EPRI NP-5067 Good Bolting Practices

GOOD
BOLTING
PRACTICES
A Reference Manual
for Nuclear power Plant
Maintenance Personnel
VOLUME 1: LARGE BOLT MANUAL
Prepared by
JOHN H. BICKFORD
Raymond Engineering Inc.
217 Smith Street
Middletown, Connecticut 06457
MICHAEL E. LOORAM
Looram Engineering
515 Main Street
Yalesville, Connecticut 06492
EPRI
Electric Power Research Institute
3412 Hillview Avenue
Palo Alto, California 94304
TED MARSTON
EPRI Project Manager
PRJ
NP-5067
EPRI
Electric Power
Research Institute
GOOD
BOLTING
PRACTICES
A Reference Manual
--
for Nuclear Power Plant
M a i n t e n a ~ e Personnel
VOLUME 1: LARGE BOLT MANUAL
Prepared by
JOHN BICKFORD
MICHAEL LOORAM
Looram Engineering
ORDERING INFORMATION
Requests for copies of this report should be directed to Research Reports
Center (RRC), Box 50490, Palo Alto, CA 94303, (415) 965-4081. There is no
charge for reports requested by EPRI member utilities and affiliates, U.S,. utility
associations, U.S. government agencies (federal, state, and local), media,
and foreign organizations with which EPRI has an information exchange
agreement. On request, RRC will send a catalog of EPRI reports.
TOPICS
Mechanical maintenance
Bolted connections
Trouble shooting
Leaks
Corrosion
Fatigue
RESEARCH CATEGORY
Reliability, operations, maintenance, and human factors
Electric Power Research Institute and EPRI are registered service marks of
Electric Power Research Institute, Inc.
Copyright 1987 Electric Power Research Institute, Inc. All rights reserved.
NOTICE.
This report was prepared by the organization(s) named below as an account
of work sponsored by the Electric Power Research Institute, Inc. (EPRI).
Neither EPRI, members of EPRI, the organization(s) named below, nor any
person acting on behalf of any of them: (a) makes any warranty, express or
implied, with respect to the use of any Information, or
process disclosed in this report or that such use may not Infringe privately
owned rights; or (b) assumes any liabilities with respect to the use of, or for
damages resulting from the use of, any information, apparatus, method, or
process disclosed in this report.
Prepared by
Middletown, Connecticut
and
Looram Engineering
Yalesville, Connecticut
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PREFACE
This is a Reference Manual designed to help you solve or prevent
bolted joint problems. It is designed for rapid access for use in the field
or in the office. The manual tells you how to identify and deal with
typical problems like leaks, vibration loosening, fatigue, stress corrosion
cracking, etc. It gives you field proven techniques to address these
problems.
The manual is NOT intended to be a substitute or alternate for existing
bolting specifications, Codes, or standards. We have not knowingly
violated any such documents, but if you find that our recommenda-
tions are in conflict with an existing Code or standard, you should com-
ply with the latter.
The manual does not, furthermore, cover all possible types of joints
or all applications. It describes normal solutions for typical problems.
Fortunately, most bolted joints do not cause problems because they
are tolerant to wide variations in preload or assembly procedures. This
is primarily due to very Conservative design processes. Those few prob-
lem joints can benefit from the advice contained in this manual.
A note of caution. The critically important joints where safety and/or
performance are of prime consideration should not be addressed sole-
ly with the information contained in this manual. The manual provides
valuable guidance, but the final judgment must come from a person
qualified in the problem area, such as a cognizant engineer, metallurgist,
corrosion or fatigue specialist. For example, we don't intend for you
to apply the general discussions on gasketed joints to ASME Code Class
1 Joints (see CLASS 1 JOINTS for further details) or for components
designed to Division III, Subsection NC Or, the general GASKET
STRESS recommendations should not be used if the flanges are made
of {'uncommon" materials.
We have tried to define the limitations of each discussion or recom-
mendation contained in the manual, but again, we can't foresee or cover
all possibilities. There can be no substitute for good engineering
judgment.
Given its highly practical approach, the manual should be irrunediately
useful to you. Bolting is largely an empirical art at present, and the
experience of others is often your best guide to success. Apply the sug-
gestions contained here thoughtfully and carefully to your own appli-
cation and you should be able to minimize your bolted joint problems.
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SYMBOLS AND UNITS
A
AB
AG
Aj
AR
As
At
C
D
Df
E
Eb
Ej
F
FAT
FB
FG
FGA
FN
Fp
Fpmax
Fpmin
FTH
HH
HN
HNI
HN2
HT
ID
K
Kb
Kj
Accuracy of preload developed at assembly ['Yo]
Cross-sectional area of the body of a bolt [in']
Area of gasket [in']
Effective cross-sectional area of that portion of the joint
which is loaded by one bolt [in']
Root cross-section area [in']
Tensile stress area [in']
Thread stripping area [in']
Conversion factor [inch-Ibs to ft-Ibsj]
Nominal fastener diameter [inch]
Distance across flats of bolt head or nut [inch]
MODULUS OF ELASTICITY [psi]
Modulus of elasticity of bolt material [psi]
Modulus of elasticity of joint material [psi]
Force [Ibs]
Tension in a preloaded bolt as affected by tool accuracy,
plus subsequent thermal loads [Ibs]
Required assembly bolt load [lbs]
Force required to seat the gasket [Ibs]
Nominal clamping force on the gasket at assembly [Ibs]
The net clamping force on the joint after the system
has been pressurized [Ibs]
Bolt preload in each bolt at assembly [lbs]
Maximum assembly preload [Ibs]
Minimum assembly preload [Ibs]
Tensile force created in a bolt by differential thermal
expansion between bolt and joint [Ibs]
Height of the head of a bolt [inch]
The thickness of the nut [inch]
The thickness (height) of the first nut [inch]
The thickness (height) of the second nut [inch]
The depth of a tapped hole [inch]
Inside diameter of sealing surface (gasket) [inch]
Nut factor
Stiffness of a bolt [Ibs/inch]
Stiffness of a joint [Ibs/inch]
vIII
L
LB
LC
LBG
LE
LG
LP
LS
LSG
LT
M
n
OD
P
Rm
S
Smax
STH
SGI
SGR
SGM
Sy
Syt
T
Th
Tj
To
Cib
Cij
AJ
AL
At
Symbols and Units
Nominal length of a bolt [inch]
Effective lengh of the body of the fastener [inch]
Complete overall length of a bolt [inch]
The length of the body within the grip length [inch]
Effective length of the fastener [inch]
The grip length of the joint [inch]
The pressure load on the joint [lbs]
The effective length of the threads of a fastener [inch]
The length of the thread within the grip length [inch]
Length of threaded region of a bolt [inch]
Percentage of yield (as a decimal)
Number of bolts
Outside diameter of sealing surface (gasket) [inch]
Internal pressure [psi]
Ratio between residual stress on the gasket and the
contained pressure
Stress [psi]
Maximum bolt stress at operating conditions [psi]
Stress created in a bolt by differential thermal expan-
sion between bolt and joint [psi]
The initial stress on the gasket at assembly [psi]
The residual stress on the gasket [psi]
Maximum gasket stress at operating conditions [psi]
Yield strength [psi]
Yield strength of bolts at operating temperature [psi]
Torqe [ft-lbs]
Operating temperature of the bolt (OF)
Operating temperature of the joinWF)
Initial assembly temperature of the bolt and/or joint
(OF)
Coefficient of expansion of bolt material[in/in/oF]
Coefficient of expansion of joint material[in/in/oF]
Change in thickness of the joint [inch]
Change in length of a bolt [inch]
Change in temperature (OF)
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page Number
INTRODUCTION ___ . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . 1
ACCURACy................................................... 2
ASSEMBLY PROCEDURES, GENERAL-All Joints............ 7
ASSEMBLY PROCEDURES, GENERAL-Gasketed Joints..... 9
ASSEMBLY PROCEDURES, GENERAL-Non-gasketed Joints. 11
ASSEMBLY PROCEDURES-Qualification ..................... 11
ASSEMBLY PROCEDURES-Stretch Control.................. 14
ASSEMBLY PROCEDURES-Structural Joints................. 16
ASSEMBLY PROCEDURES-Tensioning....................... 17
ASSEMBLY PROCEDURES-Torquing......................... 17
ASSEMBLY PROCEDURES-Turn of Nut .................... 19
BOLT DIMENSIONS ............................... ... 22
BOLT MATERIALS ................................... .. 22
BOLTS, BROKEN ........................... .... .. . .. 23
CLASS 1 JOINTS ................................. .... .. 23
COEFFICIENT OF EXPANSION .................... .. 23
CORROSION. . . .. . . . . . . . .. .. . . . . . .. .. . . . . . .. . . . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . 24
CREEP ......................................................... 26
x Table of Contents
DATUM ROD ........................................... ..... . 28
DIMENSIONS, BOLT ................................ . ..... . 27
DISASSEMBLY PROCEDURES ............................... . 27
EFFECTIVE LENGTH ........................................ . 28
ELASTIC INTERACTIONS ............................ .... 28
EMBEDMENT ................................................. . 32
EXTENSO METER ............................................. . 32
FAILURE OF FASTENER ..................................... . 32
FASTENERS, BROKEN ....................................... . 33
FASTENERS, STRIPPED ...................................... . 34
FATIGUE FAILURE ................................... ..... 34
FINISH, FLANGE ..................................... ..... 40
FLANGE, CAST IRON ....................................... . 41
FLANGE, OVAL RING ............................ ... 41
FLANGE ROTATION ........................................ . 41
FLANGE, STAINLESS STEEL ................................ . 42
FLANGE-UNCOMMON MATERIALS ....................... . 42
GALLING ................................................... . 43
GASKET, CREEP OF ......................................... . 45
GASKET LEAKS .............................................. . 46
GASKET STRESS .............................
46
GASKETS, ELASTOMERIC OR PLASTIC. ................... . 50
GASKETS, IN GENERAL. ................................... .. 50
GASKETS, METAL O-RING .................................. . 53
GASKET, METAL (SOLID OR CORRUGATED) .............. . 55
GRIP LENGTH ............................................... . 55
HARDNESS OF FASTENERS ................................ .. 58
HEATERS ........................................ ...... . 59
IDENTIFICATION OF MATERIALS .......................... . 60
INSPECTION OF BOLTED JOINTS ........................... . 81
LEAK RATE ....................................... .... ..
62
LEAKS ........................................................ . 64
LENGTH, ACOUSTlC. ..........................
67
LENGTH, EFFECTIVE. ................................ .... .. 67
LOOSENING ........................................... ..... . 68
LUBRICANTS .................................... ..... ..... . 68
MATERIALS, BOLT .............................. ..
72
MATERIALS, IDENTIFICATION OF ......................... .. 72
MATERIALS, PROPERTIES OF .............................. .. 77

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Table of Contents xl
MODULUS OF ELASTICITy.................................. 77
NUT FACTOR................................................. 79
PRELOAD. . .. .. . . . . . . . .. .. . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . 80
PRELOAD, CONTROL OF.................................... 81
PRELOAD, INITIAL........................................... 81
PRELOAD, LOSS OF.......................................... 81
PRELOAD, RESIDUAL ........................................ 84
PRELOAD, SELECTION OF................................... 84
PRESSURE BOUNDARIES......... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . .. 94
PREVAILING TORQUE. .. . . . . . . .. . . . . . .. .. . . . . . . .. . . . . . . .. . . .. 95
PROCEDURES, ASSEMBLy/DISASSEMBLy ................... 95
PROOF LOAD........................................... 96
PRYING ....................................................... 96
RELAXATION, FASTENER.................................... 97
ROTATION OF FLANGE...................................... 97
SEALANTS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
STIFFNESS OF FASTENER AND JOINT...................... 99
STRENGTH OF BOLTING MATERIALS ....................... 101
STRENGTH OF FASTENERS-GENERAL ..................... 101
STRENGTH OF FASTENERS-STATIC. ....................... 102
STRENGTH OF THREADS .................................... 104
STRESS AREA ................................................. 105
STRESS CORROSION CRACKING ............................ 105
STRESS RELAXATION ........................................ 107
STRETCH OF FASTENERS.. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ... 107
STRIPPED THREADS .......................................... 113
STUDS, BROKEN .............................................. 113
TEMPERATURE, HIGH ........................................ 113
TENSILE STRENGTH ......................................... 113
TENSILE STRESS AREA ....................................... 114
TENSIONERS .................................................. 114
TENSIONING, HYDRAULIC. ................................. 114
THERMAL EFFECTS ........................................... 117
THERMAL STRESSES ......................................... 122
THREAD STRESS AREAS ..................................... 122
THREAD STRIPPING.......................................... 123
TORQUE, BREAKAWAy ...................................... 127
TORQUE, CONTROL OF ...................................... 127
TORQUE LOSS ................................................ 127
di Table of
rORQUE PROCEDURES ...................................... 127
rORQUE, RE-STARTING ...................................... 128
rORQUE RELAXATION ....................................... 128
rORQUE, SELECTION OF .................................... 128
rORQUE-TURN PROCEDURES ............................ ... 130
rRAINING BOLTING PERSONNEL. .......................... 130
rURN OF NUT .......................................... . 131
JLTIMATE STRENGTH ....................................... 131
JLTRASONICS ................................................ 131
VIBRATION LOOSENING ..................................... 132
MASHERS, CRUSH ........................ ................... 134
MASHERS, PLAIN ............................... ............. 135
(IELD STRENGTH ............................................ 135
\PPENDIX,
GASKET STRESS WORKSHEET .......................... 141
TORQUE COMPUTATION WORKSHEET ... ............. 145
PRELOAD/TORQUE SELECTION WORKSHEET .......... 149
THERMAL STRESS WORKSHEET ............... ......... 153
BOLTING PROCEDURES
REFERENCE MANUAL
INTRODUCTION
We've written this manual for people who must disassemble and
re-assemble bolted joints in nuclear power plants. It describes bolting
practices which should help you identify, understand and then solve
or minimize bolted joint problems. We've taken into account the fact
that the options available to maintenance personnel are limited. Usuaily
you can't re-design equipment to solveproblems. You can't afford to
use state-of-the-art bolting tools and instruments on any jOints except
those whose past performance tells you "there's no other way to keep
them working" -and whose safe performance is critically important.
We recognize that your opportunities to J'experiment" are virtually
non-existent. You can't try new techniques on a plant while it's in
operation-you'd risk shutting it down. You can't try things during
shutdowns-there are far too many things to do. Yet if faced with bolting
or bolted joint problems, you must solve them somehow, usually by
making small but relatively safe improvements in tooling or procedures
during the next shutdown.
This manual describes things you can do to reduce problems and
it lists them, wherever possible, by increasing complexity or cost. The
2 Bolting ProL .... uures Reference Manual
basic idea is "try the simple things first. Do the more complex and
expensive things later." And just about all suggestions are based on
field experience, rather than on theory (though all can be defended
and explained theoretically if necessary).
This is NOT a referenCe manual for designers. The theories behind
the recommendations are not discussed at any length in the manual.
The theoretical literature on bolting is already large and of minimal
help to operating and maintenance personnel. This booklet is for people
whose prime concern is solving problems, using practical and econom-
ical methods and equipment. "Explanations" are given only when
needed to clarify the recommendations.
The manual has an "encyclopedia" format designed to make topics
easy tolocate. Topics are listed alphabetically and identified by legends
that are printed bold. Each topic is described briefly, with typical data
if pertinent, and with cross references to related topics (capitalized
words in the text-"STRESS RELAXATION", for example-mean that
the topic is covered separately.)Thus, if temperature cycles were causing
gasketed joints to leak, you'd be directed to "GASKETS" or "TEMPER-
ATURE, HIGH" or "LEAKS" or "THERMAL STRESS" where you'd
find a brief explanation of the possible reasons for the problem and
recommendations for reducing the problem in the future.
Nor is this a manual of "final solutions" to bolting problems. Bolting
is a largely empirical science; a large number of variables are involved
in the assembly process. We can never hope to control or even measure
the variables for individual bolts-so we must rely heavily on our own
past experience, and that of others, to identify and reduce problems.
Success is never guaranteed, but things which have worked on similar
situations in the past are worth trying and will usually help. Good luck!
ACCURACY
(See PRELOAD, SELECTION OF; PRELOAD, LOSS OF; ELASTIC
INTERACTIONS; RELAXATION, FASTENER)
Accuracy is defined as being free from mistake or conforming to a
standard. Precision is a term which is closely associated and usually
combined with the notion of accuracy. These two terms are best defined
by an example:

