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POWER SYSTEM OPERATION AND CONTROL

SHORT QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS UNIT-I INTRODUCTION
1. What is the objective of power system control? The objective of power system control is to maintain a continuous balance between electrical generation and varying load demand while system frequency and voltage levels are maintained constant. 2. Define load. Load is defined as a device that taps energy from the network. 3. List out the types of loads. The types of loads are, i. Residential load: It consists of domestic lights, fans, heaters, refrigerators, television, radio and air-conditioners. ii. Commercial load: It covers offices, hospitals, hotels, shopping complex and theatres. iii. Industrial load: It covers small and heavy industries working on shifts. iv. Agricultural load: It occurs during the day time. v. Municipal load: it consists of street-lighting, water supply and drainage. 4. What is load curve? Load curve is the curve showing the variation of load on the power station with respect to time. It can be plotted on a graph taking load on Y-axis and time on X-axis. 5. What is load duration curve? Load duration curve is the curve obtained when the load elements of a load curve are arranged in the order of descending magnitudes 6. What is daily load curve? Daily load curve is the curve showing the variation of load on the power station with respect to various time periods in a day. It can be plotted on a graph taking load on Y-axis and time on X-axis.

7. What is monthly load curve?

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Monthly load curve is the curve showing the variation of load on the power station with respect to the period of the month. It is obtained from daily load curves of that month. 8. What is yearly load curve? Yearly load curve is the curve showing the variation of load on the power station with respect to the period of the year. It is obtained from monthly load curves of that year. 9. What is connected load? Connected load is the sum of continuous ratings of all the equipments connected to supply systems. 10. What is maximum demand? Maximum demand is the greatest of all short time interval averaged during a given period on the power station. 11. What is demand factor? Demand factor is the ratio of actual maximum demand on the system to total rated load connected to the system. 12. What is average demand? Average demand is the average of loads occurring on the power station in a given period. The types of average demands are, i. Daily average demand = (no of units generated per day)/ (24 hours) ii. Monthly average demand = (no of units generated in month)/ (no of hours in a month) iii. Yearly average demand = (no of units generated in a year)/ (no of hours in a year) 13. What is load factor? Load factor is the ratio of average load to the maximum demand during a certain period of time. 14. What is diversity factor? Diversity factor is the ratio of the sum of the individual maximum demands of all the consumers to the maximum demand of the power station. 15. What is capacity factor? Capacity factor is the ratio of the average load to the rated capacity of the power plant. Capacity factor = (actual energy generated) / (Plant capacity x Number of Hours)

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16. What is plant use factor? Plant use factor or plant operating factor is the ratio of the actual energy generated during a given period to the product of capacity of plant and actual number of operating hours. 17. What is utilization factor? Utilization factor is the measure of utility of the power plant capacity. It is the ratio of maximum demand to the rated capacity of the power plant. It is less than unity. 18. What is the need for voltage regulation in power system? The need for voltage regulation in power system is to maintain the voltage at the load terminals within prescribed limits under fluctuating load conditions by employing suitable voltage control equipment. 19. What are plant level controls? Plant level controls are, i. Prime mover control. ii. Excitation control. 20. What is the purpose of system level control? The purpose of system level control is to balance the total system generation against system load and losses so that the desired frequency and power interchange with neighboring systems are maintained .

UNIT-II REAL POWER FREQUENCY CONTROL

1. What is the function of load frequency control? The function of load frequency control is to change the control valve or gate opening of the prime movers as a function of load variations in order to hold system frequency constant. 2. How is the real power in a power system controlled? The real power in a power system is controlled by controlling the driving torques of the individual turbines in the system. 3. How can the flow of high pressure steam controlled? High pressure steam flow can be controlled by controlling the position of control valve or gate. 4. What is meant by fly ball speed governor? Fly ball governor is a purely mechanical speed-sensitive device coupled directly to the hydraulic amplifier which adjusts the control valve opening via the linkage mechanism.

