Chapter II Review of Related Literature and Studies The researchers topic tackles about the Amicable Pair.

In this chapter, you will see some of the related literature and studies about the topic. Related Literatures: Proper Divisors A positive proper divisor is a positive divisor of a number , excluding itself. For example, 1, 2, and 3 are positive proper divisors of 6, but 6 itself is not. The number of proper divisors of is therefore given by

where

is the divisor function. For

, 2, ...,

is therefore given by 0, 1, 1, 2, 1, 3, 1, 3, , 3, ... are 1, 1, 2, 1, 3, 1, 4, 3, 5,

2, 3, ... (Sloane's A032741). The largest proper divisors of 1, ... (Sloane's A032742).

The term "proper divisor" is sometimes used to include negative integer divisors of a number (excluding while ). Using this definition, , , , 1, 2, and 3 are the proper divisors of 6,

and 6 are the improper divisors.

To make matters even more confusing, the proper divisor is often defined so that are also excluded. Using this alternative definition, the proper divisors of 6 would then be 2, and 3, and the improper divisors would be , , 1, and 6.

and 1 , ,

(Source: Derbyshire, J. Prime Obsession: Bernhard Riemann and the Greatest Unsolved Problem in Mathematics. New York: Penguin, pp. 8-9, 2004. ) Amicable Numbers Two numbers are said to be amicable (i.e., friendly) if each one of them is equal to the sum of the proper divisors of the others (i.e., whole numbers less than the given numbers that divide the given number with no remainder). For example, 220 have proper divisors 1, 2, 4, 5, 10, 11, 20, 22, 44, 55, and 110. The sum of these divisors is 284. The proper divisors of 284 are 1, 2, 4, 71, and 142. Their sum is 220; so 220 and 284 are amicable. This is the smallest pair of amicable numbers. (Source: "Amicable numbers." The Gale Encyclopedia of Science. 2008. Encyclopedia.com. (October 17, 2011). http://www.encyclopedia.com/article-1G2-2830100095/amicable-

numbers.html) History of Amicable Numbers The discovery of amicable numbers is attributed to the neo-Pythagorean Greek philosopher Iamblichus of Chalcis (c. AD 250330), who credited Pythagoras (582500 BC) with the original knowledge of their nature. The Pythagoreans believed that amicable numbers, like all special numbers, had a profound cosmic significance. A biblical reference (a gift of 220 goats from Jacob to Esau, Genesis 23: 14) is thought by some to indicate an earlier knowledge of amicable numbers.

No pairs of amicable numbers other than 220 and 284 were discovered by European mathematicians until 1636, when French mathematician Pierre de Fermat (16011665) found the pair 18, 496 and 17, 296. A century later, Swiss mathematician Leonhard Euler (17071783) made an extensive search and found about 60 additional pairs. Surprisingly, however, he overlooked the smallest pair after 220 and 284, which is 1184 and 1210. It was subsequently discovered in 1866 by a 16-year-old boy, Nicolo Paganini. During the medieval period, Arabian mathematicians preserved and developed the mathematical knowledge of the ancient Greeks. For example, the polymath Thabit ibn Qurra (836 901) formulated an ingenious rule for generating amicable number pairs: Let a = 3(2n) 1, b = 3(2n-1) 1, and c = 9(22n-1) 1; then, if a, b, and c are primes, 2nab and 2nc are amicable. This rule produces 220 and 284 when n is 2. When n is 3, c is not a prime, and the resulting numbers are not amicable. For n = 4, it produces Fermats pair, 17, 296 and 18, 416, skipping over Paganinis pair and others. Other scientists who have studied amicable numbers throughout history are Spanish mathematician Al Madshritti (died 1007), Islamic mathematician Abu Mansur Tahir al-Baghdadi (9801037), French mathematician and philosopher Ren Descartes (15961650), and Swiss mathematician Leonhard Euler (17071783). Professionals and amateurs alike have for centuries enjoyed seeking them (Amicable Pairs) and exploring their properties. (Source: "Amicable numbers." The Gale Encyclopedia of Science. 2008. Encyclopedia.com. (October 17, 2011). http://www.encyclopedia.com/article-1G2-

2830100095/amicable-numbers.html)

Amicable Pair

An amicable pair is a pair of positive integers (m, n),

, such that (m)= (n)=m+n,

where (.) denotes the sum of divisors function. These number pairs have a long and interesting history (cf. [5]). Euler [14] was the first who systematically studied amicable pairs, and a great part of the known pairs were found with his methods and the use of electronic computers. (Source: Herman J. J. Te Riele.January 1984. Mathematics of Competition, Volume 42 pages 219223, On Generating New Amicable Pairs from given Amicable Pairs) An amicable pair consists of two integers for which the sum of proper divisors

(the divisors excluding the number itself) of one number equals the other. Amicable pairs are occasionally called friendly pairs (Hoffman 1998, p. 45), although this nomenclature is to be discouraged since the numbers more commonly known as friendly pairs are defined by a different, albeit related, criterion. Symbolically, amicable pairs satisfy

where

is the restricted divisor function. Equivalently, an amicable pair

satisfies

where

is the divisor function. The smallest amicable pair is (220, 284) which has factorizations

giving restricted divisor functions

The quantity

in this case,

, is called the pair sum.