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Bolting Procedures Reference 3
The torque output of a wrench is measured on a calibrator five times
in succession at rated torque. The results of the exercise are described
as follows:
o The average output of the wrench is found to be 5% low.
The wrench is said to be 5% inaccurate.
o The output from test to test varies over a range of + / -1 %.
The wrench is said to have a precision of 1%.
o The performance of the wrench may be characterized by
stating that the expected torque output has an accuracy of
5% and a repeatability of 1%.
Sources Of Error
The preload developed in a fastener at assembly is affected by many
factors:
Tool Accuracy The accuracy of the tool output (i.e., the accuracy of
the torque wrench in the example).
Operator Operator accuracy relates to the error introduced by the
operator as a result of such things as skill, working conditions, hard-
to-reach nut locations, lighting and carelessness.
Control Control accuracy relates to the accuracy with which the
preload is controlled by the quantity actually being measured. For
example, when torque is used to control preload, the control accuracy
is determined by the torque/preload relationship (see PRELOAD,
SELECTION OF).
Relaxation During the jOint assembly and throughout the service life
of the joint, the fastener preload changes. The joint make-up proce-
dure has a major influence on the fastener preload (see PRELOAD,
LOSS OF).
Typical Preload Accuracy Obtained with
Various Tools
Table A shows typical preload accuracies for various tightening
methods. In general, the accuracy depends on the joint configuration,
the type of tool, and the make-up procedure employed. Accuracies cited
are for initial preload in individual bolts (See PRELOAD, INITIAL).
4 Bolting Procedures Reference Manual
TABLE A
Preload Accuracies
Tightening
Procedure
Torque
Torque
Impact
Wrench
Hydraulic
Tensioner
Hydraulic
Tensioner
Stretch
Control
Turn of
Nut
Operator
Feel
Comment
Calibrated torque wrench, lubricant and torquing
procedure calibrated by stretch or load
measurements on the actual joint.
Hard Joint: Metal-to-metal contact between
2 or 3 plies of joint components
Soft Joint: Gasketed or hard joint with
many plies.
Calibrated torque wrench. Target torque value
determined from friction estimate from literature.
Hard Joint
Soft Joint
Impact wrench, air driven or slugging wrench or
hammer.
Hard Joint
Soft Joint
Procedure calibrated by using stretch measure-
ments on the actual joint
Hard Joint
Soft Joint
Tensioner pressure set at a value equivalent to
the target preload. Tensioner inefficiency and
relaxation not considered.
Hard Joint
Soft Joint
Datum rods used in heater holes.
Micrometer depends on the length of the
fastener and the end conditions
Ultrasonic stretch measurements
Structural steel joints using ductile bolts
(A325 or A490). Joint fitted carefully. High snug
torque followed by measured turn of nut.
For bolts less than 1" D.
Preload
Accuracy (%)
+/- 17 to 23%
+/- 20 to 40%
+/- 20 to 40%
+/- 30 to 70%
+/- 45 to 80
0
Al
+/- 60 to 100%
+/- 10 to 20%
+/- 20 to 40%
+/- 30 to 50%
+/- 40 to 700/0
+/- 101020%
+/- 51030%
+/- 21025%
+/- 10 to 20%
+/- 100 to 200%
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Bolting Procedures Reference ~ . ~ , ~ u a l 5
Figures 1 and 2 show the joint classifications, either hard or soft.
FIGURE 1
Typical "hard" joints. Note that metal-to-metal
contact Is Involved In each.
FIGURE 2
Typical "soft" jOints. The one on the left Is soft
because It involves many plies andl or overSized or
slotted holes.
Accuracy Specifications
What is the preload accuracy required for successful joint perfonnance?
Thanks to the complex behavior of bolted joints, a universal answer
to this question is impossible. It is felt that both the average and varia-
bility of preload across a bolted joint affect the performance of the joint.
Here are rough estimates of typical accuracies often specified for var-
ious types of joints:
JOINT TYPE
Casketed joints
Large diameter
(grea ter than 24")
Small diameter
(less than 24")
Hard joints
TYPICAL
ACCURACY SPECIFICATION
+/- 10 to 30%
+/- 20 to 40%
+/- 15 to 30%
NOTE: These accuracy specifications for initial preloads in individual
bolts are from experience and are highly dependent on the
design of the joint and the service conditions. Residual
preloads will often vary a lot more than this (See ELASTIC
INTERACTIONS).
To Improve Accuracy
o Qualify the joint make-up procedure by measuring the
preload achieved in the actual joint.
o Choose tools and procedures from Table A which are more
accurate than the present methods.
o Preload results can be improved by controlling the variables
which affect the control element; i.e., friction, surface finish,
etc. (see assembly procedures for the specific tightening
method of interest).
References The following documents and texts have helped us pre-
pare this section-and can give you additional information.
1. Bickford, j. H., Section 23-Bolted and Riveted Joints.
Standard Handbook of Machine DeSign, Editors j.E.
Shigley and C.R. Mischke, McCraw Hill, New York. 1986
2. Yahr, G.T. Preloading of Bolted Connections in Nuclear
Reactor Component Supports. NUREG/CR-3853,
ORN-6093. Nuclear Regulatory Commission. 1984.
Bolting Procedures Reference Manual 7
ASSEMBLY PROCEDURES-General-
All Joints
The designer can do just so much to determine the behavior and oper-
ating life of a bolted joint. The rest is up to the people who assemble
it. If the joint is not "properly" assembled, it won't perfonn as intended.
Unfortunately, the assemblers must cope with a large number of vari-
ables which neither they nor the deSigner can ever hope to control-
variables which affect the outcome. They include the smoothness, hard-
ness, lubricity of all surfaces, the condition of the parts (rust, tool marks,
defects ), the calibration of the tools, the accessibility of the bolts, the
environment in which the mechanics must operate and many other
things.
Specific suggestions are given below for various types of assembly
procedures using such control means as torque, tension, bolt stretch.
Regardless of which method you use, you should also take the steps
listed here if you need and want to optimize results.
There's no magic bolting procedure that avoids all of the variables
which influence the results. If your present procedures have worked,
there's no need to change them. If they haven't worked in some places,
however, the procedures described below and in the following sections
on specific types of assembly may help you improve your own proce-
dures and results.
Basic Recommendations
Be Consistent! There are enough "uncontrolled" variables involved
as it is; don't make things worse by adding to them. Wherever possible,
use the same tools in the same manner.
Train your bolting crews! Show them why good practices make a
difference. Warn them of the problems you'll encounter if things are
not done properly. Experience shows that training is more apt to im-
prove bolting results than is the use of more expensive tools or proce-
dures (see TRAINING OF BOLTING PERSONNEL).
Supervise the work, especially on critical joints! This is almost as use-
ful as good training in optimizing results.
Keep your tools in good shape! Rebuild them periodically. It is coun-
terproductive and demoralizing to stop a job for tool repairs.
Use written procedures! The procedures should include:
o joint identification by identifying number, system, location,
material, size.
D Fastener identification including size and grade.
D Tool identification and verification of current calibration
sticker.
D Detail all assembly steps:
-Cleaning of parts; solvents, rags, brushes
-Lubrication-type and grade, application
-Visual inspection of components for damage
-Give tool settings; i.e., pressure, torque or turn
-Specify the tightening sequence along with the tool
setting for each pass.
-Provide sign-off spaces for the crew performing the work,
supervision and Q. c.
Preparation of Bolting Materials
Wire-brush studs and nuts (when needed) to remove any dirt on the
threads. Use stainless steel bristles on alloy materials.
Visually examine studs and nuts after cleaning to assure freedom
from burrs. Nuts should turn freely on the studs a distance equal to
their in-service make-up. If any burrs are present, perform One of the
following steps:
D File off burrs of a minor nature. Files utilized for alloy
materials should not have preViously been used on carbon
steel materials.
D Chase threads with a tap and die.
D Return the nut and/or stud to the store room and draw a
new one of the same size, type and qualification for
installation.
Upon completion of the cleaning operations, coat studs with a film
of an approved lubricant prior to installation.
Coat the bearing surface of the turned element (the nut or the bolt
head) with the approved lubricant.
It is always desirable to use hardened washers between the turned
element and the joint surface. In some codes this is a requirement; and
a hardened washer, under the element not turned, may also be required.
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Bolting Procedures Reference Man ual 9
ASSEMBLY PROCEDURES-General-
Gasketed Joints
(See ASSEMBLY PROCEDURES-General-All Joints)
Preparation of Facing Finish
Clean gasket seating surface using suitable solvent and wire bristle
brush (use stainless steel bristles on alloy components).
After cleaning, visually inspect the seating surface for defects such
as radial scores.
Inspect the seating surface for warping.
The two illustrations below show flange conditions that can cause
a gasketed joint to leak. Don't exceed the conditions shown.
FIGURE 3
The conditions shown can result in leak. ,,1 + ,,2
should not exceed 0.015" for best results.
OTHER PROBLEM AREAS
FIGURE 4
For metal-jacketed or spiral-wound gaskets the
maximum total deviation shown above should not
exceed 0.015". Compressed asbestos or rubber
gaskets can stand deviations as high as 0.030".
Solid metal gaskets, on the other hand cannot be
used safely if the deviation exceeds 0.005".
Flange Alignment and Gasket Installation
o Once flanges have been lined up, visually examine them to
assure that an acceptable fit has been obtained.
o Install a few studs in the flanges to maintain alignment of
the flanges. Leave room for insertion of the gasket.
[J Visually examine gasket prior to installation to assure it is
free of defects. Return defective gaskets to the store room
and draw a new one of the same size, type and qualifi-
cation.
o Carefully insert gasket between the flanges to assure proper
placement and prevent damage to the gasket surfaces.
o Install remaining studs and screw nuts on hand-tight.
o For the rest of the assembly procedure, see the section for
the tightening method being used (for example, Assembly
Proced ure-Torquing).
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Bolting Procedures Reference M J 11
ASSEMBLY PROCEDURES,
GENERAL-Non-gasketed Joints
(See ASSEMBLY PROCEDURES-GENERAL-All Joints)
ASSEMBLY PROCEDURES,
QUALIFICATION
Bolted joint assembly methods using torque, turn-of-nut, or hydraulic
tensioners result in fastener preloads which are uncertain (see
ACCURACY and ELASTIC INTERACTIONS). During the service life
of a joint the original fastener preload can be significantly altered by
external loads and service conditions (see THERMAL STRESS, STRESS
RELAXATION, FLANGE ROTATION, GASKET CREEP).
If a bolted joint is to be successful, preloads developed at assembly
must be sufficient to maintain joint integrity throughout the service life.
An assembly procedure is qualified if the assembly method reliably
produces fastener preloads which result in successful joint perfor-
mance. This qualification should encompass the component parts of
the joint (nuts, bolts, gaskets, washers), tools, personnel and the method
of making up the joint.
There are at least three ways to qualify an assembly procedure; by
experience, proof test, or by experimentation.
Experience
The vast majority of bolted jOint assemblies are assembled without for-
mal documented procedures. The assembly method is left to the
mechanic's judgement. For many joints this assembly practice has been
satisfactory; the jOints have been successful in service.
If a joint has been assembled by a procedure or by a mechanic's feel,
and the operational experience has been good, then the assembly proce-
dure can be said to be qualified by experience or precedent.
12 Bolting PI,- "lUres Reference Manual
Proof Test
The most common method of qualifying a joint and the assembly
method is a proof test. Normally a load or pressure of 1.25 to 2.0 times
the design load is applied to the assembled jOint. The philosophy of
the test is that if the joint successfully carries the proof load, then it
will be successful in service. Since the joint is assembled prior to the
test the assembly procedure is also qualified by the test.
Experimentation
Some assembly procedures are qualified by extensive experimental pro-
grams. The TIJRN OF NUT assembly method for assembling structural
steel using A325 or A490 bolts is an example of an experimentally quali-
fied procedure. The procedure was qualified by assembling many joints
and loading them to failure.
These three qualification approaches work well for the vast majority
of joints. There are, however, a small percentage of joints which will
pass a proof test and then fail in service. These failures indicate a defi-
ciency in the joint design, the assembly procedure, or both. Certainly
the joint is not qualified for service, and the qualification method is
suspect.
When faced with a joint which fails in service, a more detailed ap-
proach to qualifying the assembly method may be beneficial. The fol-
lowing is an outline of points which must be addressed.
Joint Assembly Qualification-Which
Joints
o Joints having a history of service failures should be
qualified.
o Critical joints. Class I pressure boundary and safety related
joints.
Design Requirements
Review the joint design requirement using Level 4 and Beyond Level
4 sections of PRELOAD, SELECTION OF as a guide. Some of the areas
to be reviewed are:
rJ Materials: Specification, type, grade, hardness
\---
Bolting Procedures Reference l \ . ~ . .. J.al 13
o Critical Dimensions: Diameters, thickness, parallelism,
surface finish
o Preload Requirements: Torque, turn, tension, stretch,
gasket deflection
o What is the design preload? The maximum and minimum
acceptable preload? The acceptable average and scatter?
What provisions, if any, have been made to accommodate
or compensate for changes in load due to service condi-
tions such as THERMAL STRESS, CREEP, FLANGE
ROTATION, STRESS RELAXATION.
o The design preload requirement should consider the assem-
bly, the load at operating pressure and temperature, and
the loads remaining at the end of service life.
Operating Experience-Assembly
Do procedures exist? Do the procedures contain basic elements of good
practice? Will the procedures get the preloads close to the deSIgn re-
quirements? (See ASSEMBLY, and ACCURACY.)
Are the procedures followed? Don't just review the paperwork, go
out and witness the disassembly and assembly.
Operating Experience-Disassembly
Are there disassembly procedures? (See DISASSEMBLY) What is the
state of load in the fasteners? This may be measured by stretch meas-
urements or by breakaway torque as the fasteners are unloaded (see
INSPECTION OF BOLTED JOINTS).
What is the condition of the joint components? Gasket adequately
compressed? Buckled? Sealing surface cut, corroded, warped?
If the outlined review fails to identify any glaring deficiencies, the
next step is to verify that the design preloads are achieved at assembly.
The preloads may be measured by using an extensometer to measure
the fastener stretch (see STRETCH, STRETCH MEASUREMENT OF,
EXTENSOMETER), or some other load measuring device.
If the developed preloads are not within specification, the assembly
procedure must be modified to produce more reliable results (see
ACCURACY, ASSEMBLY PROCEDURE-GENERAL).
ASSEMBLY PROCEDURES-Stretch
Control
(See ASSEMBLY PROCEDURES, GENERAL-All joints; STRETCH
OF FASTENERS)
General
Monitor andlor control anything which affects the stiffness of the bolt
since this determines the relationship between stretch and preload (See
STIFFNESS OF FASTENER AND JOINT). For example, try to main-
tain uniformity of:
o GRIP LENGTH of the assembly.
o Body length and thread length of the bolts (often varies
from supplier to supplier).
o MODULUS OF ELASTICITY of bolts (often varies from lot
to lot).
When making the stretch measurements consider the following:
o The temperature of the fasteners; affects both length and (if
you're using ULTRASONICS) the velocity of sound.
o If using C-mics, take several readings in different quadrants
and average the results, or measure over small balls
pressed into the center of both ends of the fastener.
o If using depth mics, always orient them the same way.
Ensure that the seating configuration for the DATUM ROD
is clean and reliable.
o If using an ultrasonic EXTENSOMETER to measure stretch,
read and follow the manufacturer's instructions.
Specific Procedures
Prepare the fastener ends to improve the accuracy of the stretch meas-
urements. The stretch measured will be on the order of thousandths
of an inch (see STRETCH OF FASTENERS).
CJ Accuracy will be improved if you face the ends flat and
parallel to each other with a surface finish of 125 micro-
inches.
[J For depth rod measurements, ensure that the DATUM
............. r-.. ___ L !n !_,-,,, nt .4o:>hriq.
the desired stretch and the recommended tool setting (torque
or tenSlQner pressure).
o If the preload requirement is given as a load lIb], convert it
to a stretch (see STRETCH OF FASTENERS).
o If the requirement is in torque, contact the vendor for the
load specification, which may then be converted to a
stretch (or see PRELOAD, SELECTION OF).
Measure and record the initial length of each fastener. Also measure
the temperature of each fastener or a representative sample of the
fasteners in the joint.
o Check the repeatability of the stretch measurement by
making repeated length measurements on a few studs. The
length measurement should be repeatable within 1.0 to
2.0% of the desired stretch.
For joint make-up, follow procedures similar to those in ASSEMBLY
PROCEDURES, GENERAL-Gasketed joints or ASSEMBLY
PROCEDURES, GENERAL-Structural joints.
After the third pass, measure the stretch of the last four fasteners
tightened. Average these four stretches (JlL3).
Calculate .the torque or tensioner pressure (T4) for the next pass as
follows:
T4 T3 x JlL4/JlL3
Where: T4 Torque or tensioner pressure for Pass 4
T3 Torque or tensioner pressure for Pass 3
Jl L4 Desired final stretch
JlL3 Average stretch of the last four fasteners tightened
during Pass 3
Put the fourth pass on the joint using the tool setting determined
above.
After the fourth pass, measure the stretch of all fasteners.
Adjust the studs as necessary.
o Bring the low loads up by re-tightening at tool setting T4
or by increasing T4. Remember that as you increase the
load on the low ones, the higher ones will lose load due to
elastic interactions (see PRELOAD, LOSS OF). If the high
ones are marginally in specification, it is wise to apply a
slight increase in stretch to these to compensate for the
expected interaction loss as the low ones are torqued.
o this p.rocess until the stretch values converge
wIthm the specified tolerance .
NOTE: Measure the fastener temperature each time a stretch measure-
ment is made. If the temperature changes from the initial
measurement, a correction may be required (see STRETCH
OF FASTENERS).
ASSEMBLY PROCEDURES-Structural
Joints
Line up joint members using drift pins in a few holes.
Install bolts in the remaining holes hand-tight. Then snug them all,
including the first few installed. Snugging torques should be 10-30%
of final torque and should be applied first to the bolts in the most rigid
part of the pattern, then to those farther out, then to those on the free
edges of the joint.
Check to see that the joint members are fully pulled together. If not,
apply more snugging torque.
If drift pins have been used and the joint is not under load, knock
them out at this time. Install and snug remaining bolts.
Apply final torque to each bolt, again starting at the most rigid part
of the joint and working towards the free edges.
If drift pins have been used in a joint under load, knock them out
after all other bolts have been fully tightened. Then install and fully
tighten the remaining bolts.
If you're especially concerned about the performance or safety of this
joint, it would be wise at this point to re-apply final torque to all of
the bolts in the joint, following a reverse sequence (starting at the edges
and working towards the most rigid paint), or use some other preload
measuring device (STRETCH OF FASTENERS).
Bolting- Procedures Reference Manual 17
ASSEMBLY PROCEDURES-Tensioning
(See ASSEMBLY PROCEDURES, GENERAL-All Joints)
Follow the tensioner manufacturer's instructions and these general
recommendations:
o Use multiple tensioners ganged together, if possible to
reduce ELASTIC INTERACTIONS.
o Use uniform run-down torque. Be sure that the nut turns.
o Verify that the specified hydraulic pressure is applied to
the tensioner.
-Check all hydraulic connections.
-When using multiple tensioners ganged to one pump,
running one nut down may reduce the system pressure.
Check the pressure before running the nut down on each
stud.
-The nominal tensioner load should be 20 to 30% higher
than the desired stud preload. This over-tension
compensates for the relaxation effects (see TENSIONERS).
-The make-up procedure should call for a final check pass
after the specified tightening passes. The check is
accomplished by applying the final tensioner pressure to
each stud and attempting to run the nut down. If the nut
moves, this indicates that the residual preload was low
and more tightening passes are reqUired.
ASSEMBLY PROCEDURES-Torquing
(See ASSEMBLY PROCEDURES, GENERAL-All Joints)
General
Ensure that the load bearing surfaces are in good condition. Check the
thread flanks, bearing surface of nuts or bolt head, washers and the
flange surface.
Gean and lubricate threads and nut and/or,bolt head bearing surface.
Use specified lubricant and apply it uniformly as directed.

