that the LSM can be connected to an adjustable dc voltage on the load lines, and the governor will adjust fuel to maintain the generator load at the level commanded by the dc voltage on the load lines. It is also possible to operate in an export mode that maintains a constant power flow into the utility grid by connecting an LSM on the utility system, with CT polarity reversed from the normal connection. By measuring the power exported to the utility grid, the LSM can cause the speed governor to adjust fuel to maintain a constant utility power level. Of course, the generator must have sufficient capacity to supply all load at the generator location, plus the exported power to the utility.

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Figure 16: System 2 (Utility Bus Constant)

Figure 17: Export Power Control of Generator Load Finally, the last mode we will consider is commonly referred to as Combined Heating and Power (CHP) or Cogeneration. In some applications where steam is required for some kind of process, a prime mover can supply steam through heat recovery and generate electric power. For high efficiency of operation, it is often attractive to use the steam as the primary output from the genset and use any excess energy to generate electric power. In this case, the speed governor and LSM can be used with steam controls to regulate the supply of steam by adjusting electrical load as needed to maintain the steam flow and temperature. By supplying the load line inputs with a dc voltage corresponding to the electrical load required to support the steam supply, the load module can adjust the fuel to meet the demand.

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Figure 18: Combined Heating and Power Control In summary, a governor system to meet the needs of an application can be configured using available components from manufacturers of governing equipment. Application specialists in governor controls can assist with equipment specs and selection once you can describe for them the kind of operation you require. With the increasing availability of multifunction digital products, many of the functions needed to implement some the schemes above can be obtained in a single control system and programmed to perform the functions needed. Parallel Operation of the Excitation System To control the reactive power from the 100kW generator, a similar control loop to the speed governor kW regulator is used to measure one of two parameters of the generator; the first is reactive power flow, measured by current and voltage transformers connected in quadrature exactly like the arrangement in the droop circuit. By comparing the measured kvar load with the set point, adjustable for leading or lagging reactive load, the generator will supply a constant reactive current to the bus regardless of load demand and variation in bus voltage. To help understand what we are discussing, the power triangle is a good tool to use. Across the bottom axis is the real power expressed in Watts or Kilowatts (W or kW). Along the hypotenuse of the triangle is the apparent power expressed in Volt Amp or Kilovolt Amp (VA or kVA). The reactive power is the third leg of the triangle and is expressed as Volt Amperes reactive or Kilovolt Amperes Reactive (VArs or kVArs). The cosine of the angle is referred to as a Power Factor, a measure of the ratio of reactive power to resistive power. For power factor of 1.00, the current is in phase with the voltage, and the reactive load is zero. Power factor of 0.8 is the rating of most small to medium size

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generators, indicating that it is designed to deliver 80% of rated current as resistive load, and 60% of load current as inductive reactive load current (0.8 is cosine of 36.9 degrees, sine of 36.9 degrees is 0.6). This rating of the machine indicates the thermal capability of the stator windings on a continuous basis at maximum ambient temperature. This rating also indicates the thermal capability of the rotor windings on a continuous basis at maximum ambient temperature. The machine voltage and frequency rating give the thermal rating of the core of the machine at maximum voltage and nominal speed.

Figure 19: Power Triangle Two parameters, reactive power and power factor, are the ones that the excitation system can control. The question is then raised as to how this is done. One approach is to treat the infinite source as another generator to be paralleled to and connect the voltage regulator in the droop mode.

Figure 20: Typical Droop Connection In this method, the droop adjustment is made just as if the generator were paralleled with another generator. If there is also a step up transformer between the generator and the grid, this approach works even better due to the impedance of the transformer. Adding droop to the voltage regulator is, in a sense, like adding impedance to the line, so a large transformer helps in this type of paralleling. If the grid is not very stiff, then paralleling in the 14

droop mode may be satisfactory. This way, an operator can monitor and make adjustments as required to maintain bus voltage and reactive load sharing. Now the question is asked that if generators can be paralleled with the regulators in the droop mode, can I parallel with the regulators connected in reactive differential or cross current. The answer to this is that it is not recommended. If we review what a cross current loop looks like to the voltage regulators, we can see why. Since the regulators connected in cross current expect that a change in its compensation circuit will cause a change in the other circuits, there will not be a change in the infinite grid no matter what the regulator does.