Rules for producing amicable pairs include the Thbit ibn Kurrah rule rediscovered by Fermat and Descartes and extended by Euler to Euler's rule. A further extension not previously noticed was discovered by Borho (1972). Pomerance (1981) has proved that

for large enough (Guy 1994). No nonfinite lower bound has been proven. Let an amicable pair be denoted type if , and take . is called a regular amicable pair of

where

is the greatest common divisor,

and

are squarefree, then the number of prime factors of

and are and . Pairs which are not for

regular are called irregular or exotic (te Riele 1986). There are no regular pairs of type . If and

is even, then

cannot be an amicable pair (Lee 1969). The minimal and maximal values of

found by te Riele (1986) were

and

te Riele (1986) also found 37 pairs of amicable pairs having the same pair sum. The first such pair is (609928, 686072) and (643336, 652664), which has the pair sum

te Riele (1986) found no amicable -tuples having the same pair sum for

. However, Moews

and Moews found a triple in 1993, and te Riele found a quadruple in 1995. In November 1997, a quintuple and sextuple were discovered. The sextuple is (1953433861918, 2216492794082), (1968039941816, 2201886714184), (1981957651366, 2187969004634), (1993501042130,

2176425613870), (2046897812505, 2123028843495), (2068113162038, 2101813493962), all

having pair sum 4169926656000. Amazingly, the sextuple is smaller than any known quadruple or quintuple, and is likely smaller than any quintuple. The earliest known odd amicable numbers all were divisible by 3. This led Bratley and McKay (1968) to conjecture that there are no amicable pairs coprime to 6 (Guy 1994, p. 56). However, Battiato and Borho (1988) found a counterexample, and now many amicable pairs are known which are not divisible by 6 (Pedersen). The smallest known example of this kind is the amicable pair (42262694537514864075544955198125, 42405817271188606697466971841875), each number of which has 32 digits. A search was then begun for amicable pairs coprime to 30. The first example was found by Y. Kohmoto in 1997, consisting of a pair of numbers each having 193 digits (Pedersen). Kohmoto subsequently found two other examples, and te Riele and Pedersen used two of Kohmoto's examples to calculated 243 typetypepairs from a typepairs coprime to 30 by means of a method which generates pairs. are currently known.

No amicable pairs which are coprime to

The following table summarizes the largest known amicable pairs discovered in recent years. The largest of these is obtained by defining

then , ,

and

are all primes, and the numbers

are an amicable pair, with each member having digits date 4829 Oct. 4, 1997 8684 Jun. 6, 2003

decimal digits (Jobling 2005). reference M. Garca Jobling and Walker 2003

16563 May 12, 2004 Walker et al. 2004 17326 May 12, 2004 Walker et al. 2004 24073 Mar. 10, 2005 Jobling 2005 Amicable pairs in Gaussian integers also exist, for example

and

(Source: (Weisstein, Eric W. Amicable Pair. From MathWorldA Wolfram Web Resource. http://mathworld.wolfram.com/AmicablePair.html) Related Studies:

Friendly Number In number theory, friendly numbers are numbers in friendly pair and are two or more natural numbers with a common abundancy, the ratio between the sum of divisors of a number and the number itself. Two numbers with the same abundancy form a friendly pair; n numbers with the same abundancy form a friendly n-tuple. Being mutually friendly is an equivalence relation, and thus induces a partition of the positive naturals into clubs (equivalence classes) of mutually friendly numbers. A number that is not part of any friendly pair is called solitary. There are some numbers that can easily be proved to be solitary, but the status of numbers 10, 14, 15, 20, and many others remains unknown .The numbers known to be friendly are given by 6, 12, 24, 28, 30, 40, 42, 56, 60, ... (Sloane's A074902). (Source: Hickerson.2002. http://mathworld.wolfram.com/FriendlyNumber.html) Sociable Numbers Sociable numbers are generalizations of the concepts of amicable numbers and perfect numbers. A set of sociable numbers is a kind of aliquot sequence, or a sequence of numbers each of whose numbers is the sum of the factors of the preceding number, excluding the preceding number itself. For the sequence to be sociable, the sequence must be cyclic, eventually returning to its starting point. The period of the sequence, or order of the set of sociable numbers, is the number of numbers in this cycle.

If the period of the sequence is 1, the number is a sociable number of order 1, or a perfect numberfor example, the proper divisors of 6 are 1, 2, and 3, whose sum is again 6. A pair of amicable numbers is a set of sociable numbers of order 2. There are no known sociable numbers of order 3. It is an open question whether all numbers end up at either a sociable number or at a prime (and hence 1). Or equivalently, whether there exists a number whose aliquot sequence never terminates. (Source: H. Cohen, On amicable and sociable numbers, Math. Comp. 24 (1970), pp. 423-429) Happy Numbers A happy number is defined by the following process. Starting with any positive integer, replace the number by the sum of the squares of its digits, and repeat the process until the number equals 1 (where it will stay), or it loops endlessly in a cycle which does not include 1. Those numbers for which this process ends in 1 are happy numbers, while those that do not end in 1 are unhappy numbers (or sad numbers). (Source: Guy, Richard (2004). Unsolved Problems in Number Theory (3rd ed.). )

Unitary Amicable Pair A pair of numbers and such that

where

is the unitary divisor function. Hagis (1971) and Garca (1987) give 82 such pairs. The

first few are (114, 126), (1140, 1260), (18018, 22302), (32130, 40446), ... (Sloane's A002952 and A002953; Pedersen). On Jan. 30, 2004, Y. Kohmoto discovered the largest known unitary amicable pair, where each member has 317 digits. Kohmoto calls a unitary amicable pair whose members are squareful a proper unitary amicable pair. (Source: Pedersen, J. M. "Known Unitary Amicable Pairs." http://amicable.homepage.dk/knwnunap.htm.)

"Amicable Pair: An Investigatory" Review of Related Literature and Studies

Presented to: Maam Maribel Santillana Siao

Faculty and Staff of Mindanao State University Institute of Science Education Science High School

In Partial fulfillment of course requirement

in Research

Gandarosa, Norhanifa P.

MARCH 2012