Using hardened washers under the turned element is recom-
mended and required by some codes. This improves the torque/preload
relationship.
Always run the nuts or bolts down by hand. If they won't run by
hand, there is a defect in the thread.
Use a multiple pass, cross-bolting procedure (see below).
If there's a gasket, ensure that it is compressed evenly. Use caliper
measurements in four quadrants if possible.
Torque as many studs as possible simultaneously. This will help pull
the joint down evenly and reduce loss of bolt load during the pass (see
PRELOAD, LOSS OF).
All torque wrenches should be of adequate capacity and recently
calibrated.
All thread LUBRICANTS and anti-seize compounds should be of an
approved type. It's useful to limit the types of lube used in the plant.
This helps avoid mistakes and lets you build experience about the
characteristics of the selected lube.
Apply torque at a uniform rate; final torque should be reached "in
motion". If you exceed the final torque, loosen the fastener a little and
try again to hit the final point While in motion.
Hold torque wrenches perpendicular to the axis of the bolt while
torque is being applied.
If hydraulically powered torque wrenches are used, ensure that ade-
quate reaction points are provided.
Modified Tightening Sequence
D Better preload uniformity can sometimes be achieved by
torquing the fasteners in the reverse sequence in the final
pass. If you have had previous troubles with this joint, try
this after the prescribed passes have been accomplished.
In critical situations you can verify the preload achieved by making
stretch measurements of the fastener.
Speciflc-Gasketed Joints
Torque bolts or nuts in a cross-bolting pattern.
Torque the joint using a minimum of four torquing passes, using
a cross-bolting sequence for each pass. The torque values for each
sequence are given. below:
Pass 1 Bring all nuts up hand-tight; then snug-tight evenly.
Pass 2 Torque to a maximum of 30% of the final torque (See
PRELOAD, SELECTION OF). Check that the flange
is bearing uniformly on the gasket.
Pass 3 Torque to a maximum of 60% of the final torque.
Pass 4 Torque to the final torque.
After the four basic torquing passes are completed, continue torqUing
the nuts using the final torque in a clockwise manner until no further
rotation of the nut is observed. This process may require an additional
five to seven passes.
1. Bolt TorqUing. Diablo Canyon Power Plant. PG&E.
Number MPM-54.1, Rev. 1. July 31, 1984.
ASSEMBLY PROCEDURES-Turn of Nut
(See ASSEMBLY PROCEDURES-General)
General
Make sure that the bolts being tightened have sufficient ductility to
be tightened past yield. ASTM A325 and A490 materials are examples
of acceptable materials.
Ensure that the joint components are correctly assembled. Things
to look for:
Bolt: Proper type and length
Washers: Standard, bevel or heavy. Ensure that the
correct washer is installed where required.
Joint Alignment: Use drift pins to line up the joint members.
Mark the socket or turned element of the fastener (nut or bolt head)
so that turn may be measured.
For best results, apply a high snugging torque; then measure turn.
This torque should produce 10% to 30% of the minimum specified
preload (see TORQUE, SELECTION OF).
Specific Procedures
When the turn-of-nut method is used to provide the bolt tension, first
bring enough bolts to a "snug-tight" condition to ensure that the parts
of the joint are brought into good contact with each other. "Snug-tight"
is defined by the AISC as the tightness attained by a few impacts of
an impact wrench or the full effort of a man using an ordinary spud
wrench; but you'll need more than this if the bolts are much over 7/8"
in diameter.
Following the initial snugging, place bolts in any remaining holes
in the connection and snug them. Tighten all bolts in the joint addi-
tionally by the applicable amount specified in Table B progressing sys-
tematically from the most rigid part of the joint to its free edges. During
this operation, there must be no rotation of the part not turned by the
wrench.
SA 307, Grade A bolts should be tightened snug tight only without
additional nut rotation.
TABLE B
Nut Rotation
Effective Bolt Disposition of Outer Faces
Length of Bolted Parts
One Face Normal Both Faces
(Distance From to Bolt Axis and Sloped Not More
Inside Face of Other Face Than 1 :20 From
Bolt Head to Sloped Not More Normal to Bolt
Outside Face of Both Faces Than 1 :20 (Bevel Axis (Bevel
Nut Plus One Normal to Bolt Washer Not Washers Not
Thread) Axis Used) Used)
Up to and in 1/3 turn 1/2 turn 2/3 turn
eluding 4 dia +/-30 deg. +/-30 deg. +/-45 deg.
meters
Over 4 diameters 1/2 turn 2f3 turn S/6 turn
but not exceeding +/-30 deg. +/-45 deg. +/-45 deg.
S diameters
Over 8 diameters 2/3 turn 5/6 turn 1 turn
but not exceeding +/-45 deg. +/-45 deg. +/-45 deg.
12 diameters
~ ' .
!._-
Bolting Procedures Reference Ma ..... al 21
The Table of Nut Rotation is applicable for ASTM A325, ASTM A490
bolt materials. These bolts are designed to be installed to a minimum
preload which is 70% of tensile strength. Turn-of-nut procedure using
the Table will reliably produce these loads. The bolts will most likely
be loaded above the proof strength. Some bolt breakage may occur
at assembly. Bolt breakage is acceptable. Simply replace the broken bolt.
Train personnel performing this activity to perform the tightening
as directed.
For threaded fasteners requiring locking devices, elastic stop nuts
(when compatible with service temperature), lock nuts, jam nuts and
drilled and wired nuts are all acceptable locking devices. Upset threads
(by peening or other approved methods) may also serve as locking
devices. .
Nut rotation is relative to bolt, regardless of the element (nut or bolt)
being turned. For bolts installed by 1/2 turn and less, the tolerance
should be + /- 30 degrees; for bolts installed by'/, turn or more, the
tolerance should be + /- 45 degrees.
To establish a turn-of-nut procedure for bolt length exceeding 12 dia-
meters and/or bolt diameters of greater than 1 1/2 inch, or bolts of
materials other than ASTM A325 or ASTM A490, the required rotation
from snug is determined by test. Use a suitable tension measuring device
in a joint which simulates the actual joint conditions.
1. Specification for Structural Joints Using A325 and A490
Bolts. Research Council on Structural Connections. Pub!.
by the AISC. 1980.
2. High Strength Bolting for Structural Steel Joints. Bethle-
hem Steel Corporation, Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, 1980.
22 Bolting Pl .......:edures Reference Manual
BOLT DIMENSIONS
The Figure below identifies the commonly used dimensions of an
hex head bolt.
FIGURE 5
Symbols used to define various parts of a standard
hex head bolt.
<
, : ~ ~
/f-LSG-l
11111111l!
D
) HH
r-
LBG
+-
LT
T
D = nominal diameter
L "" nominal length
LBG "" length of body
LC = overall length
LG "" grip length
HOLT MATERIALS
LC
L T = length of threads
LSG '" length of threads
within grip
HH = height of head
HN = height of nut
(See MATERIALS, IDENTIFICATION OF; MATERIALS. PROPER-
TIES OF)
1--
Bolting Procedures Reference r v ~ . . ..Jar 23
BOLTS,BROKEN
(See FASTENERS, BROKEN)
CLASS 1 JOINTS
A "Class 1" joint is a bolted joint in any item designed and built
in accordance with the rules of Subsection NB, Division 1, Section III
of the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code. These rules deal with
items whose failure would violate the primary pressure boundary. Be-
cause of their importance, these joints deserve the extra care specified
in the ASME Code. The "cookbook" procedures of this reference
manual should not be applied to Class 1 joints unless good engineer-
ing judgement shows that the advice is applicable for the specifiC
application.
COEFFICIENT OF EXPANSION
If a bolt gets hot it'll expand-get longer. Figure 6 shows the coeffi-
cient of expansion in inches per inch per degree Fahrenheit for several
common bolting materials. See THERMAL STRESSES for procedures
for calculating the effect of this expansion on bolt stresses.
FIGURE 6
Coefficient of thermal expansion versus temperature
(all values are approximate).
"
'00 '00 '00
TEMPERATURE 'f
A = A193 816, A540 821
B A193 B7, A320 L7, L7M, L7B, L43

CORROSION
G
----,
'00 .00
E A193 B8, B8A
F A193 B8T
G A193 B8G
H A193 B8R, B8RA
Corrosion is a very complex subject; there are many different ways
in which an environment can attack and degrade a fastener andlor joint
members. There are many types of corrosion-such as erosion-
corrosion, fretting, crevice corrosion, pitting, galvanic corrosion. It often
takes an expert to identify the type, cause and cure in a specific situation,
Only two types of corrosion are known to have caused problems in
nuclear plants: STRESS CORROSION CRACKING and general cor-
rosion of carbon and alloy steel fasteners in the reactor coolant pressure
boundary caused by a borated water or boric acid environment.
fiii...,..c:!:":"]

@:.''l

------------------------------ :--
Borated Water Corrosion
Borated water or boric acid corrosion can best be described as acceler-
ated general corrosion.
Only a small amount of laboratory data on boric acid corrosion exists
and much of the relevant data were only recently published. In the
concentration used in reactor coolant systems, boric acid is a relatively
weak add. However, under wetting and drying conditions, boric acid
may concentrate in a slurry forming a saturated solution. The available
data indicate that corrosion rates as high as 1.7 inches per year (reduc-
tion in diameter of cylindrical specimens) may result when carbon and
alloy steels are exposed to borated environments under these condi-
tions. Corrosion rates are rapid at 200 degrees F and a Ph of approxi-
mately 3. The corrosion process may be active at service temperatures
(greater than 350 degrees F) because of localized cooling of hot
fasteners.
There do not appear to be any differences in corrosion rates for the
common carbon and low alloy steel bolting materials. Coatings, platings,
and various surface treatments have generally not provided adequate
corrosion resistance. Corrosion resistant materials such as austenitic
and martensitic stainless steels and high strength nickel-base alloys
offer good resistence to boric acid corrosion. These materials are now
used in many fastener applications, but concerns about strength, degra-
dation in toughness or other forms of corrosion have precluded their
general use, particularly in the larger sizes. It should be noted that with-
out the leaking coolant, low alloy steel fasteners have demonstrated
exemplary performance.
Solving Corrosion Problems
Experience suggests that the simplest way to prevent corrosion is to
prevent leaks. Preventing leaks is not necessarily easy, but it's more
economical than replacing materials.
Perhaps the next best thing to do is to let them corrode a little and
periodically replace them with new bolts or studs of the same type.
If that's not sufficient, replace the fasteners with ones made of corrosion
resistent material. An analysis of the component will be required before
changing materials.
In general, corrosion problems can't be. solved by amateurs. See an
expert!
1. Merrick, E. A. Rivers, J. Bickford and T. Marston. Preven-
tion of Bolting Degradation and Failure in Pressure
Boundary and Support Applications. Paper given at
SMIRT-81post SMIRT Conference, September 1985.
CREEP
(See GASKET, CREEP OF)
DATUM ROD
A device used to measure the STRETCH OF THE BOLT. A rod is
placed in a hole drilled along the axis of the bolt. The far end of the
rod is fastened to the bolt; the rest is free. As the bolt is tightened it
stretches up around the rod. By measuring the change in the distance
between the end of the bolt and the end of the rod, you can tell how
much the bolt has stretched and can, therefore, estimate bolt preload.
A depth mic is used for the measurement.
Bolting Procedures Reference Mal. ___.i 27
FIGURE 7
A depth micrometer and datum rod can be used to
measure the stretch of a bolt as shown In the
illustration.
DIMENSIONS, BOLT
(See BOLT DIMENSIONS)
DISASSEMBLY PROCEDURES
Most plants have extensive, written procedures for the assembly of
bolted joints, but few pay much attention to the techniques used to
disassemble them. This is usually acceptable, but there are some points
you should keep in mind.
There is an enormous amount of elastic energy stored in a bolted
flange. The joint, in effect, is a giant spring held compressed by the
bolts. As you start to remove bolts, the stored energy of the joint loads
the bolts still remaining in the joint. The joint can be distorted, and
gaskets or flange surfaces can be damaged. In a lew cases, the final
bolts remaining in a lange have actually been broken as they attempted
to hold the expanding joint together.
If you think that you've experienced problems caused by too casual
disassembly procedures, you might consider taking them apart with
a reverse of the procedure you used to tighten them. Use several passes.
Partially loosen each bolt before further loosening any of them. Use
a cross-unbolting procedure. Handle the bolts and flange members
carefully to avoid damaging them. These steps could save you problems
when you come to reassemble the joint.
EFFECTIVE LENGTH
(See LENGTH, EFFECTIVE)
ELASTIC INTERACTIONS
(See PRELOAD, LOSS OF)
Tightening one fastener will often partially relieve (in effect, loosen)
previously tightened fasteners near it. Such "cross talk" between
fasteners, during assembly or disassembly, is called Elastic Interaction.
Elastic interactions are one of the most common and most extreme
forms of PRELOAD LOSS, especially in gasketed joints. They can easily
result in a 5:1 or 10:1-or worse -scatter in the residual preload in the
bolts in a flanged joint, as shown in the figures below.
FIGURE 8
The "x" marks show the preloads achieved In the
Individual bolts In a raised face flange when first
tightened with a uniform torque of 275 It-Ibs. The
numbers indicate the order In which the bolts were
tightened and their relative position on the flange.
Bolt #2, for example, Is 180 degrees away from bolt
111. The "0" marks show the residual preload
remaining In each bolt alter all of the bolts in the
Joint had been tightened (when we were ready to
start the second pass). Elastic Interactions between
bolts had substantially reduced the preload In many
of them.
11 ,. 16 9 II I I) 10
lOLl !'OsmON ~ N O NUM'U
FIGURE 9
The Initial (x) and residual (0) preloads In the bolt of
our raised face flange following a second pass at
550 It-Ibs. As in Figure 8, the initial bolt-by-bolt
preloads are fairly conSistent, but the residual
preloads vary a great deal because of elastic Inter-
actions.
o
9
x
~ , 0
\/
12
5''''3
16

'1 6 13 15 8 10
BOLT POSITON AND NUMBER
FIGURE 10
Initial (x) and residual (0) preloads In the Joint after a
third pass at 825 ft-Ibs.
Cl
"

