History of Psychology (387 BC to Present)

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Plato suggested that the brain is the mechanism of mental processes. Aristotle suggested that the heart is the mechanism of mental processes. Franz Mesmer detailed his cure for some mental illness, originally called mesmerism and now known as hypnosis. Philippe Pinel released the first mental patients from confinement in the first massive movement for more humane treatment of the mentally ill. Franz Gall wrote about phrenology (the idea that a person's skull shape and placement of bumps on the head can reveal personality traits. Ernst Heinrich Weber published his perception theory of 'Just Noticeable DIfference,' now known as Weber's Law. Phineas Gage suffered brain damage when an iron pole pierces his brain. His personality was changed but his intellect remained intact suggesting that an area of the brain plays a role in personality. Charles Darwin published the On the Origin of Species, detailing his view of evolution and expanding on the theory of 'Survival of the fittest.' French physician Paul Broca discovered an area in the left frontal lobe that plays a key role in language development. Sir Francis Galton, Influenced by Charles Darwin's 'Origin of the Species,' publishes 'Hereditary Genius,' and argues that intellectual abilities are biological in nature. Carl Wernicke published his work on the frontal lobe, detailing that damage to a specific area damages the ability to understand or produce language G. Stanley Hall received the first American Ph.D. in psychology. He later founded the American Psychological Association. Wilhelm Wundt founded the first formal laboratory of Psychology at the University of Leipzig, marking the formal beginning of the study of human emotions, behaviors, and cognitions.

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The first laboratory of psychology in America is established at Johns Hopkins University. Herman Ebbinghaus introduced the nonsense syllable as a means to study memory processes. Sigmund Freud began performing therapy in Vienna, marking the beginning of personality theory. The term "Mental Tests" was coined by James Cattell, beginning the specialization in psychology now known as psychological assessment. Sir Francis Galton developed the technique known as the correlation to better understand the interrelationships in his intelligence studies. William James published 'Principles of Psychology,' that later became the foundation for functionalism. New York State passed the State Care Act, ordering indigent mentally ill patients out of poor-houses and into state hospitals for treatment and developing the first institution in the U.S. for psychiatric research. Foundation of the American Psychological Association (APA) headed by G. Stanley Hall, with an initial membership of 42. Alfred Binet founded the first laboratory of psychodiagnosis. Writings by John Dewey began the school of thought known as functionalism. The first psychological clinic was developed at the University of Pennsylvania marking the birth of clinical psychology. Edward Thorndike developed the 'Law of Effect,' arguing that "a stimulusresponse chain is strengthened if the outcome of that chain is positive." Sigmund Freud published 'Interpretation of Dreams' marking the beginning of Psychoanalytic Thought. The British Psychological Society was founded. Alfred Binet's Intelligence Test was published in France.

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The Journal of Abnormal Psychology was founded by Morton Prince. Ivan Pavlov published the first studies on Classical Conditioning. Alfred Adler left Freud's Psychoanalytic Group to form his own school of thought, accusing Freud of overemphasizing sexualityand basing his theory on his own childhood. Edward Thorndike published first article on animal intelligence leading to the theory of Operant Conditioning. William Stern developed the original formula for the Intelligence Quotient (IQ) after studying the scores on Binet's intelligence test. The formula is

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Max Wertheimer published research on the perception of movement, marking the beginnings of Gestalt Psychology. John E. Watson published 'Psychology as a Behaviorist Views It' marking the beginnings of Behavioral Psychology. Carl G. Jung departed from Freudian views and developed his own theories citing Freud's inability to acknowledge religion and spirituality. His new school of thought became known as Analytical Psychology. Stanford-Binet intelligence test was published in the United States. Robert Yerkes (President of APA at the time) developed the Army Alpha and Beta Tests to measure intelligence in a group format. The tests were adopted for use with all new recruits in the U.S. military a year later. John B. Watson and Rosalie Rayner published the Little Albert experiments, demonstrating that fear could be classically conditioned. Psychological Corporation launched the first psychological test development company, not only commercializing psychological testing, but allowing testing to take place at offices and clinics rather than only at universities and research facilities. Wolfgang Kohler published 'The Mentality of Apes' which became a major component of Gestalt Psychology.