Figure 21: Cross Current Compensation Since many generator power systems must support load in a mode not paralleled to the grid and at some point will also parallel with the grid, how can the systems be connected in cross current? The answer is that the cross current connections may be disabled when the main tie breaker is closed. Breaking the loop in any one spot will disable the cross current compensation. An example is as follows:

Figure 22: Scheme to Disable Cross Current 15

It may seem that connecting the regulators in droop to parallel to the grid is the best way to operate. However, compared to the frequency, bus voltage is subject to much greater variation, and the source of the variation may be local changes in load or network voltage variations which occur because of line losses changing with load or changes in network operating voltage from daytime to nighttime levels. Regardless of the cause, the effect on a droop compensated generator would be changing reactive load levels. Most regulators have a maximum 6-8% droop setting. If the grid voltage goes higher than the droop setting, the regulator decreases its output and a generator is paralleled and must start importing VArs to operate at the high bus voltage level. This could cause the generator to become underexcited, start slipping poles, and become damaged. Conversely, if the voltage on the grid decreases, the regulator tries to drive the voltage back to its set point. Since by definition the grid is infinite, the generator cannot restore the voltage. As the excitation increases the generator starts exporting VArs into the grid. This situation can cause excess heating of the generator rotor windings as well as the distribution transformer. This is a potentially damaging situation for the generator. Automatic VAr/Power Factor Regulation Adding a var regulator to the excitation system and operating in the var regulation mode allows maximum utilization of the generator reactive load capability independent of real power load. Alternatively, the var regulator may be set to maintain the generator reactive load at zero, if the vars are not bringing in revenue, to keep the generator as cool as possible while supplying the revenue-producing real power to the load. With VAr regulation, the changes in bus voltage which can cause VAr load variations are compensated by adjustment to the avr setpoint voltage. The result is a constant VAr load on the generator without any operating intervention.

Figure 23: Alternative Control Strategy 16

The second type of control loop measures the power factor or the angle of generator current with relation to the voltage. In this control mode, the reactive load is regulated as a percentage of the real power load, tracking any changes in real power to keep the percentage constant. This form of control is often preferred by operating personnel trained to keep the power factor constant in their manual control practices. Many generators are equipped with a power factor meter and a kW meter in addition to volts, amps and frequency. In this configuration, a var regulator can produce some readings on a pf meter which will alarm some operators trained to keep power factor to 0.8 or higher. However, use of var regulation does not add any risk to the generator if operating at rated kvar and 10% of rated kW. The power factor of this load is 0.54 pf at 84% of rated generator current. The generator is able to operate safely under at this condition. Power factor regulation may be selected as a control option if desired, but by replacing the traditional power factor meter with a var meter and regulating the reactive load, better use of machine capacity may result. There are three basic ways to add VAr/power factor regulation to an excitation system. They are: 1) 2) 3) Add additional component to the system, Integrate VAr/Power factor control into the regulator itself, and Programmable Logic Controller.

No matter which approach is used, the technique is doing one of the following: As angle changes, the power factor changes.

Figure 24: Constant kVAR Level As the kW changes, the angle stays the same, the kVAR level changes. Since we are regulating the angle, the cosine of the angle stays the same.

Figure 25: Constant Power factor Load 17

Adding an additional component to the excitation system is relatively easy. A basic block diagram is shown in Figure 26.

Figure 26: VAR/PF Controller with Static Exciter Figure 27 shows the faceplate of the Basler Electric SCP-250. Setting on the SCP-250 is from .6 power factor leading to .6 power factor lagging when in the power factor control mode.

Figure 27: SCP-250 Faceplate 18

In the VAr control mode the adjustment is either to produce or absorb VArs. The VAr range adjustment sets up the limits at either end of the potentiometer travel. Figure 28 illustrates a generator that is equipped with a solid state voltage regulator having reactive voltage droop compensation. The graph illustrates the effect of bus voltage changes on the reactive/ampere load on the generator. If the bus voltage drops by 6%, the reactive/ampere generator load will change from 0 - 75%. A further decrease in bus voltage exceeding 4% would overload the generator, causing excessive heating in the field winding as well as the power semiconductors of the automatic voltage regulator. The VAr/ PF controller regulates at a programmed operating point and is insensitive to changes in the bus voltage. Field heating increases (higher excitation current) as lagging reactive load increases. Keeping the lagging VAr load under control protects the generator field from overheating. This function can be performed by an operator, or the VAr/PF controller automates the control function.