9

80
60
40
20,0
12 14 16
,
"
6
13
BOLT POSITION AND NUMBER
FIGURE 11
preload after a final pass at 875 ft-Ibs; at
end of Job (x) and after 12 hours (0).
"'0
;(
!!
c
"
15
B
::
8
20.0
5 14 3 9
"
4 B
BOLT POSITION AND NUMBER
Many people find this hard to believe. If 5:1 scatter in preload is com-
mon, why don't more joints leak? The answer is that gasketed jOints
have a "memory"; their leak behavior depends as much if not more
on the initial seating stress on a gasket than it does on residual stress
(see GASKET STRESS). The leak behavior is also strongly related to
the flange stiffness.
Compensating for Elastic Interactions
In most cases it's not necessary to compensate for elastic interactions.
In a few cases, where flanges are relatively flexible, or where there are
serious THERMAL EFFECT problems, it will be helpful to reduce the
scatter in residual preload. There are a couple of things you can do.
Retighten the Joint Repeatedly
There is no magic torquing or tensioning procedure which eliminates
elastic interactions; however, making a large number of passes at the
final torque or tension can reduced scatter. Some people keep retight-
ening them "until they no longer move". Doing one or more final passes
in a different sequence-for example, the last ones first-can also help.
Measure and Control Residual Preload
The only infallible way to compensate for interactions is to measure
and control the residual-rather than just the initial-preload in the
bolts. At the present time this means some kind of STRETCH CON-
TROL: DATUM RODS, for example, or strain gages or load cells.
ULTRASONICS can also be used. If you measure residuals, you'll
find that you can achieve relatively uniform residual preloads in the
bolts in a joint (+ 110-20% for example) only by applying a different
amount of torque to each bolt.
References The follOWing documents and texts have helped us pre-
1. Bickford, J. H., Ultrasonic Control of Bolt Preload. 1981
Proceedings-Refining Department. 46th Mid-year Meeting
of the American Petroleum Institute. Chicago, Illinois,
May 14, 1981.
2. Bickford, J. H., That Initial Preload-What Happens To It?
Mechanical Engineering, ASME, New York, October 1983.
EMBEDMENT
Fastener and joint surfaces are microscopically rough. When first as-
sembled, these surfaces (nut, bolt threads, joint members, etc.) only
contact each other on high spots. This is insufficient area to support
the high loads created by tightening the fasteners, so the high spots
will creep and flow. The fastener and jOint members settle in together.
The process is called embedment or embedment relaxation, and can
cause loss of initial preload of 2-10%. It's worse if the parts are previ-
ously unused and/or if the number of jOint plies is large, or tensioners
are used to tighten the joint (threads are partially embedded during
torquing but not during tensioning).
EXTENSOMETER
A device used to measure the change in length of a test specimen
or a bolt. Mechanical, electro-magnetic and ultrasonic instruments are
available.
1. Bickford, J. H. Ultrasonic Control of Bolt Preload. 1981
Proceedings-Refining Department. 46th Mid-year Meeting
of the American Petroleum Institute, Chicago, illinois,
May 14, 1981.
FAILURE OF FASTENER
(See FASTENERS, BROKEN; FATIGUE FAILURE; VIBRATION
LOOSENING; STRESS CORROSION CRACKING; THREAD
STRIPPING)
FASTENERS, BROKEN
(See THREAD STRIPPING)
Causes
Fasteners break when the forces on them exceed their strength. The
forces, and the type of "strength" involved, can be static or slowly
changing, as discussed in STRENGTH OF fASTENERS-Static. Or the
forces can be dynamic, and we must be concerned about fatigue
strength, as discussed under FATIGUE FAILURE. Sometimes chemical
attack weakens the fasteners and hastens their failure. In most such
situations the corrosion will be visible (see CORROSION). In more
difficult-to-detect situations, the failure is by STRESS CORROSION
CRACKING, caused by a combination of load and corrosion at the tip
of a crack.
Prevention
If you're troubled by broken fasteners, you should:
D Determine the basic cause of failure. If pertinent, refer to
the sections on CORROSION or STRESS CORROSION
CRACKING or FATIGUE FAILURE for suggested steps to
reduce the problems.
o If the failures occur under static or slowly changing loads
(as the fasteners are tightened, for example), consider
taking the following steps, listed in order of increasing
complexity or cost:
Reconsider the torque used to tighten the fasteners, and
reduce it if possible (see TORQUE, SELECTION OF)
Provide better training and/or supervision for the
mechanics involved in the assembly
Use more accurate bolting tools (see ACCURACY)
Replace the fasteners with stronger ones of the same
size. The following will increase their strength (see
STRENGTH OF FASTENERS-Static, for details):
-Use a new material having a higher strength
-Use fine pitch instead of coarse pitch threads.
(NOTE: This increases body strength but decreases
stripping strength)
o Change the design to allow larger fasteners, or more of
them.
o Change the design to reduce loads on the fasteners so that
you can reduce preloads.
FASTENERS, STRIPPED
FATIGUE FAILURE
General
It's a fatigue failure when:
o The failure is sudden with little or no necking-down of the
part.
o The component has been subjected to cyclic tensile loads.
n Usually the cyclic loads are well below the material tensile
strength.
Fatigue failures are most easily identified by the appearance of the
fracture surface (beach marks, polishing, corrosion).
Typical appearance of fatigue failures are shown in the following
Figure.
FIGURE 12
Cross-section of a bolt which has failed in fatigue.
The beach marks are shown at (A). The rougher sur-
face, where the boit failed abruptly, is shown at (B).
Whether or not a part will fail in fatigue depends upon many factors,
including the properties of tlie material from which the fastener is
made, the way it was processed, defects in the material, stress levels,
details of the shape of the fastener (thread radii, for example). It takes
an expert to determine why a part failed.
Analyzing and Reducing Fatigue Problems Fatigue is a complex
subject involving many variables. If your problems are frequent and
severe or you are especially concerned about the consequences of a
fatigue failure, you should consult an expert. If you have to solve the
problem yourself, however, here are some of the things which have
helped others:
Protect The Evidence
You may not be able to solve the problem. If so, you'll be glad that
you have saved samples to show to an expert. Place them in a bag to
protect them from the environment. Here are some of the things a
broken bolt can tell the expert:
o Where and when failure started-quench crack, inclusion,
pit.
o Beach marks show a time history of the crack progresion.
Corrosion products and polishing of surface give clues.
o Final overload. This can give an indication of the external
load to which the fastener was subjected for example (final
overload area was 10% of section; therefore, the external
cycle load was small, approximately 10% of tensile
strength).
Increase the Preload
Rapid fatigue failure can result if preloads are too low. If preload is
low, the bolt will often see a larger portion of an external load. PRYING
action is often increased too, so your first step in combating fatigue
should be to recheck your preload and/or torque specifications (see
PRELOAD, SELECTION OF).
Review assembly tools and procedures to make sure you're getting
the specified preloads. And don't forget to consider RELAXATION
effects when reviewing your preload specifications and assembly proce-
dures. It's the residual preload, not the initial preload that matters
when the fatigue (cyclic) loads are applied to the jOint (See PRELOAD,
INITIAL/RESIDUAL).
If you believe you're getting the specified preloads and they're not
doing the job, increase them. Preloads as high as 70-100% of yield
have been recommended in some applications (see PRELOAD, SELEC-
TION OF-Level 3 or 4).
Inspect the Surfaces
Fatigue cracks can start at minor defects, pits, cracks, or folds in the
surfaces of the bolt. Inspect the surfaces of the bolt. Discard any with
defects.
Avoid Decarburlzation
A decarburized surface is easily "cracked" and encourages fatigue.
Make sure bolts have been properly heat treated.
Perpendicularity
Check the perpendicularity between nut face and the axis of the baIt.
Tests show that a nut face-to-bolt-axis angularity of only 4 degrees can
reduce fatigue life to almost nothing.
Possible solutions include spot-facing or milling the flange surface,
use of tapered washers or a self-aligning nut (Fig. 13).
FIGURE 13
Cut-away view of a two-piece spherical nut showing
how it conforms to a joint surface Which I .. not per-
pendicular to the bolt axis.
New Bolts
Periodically replace the bolts, before they fail-a simplistic, but effec-
tive way to avoid fatigue failure; since fatigue failure is time dependent.
Materials
Make sure you're using a fatigue resistant bolt material. Consult your
fastener suppliers for advice. Some of the material properties often cited
as desirable when fatigue is a problem include:
o Relatively high strength, but not too high. An ultimate ten-
sile of 160 ksi is considered good for fatigue resistence.
Check the stress corrosion cracking properties of the mate-
rial (STRESS CORROSION CRACKING).
o At least 7% minimum elongation
o Through hardenable
o High notch strength
One bolt material which meets these criteria is 4340 heat treated to
160 ksi tensile strength (145 ksi yield).
Nut and Bolt Shapes
When you're talking to your fastener supplier about material, also ask
about fatigue resistant shapes. Little differences can have a big effect
on fatigue life. The radius of thread roots, for example, has a major
impact on life (large, smooth radii giving better life than sharp roots).
Rolling the tlueads (especially after heat treatment) instead of machining
them can be important, too. The shape of the fillet between head and
body, the way the threaded section is blended with an unthreaded
body, the shape of the nut and bolt head-these and many other factors
can make a difference in fatigue life. Good, fatigue resistent fasteners
are available.
Nut shape and details are equally important. Flanged nuts with
tapered threads on the inboard face, longer nuts, can all make a differ-
ence. Again, see your fastener supplier for suggestions.
Stress Concentrations
Eliminate unnecessary stress concentrations. For example, if thread
run-out is too close to the nut bearing surface, the thread stresses at
the first thread of engagement of the nut will be inceased. As shown
below at least three full threads below the nut face and one or two
sticking out beyond the nut should guarantee full engagement.
Bolting Procedures Reference Ma. 39
FIGURE 14
A minimum of two threads above the nut and three
threads below will help improve fatigue life.
__ 3 THREADS
Lock nuts can also have a beneficial effect on the distribution of thread
stress. So can jam nuts or helicoil inserts and tension nuts.
FIGURE 15
Cut-away view of a tension nut.
40 Bolting .:edures Reference Manual
Fatigue Tests
Because of the number of variables involved, the fatigue life of fasteners
cannot be predicted. Tests made on conventional polished test coupons
help to evaluate a given material; but the actual life of a bolt made of
that material is usually only 1/2 to 1/4 the life of the test coupon, because
of stress concentrations created by threads, head-to-body fillet, defects
caused by processing, and environment.
If you have a problem, it may be necessary for you to have a qualified
laboratory conduct tests on your actual bolts under conditions that
simulate your application as closely as possible.
Reduce the Applied, Cyclic Loads
It's usually impossible in a field situation to reduce the loads seen by
the bolts. These loads are a function of operating temperatures and
pressures, equipment design, and joint design. If all else fails, how-
ever, you may have to ask the equipment designer to do this for you.
There are loads, called endurance limits, below which ferrous materials
will have an infinite fatigue life. These loads depend upon the shape
of the fastener, its condition, as well as on the material. Unfortunately
the endurance limit of bolts is very low-perhaps only 30r 4% of the
yield strength of the material-so it's unlikely the designer can give
you this much relief. But the closer he comes to the limit, the longer
the bolt will last.
1. Fatigue Design Handbook, published by the Society of
Automotive Engineers, AE-4 Advances in Engineering
Series No.4.
2. Bickford, J.H., Section 23-Bolted and Riveted Joints.
Standard Handbook of Machine DeSign. Editors: J.
Shigley and C. Mischke, McGraw Hill, New York. 1986.
FINISH, FLANGE
(See LEAKS)
------------------ ..... \--
Bolting Procedures Reference M, . 41
FLANGE, CAST IRON
(See FLANGE, UNCOMMON MATERIALS)
FLANGE, OVAL RING
(See GASKETS, METAL a-RINGS)
FLANGE ROTATION
The outer edges of a raised face flange are pulled towards each other
when the bolts are tightened. This distortion is called flange rotation.
FIGURE 16
Flange rotation. Note how the gasket Is compressed
near the bolt and relieved towards the Inside of the
vessel.
(
42 Boltine cedures Reference Manual
FLANGE, STAINLESS STEEL
(See FLANGE, UNCOMMON MATERIALS)
FLANGE, UNCOMMON MATERIALS
Recommendations for TORQUE, PRELOAD, GASKET STRESS, etc.,
are usually based on the assumption that the flanges involved are made
from carbon steel. When they are not, you must take extra steps to
avoid possible problems.
Strength of the Flange
Many materials are not as strong as carbon steel. Applying normal tor-
ques can Yield them. For example, here are some typical yield strengths
for flange materials:
Carbon Steel (SA 105)
Stainless Steel (SA 185)
100 po
36 ksi
30
500 po
29 ksi
19
1000 po
20 ksi
16
As a result, one utility reduces the maximum torque applied to stain-
less steel flanges as follows:
Operating Temperature
Below 200 po
200-500 po
500-700 F
O
.47 T
Torque
.87 T
.60 T
Where: T = Torque for carbon steel flange
Gray iron f l ~ n g e s are used for low temperature and low pressure
service. Matenals such as ASTM A126 don't have a defined yield
strength. The tensile strength of A126 is:
ASTM A126 Gr A
ASTM A126 Gr B
20 ksi
30-31 ksi
Sedion VIII of the ASME Code requires a factor of safety of 10 be
apphed to these tensile values to arrive at an allowable stress. This
makes it almost impossible to show that raised faced gray iron flanges
meet code stress requirements.
Bolting Procedures Reference" \pal 43
One utility used 30 ksi bolt loads for full faced gray iron flanges. They
broke a cast iron 125# flange at these bolt loads by bolting it up to a
steel raised raced flange.
Thermal Stress
Uncommon flange materials may have coefficients of expansion that
differ substantially from the coefficients of the bolt materials. The coeffi-
cients may vary with temperature (see COEFFICIENT OF EXPANSION
for additional data).
Material
Carbon Steel
Cast Iron
Stainless Steel
Coefficient of Expansion
(in/in/F)
@ 600 deg. F
8.35 X 10'
6.20 X 10'
10.38 X 10'
A temperature rise will cause an increase in bolt preload and in the
clamping force on the joint if the bolts are low alloy steel and the flange
members are stainless steel due to the difference in coefficient of thennal
expansion. See THERMAL STRESS for further information, and for
procedures for calculating such stresses.
GALLING
(See Also LUBRICANTS)
Galling is the cold welding, or partial welding, of one heavily loaded
metal surface to another. It is encountered when those surfaces are
brought together so intimately that molecular bonds adually form be-
tween mating parts-between a bolt and its nut, for example.
We see this intimate contad when surfaces are highly loaded, when
lubricants have migrated or dried out, when we have damaged threads
(to create stress concentrations), tight thread fits, and or combinations
of such things. Corrosion and high temperatures can make the prob-
lems worse.
44 Boltirlo Procedures Reference Manual
To Avoid Galling
There is no known way to eliminate all 11"
dally on larger fasteners Experie h ga mg of bolts and nuts, espe-
ing things can help h nce s ows"however, that the follow-
I
. . ave to try these thi .
app 1cations to learn which are eff t' f ngs m your own
ec lve or you.
D Use coarse threads instead of f
o T . me.
ry vanous anti-seize compounds Bef h .
cants, ensure that the lubricant is
component (see LUBRICANT) H e
we've heard in the field: . ere are some comments
-Molydisulphide anti-seize works well if bolt I d
than 50% of yield. oa s are less
C670 is good, even on rough surfaces when
operatmg temperatures are less than 750 d ' F
L' 'd (d' h egrees
- 1S) detergent is effective on aluminum .
- . e best anll-galling lubes are silver-based .
of magnesia is an effective lubricant
- tgives dgool d galling protection for
a appe a UIDlnum hole.
D which are somewhat resistant to
-400 series stainless nuts work well on 316 . b I
ARMCO N't . ser1es a ts
- N' . 1 romc 60 stainless seel bolts work well wi;h
'tron
d
,c 50 nuts (but not, surprisingly, the other way
aroun ).
-It helps to use stainless steel nuts on B7 B16 d th
low alloy steel bolts. ' an a er
-Cold drawn 316 works well on cold drawn 316.
Removal of Galled Studs and Bolts
Just as there are no magic ways to prevent all'
ways to remove seized studs or bolt H g mg, there are no perfect
have found helpful h s. ere are some tncks that others
, Qwever:
D iodine as a oil. Be sure to clean it off the
b
o ts, nuts and Jomt members after removing the bolts
ecause 1t's a mild add d '11 ' an W1 continue to penetrate the
parts.
e] mild acids can also be used as penetrating oils with
e same as above. '
Bolting Procedures Reference
45
o Sometimes heating andlor cooling a bolt will break it loose.
Drill a heater hole in the bolt if necessary.
o Weld a nut to the end of a stud; use the nut as a "head"
to get a good grip on the bolt. Add penetrating oil, and
untorque the stud. (It sometimes helps to heat the flange a
little, too, if allowed.)If they break, drill them out.
D Drill a hole through the flange or drill the stud to reach a
blind hole at the far end. Tap the outer end of the hole;
add a pressure coupling; and pump penetrating oil into the
blind hole under pressure (2000 psi has been used). Main-
tain the pressure awhile, then untorque them.
o If all else fails, drill them out using a magnetic base drill or
an EDM machine. The latter leaves a heat-treated skin on
the hole and this can be a problem when you try to re-tap
the hole. After drilling, try peeling out the threads from
the bolt; this will save the tapped hole.
o As a last resort, the hole may have to be drilled oversized
and tapped to accept an insert. This is a configuration
change, and design of the component will have to be
evaluated for this change.
GASKET, CREEP OF
Virtually all gasket materials are partially plastic in their behavior;
they reaIly must be in order to conform intimately with the minute
inegularities in the joint surfaces and therefore to prevent leakage. The
fact that they're not fully elastic, however, means that the whole gasket
will creep and flow to some extent when placed under heavy loads.
The gasket gets thinner and wider as a result of this creep, allowing
the bolts to relax a little. Stresses on the gasket are relaxed and a leak
path may open, even if the joint was tight when initially assembled.
It is widely believed that this creep accounts for the often gross loss
of preload found in the bolts of a previously tightened joint-the loss
which occurs between passes, for example. Recent tests by the Pressure
Vessel Research Committee's Task Group on Gasket Testing, however,
show that the creep of most gaskets-spiralwound, compressed as-
bestos, asbestos substitute, double-jacketed, etc.-is smaller than com-
monly supposed. Preload losses caused by creep rarely exceeded 5%
of initial preload, at least during room temperature tests, and the bulk
46 BoIting P,.. .ures Reference Manual
of the loss occurred within minutes of initial loading. It is now believed
that ELASTIC INTERACTIONS are the principal cause of loss of
preload in gasketed joints tightened in multiple passes. See PRELOAD,
LOSS OF for further details.
Two exceptions to all of this are elastomeric or plastic gaskets, which
do exhibit a Significant amount of creep and which will continue to
creep for several days after tightening. (See GASKETS ELASTOMERIC
OR PLASTIC)
GASKET LEAKS
(See LEAKS)
GASKET STRESS
(See LEAKS; GASKETS, IN GENERAL)
Whether a gasketed jOint will leak or not depends upon the clamping
pressure exerted by the flange members on the gasket. These surface
pressures are called gasket stress.
Experiments and experience show that two different gasket stresses
are important:
o The initial seating stress created when the bolts are first
tightened and
11 The residual stress on the gasket after the system has been
pressurized (partially relieving the gasket in most cases).
The initial seating stress on the gasket is related to the "y" gasket
factor used for design purposes in the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel
Code. Table XI-3221.1-1 in Section III, Division 1 of the Code lists sug-
gested (not mandatory) y factors for a variety of common gasket materi-
als. For a spiral-wound, asbestos-filled gasket, the Code recommends
an initial seating stress of 10 ksL
The residual stress on the gasket is related to the" m" gasket factor
also tabulated in Table Xl-3221.1-1. This m is a "maintenance" or "mul-
tiplying" factor. It defines recommended, residual gasket stress in
I
terms of some multiple of the pressure contained by the system. For
a spiral-wound, asbestos-filled gasket, for example, the table gives a
recommended m of 3. Given a contained pressure of 1,000 psi, there-
fore, the residual stress on the gasket should not fall below 3 ksL
The Code recommendations are complicated by the fact that they
are not based on the full contact surface area of the gasket. The original
authors assumed that FLANGE ROTATION would unload the inner
portion of the gasket, if the flange had a raised face. They recommended,
therefore, that only about half of the gasket surface be assumed to be
in contact with the flange members when the seating or residual stresses
were evaluated. So a recommended yof 10 ksi, computed on the half
area of the gasket, equates to an actual average seating stress of only
5 ksi for the full area.
Recent studies, sponsored by the Subcommittee on Bolted Flanged
Connections of the Pressure Vessel Research Committee, suggest that
it is usually more accurate to assume full contact between the gasket
and the flange. The Subcommittee is in the process of preparing revised
recommendations for gasket factors and the new ones, it is hoped, will
be based upon full gasket area.
Table C gives some suggested seating stresses for gasket
materials, based on full gasket area. These recommendatlOns are the
result of the PVRC studies mentioned above. As a result, they differ
from current Code suggestions. Will you violate the Code if you use
them?
The answer is, "No, you will not." Remember, the Code values are
suggestions only and are intended for use by designers; they are not
mandatory, and are not intended to define assembly or in-service gasket
stresses.
In fact, the Code does not give very specific information about the
assembly of bolted flanges. Only Appendix 11 of Section III (or the
identical Appendix S of Section VIII, Division 1) deal with assembly
stress. Both, in effect, say that you should tlghten the bolts enough
to prevent leaks. And the reader is told that this will mean bolt stresses
in excess of the "allowable" stresses given in Code Table 1-7.3 and 1-8.3.
The Code is not contradicting itself when it says this. The allowables
are intended to be used for design purposes only. They force the
designer to overdesign the joint; to be conservative and therefore safe.
The bolts selected by this design process, however, now can:-and
should-be tightened beyond the stress limits allowed the deSIgner.
The Code lists possible tightening values (by suggesting y factors) to
help the designer size the bolts and flange members. The PVRC studIes,
however, suggest values which are better for assembly purposes.
48 Bolting Pro res Reference Manual
To be complete, we should mention that the PVRC work has shown
that there's no such thing as a I'perfect" seating stress or maintenance
stress for a given gasket. The "best" factors for a given application
depend upon such things as the type of fluid contained by the system,
the contained pressure, the flange finish, etc. The maintenance factor
is also a function of the seating stress and vice versa. Increase seating
stress and you reduce the maintenance factor required to contain a given
fluid at a given pressure.
To further complicate things, even if you can determine which seating
stress would be best for a given gasket, contained fluid, etc., you may
not be able to use that stress when you tighten the joint. In some cases
(for example, in small diameter, low pressure flanges) you'll find that
the bolts would have to be stressed near or even past yield to develop
the desired gasket stress. In large flanges you may find that the theo-
retically ideal bolt loads will cause excessive FLANGE ROTATION;
and that this can actually increase the tendency to leak. In other words,
a lower assembly stress, which pure gasket tests suggest would increase
the leak rate, will actually decrease it.
THERMAL EFFECTS, which aren't welI understood at present, can
also force you to use lower assembly stresses than those suggested by
pure gasket tests. So can a concern for STRESS CORROSION CRACK-
ING. In some cases you'll also be limited by the size of the wrench
you can use On a given joint. Or by the stresses the bolts would create
in the flange members. There are limits to how much stress a gasket
can support, too (see the manufacturer). You should probably have
a designer check your proposed assembly loads if you face severe ther-
mal cycles and/or are planning to tighten the bolts past 40% of yield.
As a result of all this, it's not possible to give you a table of gasket
seating stresses, or maintenance factors, which will be best for every
situation. Trial and error will often be required if you have to deal with
FLANGE ROTATION or THERMAL EFFECTS or the like. It IS possible
to say, however, that seating stresses should, in general, be higher
than the y factors used for design purposes. The following Table takes
this into account. Note that the stresses given here are based on the
full area of the gasket; not on the Code's reduced area. Note, too, as
mentioned above, that you will often have to use stresses even higher
than those in the Table, to seal a problem joint.
Bolting Procedures Reference r 49
TABLE C
Minimum Seating Stresses for Gaskets (For
Assembly Purposes, Not for Flange Design) Based
on Full Gasket Area
Gasket Material
Self-energizing types (O-rings, metallic, elastomer, other
gasketed types considered as self-sealing)
Elastomers without fabric or high percent of asbestos fiber:
Below 75 Shore Durometer
75 or higher Shore Durometer
Asbestos with suitable binder for operating conditions:
1/8 in. thick
1/16 in. thick
1/32 in. thick
Elastomers with cotton fabric insertion
Elastomers with asbestos fabric insertion (with or without
wire reinforcement):
3 ply
2 ply
1 ply
Vegetable fiber
Spiral-wound metal,
Asbestos Filled: Carbon
Stainless or Monel
Graphite Filled: Stainless Steel
Chlorite-Graphite Filled: Stainless Steel
Corrugated metal, asbestos inserted, or corrugated metal,
jacketed asbestos filled:
Soft aluminum
Soft copper or brass
Iron or soft steel
Monel or 4-6% chrome
Stainless steels
Corrugated metal:
Soft aluminum
Iron or soft steel
Stainless steels
Flat metal, jacketed asbestos filled:
Soft aluminum
Iron or soft steel
Monel
4-6% chrome
Stainless steels
Minimum
Seating Stress
psi
o
o
150
1200
2775
4875
300
1650
2175
2775
825
7500
7500
7500
7500
2175
2775
3375
4125
4875
2775
3375
4125
4875
5700
4125
4875
5700
6000
6750
6750
50 Bolting 1 Reference Manual
TABLE C
Continued
Grooved metal:
Soft aluminum
Iron or soft steel
Stainless steels
Solid flat metal:
Soft aluminum
Iron or soft steel
Stainless steels
Ring joint:
Iron or soft steel
Stainless steels
GASKETS-ELASTOMERIC OR PLASTIC
4125
4875
5700
6750
7575
7500
7500
9000
10900
13000
13500
16350
19500
_ G.askets made elastomeric or plastic materials can be especially
deal with because they are dimensionally less stable than
. harder gaskets such as compressed asbestos, spiral-wound, double-
Jacketed, solid metal, etc. One company reports that they find it neces-
sary to compensate for the creep of such gaskets by retightening them
rated torque) twenty-four hours after initial assembly and some-
trmes agam after forty-eight and seventy-two hours.
GASKETS-IN GENERAL
(See GASKET STRESS; LEAKS; GASKETS, METAL O-RING;
GASKETS, METAL)