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5. What is the purpose of speed changer? The purpose of speed changer is to restore the frequency to the initial value after operation of the speed governors having steady state characteristics. 6. Define inertia constant. Inertia constant is defined as the ratio of kinetic energy stored in the rotor to the MVA rating of the generator. 7. Define regulation. Regulation is defined as percentage rise in voltage when full load at the specified power factor is switched off, the excitation being adjusted initially to give normal voltage. 8. State any two necessities to put alternators in parallel. Alternators put in parallel because of the following reasons: i. Local or regional power use may exceed the power of a single available generation. ii. Parallel alternators allow one or more units to be shut down for scheduled or emergency maintenance while the load is being supplied with power. 9. Give two conditions for proper synchronizing of alternators. The conditions for proper synchronization are: i. The terminal voltage of the incoming machine must be exactly equal to that of the others or of the bus bars connecting them. ii. The speed of the incoming machine must be search that its frequency equals to the bus bar frequency. 10. Define per unit droop. The per unit droop or speed regulation (R) of the generating unit is defined as the magnitude of the change in steady state speed, expressed in p.u. of rated speed, when the output of the unit gradually reduced from 1.0 p.u. rated power to zero. p.u. regulation, Rp.u. = [(f2-f1) / fr] / [PGR/Pr] p.u. Where, f1 = Frequency at rated megawatt output, Hz. f2 = Frequency at no-load, Hz. PGR= Generated power at the unit R. Pr = MW base. 11. Write the tie-line power deviation equation in terms of frequency. The tie-line power deviation equation is given by, Ptie,1= 2 T12 [f1dt - f2dt] Where, T12 = Synchronizing power coefficient f1, f2 are incremental frequency changes of areas 1 and 2 respectively.

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12. What is meant by control area? Control area is a coherent area in which the generators are tightly coupled together. The frequency is assumed to be the same throughout in static as well as dynamic conditions. 13. State the basic role of ALFC. Basic role of Automatic Load Frequency Control is to maintain desired megawatt output of a generator unit and assist in controlling the frequency of the larger interconnection. 14. Differentiate static and dynamic response of an ALFC loop. Static response Dynamic response It will inform about accuracy of It will inform about stability of the loop frequency 15. What is meant by AFRC? Area frequency response coefficient (AFRC) is defined as the ratio between the incremental disturbance input and change in steady state frequency. It is equal to the addition of load damping constant and inverse of regulation. 16. State whether changes in AVR loop will be reflected in ALFC loop. Changes in automatic voltage regulation loop must be felt in automatic load frequency control loop as the internal e.m.f. (affected by AVR loop) determines the magnitude of the ideal power. 17. What are the assumptions made in dynamic response of uncontrolled case? The assumptions made in dynamic response of uncontrolled case are, i. The turbine dynamics are neglected ii. Speed changer action is instantaneous 18. Explain the principle of tie-line bias control. Principle of tie-line bias control is given below. All operating pool members must contribute their share to frequency control in addition to taking care of their own net interchange. 19. What is area control error? Area control error (ACE) is the change in area frequency when used in integral control loop forced the steady state frequency error to zero. ACE = Ptie + b f Where, Ptie = change in tie-line power, f = change in frequency, b = area frequency bias.

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20. Write the equation governing the movement of point C in speed governing mechanism? Movement of point C is given by, XC= -k1kc PC + k2f Where, k1, k2, and kc are constants used in speed governor. PC = change in real power f = change in frequency

UNIT-III REACTIVE POWER VOLTAGE CONTROL

1. List the various components of AVR loop? The components of automatic voltage regulator loop are exciter, comparator, amplifier, rectifier and synchronous generator. 2. What are the types of excitation system? The types of excitation system are, i. D.C. excitation system ii. A.C. excitation system iii. Static excitation system 3. What is the condition to determine K value in AVR loop? The condition of K value in automatic voltage regulator is given by, K > (100/P) -1 Where, P is the percentage setting of ratio between change in error voltage to reference voltage. 4. What are the effects of AVR loop? The effects of automatic voltage regulator loop are, i. Automatic voltage regulator must regulate the terminal voltage |V| within required static accuracy limit. ii. Automatic voltage regulator must have sufficient speed response. iii. Automatic voltage regulator must be stable. 5. What is the significance of stability compensation in AVR loop? The significance of stability compensation in automatic voltage regulator loop is to improves the dynamic response characteristics without affecting the static loop gain. 6. What is the disadvantage of switched capacitors are employed for compensation? When switched capacitors are employed for compensation, these should be disconnected immediately under light load conditions to avoid excessive voltage rise and Ferro resonance in presence of transformers. 7. What are the methods of increasing AVR response?