Figure 28: Voltage Regulator Droop versus Var/PF Control Regulation Figure 28 also illustrates the condition where the bus voltage may increase, causing a leading power factor condition on the generator. Here, the voltage regulator will decrease excitation following the characteristic slope of the reactive compensation circuit. This will keep the system in synchronism. If the bus voltage rises excessively, however, leading VAr load will increase, leading to a reduction in the field excitation and causing possible loss of machine synchronism. The other two techniques used to regulate VArs or power factor follow the same basic connections of the voltage and current sensing as well as control. There is a voltage input and a current input at some phase angle difference as well as a means to turn the control on/off. As with the SCP-250, this is typically a 52b control off the main tie breaker. In PLC (Programmable Logic Controller) control, the excitation is sometimes controlled by a DC input into the regulator similar to the SCP-250. However, sometimes the PLC will have output contacts to control a motor operated potentiometer or reference adjuster to change the regulator's setpoint to change excitation. The only potential drawbacks to this approach 19

are the coordination of the overall control loop so stability is achieved and the wear and tear of a constantly moving M.O.P or reference adjuster. . There are other uses for VAr/power factor regulation. One is kVA control. kVA Control In some industrial applications such as paper mills, large induction motor loads may exist. Precious VArs are robbed from the system resulting in low power factor. Cost penalties are also often realized because of this low power factor. To improve the plant power factor, capacitors are often utilized across the line to restore kVArs. This method is very effective, but also very expensive. For paper companies where power plant generation is available, it may be desirable for these generators to restore kVArs in the system by forcing them to operate overexcited along the kVA limit of the generator. The method enables maximum utilization of the generator, especially when available kilowatts are minimum. A kVA controller is connected so the sensed voltage is shifted 30 degrees leading from the normal quadrature connection. Referencing Figure 29, an advantageous locus of operating points is obtained. As kW load decreases, the vector 0-D moves to 0-C, O-B, and finally 0-A approximately following the kVA limit of the generator. Armature and field current at 0-A is slightly greater than 0-B. The lagging kVAr has increased almost 50%, providing greater utilization of the machine. The capability curve suggests that rotor field heating may occur at minimum kilowatts. Therefore, the use of a maximum excitation limiter is suggested to override the kVA controller at exceedingly low values of kW to help ensure safe rotor field heating. The system offers a benefit in improved power factor because of the 50% increase in lagging kVAr. The percent improvement in power factor is determined by the amount of kilowatt load on the generator. The more kilowatt load, the less kVA for var improving. The VAr/Power Factor Controller regulates at a programmed quantity of VAr or power factor to assure sufficient excitation on the field under all types of load.

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Figure 29: Generator Capability Curve Figure 29 is a description of the controller's operation. A vector O-D is used to represent full .8 Power Factor output of the generator. With "var" regulation, if the kW is decreased progressively, the vector O-D will move in a horizontal manner to O-C', O-B' and finally O-A' regulating the "var" quantity regardless of kW changes. Power Factor Correction The other use is for power factor correction. Using an unloaded motor as a synchronous condenser and producing only VArs, it is possible to regulate a plant power factor compared to the utility input.

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Figure 30: Power Factor Correction It is also possible to regulate the power factor of your plant with your in-house generation.

Figure 31: In-house Generation This configuration allows the user to regulate the VArs at the point where the CT is connected. Since the power factor/VAr regulator is controlling the excitation output, there is a need to limit its range of control. On the SCP-250 the adjustment to help with this limiting is the output limit adjust. The output is 3VDC. If we limit this to some other value we limit the amount of excitation the SCP-250 can control. This, however, is not the optimum approach. A better choice is the addition of minimum and maximum excitation limits. To understand why, let's examine a synchronous generator in regard to excitation and synchronism.

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EXCITATION LIMITERS What is Generator Synchronism? The synchronous generator can be represented by a capability curve which shows the electrical watts and VAr limit of the generator. These quantities are related to the permissible temperature rise of the generator windings and the mechanical limits of the system. The electrical watts are limited by the horsepower of the prime mover and by the heating of the rotor and the stator windings. Under varying conditions, the automatic voltage regulator could command abnormally low field current due to higher than normal infinite bus voltage. If this occurs, the synchronizing torque is reduced, allowing the rotor of the synchronous machine to advance beyond a critical power angle (90 degrees) resulting in loss of generator synchronism. To better understand the term generator synchronism, imagine a rubber clutch connecting the shaft of two engines. See Figure 32. As long as the speed remains constant on both engines, the rubber clutch will lock the two shafts without distorting its own natural shape. But if one machine begins increasing speed, causing the other to lag, the clutch will be forced to stretch.