Bolting Procedures Reference. ;lal 51
Basic Considerations
Gaskets are used to fill irregularities in joint surfaces -to plug the gaps
between joint members-and so to prevent leaks. To do this job, gaskets
must be:
o Soft enough to conform completely with both large and
small imperfections in joint surfaces_
o Elastic enough to follow the joint members as they expand
and contract under pressure, thermal and/or other loads.
o Able to resist chemical attack by the contained fluids, at
operating temperatures.
o Able to accept the high clamping forces required to mate
the gaskets intimately to flange surfaces (without, for
example, excessive cold flow or creep).
Selection of a particular gasket, for a particular job, is a task for the
designer or for the company which manufactures gaskets. Companies
such as Union Carbide, Lamons and Flexitallic have all published tech-
nical manuals which give you a great deal of information about gasket
choices and the proper use of gaskets. You should request and read
these manuals if you have to pick a gasket.
Our purpose in this reference manual is simpler-to help you under-
stand and troubleshoot gaskets already selected by the designer. As
in all other aspects of bolting, the designer cannot guarantee success;
the people who assemble and maintain the joint must do their part
correctly or the joint will still fail .
Use and Installation of Gaskets
Here are the factors which the field people must control:
o The condition of the gasket. Don't re-use them. Handle
them carefully during assembly. Bent, nicked, gouged or
hammered gaskets won't seal.
o The condition of joint members. Even a perfect gasket will
be unable to seal badly damaged or warped flange surfaces.
Radial gouges, scratches, tool marks, etc., are especially
bad. The finish of flange members is one aspect of their
condition which deserves attention. The flbest" finish for a
particular type of gasket is a hotly debated subject. Many
companies have rigorous specifications on this. Recent
studies by the Task Group on Gasket Testing of the
Pressure Vessel Research Committee, however, suggest that
52 Bolti! 'ocedures Reference Manual
finish is not as critical a factor as many think-except
perhaps for solid metal gaskets. The leakage behavior of
spiral-wound, compressed asbestos, asbestos substitute,
metal-jacketed asbestos, and oval ring gaskets was found to
be relatively unaffected by variations in gasket finish
ranging from 32 inches to 1000 micro inches. Nevertheless,
the debate still rages and a lot of people with a lot of prac-
tical experience dispute the PYRC conclusions. See the gas-
ket manufacturer for recommendations.
Installation
Joint integrity depends in good part on satisfactory gasket installation.
Here is some practical guidance:
o The placement of the gasket. It must be centered on the
joint members, clear of the bolts, etc.
o The initial preloading of the gasket. The joint must be
drawn together carefully. One plant claims that unless
flanges are parallel within 0.012" before tightening the
bolts, the jOint will leak. Most people don't hold parallel-
ism to this tight a tolerance, but it certainly is important.
o Initial loading. The gasket must be loaded uniformiy (within
reason); never tighten one bolt fully and then move on to
the rest. Tighten them partially in several passes in a cross-
bolting pattern (see ASSEMBLY PROCEDURES) to compress
the gasket uniformly. .
o The most important-and most difficult-gasket job facing
the field worker is to produce the correct preload in the
joint. The initial seating stress on that gasket must be low
enough to avoid damaging the gasket, but high enough to
prevent a significant leak. See GASKET STRESS for further
information.
1. Gasket Handbook. Lamons Gasket Co., Houston, Texas
2. Flexitallic Spiral-Wound Gaskets, General Catalog.
Flexitallic Gasket Co., Inc., Camden, New jersey.
3. ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Section III,
ASME, New York, 1984.
-----------------'-, ---
Bolting Procedures Referenc \ual 53
4. Payne, J., A. Bazerguiand G. Leon. New Gasket
Factors-A Proposed Procedure. ASME Pressure Vessel
and Piping Conference. New Orleans, june 1985.
5. Robinson, j. N., M. l. Lundin, and l. Spiewak, Develop-
ment of Ring-Joint Flanges for Use in the HRE-2,
ORNL-3165, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge,
Tennessee, December 1961.
GASKETS, METAL ORING
Most of the discussion of gaskets in this manual is based on the as-
sumption that you're dealing with a raised face flange and the gasket
is a type appropriate for that flange (spiral-wound or sheet asbestos
or double-jacketed or the like). You're told, for example (under LEAKS)
that if the joint leaks you should try increasing the initial preload on
the joint. You're given suggested seating and residual stresses for var-
ious gaskets (under GASKET STRESS) and told to use these values
to compute an appropriate preload, etc.
Joints with metal O-ring gaskets don't obey the rules for raised face
"normal" joints. Instead, for metal O-rings:
o The initial and residual gasket stresses required are very
low.
o The bolt load required to compress the gasket and achieve
metal-to-metal contact of the joint depends upon the dia-
meter of the gasket, the material and its wall thickness.
Seating force or stress values can be obtained from the
gasket manufacturer.
o The bolt load required to assemble such joints is equal to
the sum of the small force required to seat the gasket, plus
the larger force needed to prevent the joint from separating
under the internal pressure load:
FB = (FG + AG P) I n
Where FB = required assembly bolt load
FG = force reqUired to seat the gasket
A G = area of gasket
n = number of bolts
P = internal pressure
54 Bolting,.' edures Reference Manual
The performance of the metal a-ring gasket is relatively insensitive
to flange finish. One manufacturer, for example, recommends a finish
of 32 micro-inches, but says that the gaskets will seal at finishes up
to 250 micro-inches, "especially if the gaskets are heavily plated".
The same manufacturer also offers some advice for troubleshooting
such joints:
If the joint seals for any length of time, and then starts to leak or
if it seals at first, but leaks before maximum contained pressure has
been reached, you probably have a bolting problem (insufficient
preload).
If it never seals, it's a bad gasket or bad surface finish, damaged sur-
face, or warped flange.
Note that increasing the bolt preload in the latter case will only in-
crease the interface contact pressure between joint members. It will
not increase gasket stress or cure the leak.
FIGURE 17
A flanged joint with a metal O-ring gasket. Contact
is basically metal-to-metal.
Bolting Procedures "uaI 55
GASKET, METAL (SOLID OR
CORRUGATED)
(See GASKETS IN GENERAL)
Solid or corrugated metal gaskets don't behave like more common
ones (such as spiral-wound, compressed asbestos, doublejacketed,
etc.).
For example, the leak behavior of most common gaskets is improved
if the preload applied at assembly is increased a little (see LEAKS or
GASKET STRESS). That's not true of metal gaskets; extra preload often
won't cure a leak.
The behavior of most common gaskets is becoming predictable,
thanks to the work being done by the Subcommittee on Bolted Flanged
Connections of the Pressure Vessel Research Committee. The experi-
menters, at least, now know how to evaluate a sample spiral-wound
gasket, for example, and how to use their tests on the sample to predict
leak rates under a wide variety of conditions. They report, however,
that the behavior of metal gaskets is "very erratic and unpredictable,
especially when they're used on freshly machined flanges':. The
havior becomes more predictable when a new gasket IS used In a prevI-
ously used flange. Even he:e, however, they don:t leak at a slowly
increasing rate as pressure mcreases the way.a spIral-wound gasket
will, for example. Instead, the metal gasket WIll seal for awhile-and
then suddenly start to leak.
The leak rate of a spiral-wound gasket is affected by flange surface
finish; but only a little. The behavior of a metal gasket is strongly affected
by surface finish (see the conunent above on new versus reused flanges,
for example). Consult the manufacturer for recommendations.
GRIP LENGTH
The distance between the inner face of the nut and the underside
of the head of the bolt (or inner face of the other nut) including washers,
if any. The combined thickness of all the parts which are clamped to-
gether by the bolt. If a tapped hole is used, instead of a nut, the member
containing the hole is considered to be a /I nut"; a clamping part rather
than a clamped part.
58
. .....--
Ig Procedures Reference Manual

Bolting Procedures Refe: Manual 59
" :a
TABLE D

Continued

Measuring the true hardness of a bolt in the field can be a tricky thing
ASTM Type
to do. Surface measurements can be misleading, because of such factors
1/2" to
33-38 HAC

as localized work hardening, surface decarburization, rust and surface
490 1,2 1 1/2/1
592-628
150 Mini
ASTM B21
Under 2"
170 Max damage. As a result, the proper way to measure the hardness of a bolt
540 CI5
241-285 HB
520-562
120
wd.:J:ij
is to cut a piece off one end, and to check the hardness at several radii
2-6/1
248302 HB
528578
on the exposed crosssection. The section tested must be at least one
6-8"
255-211 HB
115

diameter from the end of the fastener.
B21
Under 31/
534490
115
CI4
269331 HB
548604
135
Since it is often not possible to cut off the ends of bolts in field situa-
3-6"
277-352 HB
556620
I
tions, the Joint Task Group on Bolting of the AIF and MPC sought and
B21
Under 3/1
293352 HB
135

found a surface measurement procedure that can be used to give you
CI 3
570-620
145
3_6"
302375 HB

a rough indication, at least. The method has been defined in a document
B21
Under 4/1
578640
145 called STANDARD TEST METHOD FOR EQUOTIP R HARDNESS
CI2
311-401 HB
586660
155
TESTING OF METALLIC MA TERlALS, previously distributed by EPR!
B21
Under 4
11

Cll
321-429 HB
594680
165
to utilities and submitted to the ASTM with the recommendation that
B24
Under 6/1
248-311 HB
528-586

it be adopted as a standard procedure. Hardness is defined by anL
CI 5 120
(Leeb) number. The document referred to includes Tables of conversion
6/1-8"
255321 H8 factors between Leeb, Rockwell and other hardness standards. Leeb
8"9
534594
115

1/2/1
262321 HB
542-594
115 hardnesses are also included in the Table above.
824 Under 3/1
269341 H8
548-612

Further information about the Equotip Hardness procedure (and test
CI 4 135
equipment) can be obtained from:
3/16"
277-352 HB
6/18"
556622
135

8"9
285-363 HB
564630
135
Hentschel Instruments, Inc.
1/2/1
293363 HB
570630
135 2505 South Industrial Highway
B24
Under 3
11
293-363 HB
570630

Ann Arbor, Michigan 48104
CI3 145
Tel: 313/973-2505
3//-8"
302388 HB
578650

8"-9
311388 HB
145
J.M. Devine Company
1/21/
586650
145
B24
Under 7/
1
311-401 HB

716 Washington Street
CI 2
586660
155
P.O. Box 307
7"9
321415 HB
594-670 Dedham, Massachusetts 02026
1/2"
155

B24 Under 6/1
321415 HB
Tel: 617/329-7778
Cll
594670
165

6"8"
331-429 HB
604680
165
SAE GA 2 1/4" 10
80100 HAB
J429
3/4/1
414516
74

Over 3/4/1
70100 HAB
380-516
to 1 1/2"
60

GA 5 1/4" to
2534 HAC
534594
1"
120
HEATERS
Over 1/1
1930 HAC
502572

to 1 1/2/1
105
One common way to tighten large bolts is to insert a heating rod
GR 8 1/4" to
33-39 HAC
1 1/211
592634
150 in a hole drilled down through the center of the bolt; stretch the bolt

by heating it; run the nut down against the joint; and remove the heater.
HRS = Rockwell "8"

HRC '" Rockwell "e"
As the bolt cools it shrinks, developing tension or PRELOAD.
HB = Brinell

56 Bolth 10cedures Reference Manual
FIGURE 18
An Illustration of grip length (LG). Note that the grip
length Includes all clamped parts, Including a
washer) If any.
~ - - l G >
HARDNESS OF FASTENERS
There's a rough correlation between the hardness of a fastener and
its strength. It's sometimes helpful, therefore, to measure hardness
to help identify unmarked or s.uspect bolts in the field. The Table below
gives specified or expected hardness ranges for common bolting materi-
als. Procedures for measuring this hardness, in the field, are given after
the Table.
TABLE D
Hardness-Ultimate Strength
Spec.
ASTM
193
Grade
or
Class
B7
B16
B7M
B8T
B8
B8C
ASTM L7
320 L7A
L7B
L7C
L43
B8
B8C
B8M
B8F
B8T
ASTM Type
325 1,2,3
ASTM GR A
307 GR B
ASTM BC
354
ASTM
449
BD
Size
2 1/211
and under
21f2"4"
4-7"
4"& undo
1/2"-111
1 1/8/1-
1 1/2/1
1/4" to
21/2/1
Over 2
1/2/1
1f41f to
2 1/211
Over 2
1/2"
1/4'1 to
1"
Over 111
to 1 1/2
1
[
Over
1 1/2"
to 3/1
Bolting Procedures Reference M ' ~ ~ ? l 57
Hardness
(Rockwell
Leeb
or
Number
Ultimate
Brinell)
(L)
(ksi)
269275 HB
548556
125
244252 HB
524532
115
232236 HB
512-516 100
99 HRB 508512
100
96 HRB
488492
75
96 HRB
488492
75
96 HRB
488-492
75
269277 HB
548-556 125
269277 HB
548556
125
269277 HB
548556
125
269277 HB
548556
125
269277 HB
548556
125
96 HRB
488492
75
96 HRB 488492
75
96 HRB
488492
75
96 HRB 488492
75
96 HRB
488492
75
2435 HRC
534606
120
1931 HRC
510578
105
69100 HRB
378516
60 Min
6995 HRB
378486
60 Mint
100 Max
2636 HRC
546614
125
2233 HRC
522592
115
3339 HRC
592-636
150
3139 HRC
578636
140
255321 HB
534594
120
(2534 HRC)
223285 HB
502564
105
(1930 HRC)
458516
90
183235 HB
60 Bolting F dures Reference Manual
The method is relatively slow but it's inexpensive (heaters are cheaper
than high torque tools, for example). By itself, heating is not an accurate
way to develop or control a specified preload. If DATUM RODS and
depth mics or ULTRASONICS are used to measure the residual
STRETCH of FASTENERS, however, the method is very accurate. (See
STRETCH OF FASTENERS AND JOINTS).
There is some danger that heaters can decarburize the surfaces of
bolts, weakening them and leaving them more susceptible to FATIGUE
and STRESS CORROSION CRACKING. They can be useful tools
when GALLING is a problem, however, since you avoid high contact
forces between moving parts.
Disassembling bolts which have been heated can be a problem.
Presumably you'll heat them to relieve the preload. Now you often
must use a torque tool of some sort to disengage threads which have
frozen together because of CORROSION, EMBEDMENT, etc. You still
won't need as large a wrench as you would for loosening the bolts.
"cold", however.
Procedures for heating bolts should include the following:
o Heat several at once at cross points around the joint to
minimize ELASTIC INTERACTIONS.
o Go for final stretch (preload) in a single pass.
o Use depth mics or dial gages with DATUM RODS or
ULTRASONICS to measure the residual preloads after the
bolts have cooled.
o Reheat and retighten those which aren't right (skilled oper-
ators claim to be able to get about 60% of them right on a
first pass, 30% on a second pass, and the rest on pass #3.
IDENTIFICATION OF MATERIALS
(See MATERIALS, IDENTIFICATION OF; HARDNESS OF
FASTENERS)
Bolting Procedures Reference Me 61
INSPECTION OF BOLTED JOINTS
Many techniques have been developed for inspecting welded joints.
Unfortunately very few are available for the equally important (and
complex) bolted joint and most of these give only an indirect evaluation.
Here, for example, are some of the choices:
Residual Preload Tests
Whether or not the joint is going to perform its intended function de-
pends to a large extent upon the preload in the bolts and the resulting
clamping force on the joint interface. There's no way at present to walk
up to a previously tightened joint and tell with any great h?w
much preload is in the joints (at least without essenhally disassemblmg
the joint in the process). But the following tests can give you a crude
idea of the preload:
Torque Measurement Test Measure the torque required to restart
the nut in a clockwise direction. Then use the familiar equation T
K D Fp / 12 to compute the apparent preload (See TORQUE, SELEC-
TION OF). For nut factor K, use a value taken from the NUT FACTOR
Table if the joint has been freshly tightened. It's probably more accurate
to use a K that is 20% higher than the nommal tabulated value if the
joint was assembled several months earlier and/or has been subjected
to high temperatures (150 degrees F or higher). . .
The resulting estimate for preload, Fp, is probably accurate wlthm
+ / -50% in most cases. If the fasteners are rusty or galled or other-
wise in poor condition, the accuracy will be less.
Other Tests Use DATUM RODS or ULTRASONICS to measure the
reduction in length of one or a few bolts in the joint you loosen the,;".
Loosen them fully, one a a time, and carefully rehghten each-to. Its
original preload, whether or not this was "correct" -before loosemng
and measuring the next.
If a small sample suggests that the bolts in the joint are preloaded
correctly, you don't need to do the rest. If there to be
you may want to test more and/or retighten all of them m a cross boltmg
pattern to the desired preload.
Be sure to include both odd and even numbered bolts in your sample,
since ELASTIC INTERACTIONS will typically leave a sawtoothed pat-
tern of residual preload in the joint.
62 Bolting Pr;/--- U.res Reference Manual
Bolt Quality
If, after tightening the joint or after it has been in use for a while, you
are concerned about the quality of the bolts, you can:
o Use a visual inspection for cracks, rust, damaged threads,
etc.
o Test the hardness of bolts to estimate their tensile strength.
You'd presumably do this, for example, if you became sus-
picious that the bolts were not made of the correct material,
or had not been tested upon receipt.
o Use ULTRASONICS to test for possible cracks or wastage.
Techniques for doing this have been developed and are
described by S.N. Liu.
Reference The follOwing documents and texts have helped us prepare
this section-and can give you additional information.
1. S.N. Liu. Status of Bolting Inspection. Paper D6/6 in
Transactions of the 8th International Conference on
Structural Mechanics in Reactor Technology, Brussels,
August 19-23, 1985.
LEAK RATE
(See LEAKS)
Studies by the Subcommittee on Bolted Flanged Connections of the
Pressure Vessel Research Committee show that there's no such thing
as a totally "leak free" joint. There are, however, plenty of joints-
most of them-which leak so little that they're leak free for all practical
purposes.
The results of the PYRC tests will be widely discussed and will be
incorporated into the ASME Code in some form or other. Since these
tests define gasketed joint behavior in terms of specific (non-zero) leak
rates, a few words about rate are pertinent for this reference manual.
What's an acceptable leak rate? That depends upon the type of service,
the location of the joint, etc. In many places, for example, a rate of
one drop of water an hour would be acceptable. Such a rate would
be unacceptable, however, if the joint which leaked was located over
rOUT desk.
Bolting Procedures Reference M/ ~ m " " " ) I 63
The PYRC Subcommittee proposes three classifications for leak rates
that are acceptable:
o Economy-rates up to 15 mg/s.mm are acceptable
o Standard-rates to 1/500 mg/s.mm are acceptable
o Tight-rates to 1/5000 mg/s.mm are acceptable
These rates are expressed in terms of mass leakage, instead of volu-
metric, because mass rates will define the behavior of a given jOint for
all types of fluid (both liqUidS and gases) while volumetric leak rates
are fluid specific.
Note that the rates are also expressed in "per mm" terms-this is
"per mm of the flange's nominal diameter". The total leakage from
a 9 inch flange is expected to be 50% greater than that from a 6 inch
flange for the same conditions of contained pressure, initial and residual
gasket stress, same contained fluid, etc.
The conversion tables below will help you convert these PVRC leak
rates into terms that are easier to visualize. Note the significant impact
that type of contained fluid has on the relationship between mass and
volumetric leak rates.
TABLE E
Leak Rate Conversion Tables
Class
Economy
Standard
Tight
Tightness
Classificaflon
Economy
Standard
Tight
Economy
Standard
Tight
Mass Leak Rates
mg/sec.mm Ibs/hr.inch
0.2
0.002
0.00002
Volumetric Leak Rate
0.04
0.0004
0.000004
cclsec.mm Pintslhr.in.
O.2x10-3
O.2x10-5
O.2x10-7
0.16
0.16x10-2
O.16x10-4
0.04
O.04x10-
2
O.04x10-
4
31
0.31
0.0031
Ruid
Water
Water
Water
Nitrogen
Nitrogen
Nitrogen
64 Bolting Prof ,-- 'res Reference Manual
The table below might also help you visualize various rates.
TABLE F
Leak Rates and Bubble Equivalents
Leak Rate,
Std. eelsee Volume Equivalent Bubble Equivalent
10-
1
icc/10 sec Steady stream
10-
2
icc/i00 sec i0/sec
10-
3
3cc/hr 1/sec
10-
4
icc/3 hr 1/10 sec
10-
5
1cc/24 hr No bubble equivalent
10 - 6 1 cc/2 wk No bubble equivalent
10-
7
3cc/yr No bubble equivalent
10-
8
1cc/3 yr No bubble equivalent
10-
9
i c c / 3 ~ yr No bubble equivalent
Adapted from NUREG/CR1312, UCRL51738, Table 1. page 2
LEAKS
(See LEAK RATE)
Leaks are one of the most common, and most troublesome, types
of joint failure. Various aspects of leakage are discussed in a number
of sections of this report. This discussion, proceeding from simple to
complex, will serve as a guide to those other sections.
Special Situations
When faced with a leak, you should first determine whether or not
the joint involved is a raised face, carbon steel flange with a spiral-
wound or other common gasket. If so, proceed to the next paragraph.
If not, then you should first read any of the following sections which
are pertinent before proceeding to the next paragraph:
[) FLANGE-UNCOMMON MATERIALS
[J GASKETS-ELASTOMERIC OR PLASTIC
o GASKETS-METAL O-RING
o GASKETS-SOLID METAL
/',
Bolting Procedures Reference M jl 65
Review Assembly Procedures
The next step, for any type of joint or gasket, is to reexamine your bolt-
up procedures. Are you taking the precautions normally required for
gasketed joints? See ASSEMBLY PROCEDURES, GENERAL-All
Joints, ASSEMBLY PROCEDURES-Torque, and GASKETS-in
General
One important question: are you really getting the initial preloads
you want in those bolts? A great many factors are involved in the
torque-preload relationship, and many of them tend to give you less
preload than anticipated. See ACCURACY for further details.
Another early question: does the finish on your flange meet the
recommendations of the gasket manufacturer?
Review Preload Requirements
If you're satisfied that your procedures are up to par but you're still
having problems, you should review your preload specifications. If this
is a relatively unimportant joint and the leak is more a nuisance than
a danger or expense, then you should review PRELOAD, SELECTION
OF through Level #3.
If the joint is important andlor temperature effects may be a problem,
you should review PRELOAD-SELECTION OF through Level #4. This
level will lead you to a computation of GASKET STRESS and a con-
sideration of THERMAL EFFECTS.
Tool ACCURACY is also considered in Level #4. You might want
to add hard washers (see WASHERS-PLAIN) or use a LUBRICANT
to reduce the scatter in achieved preload.
Compensate for Relaxation Effects
The next thing to consider, if you need more, is the fact that a number
of factors will cause a time-dependent loss of preload in a previously
tightened joint. Such loss cannot in general be monitored with torquing,
tensioning or other common assembly tools. You might want to con-
sider ASSEMBLY PROCEDURES-Stretch andlor the use of ULTRA-
SONICS to monitor residual preload. See ELASTIC INTERACTIONS,
GASKET CREEP and PRELOAD, LOSS OF for further details on the
mechanisms which reduce the preload over a period of time.
66 Bolting Pro/ res Reference Manual
Sealants
You might want to consider SEALANTS as a next step in dealing with
a chronic leaker. This is not an "elegant" solution, but it's effective
and can get you by until you find a better answer.
Design Studies
The next level of attack is for the experts only. The design of the joint
should be examined in detail. Things like FLANGE ROTATION should
be estimated. The type of gasket, bolt loads, thermal effects, and the
choice of materials should be reviewed. lf the design is faulty, you may
have to take extraordinary steps to correct the problem-beef up or
even replace the flange, for example. Or use something like ULTRA-
SONICS to control the tightening process and compensate for ELASTIC
INTERACTIONS.
pare this section-and can give you ad.ditional information.
1. Gasket Handbook. Lamons Gasket Co., Houston, Texas
2. Flexitallic Spiral-Wound Gaskets, General Catalog.
Flexitallic Gasket Co., Inc., Camden, New Jersey.
3. ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Section III,
ASME, New York, 1984.
4. Payne, J., A. Bazergui and G. Leon. New Gasket
Factors-A Proposed Procedure. ASME Pressure Vessel
and Piping Conference. New Orleans, June 1985.
5. Robinson, J. N., M. 1. Lundin, and 1. Spiewak, Develop-
ment of Ring-Joint Flanges for Use in the HRE-2,
ORNL-3165, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge,
Tennessee, December 1961.
Bolting Procedures Reference M' 67
LENGTH, ACOUSTIC
The stretch of, or preload in, fasteners can now be measured by
ULTRASONIC means (see ULTRASONICS). This involves measuring
the initial length of a fastener using ultrasonic equipment. The "acoustic
length" of a bolt will almost always differ from the actual length because
of minute differences in alloy content, heat treatment, residual stress,
etc.-all of which affect the velocity of sound. The change in physical
length will be essentially equal to the change in acoustic length, how-
ever, as the bolt is tightened or loosened.
LENGTH, EFFECTIVE
(See STIFFNESS OF FASTENER AND JOINT)
When controlling .preload by measuring bolt stretch (mechanicaliy
or ultrasonically) it is often useful to be able to predict the relationship
between total elongation of the bolt and applied preload. To do this
we must estimate the stiffness or elasticity of the fastener. A long bolt,
for example, will stretch more under a given preload than will a short
. bolt of the same diameter. For purposes of stretch or stiffness calcula-
tions, however, the "length" of the bolt is not its total length, but only
that portion of the length which is loaded as the nut is tightened.
Threads sticking out beyond the nut, for example, will be free of any
load. That portion of the length which contributes to overall stretch
is called the effective length.
lf the fastener is fully threaded, its effective length is usually assumed
to be equal to the GRIP LENGTH of the joint (LG) plus one-half the
combined thickness of both nuts (HN1 + HN2).
If the fastener has a body (is not fully threaded), then we must com-
pute and add the effective length of the body to the effective length
of the threaded portion of the fastener.
Effective length of the body is the length of the body within the grip
(LBG) plus one-half the height of the head (HH).
LB = LBG + HHI2
The effective length of the threads is the length of the threads with-
in the GRIP LENGTH (LSG) plus one-half the height of the nut (HN):
LS = LSG +HNI2
The effective length of the fastener (LE) is: LB + LS.
68 Bolting PI;/--- Reference Manual
FIGURE 19
The effective length of a bolt (LE) is equal to the
sum of the effective lengths of the body (LB) and of
the threaded region (LS). The body's effective
length includes half the thickness of the head. The
thread's effective length Includes half the thickness
of the nut.