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Anna Freud, daughter of Sigmund Freud, published her first book expanding her father's ideas in the treatment of children. Wolfgang Kohler criticizes behaviorism in his publication on Gestalt Psychology. Jean Piaget published 'The Moral Judgment of Children' beginning his popularity as the leading theorist in cognitive development. Walter B. Cannon coined the term homeostasis and began research on the fight or flight phenomenon. Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) was published by Henry Murray. Egas Moniz published his work on frontal lobotomies as a treatment for mental illness. Electroshock therapy was first used on a human patient. Wechsler-Bellevue Intelligence Test was published which eventually became the most widely used intellectual assessment. The Canadian Psychological Associated was founded. Carl Rogers published 'Counseling and Psychotherapy' suggesting that respect and a non-judgmental approach to therapy is the foundation for effective treatment of mental health issues. Jean Piaget published 'Psychology of Intelligence' discussing his theories of cognitive development. Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) was developed and fast became the most widely researched and widely accepted psychological assessment device. The state of Connecticut passed licensure legislation for psychologists, becoming the first state to recognize psychology as a protected practice oriented profession. The Journal of Clinical Psychology was founded. Karen Horney published her feministic views of psychoanalytic theory,

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marking the beginning of feminism. 1949 Boulder Conference outlines scientist-practitioner model of clinical psychology, looking at the M.D. versus Ph.D. used by medical providers and researchers, respectively. Erik Erikson published 'Childhood and Society,' where he expands Freud's Theory to include social aspects of personality development across the lifespan. A study on psychotherapy efficacy was published by Hans Eysenck suggesting that therapy is no more effective that no treatment at all. This prompted an onslaught of outcome studies which have since shown psychotherapy to be an effective treatment for mental illness. The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) was published by The American Psychiatric Associationmarking the beginning of modern mental illness classification. Chlorpromazine (Thorazine) first used in the treatment of schizophrenia. B.F. Skinner outlined behavioral therapy, lending support for behavioral psychology via research in the literature. Code of Ethics for Psychologists was developed by the American Psychological Association. Abraham Maslow helped to found Humanistic Psychology and later developed his famous Hierarchy of Needs. Leon Festinger proposed his theory of 'Cognitive Dissonance' and later became an influence figure in Social Psychology. John Berry introduced the importance of cross-cultural research bringing diversity into the forefront of psychological research and application. Carl Rogers published 'On Becoming a Person,' marking a powerful change in how treatment for mental health issues is conducted. Alfred Bandura introduced the idea of Observational Learning on the development of personality. Lawrence Kolberg introduced his ideas for the sequencing of morality

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development. 1967 Aaron Beck published a psychological model of depression suggesting that thoughts play a significant role in the development and maintenance of depression. DSM II was published by the American Psychiatric Association. First Doctor of Psychology (Psy.D.) professional degree program in Clinical Psychology was established in the Department of Psychology at The University of Illinois - Urbana/Champaign. Joseph Wolpe published 'The Practice of Behavior Therapy.' First Doctorate in Psychology (Psy.D.) awarded (from The University of Illinois - Urbana/Champaign). APA endorsed the Psy.D. degree for professional practice in psychology. DSM III published by the American Psychiatric Association. Howard Gardner (professor at Harvard University) introduced his theory of multiple intelligence, arguing that intelligence is something to be used to improve lives not to measure and quantify human beings. American Psychological Society established. The emergence of managed care prompts the APA to become more political, leading to the idea of Prescribing Psychologists and equity in mental health coverage. DSM IV published by the American Psychiatric Association. First Psychologists prescribe medication through the U.S. military's psychopharmacology program. Deep Blue, the supercomputer at the time, beats the World's best chess player, Kasparov, marking a milestone in the development of artificial intelligence. Psychology advances to the technological age with the emergence of etherapy.

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Psychologists in Guam gain prescription privileges for psychotropic medication. New Mexico becomes the first state to pass legislation allowing licensed psychologists to prescribe psychotropic medication. The push for mental health parity gets the attention of the White House as President George W. Bush promotes legislation that would guarantee comprehensive mental health coverage.