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The methods of increasing AVR response are, i. Provision of separate excitation for the self excited exciter. ii. Increase of ceiling voltage by decreasing the permanent external field circuit resistance or by increasing excitation voltage E. iii. Reduction of number of field turns to reduce the time constant. iv. Increase of both excitation voltage and field resistance in the same ratio, so that ceiling voltage is unaltered but time constant reduces. v. Provision of new armature winding for higher voltage operation. 8. Distinguish between on load and off load tap changing. On load tap changing Off load tap changing It requires the disconnection of The voltage is maximum value and transformer when the tap setting is to since the currents are divided equally be changed and flow in opposition through the coils, the resultant flux is zero and hence the impedance will be minimum

9. What is synchronous condenser? Synchronous condenser is a synchronous motor running at no-load and having excitation adjustable over a wide range. It feeds positive VARs into the line under overexcited conditions and negative VARs when under excited. 10. Write about static VAR compensator (SVC). Static VAR Compensator (SVC) comprise capacitor bank fixed or switched or fixed capacitor bank and switched reactor bank in parallel. These compensators draw reactive power from the line thereby regulating voltage, improve stability (steady state and dynamic), control overvoltage and reduce voltage and current unbalances. In HVDC application these compensators provide the required reactive power and damp out sub harmonic oscillations. 11. What are static VAR switches or systems? Static VAR switches or systems are Static VAR compensators which use switching for VAR control. It means that terminology wise SVC=SVS. 12. Give some of the static compensators schemes. Schemes of static compensators i. Saturated reactor ii. Thyristor- Controlled Reactor (TCR) iii. Thyristor Switched capacitor (TSC) iv. Combined TCR and TSC compensator. 13. What is tap changing transformers?

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Tap changing transformers are the power transformers and many distribution transformers which have taps in one or more windings for changing the turns ratio. 14. Write the types of tap changing transformers. Types of tap changing transformers i. Off- load tap changing transformers. ii. Tap changing under load transformers. 15. What are static shunt compensators? Static shunt compensators (capacitors) fall into the class of active components. They have no moving parts. They are used for surge-impedance compensation and for compensation by sectioning in long distance, high voltage transmission systems. 16. What is synchronous condenser? Synchronous condenser is the synchronous motor operating on no load condition. It feeds positive VARs into the line when over-excited conditions and feeds negative VARs when under-excited. 17. What are the methods of voltage control? The methods of voltage control are, i. Excitation control. ii. Static shunt capacitors. iii. Static series capacitors. iv. Static shunt reactors. v. Synchronous condensers. vi. Tap changing transformer. vii. Booster transformer. viii. Regulating transformer ix. Static VAR compensators 18. Compare shunt and series capacitors? Shunt Capacitors Series capacitors 1. The function of shunt capacitor 1. These are used to reduce inductive applied as the single unit or in reactance between supply point and groups of units is to supply lagging load. KVAR to the system at the point where they are connected. 2. It is mainly used for power factor 2. It is mainly used to compensate the correction at the load terminal of effect of series reactance. low voltage. 3. If the load VAR requirement is 3. If the load VAR requirement is small, shunt capacitors are of high small, series capacitors are of small

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use. use. 4. If the total line reactance is high, 4. If the total line reactance is high, shunt capacitors are not effective series capacitors are very effective and stability is improved.

19. Where are synchronous condensers installed? Synchronous condenser is installed to the tertiary winding of the main transformer for voltage and reactive power control at both transmission and subtransmission levels. A neutral point is provided by the earthing transformer. 20. What are the advantages of synchronous compensators? The advantages of synchronous compensators are, i. Flexibility of operation for all load conditions. ii. As the losses are considerable compared with static capacitors and the
power factor is not zero.

21. What are the disadvantages of synchronous compensators? The disadvantages of synchronous compensators are, i. Cost of installation is high. ii. Losses of synchronous condensers are much higher compared to those
of capacitors.

22. What are the properties of static compensators? The properties of static compensators are, i. Maintain voltage at or near a constant level. ii. Improve power system stability. iii. Improve power factor. iv. Correct phase unbalance 23. What is meant by regulating transformer? Regulating transformer is the transformer which is designed for small adjustment of voltage instead of changing the voltage levels. It consists of 3 phase autotransformer (or) exciting transformer and series transformers. 24. What is booster transformer? Booster transformer is a compensating device which gives as in-phase boost similar to tap changing transformer. 25. What is SVC? Static VAR compensators are located in receiving substations and distribution systems for smooth and stepless variation of compensation of reactive power injected into line, by shunt capacitors and shunt reactors.