(
LOOSENING
(See VIBRATION LOOSENING)
LUBRICANTS
(See Also GALLING; NUT FACTOR)
Bolting Procedures Reference M, 69
General
Lubrication of the fastener threads and the bearing surface of the turned
element (the nut or the bolt head) is essential when torque is used to
control preload. Two photographs illustrate the importance of proper
lubrication.
FIGURE 20
Photograph of galled threads. Lubricant had been
used on these threads when first assembled.
Thread Friction
Fig. 20 shows the galled threads of a 3 inch diameter A354 stud which
had been repeatedly preloaded to 450,000 lbs by applying a torque of
20,000 ft-lb. The?ge is evidence of the high surface loads and friction
forces on the threads.
It is estimated that 40% of the torquing effort is nonnally used in over-
coming friction at the thread surfaces. However, when threads gall, 100%
of the effort goes into twisting the fastener with no increase in preload.
70 Bolting Pr ures Reference Manual
FIGURE 21
Galled surface of a nut assembled without lubricant.
Bearing Surface Friction
Fig. 21 shows the bearing surface of a 3" diameter nut which was tor-
qued to 20,000 ft-lb WITHOUT lubricant. The surface damage was
caused by the high bearing loads and frictional forces which act on
this surface during torquing.
Under normal conditions, it is estimated that 50% of torquing effort
is used in overcoming friction at the nut bearing surface. When galling
occurs, the percentage is much higher.
Nut Factor
An empirical nut factor (K) is used to relate torque to preload in the
following short-form equation:
T ~ K D Fp / 12
(See TORQUE, SELECTION OF)
The nut factor is primarily determined by the thread lubricant. (see
Table in NUT FACTORS).
Bolting Procedures Reference Mar 71
Note that there are many other factors in addition to lubricants which
affect the torque/preload relationship (surface finish, hardness, angular-
ity of parts and purity of lubricant); therefore, it is not surprising to
find a large range of reported nut factors. For most assemblies the mean
nut factor is adequate for calculating the required torque. If the preload
is critical, the nut factor can be measured by means of stretch meas-
urements during assembly (see ASSEMBLY PROCEDURES-Stretch
Control).
Again, for emphasis, it is important to remember that the "K" value
is an experimentally derived constant. The "K" value has to be redeter-
mined for each new application involving changes such as:
o Change in type of fastener, e.g., from studs to bolts
o Change in fastener size, thread type, thread surface such
as machined versus rolled threads, etc.
Coefficient of Friction
It should be noted that the nut factor "K" is not the same as the coeffi
cient of friction, which is just one of the many factors which deter-
mine the nut factor.
Selection of Lubricant
Consider the following when selecting a lubricant:
o Compatibility. The lubricant must be compatible with the
fastener material and with the contained fluid. Chlorides,
fluorides and sulfides are undesirable since they contribute
to stress corrosion cracking. Copper-based lubricants can
contaminate primary fluids.
o Lubricity. The NUT FACTOR Table illustrates a wide range
of nut factors. A lower nut factor is indicative of a more
efficient lubricant.
o Temperature. Each lubricant has a recommended service
temperature limit. See the manufacturer for information.
72 Bolting
~ d u r e s Reference Manual
Use of Lubricant
o Use only specified or approved lubricants on assemblies.
o Apply the lubricant in a consistent manner:
-Lubricate both threads and bearing surfaces.
-Avoid over-lubricating by globbing lubricant on the parts,
as this may reduce the efficiency of the lubricant.
-Apply a thin uniform coating of lubricant to the parts.
Note that it's also important to keep the supply of lubricant covered
when not in USe and to store it in a clean, controlled area.
1. Czajkowski, C. L Testing of Nuclear Grade Lubricants
and Their Effect on A540 B24 and A193 B7 Bolting
Materials. Brookhaven National Laboratories. Department
of Nuclear Energy. New York. March 1984.
2. Rowland, M. C. and T. C. Rose. Tests on Thread
Lubricants in Nuclear Reactors. General Electric Co.,
Nuclear Energy Div., San Jose, California. July 31, 1968.
MATERIALS, SOL T
(See MATERIALS, IDENTIFICATION OF)
MATERIALS, IDENTIFICATION OF
The easiest way to determine the material a bolt is made of is by read-
ing its head marking. A. number of these are tabulated below.
If there is no head marking, or you're still in doubt, you should con-
sider measuring the hardness of the fastener (see HARDNESS OF FAS-
TENER). This can give you a rough estimate of yield strength, at least.
If identification must be absolute, have a qualified metallurgical
laboratory test the material for you.
Bolting Procedures Reference Manu, "-\73
FIGURE 22
Specification ASTM A 193
Idotnll1lo:l1tlon
G .... QradeM"k Mat.,.IBL
"
8
AISI ':140
'"
'"
e
AISI 321
Q
Al5I 304
"
Strain
Hardened
e
AISI 347
'"
Strain
Hardened
e
Al51 :H6
'"
Strain
Hardened
8
A15I 321
'"
Strain
Hardened
S cification AS1'M A 490 ,.
e
Alloy Steel,
Type
Quenched and Tempered
1
9
A.tmospheric Corrosion
Type (Weathering) Steel,
, Quenched and Tempered
74 Bolting F
FIGURE 22
Continued
:lures Reference Manual
SpecificatiOn ASTM A 325
Type
e
Medium Carbon Steel,
1
Radial Dashes Option .. l
Type
8
Low Carbon Martensi ttl
,
Steel,
Type
G
Atmospheric Corrosion
, (Weathering) Steel
Spedf" ti 5
'0'
00
"
J 429
Idenlillcalion
Grade G,adeMark Male,;al
0
0
, Low or Medium
, Carbon Steel
,
0
,
0
Medium Carbon Steel.
,. ,
0
LOW Carbon
Martensitlc Steel,
,
0
Medium Carbon Alloy
Steel,
,
0
Medium Carbon Alloy
steel,
'.1
0
Medium Carbon Alloy or
SAE 10":1 Modified
Elevated Temperature
Drawn Steel
'-'
0
Low Carbon
Martens; tic Steel,
FIGURE 22
Continued
po. cation ASTM A
IdentifIcation
Grid, GfadeM.fk
" 0)
",
e
m
e
""
e
'"
e
" 0)
,eo
e
Bet
e
eo,
e
Bolting Procedures Reference Me 75
'"
Mat&,ia\
AISI 41 40,
4142 0'
4145
AlSl 4037
AISI 4137
AISI 8740
AISI 4340
AISI 304
AISI 347
AISI 321
AISI 303
or 303Se
76 Bolting 'ures Reference Manual
FIGURE 22
Continued
Specification ASTM A 320 (Continued)
''"
8
AISJ 316
" (0
AISI 30<1
'"
G
AISI 3<17
'"
Q
AlSI 303
or 3035e
"M
G
A!SI 316
'"'
G
AISI 321
Specific"tion ASTM A 35<1
"
0
Alloy Steel,
0
"nd
Tempered
"
Specification ASTM A <149
o
Medium C"rbon Steel,
Bolting Procedures Reference Mr 77
MATERIALS, PROPERTIES OF
(See property of interest under: ULTIMATE STRENGTH; YIELD
STRENGTH; COEFFICIENT OF EXPANSION; MODULUS OF
ELASTICITY, etc.)
MODULUS OF ELASTICITY
Also called Young's Modulus, the modulus of elasticity is the ratio
between stress in a body and the resulting strain. The chart below gives
modulii for various bolting materials at temperatures between 70
deg.-800 deg. F.
78 Bolting Pro(-"-" ,res Reference Manual
FIGURE 23
Modulus of elasticity of various bolting materials as
a function of bolt material.
"
"

HMPERATURE 'f
\ = Carbon Steel (A307,A36, Carbon =(0.30%)
= Carbon Steel (Carbon) = 0.30%
= Carbon Molybdenum Steel
) = Nickel Steel (88, 88M)
: := Chrome Molybdenum Steel (1/2 to 2 Cr)
: = Chrome Molybdenum Steel (2 1/4 to 3 Cr)
3 = Chrome Molybdenum Steel (5 to 9 Cr)
, = Straight Chromium Steel
= Austenitic, High Alloy Steel (A453)
leference: Table 1-6.0 of Appendix I, Section III, Division I ASME Boiler and Pressure
lessel Code, Nuclear Power Plant Components.
Bolting Procedures Reference 1\ / 79
NUT FACTOR
(See Also LUBRICANTS)
An experimentally determined factor which sums up the relation-
ship between the torque applied to the nut and the achieved preload.
The nut factor is defined by the following equation:
K = 12T / (0 Fp)
Where: T = Torque (Ft-Lbs) .
o = Nominal diameter (In)
Fp = Achieved preload (Lbs)
The relationship between torque and preload is affected by a large
number of variables (see PRELOAD, SELECTION OF LUBRICANTS).
As a resuit, the experimental constant we can the nut factor is subject
to wide variation, depending upon the specific conditions under which
it was measured. Each experiment tends to result in a different number.
The table below shows some of the numbers which have been reported
in the past. Since the LUBRICANT is often the dominating variable,
the data is reported for various lubricants.
If you need maximum preload accuracy, however, you should recog-
nize that many other variables-such as bolt diameter, bolt mater.ial,
tightening speed, thread fit and even operator skill can affect the torque-
preload relationship. You're well advised to determine the actual nut
factor on your application by a test of your own.
If accuracy is less important, you can use the mean values reported
below:
80 Bolting Pr/ Ires Reference Manual
TABLE G
Nul Faclors (K)
Min. Max.
Lube Reported Mean Reported
As-Received 0.158 0.2 0.267
Alloy or Mild Steel Fasteners
As-Received 0.3
Stainless Steel Fasteners
Cadmium Plate (Dry) 0.106 0.2 0.328
Copper Based Anti-Seize 0.08 0.132 0.23
Cadmium Plate (Waxed) 0.17 0.187 0.198
Fel-Pro C54 0.08 0.132 0.23
Fel-Pro C-670 0.08 0.095 0.15
FelPro N 5000 (Paste) 0.13 0 . 1 ~ 0.27
Machine Oil 0.10 0.21 0.225
Moly Paste or Grease 0.10 0.13 0.18
Never-Seeze (Paste) 0.11 0.17 0.21
Neolube 0.14 0.18 0.20
PhosOil 0.15 0.19 0.23
Solid Film PTFE 0.09 0.12 0.16
Zinc Plate (Waxed) 0.071 0.288 0.52
Zinc Plate (Dry) 0.075 0.295 0.53
NOTE: It is important to remember that the "K" value is an experi-
mentally derived constant.
PRELOAD
(See PRELOAD, INITIAL; PRELOAD, RESIDUAL)
Preload is the tension force developed in the fastener when it is tight-
ened against the joint.
Bolting Procedures Reference r.. lal 81
PRELOAD, CONTROL OF
(See ASSEMBLY PROCEDURES; PRELOAD, SELECTION OF;
TORQUE-SELECTION OF)
PRELOAD, INITIAL
(See PRELOAD; PRELOAD, RESIDUAL)
Initial preload is the tension created in a fastener when it is first tight-
ened, before the wrench has been disengaged from the nut.
PRELOAD, LOSS OF
Causes
For a number of reasons, the preload in a bolt is often less than you
expect it to be; a fact you discover when you check preload by applying
breakaway or restarting torque, or when you disassemble the joint.
This low preload can be caused by a number of factors. For example:
Low Initial Preload
Even though you've used a proper bolt-up procedure, have well-
calibrated tools, and used a clean lubricant, a good percentage of the
bolts will have less preload than assumed. For factors which affect the
preload achieved for a given assembly torque, see ACCURACY and
PRELOAD-SELECTION OF.
82 Bolting Pr( 'ues Reference Manual
Embedment
High spots on the contact surfaces of threaded fasteners, especially
new ones, tend to creep and flow when initially loaded. Preload is lost
as the parts settle in together. The loss can be 5-10% in the first few
minutes after tightening. See EMBEDMENT for further details.
Cyclic Load Embedment
Joints subjected to cyclic loads, especially large loads, will embed, and
therefore relax, more than joints under static loads. If external loads
approximate the yield strength of the bolt, preload losses of 25% or
even 50% can occur.
Gasket Creep
Gaskets must be partially plastic to function. As a result, they too will
creep after initial loading. Preload loss at room temperature can be 2-5%
or so; and will occur in 10-20 minutes after initial loading. See
GASKETS, CREEP OF.
Thermal Effects
A jOint subjected to a change in temperature can lose preload for several
reasons. Differential expansion between bolts and joint members can
increase stresses in all parts and, therefore, increase embedment or
,asket creep. Or the bolt can "expand away" from the jOint. The gasket
can be compressed beyond the original compression and, due to hys-
:eresis, won't fully recover when the temperature change is reversed.
rhe creep of bolts and gasket can be promoted by high temperature
Ione (even if stresses aren't increased). A process called stress relax-
.tion can cause loss of preload over a period of time if temperatures
Ife high enough. See THERMAL EFFECTS and STRESS RELAXATION
or ways to estimate and compensate for these losses.
--------------------'- --
Bolting Procedures Reference 1'\ \1 83
Self.Loosenlng
Vibration, flexing of the joint, cyclic shear loads, thermal cycles and
other factors can cause whole or partial selfloosening of a fastener. See
VIBRATION LOOSENING for a discussion of this phenomenon and
for ways to combat the loss.
Elastic Interactions
Tightening one bolt will often allow a previously tightened neighbor
to relax a bit. See ELASTIC INTERACTIONS for details.
How to Minimize Preload Loss
EMBEDMENT loss, early gasket creep and, to some extent, ELASTIC
INTERACTIONS, can be compensated for by retightening the bolts
after giving them some time to relax. Since bolts will interact during
any tightening pass merely retightening them won't eliminate inter-
action loss, but it can red1.lce it. A final torquing pass in a reverse se-
quence can be helpful, for example.
Increasing initial preloads are a common way to compensate for relax-
ation of various kinds. They still relax, but residual preloads are higher
because they relax from a higher initial preload. Higher preload also
helps resist selfloosening as discussed under VIBRATION
LOOSENING.
Embedment and creep can be compensated for by tightening the bolts
to rated preload, waiting a bit, then loosening and retightening them.
This process works the threads and joints in together. Some people
call this" artificial aging" of the joint. One aircraft engine manufacturer
tightens and loosens a main spindle nut half a dozen times (to a frac-
tion of final preload) before final tightening .
Making the baIts more flexible helps fight all types of relaxation.
They'll still embed or creep or etc. by the same amount, but that change
in elongation means less loss in preload. See STIFFNESS OF BOLT
AND JOINT for ways to increase flexibility.
Elastic interactions can be overcome by using DATUM RODS, strain
gaged load cells, or ULTRASONICS to measure residual preloads after
the joint has been tightened, then retightening by the indicated
amount. See STRETCH CONTROL for more information.
If you have thermal problems, you'll want to re-consider the materials
you're using and their COEFFICIENTS OF EXPANSION. Higher initial
preloads and more flexible bolts can also help (see THERMAL EFFECTS).
84 Bolting,
'dutes Reference Manual
PRELOAD, RESIDUAL
(See PRELOAD; PRELOAD, INITIAL; PRELOAD, LOSS OF)
The remaining tension in a previously tightened fastener after such
things as ELASTIC INTERACTIONS, EMBEDMENT, gasket creep, etc.
have allowed the fastener to relax a little from its initially tightened
condition.
PRELOAD, SELECTION OF
General
The main purpose of the fastener is to clamp two or more jOint members
together. The behavior of the joint-whether it leaks or slips or shakes
apart, etc-depends upon the amount of clamping force on the joint.
Although service loads and other things affect it, we determine the
amount of that clamping force when we tighten the fasteners; when
we develop the initial tension or "preload" in them. Picking the correct
preload and achieving it in practice are very important steps.
In spite of this fact, we'll pick most preloads indirectly by picking
a reasonable assembly torque. Since most joints are overdesigned and
can stand wide variations in preload, this is acceptable. In more impor-
tant joints, however, we must carefully pick a correct preload before
going on to convert our selection to torque or tUrn or stretch Or some
other control variable.
In this section we'll consider a variety of ways to select preload itself,
starting with simpler ways and proceeding to more complex ways. In
general, you should always use the simpler ways unless:
o you've used the simpler ways on this joint in the past and
results have been poor or
[J you have no prior experience with this joint, but are con-
cerned about potential joint problems.
Bolting Procedures Reference M 85
Preload Selection Options
Here's a "menu" of the preload selection options discussed
In general, as you move from one Level to a higher one, there will
be an improvement in the" accuracy" of your selection of preload. thiS
means that the preload selected will be more carefully tailored to the
specific problems you've experienced andlor are concerned about.
Levell
Level 2
Level 3
Beyond
Level 3
Repeat your previous procedures if your prior
experience with this joint has beer: acceptable or get a
re<;ommendation from the vendor if you have no
prior experience. .
Select a torque from simple tables (the
experience of others) if you have no pnor expenence
with this joint, and are not overly concerned about
potential problems.
The tables we've provided below assume that the
fasteners are not lubed, that they operate at room
temperature, and that an average bolt stress of 50%
of yield is acceptable.
If prior experience better, or you have
concern about possible Jomt problems, you should.
-determine the yield strength of the bolts at the
service temperature
-use a table to select an appropriate percentage of
yield for your application
-make a simple calculation on a pocket calculator to
compute a preload
-select an appropriate nut factor from a table, to ac-
count for the lubricity of the bolts
-use the calculator again to compute torque.
Beyond Level 3 you will make increasingly complicat-
ed decisions and calculations to compute preload
d if desired to convert it to an assembly torque.
an " .
You will also have to pay more attenllon opera-
tional problems. A complete treatme';"!, which you
will need only if all else fails (or if failure must be
avoided at all costs) would consider such factors as:
86 Bolting l ... ,dures Reference Manual
-Loads on the bolts:
Mechanical (weight)
Pressure
Thermal
Seismic
Fatigue
Vibratory
Shear
Torsional
Misalignment
Bending
Prying
Eccentric
-Upper limits on bolt tension:
Thread stripping limits
corrosion cracking limits
FalIgue limits
Joint strength
Gasket stress limits
-Assembly variables:
Scatter in lubricity
Tool accuracy
Elastic interactions between bolts
-Response of the joint:
Relaxation effects
Flange rotation
Influence of jOint/bolt stiffness ratio
The various procedural levels we've established for thO I
described below for your guidance: IS manua are
Level 1 Procedures-Prior Experience Or
Vendor Advice
It is difficult and expen' t
. SIve 0 get accurate control of preload in the
field. As a :esult, most joints have been overdesigned to tolerate wide
ill In most applications, furthermore, bolt or joint
al Ufe a nUIsance, but not a real problem. So we can he relativel
casual In our selection of preload. Y
In facbtlwe can, and usually do, select it indirectly by selecting a
reaSOna e torque to use for assembly. .
Or not we selected preload by selecting a tor ue, our
best gUlde to success IS pnor experience. The reason? a large
Bolting Procedures Reference M, 87
of variables affect the preload in a bolted joint; we can never hope to
know or control them aU and so must rely on experimentation to predict
final results. The closer the "experiments" are to the actual job, the
more apt they are to predict results correctly. So actual experience is
our best guide. If your past experience with this joint is acceptable,
don't change anything!
If you have no past experience to guide you, ask the vendor who
supplied the equipment for a recommendation. How much torque does
he suggest you use? This information may be found in the manuals
provided with the equipment, or on his drawings. Or you may have
to give him a call. But checking with the vendor is a smart move at
any level of preload selection.
Level 2 Procedure-Simple Torque Tables
If you have no prior experience with this joint, and you're not partic-
ularly concerned about failure, then it's safe for you to use the collective
experience of others, as summarized in torque tables.
The Simplest table (Table H) takes into account only two variables:
o The size of the fastener.
o The material it's made from.
The people who designed the table assumed the following:
o The service temperature of the fasteners will be room tem-
perature (70 deg. F or 20 deg. C).
o The fasteners will be unlubricated.
o It is acceptable to tighten them to 50% of yield.
EXAMPLE:
Determine the torque to be used on a 1 1/4-8xlO,
A193 B7 bolt.
The table suggests that we use a torque of 959 ft-lbs.
If your prior experience with Level 2 has been poor or you're too
concerned about potential failure to rely on a simple table or the
fasteners operate a a temperature above 100 deg.F, then you should
move on to Level 3.
E:;:.
88 Bolting o'
" edures Reference Manual