Figure 32: Two Engines Connected by a Rubber Clutch If the speed continues to increase, causing a greater speed difference, the rubber clutch will eventually stretch beyond its limits and break. The change in the relative shape of the clutch is synonymous with the power angle changing between the generator rotor and stator. In the generator at the time the power angle has advanced beyond the critical angle of 90 degrees, the system has lost synchronism. See Figure 33. The rubber clutch represents the magnetic flux between the generator rotor and stator which enables the power to be transferred from the prime mover to the distribution system.

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Figure 33: Power Relationship versus Displacement Angle The maximum allowed elasticity of the rubber clutch is defined as the stability limit of the generator, and each generator has the capability curve which defines this limit. As long as sufficient excitation is maintained in the field for the generator load, synchronism is assured.

Figure 34: Generator Reactive Capability Curve 24

Figure 35: Static Exciter Excitation Limiting Overexcitation is designed to protect the machine during operation at lagging power factor beyond the machine rating, but generally the machine limit of overexcitation is rotor overheating (high field current). To prevent rotor overheating, measuring the excitation current to the rotating field of the generator and cutting back the excitation current after some time delay is the most widely accepted way. A higher instantaneous or hard limit may also be a function included in the limiter. If excitation with very high forcing voltage is used, an instantaneous limiter can keep the excitation current during forcing to a lower level than the forcing voltage would otherwise drive it, gaining faster generator response from high forcing, both positive and negative, without need for more cost in the rotor, brushes, and slip rings to handle high forcing currents.

Figure 36: Overexcitation Limiter Limits Max. Field Current 25

To sufficiently protect the rotor, it is necessary to know the thermal capability of the rotor under worst case conditions. If the rotor is operating at maximum continuous current and the load demand moves the excitation higher, then you must know how long the field will take before temperature of the rotor exceeds its upper limit. With a curve plotting thermal limit based on full load operation prior to the higher current, the overexcitation scheme may be coordinated with the generator capability. When an older machine is upgraded with new excitation, it may not be possible to obtain the rotor thermal capacity curve to allow accurate setting of the relay. Standard practice is to choose a conservative setting to make sure limiter operation keeps the field temperature within safe limits.

Figure 37: Rotor Angle or Underexcitation Limiter Underexcitation is designed to protect the machine during operation at leading power factor. To perform its function, the underexcitation limiter measures stator voltage, current, and phase angle. The primary concern for this limiter is the possible loss of synchronization with the stator resulting from a magnetic field strength too low to keep the rotor from slipping poles. Machines operating in parallel with an electrical network are most susceptible to this possibility, mainly instigated by some fault on the network being cleared by a breaker, and the resultant fast recovery of the system voltage when low magnetic field is available to maintain the rotor angle less than 90 degrees. Internally, the rotor angle of the machine is a function of the excitation current and real power load. The rotor angle increases from zero as load increases and decreases with increased excitation current. If the rotor angle is too close to the hypothetical 90 degree angle at which pole slip is certain, a transient load change can cause rotor torque to exceed the synchronizing torque existing between the rotor and stator. By limiting excitation to give a smaller rotor angle, the possibility of pole slip is reduced. This area of limiting can contribute greatly to the ability of the machine to be used in either leading or lagging power factor operation without concern for the possibility of pole slip. Avoiding pole slip prevents very high mechanical stresses and 26

high currents from doing severe damage to the machine. The preferred characteristic for underexcitation limiting is referred to by some manufacturers as Rotor Angle Limiting. This means simply that the limiter monitors stator volts and amps, and will provide limiting to allow full stator current at leading power factors near 1.0, increasing excitation and decreasing stator current along a circular curve as the power factor moves further into the leading power factor area.

Figure 38: Stator Current Limiting To complete the machine protection, add the stator current limiter. This function accepts current from generator current transformers, and begins to reduce excitation if the stator current exceeds the maximum for too long. The time is a function of the generator thermal capacity, thus the stator current may be instantaneously limited, inverse time delay limited, or both. Setting the instantaneous limit to protect the machine for fault currents and setting the time delay for thermal protection gives a high level of protection for the machine.

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Figure 39: Combined Limiters

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