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26. What are the types of SVCs? The types of static VAR compensators are, i. Reactors with DC controlled saturation. ii. Thyristor controlled shunt reactors. iii. Thyristor controlled high impedance transformer. iv. Thyristor controlled reactor compensator.

UNIT-IV UNIT COMMITMENT AND ECONOMIC DISPATCH

1. Define unit commitment. Unit commitment is defined as the optimum allocation of generators at each generating station at various station load levels. 2. What is the need for unit commitment? Unit commitment is needed because, i. Enough units will be committed to supply the system load. ii. To reduce the loss or fuel cost. iii. By running the most economic unit, the load can be supplied by that unit operating closer to its best efficiency.

3. What are the difficulties to find unit commitment solution? The difficulties to find unit commitment solution are i. Time consuming process. ii. If the number of units are more, the number of combinations is more in a complex bus system (2n-1). 4. List the constraints that are accounted in unit commitment problem. The constraints that are accounted in unit commitment problem are, i. Spinning reserve ii. Thermal constrains a) Minimum uptime b) Minimum downtime c) Crew constraint iii. Other constrains a) Hydro constraint b) Must run constraint c) Fuel constraint 5. What is meant by priority list method?

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Priority list method is the simplest unit commitment solution method which consists of creating a priority list of units. They priority list can be obtained by noting the full-load average production cost of each unit. 6. What are the assumptions for priority list method using full load average production cost? The assumptions for priority list method using full load average production cost are i. No load costs are zero. ii. Unit input-output characteristics are linear between zero output and full load. iii. Start-up costs are fixed amount. iv. Ignore minimum up time and down time. 7. What are the merits and demerits of priority list method? The merits of priority list method are, i. No need to go for N combinations. ii. Take only one constraint. iii. Ignore minimum up time and down time. iv. Complication reduced. Demerits of priority list method are, i. Start-up costs are fixed amount. ii. No-load costs are not considered. 8. What is the purpose of economic load dispatch? The purpose of economic load dispatch is to minimize the fuel costs for the power system 9. What do you meant by base load method? In base load method, the most efficient unit is loaded to its maximum capability, then the second most efficient unit is loaded, etc. 10. What is total generating cost? Total generating cost is the total cost includes the cost of fuel cost, cost of transmission loss, labour and maintenance costs. 11. What are the factors affecting the cost of generation? The factors affecting the cost of generation are, i. Equality constraint. ii. Inequality constraint. a. Generator constraint. b. Voltage constraint. c. Running space capacity constraints. d. Transformer tap settings. e. Transmission line constraints.

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12. What is legrangian multiplier? Legrangian multiplier is the ratio between the incremental fuel cost to the change in power. Legrangian multiplier for all generating stations be equal for minimum cost operating condition. 13. What are the assumptions for deriving loss coefficients? The assumptions for deriving loss coefficients are, i. The ratio X/R for all transmission line is same. ii. The phase angle of all the load currents is the same. 14. What are the assumptions made in dynamic programming problem? The assumptions made in dynamic programming problem are given below. i. A state consists of an array of units with specified units operating and the rest of the time. ii. The startup cost of a unit is independent of the time it has been offline. iii. There are no costs for shutting down the units. 15. Define long range hydro scheduling problem. Long range hydro scheduling problem is defined as the problem involves the long range of water availability and scheduling of reservoir water releases. For an interval of time that depends on the reservoir capacities. 16. What are the optimization techniques for long range hydro scheduling problem? The optimization techniques for long range hydro scheduling problem are i. Dynamic programming ii. Composite hydraulic simulation methods iii. Statistical production cost. 17. Define short range hydro scheduling problem. Short range hydro scheduling problem is defined as the hour by hour scheduling of all generators on a system to achieve minimum production condition for the given time period. 18. Define system blackout problem. System blackout problem is defined as the event occurs on a system that leaves it operating with limits violated; the event may be followed by a series of further actions that switch other equipment out of service. If the process of cascading failures continues, the entire system of it may completely collapse. 19. What is meant by cascading outages?