Bolting Procedures Reference M 'I 89
9:'-
TABLE H

Torque Chart for 50% of Yield Using a 0.2 Nut
I .
TABLE H
Factor and Room Temp Yield Strengths, UNC Thread
T
Continued
Series
MATERIAL TYPE
Material Type
T
(See Legend) G H J K L
(See Legend)
A B
C 0 E F
Yield [ksiJ 105 109 120 130 140 150
Yield [ksiJ
30 36
81 85

Oia.
95 100
I Dia.
4 7 7 8 9 9 10

6 13 14 15 16 17 19
4 2 2
5 6 6 7 In 8 24 25 27 30 32 34
6 4 5
10 11 12 12 Lbs 10 35 36 40 43 46 50 In
8 7 8
19
20 22 12 55 57 63 68 73 78 Lbs 23
10 10 12
27 28
b
12
31 33
1/4 7 7 8 9 9 10 16 19
42 44 50 52

5/16 14 15 16 18 19 20
1/4
2 2
5 6 6 7 3/8 25 26 29 31 34 36
5/16 4 5
11 12 13 14 7/16 41 42 46 50 54 58
3/8 7 9
20 21
23 24 1/2 62 64 71 77 83 89
7/16
12 14
31 33 37 39

9/16 89 93 102 111 119 128
1/2
18 21
48 50 56 59

5/8 123 128 141 153 165 176
9/16
26 31
69 73 81 85 3/4 219 227 250 271 292 313
5/8 35 42
95 100
112 118
-.
7/8 354 367 404 438 472 505
3/4 63 75 169
177 198 209

Ft- 1 530 550 606 656 707 757
7/8 101 121 273
286 320 337

Lbs 1 1/8 751 780 858 930 1001 1073
FI-
1 151 182 409
429 480 1 1/4 954 1100 1211 1312 1413 1514 505 Lbs 1 1/8 214 257 579
608 679

1 3/8 1390 1442 1588 1720 1853 1985 715
1 1/4
303 363 817 858 959 1009 1 1/2 1844 1914 2107 2283 2459 2634
1 3/8 397 476 1072 1125 1257 1323

1 3/4 2909 3020 3325 3602 3879 4156
1 1/2 527 632 1422
1493 1668 1756 2 4375 4542 5000 5416 5833 6250
1 3/4 831 997 2244 2355 2632 2771

21/4 6398 6642 7312 7921 8531 9141
2 1250 1500 3375 3542
3958 4167 2 1/2 8750 9083 10000 10833 11667 12500
2 1/4 1828 2194 4936 5180 5789 6094
23/4 11863 12315 13557 14687 15817 16947
21/2 2500 3000 6750
7083 7917 8333 3 15671 16268 17910 19402 20895 22387
23/4 3389 4067 9151
9603 10733 11298 3 1/4 20191 20960 23075 24998 26921 28844
3 4477 5373 12089
12686 14179 14925

3 1/2 25511 26482 29155 31585 34014 36444
3 1/4 5769 6922 15576
16345 18268 19229
3 1/2 7289 8746 19680 20651 23081 24296 LEGEND:
LEGEND: I
Material types included in each column:

G-ASTM A540 821 CL 5 TO 2" OIA, 822 CL 5 TO 2" OIA, 823 CL 5 TO 6" OIA,
Material types included in each column:
.-
824 CL 5 UP TO 6" OIA; A193 87 UP TO 2.5" OIA, 816 UP TO 2.5" OIA; A437
A-ASTM A193 & A320 GR 88M, B8T, 88C, 88; SAE 304, 316; AISI 1020
848; A320 L7 UP TO 2.5" OIA, L43 UP. TO 4" OIA
8-SAE J429 GR 2 FOR OIA OVER 3/4 TO 1 1/2, Gl; AIS11038; ASTM A307

H-ASTM A354 GR 8C 1/2 TO 2.5" OIA
C-ASTM A325 TYPE 1,2&3; A449 OVER 1" TO 1 1/2" OIA SAE J429 GR 5 OVER
1- ASTM A540 821 CL 4 UP TO 6" OIA, 822 CL 4 UP TO 4" OIA, 823 CL4 UP TO
1" TO 11/2" DIA '

9.5" DIA, 824 CL '4 UP TO 9.5"
O-ASTM A193 B16 FOR OIA OVER 4"
J- ASTM A540 821 CL 3 UP TO 6
11
Of A, 822 CL 3 UP TO 4
11
D1A, 823 CL 3 UP
E-ASTM A193 87 & 816 OVER 2 1/2" TO 4" OIA; AISI 4340

TO 9.5" OIA, B24 CL 3 UP TO 9.5"; A354 GR 80 UP TO 2.5" OIA; A490 TYPE
F- ASTM A540 821 CL 5 OVER 2" TO 8" OIA, 822 CL 5 OVER 2" TO 4" OIA 823
!i!:':-:i'
1; SAE J429 GR 8 & 8.1 1/4 TO 1 1/2 OIA, GR 8.2 1/4 TO 1" OIA.
CL 5 OVER 6" TO 9" OIA, B24 CL 5 OVER 6" TO 9" OIA; SAE J429 GR 4'

K- ASTM A540 821 CL 2 UP TO 4" OIA, 822 CL 2 UP TO 3" OIA, B23 CL 2 UP
TO 9.5" DIA, 824 CL 2 UP TO 9,5/1 DIA; AISI 4140
L- ASTM A540 821 CL 1 UP TO 4" OIA, B22 CL 1 UP TO 1.5" OIA 823 CL 1 UP
I
TO 8" OIA, 824 CL 1 UP TO 8" OIA

I

90 Bolting:/,'0 -, edures Reference Manual
Level 3 Procedure-A Simple Calculation
In selecting a preload at Level 3 we'll now deal with four variables:
o The size of the fastener.
o The material it's made from.
o The actual service temperature of the bolts.
o The percentage of yield suggested by the application.
If :v
e
wish to convert the resulting preload to torque, we'll also
conSIder:
o The actual lubricant used on the fasteners.
Since this is still "only Level 3", however, we'll get the input data
we need from tables.
can be made on any pocket calculator. Only multi-
phcahon IS mvolved.
(Note that we could also construct Torque Tables for Level 3. With five
variables to deal with, however, the tables become very long and cum-
bersome. We think you'll find the calculator approach more convenient.)
Level 3 Worksheets have been provided with this manual. We sug-
gest that you duplicate and use them.
The calculations you'll make are based on the following equaion:
T I<: D M Sy As I 12
Where: T Torque (ft-Ibs)
D Nominal diam .. (in)
M Percentage of yield (as a decimal)
K Nut factor .
Sy Yield strength (psi)
As Tensile stress area (in2)
All of the data required to solve this equation will be found in vari-
ous tables in this manual. References are given in the manual and on
Worksheets.
. ;::he first decision you'll to make when using the Worksheet
What percentage of Yield IS correct for this application?" Since this
IS a Level 3 procedure, the decision is not a critical one and can be
made by considering f'common practice". Examples are' given at the
beginning of the worksheet.
Bolting Procedures Reference tv '\ ,I 91
Level 4-Taking Problems and Loads Into
Account
If Level 3 hasn't solved your problem or hasn't provided enough assur-
ance, you should start to take a closer look at the loads on this specific
joint, the problems you've had with it and the procedures used to as-
semble it as discussed below.
Operational Considerations If you've reached this level, but are still
having problems, you should probably pay additional attention to as-
sembly practices. Your problems may be caused not by an incorrect
preload or torque specification, but by the fact that you're not really
achieving that specified preload in the joint. Training the operators
more carefully, supervising them as they assemble the joint, can often
solve chronic problems more readily than changing the torque.
Variation or scatter in the amount of preload achieved for a given
torque is another common problem which prevents a good choice of
preload or torque from solving or preventing a joint problem. A large
number of operational, material and quality factors contribute to this
scatter. The results can be summed up by assuming a scatter in the
nut factor, K, which in previous levels, we've treated as a constant
for a given lubricant. You'll find scatter data along with nominal values
in the Table under NUT FACTORS. Here's how to use that data to
estimate the scatter in preload:
Nominal Preload (in terms of applied torque)

Maximum Preload
Fp 12 TI KMinD
Minimum Preload
Fp 12 TI KMaxD
Where: T Applied Torque (ft-lbs)
D Nominal Diameter (inches)
K Nominal NUT FACTOR
Fp Preload (lbs)
KMin Minimum Reported Nut Factor
KMax Maximum Reported Nut Factor
Does the computed scatter in preload explain your continuing
problems?
Another way of looking at this:
An actual nut factor 25% higher than the nominal would have the
same effect as applying 25% less torque and preload than you specified.
92 Bolting V " ,dures Reference Manual
Using Past Experience Past experience is still your best guide. It
can often help you decide how to modify your previous preload (or
torque) selections to solve a problem. For example, if you've had any
of the following problems, you should probably INCREASE preload
(torque) the next time you assemble that jOint. Typical "low preload"
failure modes include:
o Leaks
o Vibration Loosening
o Joint Slip, Fretting
o Fatigue
Before you increase preload (torque), the design basis of the compo-
nents should be checked to ensure that nothing is overstressed. Look
at flange distortion, gasket stress, fastener strength and thread
stripping. ,
If you need help identifying a failure mode, see those sections of
the manual which discuss the various types, LEAKS, FATIGUE, etc.
How much increase should you try? That will require some judge-
ment. If you think that the previous torque almost worked, you should
perhaps try 10% more torque this time. If you were way off, try 20%
or 30%. Of course, if your previous choice was over 60-70% of yield,
you can't try 30% more without also doing something about the way
m whIch you trghten them. You must improve the accuracy of the tight-
ening process to avoid taking the bolts past yield. (See ACCURACY.)
You'll want to DECREASE preload (torque) a little or a lot if you've
had these problems;
o Stress Corrosion Cracking
o Thread Stripping
o Damaged Joint Members (or Gaskets)
o Leaks Caused by Excessive Flange Rotation
Decreasing preload can be a risky thing to do, however, unless this
is a relatively unimportant jOint and/or is subjected only to modest,
static loads. If you think that a decrease might lead to some of the low
preload problems listed earlier (leaks, vibration loosening, etc.), then
you should probably consult a deSigner before making the change.
You should also consult a designer if you've already had both high
and low preload problems with this jOint (for example, stress corrosion
cracking and leaks).
Theoretical Considerations Depending upon the nature of your
problem or concern, there are some relatively simple calculations you
can make at this level to improve your understanding of the loads on
E="-r __