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A Brief History of Psychology I

from Descartes to Wundt

The Two Roots of Scientific Psychology

Philosophy -- the mother of all sciences Physiology -- the study of the functioning of the body

Although we could begin our history as far back in time as the ancient Greek philosophers (ca 300 BC), we will actually start with one man, living in France in the first half of the 17th century, who embodied both roots of scientific psychology: Rene Descartes.
Rene Descartes

The Body as a Machine o The Reflex Arc Stimulus leads to response via a chain of physical causes and effects that runs from sensory receptors through the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) and back out again to the muscles. In Descartes' proposal, the stimulus pulled on tiny wires running up the nerves to the brain. These tugs popped open little valves in the brain, allowing animal spirits (cerebral-spinal fluid) to enter the hollow nerve-tubes leading to the appropriate muscles. The fluid inflated the muscles, causing them to shorten and moving the limb, producing the response. This particular conception proved to be incorrect, but the basic conception of stimulus leading to response via a physical mechanism was a great advance over magical thinking. o Interactive Dualism Descartes assumed that all of animal behavior could be explained in terms of chains of stimulus-response reflexes. The animals were assumed to have no mind, consciousness, or ability to reason. In this conception, the animal's behavior is fully determined by its machinery, leaving no room for the exercise of free will. Descartes assumed that in humans, some behavior was similarly produced by reflex mechanisms. However, he believed that humans could also act voluntarily, of their own free will. Thus, in his model of the human being, he included an additional element not found in his model of the animal: the soul. The general idea

that the human being consists of two distinct entities, body and soul, is known as dualism. The soul was assumed to receive sensory information by means of vibrations in the "animal spirits" that were conveyed to the conarium (pineal gland) in the brain. It could then initiate voluntary actions by moving the conarium so as to direct the animal spirits down the appropriate nerve-tubes to the muscles. Because sensory experience could be conveyed to the soul (via the conarium) and movements initiated by the soul (again via the conarium), this particular version of dualism is referred to as interactive dualism. The body and soul are separate but interact, or affect each other, in the brain (specifically at the conarium). It is important to note that Descartes gave the soul only the ability to reason, decide, and initiate voluntary action. He suggested that other properties of mind, such as sensation, memory, and emotion, were products of the mechanisms of the brain. Descartes' Rationalism o Descartes was trained in the scholastic tradition, which held that all that man was meant to know had already been recorded in the writings of church theologans and the ancient Greek and Roman philosophers. Thus, if you wanted the truth about some matter, you simply looked it up in some ancient manuscript. o Sometimes, however, different sources seemed to conflict. It was the job of the scholastic to use logical argument to reconcile the differences, which were assumed to be only apparent, not real differences, as God could not contradict himself, and these works were assumed to represent God's Truth. o By Descartes' time, some scholars were beginning to question this idea. His own investigations convinced Descartes that those old Greek philosophers were only too human, and just as capable of making mistakes as anyone else. Thus, you could not trust their writings to provide absolute truth. Relying on such authorities for the truth about a matter is called the method of authority. o Dissatisfied with the method of authority, Descartes searched for a method that would be guaranteed to give true answers to certain philosophical questions. Finally, he found a method that satisfied him. We call it the rational method, or rationalism. o Rationalism begins with a search for self-evident truths, statements that must be true, because assuming them to be false leads to a logical

contradiction. For example, if I am thinking, then I must exist. ( cogito, ergo sum, I think, therefore I am.) Such must-be-true statements can then be used as assumptions, from which one can deduce (using deductive logic) conclusions that must also be true. Assumption: I exist. Assumption: That which exists must have been created. Conclusion: A Creator (God) must exist. The use of deduction here is important, because if the assumptions are true, and one does not make a logical mistake, then deduction yields a conclusion that must also be true.