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Cascading outages are the process if one of the remaining lines is now too heavily loaded, it may open due to relay action, thereby causing even more load on the remaining lines.

UNIT-V COMPUTER CONTROL OF POWER SYSTEM

1. What are the functions of control center? The functions of control center are i. System monitoring ii. Contingency analysis iii. Security constrained optimal power flow. 2. What is the function of system monitoring? a. Function of system monitoring is to provide updated information about the power system. 3. What is SCADA system? SCADA stands for supervisory control and data acquisition system. It allows a few operators to monitor the generation and high voltage transmission systems and to take action to correct overloads. 4. What are the states of power system? The states of power system are i. Normal state ii. Alert mode iii. Contingency mode iv. Emergency mode. 5. Define normal mode. Normal mode is defined as the mode of operation if the system is in secure even the occurrence of all possible outages has been simulated the system remain secure. 6. Define alert mode. Alert mode is defined as the mode of operation of the system that it does not remain in the secure for the occurrence of all possible outages. 7. What are the distribution factors? The distribution factors are i. Line outage distribution factor ii. Generation outage distribution factor. 8. Define state estimation.

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State estimation is defined as the process of assigning a value to an unknown system state variable based on measurements from that system according to some criteria. 9. Define maximum likelihood criterion. Maximum likelihood criterion is defined as the problem of maximizing the probability that estimate the state variable x, is the true value of the state variable vector (i.e, to maximize the P(x) = x). 10. Define weighted least-squares criterion. Weighted least-squares criterion is defined as the problem of minimizing the sum of the squares of the weighted deviations of the estimated measurements, from the actual measurement. 11. Define minimum variance criterion. Minimum variance criterion is defined as the problem of minimizing the expected value of the squares of the deviations of the estimated components of the state variable vector from the corresponding components of the true state variable vector. 12. Define must run constraint. Must run constraint is defined as the condition that some units are given a must run status during certain times of the year for reason of voltage support on the transmission network. 13. Define fuel constraint. Fuel constrain is defined as the condition if a system in which some units have limited fuel or else have constraints that require them to burn aspecified amount of fuel in a given time. 14. What are the assumptions made in priority list method? The assumptions made in priority list method are i. No load cost is zero ii. Unit input-output characteristics are linear between zero output and full load iii. There are no other restrictions startup cost are affixed amount. 15. State the advantages of forward dynamic programming approach. Advantage of forward DP approach is given below. If the start up cost of a unit is a function of the unit is a function of the time it has been offline, then a forward dynamic program approach is more suitable since the previous history of the unit can be computed at each stage. 16. State the disadvantages of dynamic programming method.

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The disadvantage of dynamic programming method is that it has the necessity of forcing the dynamic programming solution to search over a small number of commitment states to reduce the number of combinations that must be tested in each period. 17. What are the known values in short term hydro scheduling problem? Known values in short term hydro scheduling problem are i. The load ii. Hydraulic inflows iii. Unit availabilities. 18. What is meant by telemetry system? Telemetry system is the process of measurement of state of the system and transmission of these states to a control center. 19. What are the functions of security constrained optimal power flow? The functions of security constrained optimal power flow are i. Contingency analysis is combined with an optimal power flow which seeks to make changes to the optimal dispatch of generation ii. As well as other adjustments, so that when a security analysis is run, no contingency result in violations. 20. Define the state of optimal dispatch. The state of optimal dispatch is defined as the state that the power system is in prior to any contingency. It is optimal with respect to economic operation but may not be secure. 21. Define post contingency. Post contingency is defined as the state of the power system after a contingency has occurred. 22. Define secure dispatch. Secure dispatch is defined as the state of the power system with no contingency outages, but with correction to the operating parameters to account for security violations. 23. What are the priorities for operation of modern power system? The priorities for operation of modern power system are i. Operating the system in such a way that power is delivered reliably ii. Within the constraints placed on the system operation by reliability considerations, the system will be operated most economically. 24. What is meant by linear sensitivity factor method?

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Linear sensitivity factor method is the easiest way to provide quick calculation of possible overloads because many outages become very difficult to solve if it is desired to present the results quickly. 25. What are linear sensitivity factors? Linear sensitivity factors are i. Generation shift factors ii. Line outage distribution factors. 26. What is the use of line distribution factor? Line distribution factor is used to apply to the testing for overloads when transmission circuits are lost.