Francis Bacon

Although Descartes often relied on his senses for information about the physical world, he did not fully trust them to provide absolute truth: After all, the senses can lie (consider illusions!). However, Francis Bacon believed that it is only through the senses that we can come to know anything about the workings of the physical universe. The idea that all such knowledge ultimately must come from observation is called empiricism. Bacon suggested that by making repeated, careful observations of physical phenomena, eventually one would be able to perceive the regularities -- what leads to what, under what conditions. These regularities would provide the basis for formulating universal laws that describe how the universe works. Although Bacon admitted that individual observations could be in error, he believed that this limitation could be overcome by having multiple observers independently observe the same phenomena. It would be unlikely that all would be subject to the same illusions or delusions. The agreement of independent observers would establish the reliability of the observations. This empirical method makes use of induction, in which observation of specific cases leads to the formulation of general principles which are then assumed to apply universally, not just to those cases on which the priinciples were originally based. Unfortunately, unlike deduction, induction is not guaranteed to produce true conclusions. Further observations that conform to a general principle can only support it; they can never prove that the general principle is true. However, the principle can be proven false by a singlecounterexample. For example, observation of thousands of white swans supports the general principle that all swans are white. The more confirming evidence one obtains, the more confidence one may have that the principle is true. Yet only a single example of a black swan will make the principle false.

As we will be learning, science is based on a combination of authority, induction from observations, and deduction. Because scientific theories are developed based on empirical

observations and induction, we can never be certain that a given theory is true -- only that it does or does not do a good job of explaining and predicting those phenomena with which it deals. In the history of science, even some highly confirmed theories (e.g., Newton's mechanics) have ultimately had to be replaced when new data conflicted with theoretical predictions. John Locke and the British Empiricists

No, it's not a 60's British Rock Band! John Locke was a Scottish philosopher who believed that the mind at birth is a tablula rosa, or blank tablet, on which experience writes. For Locke, even the newborn's sensory experiences would consist of a confusing mass of raw, primitive sensations, making no sense. Everything the person comes to know and to understand, Locke asserted, must arise solely through the person's experience with world around him or her. We can classify Locke in this regard as an extreme empiricist -- all knowledge comes from experience. (In contrast, Bacon was only talking about how we adults can discover scientific laws.) The opposite view, that at least some of our knowledge is inborn, present at birth, is called nativism . Descartes, for example, believed that we are born with at least some knowledge about the physical universe, including an understanding of certain principles of geometry [!] and the concept of God. (The degree to which any characteristic is determined by one's inheritance versus the influence of one's environment was later described by Francis Galton the question of nature versus nurture. It appears, for example, in the debate concerning to degree to which one's intelligence is open to improvement through learning.) Locke did not address the question of how one got from a newborn infant, incapable even of making sense of its own raw sensations, to a mature adult, capable of understanding all sorts of complex concepts, even abstract ones like justice. The job of explaining how this happens was taken up by a series of British philosophers spanning the 17th to 19th centuries, who with Locke have come to be known as the British Empiricists. The British Empiricists proposed the following theory to explain all this: o simple sensations (like redness or roundness) give rise to simple ideas in the mind. o When simple ideas occur together in the mind, they tend to become associated, or linked together so that, when one idea comes to mind, so do the others associated with it. o These associated ideas may form a complex idea in the mind. For example, the complex idea of a brick is made up of the simple ideas of redness, roughness, heaviness, and rectangularity, which have been experienced together repeatedly when viewing bricks.

Wilhelm Wundt: The Founding of Psychology as a Science

Wundt worked as a professor during the later portion of the 19th century at the University of Leipsig in Leipsig, Germany and had interests in both physiology and philosophy. Possessing an intimate knowledge of experimental method as a result of his physiological training and a keen interest in the conscious mind, Wundt was in an ideal position to attempt the separation of psychology (the study of the psyche or mind) from philosophy by making psychology a scientific discipline. He founded the first laboratory in experimental psychology at the University of Leipsig in 1979. Today we date the founding of the science of psychology to this event. His early investigations included the use of introspection (a technique in which you attempt to observe and record the contents of your own mind inder various carefully controlled conditions), as well as controlled experiments in which the data were derived from measurement of objective behavior. In his experiments on mental chronography, for example, subjects' reaction times to the occurence of a stimulus were used to estimate the duration of a mental process. Wundt presented his findings in public lectures and soon had people packing the hall to hear about the latest theories or experiments. Soon many others were setting up their own laboratories in experimental psychology and taking up the new science.