this joint and therefore to improve your selection of preload or torque.
Note that in previous levels we have considered only the bolt-its
size, strength, temperature, lubricity-in picking a preload or torque.
In Level 4 we'll start to consider certain aspects of the joint as well.
LEAKS (Effect of Pressure Loads)
A gasketed joint will leak unless two conditions are met:
o The gasket must be initially seated with sufficient force
(usually computed as a seating stress).
o After the system has been pressurized, there must still be
sufficient residual stress on the gasket to resist the internal
pressure in the system (computed as a multiple of con-
tained pressure, P).
Duplicate and use the GASKET WORKSHEET provided with this
manual and see GASKETS STRESS for help in computing gasket stress
and the effects of pressure loads.
Thermal Stress Changing the temperature of a previously tightened
joint can either increase or decrease bolt and joint stress levels-or leave
them unchanged -depending upon the thermal COEFFICIENTS OF
EXPANSION of bolts and the joint.
If the joint has a larger coefficient of expansion than the bolts, and/or
becomes hotter than the bolts, it will expand more than the bolt. Since
it is held between bolt head and nut (or two nuts), this expansion will
both increase tension in the bolt and the clamping force between joint
members.
If the bolts have a higher coefficient, or are hotter than the joint, then
the tension in the bolts, and the clamping force on the joint, will be
reduced.
See THERMAL STRESS for a procedure and worksheet for estimating
the effects of a change in temperature on preload and clamping force.
Beyond Level 4
By this point we've considered all the relatively simple and common
factors used to select a target preload (and torque). We worried about the
size and estimated lubricity of the fastener and considered tool accuracy
and thermal effects. And we've taken external loads (pressure, for ex-
ample) into account-at least in a simplistic way. If the joint still mis-
behaves, however, there are adelitional factors which can be considered.
These are complex and must be dealt with by a qualified engineer.
94 Bolting/' -:edures Reference Manual
A full discussion would be beyond the scope of this manual, but the
engineer can consider things like these in refining the choice of target
preload (see the sections referred to for further definitions):
o FLANGE ROTATION, which can sometimes result in a
reduction of GASKET STRESS as the bolt tension is
increased.
o Time-based THERMAL EFFECTS such as STRESS RELAX-
ATION, and CREEP.
o The actual way in which an external load, such as a
pressure load, is absorbed by the bolts and joint members.
o Optimum gasket stress. The Subcommittee on Bolted
Flanged Connections of the PYRC has developed a new
way to select "m" and "y" gasket factors. The procedure
is more complex than selecting m and y from a table, but is
firmly grounded on experimental data. It can help solve
chronic leak problems. (See GASKET STRESS for
references.)
o Depending upon the nature of the problems you've
experienced with the joint, the designer may also have to
consider-and/or consult an expert on -VIBRATION
LOOSENING, FATIGUE or STRESS CORROSION
CRACKING. A finite element analysis of thermal and
stress patterns may be required. Offset PRYING or
ECCENTRIC load may be contributing to the problem.
Perhaps relaxation effects are creating PRELOAD LOSS
which should be compensated for in the selection of initial
preload.
PRESSURE BOUNDARIES
(See ASSEMBLY PROCEDURES, GENERAL-All Joints; Leaks)
__________________ r,
Bolting Procedures Reference M ;:1 95
PREVAILING TORQUE
The torque required to run a virbation resistant nut down to the jOint
surface when some If obstruction", such as a nylon colalr or distorted
thread form, is present in either male or female threads. Prevailing
torque musthe added to the clamping torque required when selecting
the torque to be applied to this type of vibration resistant fastener.
FIGURE 24
A vibration resistant nut with a nylon "collar".
nylon
PROCEDURES, ASSEMBLYI
DISASSEMBLY
(See ASSEMBLY PROCEDURES, GENERAL-All Joints; DISAS-
SEMBLY PROCEDURES)
96 Bolting r dures Reference Manual
PROOF LOAD
The maximum safe tensile load which can be applied to a fastener
without creating any permanent deformation. Proof load is usually
about 90% of the minimum yield strength.
PRYING
External tension loads on a fastener are magnified by a sort of lever
action called prying when the line of action of the external load does
not lie along the axis of the fastener. Prying almost always exists, but
is not a problem unless joint members are quite flexible and/or the line
of action of the load is a considerable lever distance from the bolt axes.
FIGURE 25
An Illustration of prying action.
Axis of
Bolt
I
r
References, General The following documents and texts have
helped us prepare this manual-and can give you additional information.
1. Bickford, J. H., An Introduction to the Design and
Behavior of Bolted Joints, Marcel Dekker Inc., New York,
1981.
2. Fisher, J. W. and J.H.A. Struik, Guide to Design Criteria
for Bolted and Riveted Joints. John Wiley and Sons, New
York, 1974.
3. Yahr, G.T., Preloading of Bolted Connections in Nuclear
Reactor Component Supports. NUREG/CR-3853,
ORNL-6093, 1984.
4. Product Engineering Report No. 4718-Fastener Seminar.
SPS Technologies, Jenkintown, Pennsylvania, 3rd printing.
1980.
5. Davis, G. W., A Training Program in Quality Assurance
Aspects of Fasteners in Nuclear Power Plants. Prepared
by Center for Nuclear Studies of Memphis State University
for the Office of Power, Tennessee Valley Authority, July
1982.
6. Utility Recommendations and Guidelines for the Purchase
Specification and Receipt/Preinstallation Inspection
Requirements for ASME Section III, AISC, ANSI! ASME
B31.1 and ANSI B31.5 Bolts and Threaded Fasteners.
Prepared by the Joint AIF/MPC Task Group on Bolting
Requirements. Pub!. by EPR!. May 1985.
RELAXATION, FASTENER
ROTATION OF FLANGE
(See FLANGE ROTATION)
98 Bolting p;/ - 'dures Reference Manual
SEALANTS
A number of potential concerns have been identified regarding nuclear
plant leak sealing (i.e., increased loads on components, added weight
on piping systems, sealant intrusion into the process line, increased
corrosion potential. There are two primary considerations: (1) main-
tenance of pressure boundary integrity both during and after the sealant
injection and (2) the effect on system and component function and oper-
ability due to the sealant injection. Each of these considerations should
impose restrictions and/or check points on proposed leak sealing oper-
ations, which will depend on the safety significance of the components
to be sealed.
The following general recommendations are made:
o Do not perform leak sealing operations on the reactor cool-
ant pressure boundary (ASME Section III, Class 1, or
equivalent classifications without concurrence from the
responsible design organization.
o Do not perform leak sealing operations on active compo-
nents (any Code class) without prior concurrence from the
responsible design organization.
o Do not inject valve packing sealant on active or
dynamic valves without prior concurrence from the respon-
sible design organization.
o Consider all applications of leak sealants to be temporary
solutions (i.e., repair or replace the leaking components at
the next available system shutdown). For repairs, remove
all sealant and restore the component to its original config-
uration or approved alternate.
o In order to ensure adequate leak sealing operations, it is
recommended that utilities develop a controlled standard
practices document or some other specification which is
readily available at the site level, which clearly defines
restrictions and check points on all leak sealing operations
to assure that design integrity is maintained.
The following recommended guldelines apply to leak sealing opera-
tions in general:
o Provide Certified chemical analyses for each batch of sealant.
This is a very important consideration, since the sealant
will typically be in intimate contact with flange bolting,
interior valve parts, etc., and may even find its way into
Bolting Procedures Reference Ma' 99
the process fluid (see below). Test and document each seal-
ant batch or lot to esablish chemistry compliance.
o Monitor sealant cavity pressure (generally conservatively
estimated by the sealant injection pressure) closely during
the injection operation. Establish overpressure check points
prior to injection.
o Prior to injection, determine the anticipated volume of seal-
ant needed to fill the volume of the sealant cavity (en-
closure). Establish a check point based on this volume to
limit the injection of sealant. This will provide reasonable
assurance that excess sealant is not forced into the process
fluid.
o The added mass of repair fixtures may compromise the
seismic qualification of any piping systems employing such
repairs (nuclear plants). Consider seismic requirements prior
to repair.
o Consider the design basis for the fixtures employed be-
cause these sometimes rather massive structures do become
a new pressure boundary once the repair is made. Further,
if the repair fixture captures injected sealant between flange
faces, the additional loading on the flange studs due to
injection pressure (above system pressure), possible in-
crease in effective sealing diameter and mechanical sealing
operations must be considered.
References The following document has helped us prepare this
section-and can give you additional information.
1. Merrick, E.A., A. Rivers, J. Bickford and T. Marston.
Prevention of Bolting Degradation or Failure in Pressure
SMIRT-8 Conference, September 1985.
STIFFNESS OF FASTENER AND JOINT
The bolted joint can be modeled as a system of springs: a heavy "joint
spring" and, numerous lighter, IIbolt springs". The way the system
absorbs external pressure, weight, seismic and other loads depends
upon the relative stiffnesses of these various springs, so stiffness is
1 00 Jcedures Reference Manual
of considerable interest to the designer.
It is often desirable to reduce the bolt stiffness to reduce thermal effects
and improve fatigue life. To do this you can:
o Turn down a portion of the body and/or threads within the
grip length.
o Drill a hole down the center of the bolt.
o Use collars or belleville springs on one or both sides of the
jOint so that you can use a longer bolt of the same di-
ameter.
FIGURE 26
Coilars are added to bolt to Increase Its flexibility
without changing Its diameter.

COLLARS

Making the joint stiffer is also helpful, but your options are more
limited here. Sometimes, however, you can do this by switching to
a stiffer gasket or by providing stops on a gasketed joint. (You'd better
consider the possible LEAK implications before making such changes,
however.)
Using a hard washer can also increase joint stiffness (by "involving"
more joint material) without increasing the dangers of a leak.

!!";"E!
i

Bolting Procedures Reference Mal 101
STRENGTH OF BOLTING MATERIALS
(See STRENGTH OF FASTENERS)
We're usually interested in the static strength of bolting materials-
strength defined as ULTIMATE STRENGTH or YIELD STRENGTH.
If operating temperatures are below 150 deg. F or so, furthermore,
we're only concerned about the room temperature values. ULTIMATE
STRENGTHS are given in Table D in the discussion of HARDNESS
OF FASTENERS. Table I under STRENGTH OF FASTENERS-STATIC
also includes information on ultimate strengths.
The strength of bolting materials will decrease as operating temper-
atures rise. You must take this fact into account when selecting
PRELOAD or assembly TORQUE. You must also consider strength at
operating temperature when dealing with certain types of FAILURE
OF FASTENER. See YIELD STRENGTH for a chart showing the rela-
tionship between strength and operating temperature.
Some bolting problems can be solved by switching to stronger materi-
als having higher yield and ultimate strengths. Increasing static
strength, however, is associated with an increase in HARDNESS; and
this often means a reduction in ductility. The fasteners become more
brittle and more susceptible to STRESS CORROSION CRACKING fail-
ure. You should consult a designer and metallurgist before switching
materials.
STRENGTH OF FASTENERS-GENERAL
Fasteners can fail in many different ways. These various "strength'!
problems are covered under:
o FATIGUE FAILURE (breaks under dynamic or cyclic loads)
o STRENGTH OF FASTENERS-Static (the body breaks under
steady state or slowly increasing loads; for example, as
they're being torqued)
o STRESS CORROSION CRACKING (sudden failure under
static loads and corrosive attack)
o THREAD STRIPPING
----. -_._---------------
STRENGTH OF FASTENERS-STATIC
If fasteners break under steady or slowly changing loads (for example,
as they are being tightened), the forces on the fastener have exceeded
its static strength. (See also STRESS CORROSION CRACKING.)If they
fail under dynamic or cyclic loads, it's probably a FATIGUE FAILURE.
Static strength of the body is determined primarily by two things:
the size of the fastener, and the material it's made from. (The strength
is also affected by a number of secondary factors which we'll discuss
later.)
Influence of Size
Doubling the diameter of a fastener will increase its static strength to
(roughly) four times the original strength. Equations for strength are
given under Static Strength Equations, below.
Materlai Selection
Since we can't often change the diameter of fasteners in field situations,
we usually select a new material if we wish to increase the strength.
If static strength is the only consideration, we merely use a material
with a higher strength. You'll find more information on the strength
properties of various fastener materials under YIELD STRENGTH.
Here's a quick summary of some of the most common choices:
TABLE I
MATERIAL
Low Carbon Steel
Ferritic Stainless Steel
Austenitic $.8.
(Solution Annealed)
Austenitic S. S.
(Cold Worked)
Med. Carbon Steel
(Heat Treated)
Austenitic 8.S.
(Strain Hardened)
ROOM TEMPERATURE
ULTIMATE STRENGTH
(IN KSI) EXAMPLES
60 AISI 1021. ASTM A307 GR A.
SAE J429 GR 1 & GR 2
70 430. 430F
75 303,304,316,321, ASTM
A193 Cll BS
90 303, 304, 316, 321
120 AIS11030, ASTM A449
125 303,304,316,321, ASTM
A193 BS
TABLE I
Continued
K-Monel
Low Alloy Steel
Titanium
Martensitic 8.S.
(Heat Treated)
Super Alloys
Bolting Procedures Reference' Manuai 103
130
125
150
150
260
K-Monel
AISI 4140, 4340, ASTM A193
B7, B16
Ti6AI4V
410,416,431, ASTM A354
GR 80
H-11, Incone! 718, A286
The list is for ultimate strengths. We're often more interested in
YIELD STRENGTHS-which usually run 65-80% of the ultimate
strength for different materials.
Note also in the Chart under YIELD STRENGTH that the strength
of these materials decreases as service temperature increases.
The static strength of a bolt is directly proportional to material
strength, Increase the ultimate strength by 10% and you'll increase the
strength of the bolt by roughly the same amount. If strength is your
only concern, that's all there is to it.
But a word of caution. As material strength increases, the material
becomes more susceptible to STRESS CORROSION CRACKING.
Secondary Factors
As mentioned earlier, bolt size and material are the main factors which
determine its strength. In some situations you may also wish to con-
sider the following "secondary" factors.
Fine pitch fasteners have greater body strength (but less stripping
strength) than coarse pitch ones.
In a bolt which is not fully threaded, the tensile strength increases
if the nut is tightened to a point near thread run-out (reducing the num-
ber of threads within the GRIP LENGTH). This can reduce both
THREAD STRIPPING STRENGTH and FATIGUE strength, however,
A well lubricated fastener can be tightened to a higher tensile load
before breaking than an unlubricated fastener (because it sees less tor-
sional stress).
Under combined shear and tension loads, long bolts will often support
higher loads than short ones because the bolts are more flexible and
bend more easily.
A bolt made of material that can be through-hardened, like AISI 4340,
is stronger in large sizes than a similar bolt made of an alloy which
can't be throughhardened, like AISI 4140.
104 Bolting-r'focedures Reference Manual
Under shear loads, a bolt is stronger if the shear plane is through
the body of the boItrather than through the threads. Multiple shear
planes also increase shear strength.
Static Strength Equations
Tensile Strength of the Threaded Section 1FT) Tensile strength is
determined by multiplying the crosssectional area of the threads by
the yield or ultimate strength of the material (depending on whether
you define strength as yield or rupture). (See ULTIMATE STRENGTH
(Su) or YIELD STRENGTH (Sy) for data.)
Tensile strength (Ff) is usually computed on the hypothetical "tensile
stress area" of the threads (As). These areas are tabulated under
THREAD STRESS AREAS.
FT SuAs
Shear Strength of the Threaded Section Shear strength is computed
by multiplying the tensile stress (As) or root (Ar) cross-sections (see
THREAD STRESS AREAS) by the shear strength (Fss) of the material.
Shear strengths are approximately 60% of ultimate tensile strengths
(see ULTIMATE STRENGTH).
Fss Ss As
Shear Strength of the Body IFsb) Multiply the cross-sectional area
of the body (Ab, based On nominal diameter, D) by the shear strength
of the material.
2 Fsb Ss (0.7854 0
2
)
STRENGTH Of THREADS

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Bolting Procedures Reference Manual' 105
STRESS AREA
(See THREAD STRESS AREAS)
STRESS CORROSION CRACKING (SCC)
Definition
Stress corrosion cracking is a condition in which a fastener that is stat-
ically loaded well below the material yield strength can suddenly fail.
Three essential conditions must be present for SCC to occur.
o A susceptible material
o An unfavorable environment (stress and corrosive agent)
o An initiating flaw
, Background
SCC failues have occurred in both pressure boundary bolting and in
structural supports. The, investigations of these failures show that the
essential conditions existed in each case.
Investigation of the structural bolting failures showed that the
preloads were high and the bolting material was too hard. The pressure
boundary failures were precipitated by jagged thread roots which
caused stress concentration, leaks and sealing repairs which provided
a corrosive environment.
Basic Techniques for Fighting see Use a low strength material
which is generally not susceptible to stress corrosion cracking.
Limit hardness of fastener material to less than 40 HRC, when the
environment is no worse than humid air. For more severe environments
hardness may be limited even further. For example, A193 B7M materi-
als, used in hydrogen sulfide environments, are limited to a hardness
of 94-99 HRB with 100% hardness testing.
Impose supplemental specifications on the fasteners as suggested
by the Joint AIF/MPC Task Group on Bolting. This specification includes
10& Bolting l"rocedures Reference Manual
incominginspection, increased sampling for hardness, visual and NDE
examinations for defects.
Reduce stress levels. Eliminate stress concentrations due to thread
root radius and thread defects (pits, tears).
Housekeeping. Keep corrosive fluids off the joint members by
preventing leaks, and cleaning up spills.
Things to Try First Stop leaks as soon as possible; then clean flanges
and bolts if possible.
Study preload (torque) specifications. Reduce, if you're not concerned
about other problems such as leaks, vibration loosening or fatigue,
where high preload is necessary.
Avoid use of molydisulphide LUBRICANTS. The sulphides in these
lubricants encourage stress corrosion cracking. .
Avoid use of leak SEALANTS which may (trap electrolytes and release
chlorides and sulphides).
Inspect bolts for cracks, using magnetic particle, dye penetrant or
ultrasonic techniques.
Need more? Replace bolts. Use materials having lower ultimate
strengths.
Use leak detection equipment to spot leaks sooner.
Switch to corrosion resistant bolts (type depends on electrolyte
involved-see expert).
Last resort: Have a designer determine the threshold stress for SCC,
using a fracture mechanics approach.
STRESS CORROSION CRACKING can be avoided by limiting the
preload to sorrie threshold stress level. Recent developments in fracture
mechanics have provided a method for calculating this threshold stress.
This technique requires some simplifying assumptions. The method
provides only approximate solutions, but it has been correlated against
field data and has been used to develop preload specifications. See
an expert in fracture mechanics.
pare this section-and can give you additi0!lal information.
1. Chung, Yun. Threshold Preload Levels for AVOiding
Stress Corrosion Cracking in High Strength Bolts. Report
for Bechtel Power Management. California, January 1984.
2. Merrick, E., A. Rivers, J. Bickford and T. Marston.
Prevention of Bolting Degradation and Failure in Pressure
SMIRT-8 Conference, September 1985.

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---------------------,.c--- 'j--
Bolting Procedures Reference Manu._ /107
3. Utility Recommendations and Guidelines for the Purchase
Specification and Receipt/Preinstallation Inspection
Requirements for ASME Section III, AISC, ANSI/ ASME
B31.1, and ANSI B31.5 Bolts and Threaded Fasteners, pre-
pared by the Joint AIF/MPC Task Group on Bolting. May
1985.
STRESS RELAXATION
(See THERMAL EFFECTS)
STRETCH OF FASTENERS
(See ASSEMBLY PROCEDURES-Stretch Control)
The change in length or elongation of the fastener as it is tightened.
Stretch can be used to estimate the PRELOAD in the fastener.
Stretch Measurement Validity
Measurement of bolt stretch is an accurate indicator of preload, provided
the actual stretch is measured and the measurement is made with suffi-
cient accuracy. Stretch measurement is not a perfect measure of
preload, but it is the best method available. The validity of this state-
ment is evidenced by the use of stretch measurements to control
preload in many critical assemblies such as nuclear reactor pressure
heads.
Stretch measurements are not a direct measure of load. The Elongation
Chart gives the approximate stretch for various materials at different
stress levels.
TABLE J
Elongation Chart for Common Bolting Materials (In
Thousandths of an Inch per Inch of Grip Length)
20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
BOLTING of of of of of
MATERIAL Yield Yield Yield Yield Yield
ASTM A193 B8, B8M, B8C
E = 28.5 X 10
6 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1.0
30k psi y.s.
MONEL 40K psi y.s. 0,3 0,5 0,8 1,1 1,3
SAE GR 2 55K psi y.s. 0,4 0,7 1,1 1,5 1,8
SAE GR 3 80K psi y,s, 0,5 1,1 1,6 2,1 2.7
SAE GR 5, A325 96K psi y,s, 0,6 1,3 1,9 2,6 3,2
ASTM A193 B7, B16
105k psi y.s. 0,7 1.4 2,1 2,8 3,5
SAE GR 8, A490 120K psi y,s, 0,8 1.6 2,4 3,2 4,0
INCONEL 718 180K psi y.s. 1,2 2,4 3,6 4,9 6,1
4340 STEEL, RC47 200K psi y,s, 1,3 2,7 4,0 5,3 6,6
BEST AVAILABLE HIGH
STRENGTH BOLT MATERIAL
240K psi y.s. 1.6 3,2 4,8 6,4 8,0
TITANIUM (6AL4V) 134K psi y,s,
E = 17 X 10
6
1.6 3,2 4,8 6,4 8,0
Indicated elongation figures are for various percentages of yield
strengths of different bolts per inch of grip length, 6 (Modulus of Elasidty
assumed to be 30 x 10unless otherwise noted,) To obtain desired elon-
gation for a particular metal, read the elongation figure in the box un-
der the appropriate percentage of yield and multiply by the grip length,
in inches.
For example, to obtain the expected elongation for a SAE Grade 5 bolt
'stretched to 80% of yield, with a 5" grip length, select the appropriate
boxed figure, which in this case is 2.6, and multiply by 5. The anSWer
is 13 thousandths of an inch.
The Table above gives only an approximation of stretch. See below
for a more precise approach.
Bolting Procedures Reference M ~ ; U ; : a l 109
Calculating Stretch
When using stretch measurements to infer load, we are assuming that
the load is uniaxial and that the material behaves elastically according
to Hooke's Law:
Txx - E L>.L1L
Where: Txx - Tensile stress
E - Modulus of elasticity
AL = Tensile strain
L - Original unstrained length
Re-writing:
Fp/A- E L>.L1L
Where: Fp - Axial load
A = Cross-sectional area
L>.L - Stretch
L - Original unstrained length
The terms of this expression are easily defined, measured, and experi-
mentally verified for a tensile specimen shown in Fig. 27.
FIGURE 27
Tensile Specimen
For a threaded fastener there are varied cross-sectional areas, lengths
and stresses to consider, as shown in Fig. 28.
11 0 Procedures Reference Manual
FIGURE 28
Stress Distributions in a Fastener.
,

g lIIllIllY,'
,
II
A. B.
Figure 28 shows the actual stress distribution (A) and an idealized
representation (B) of the tensile stress. The effective stressed length
(LE) is commonly used to calculate the stretch expected for a given
axial load on a fastener.
The various sections of the threaded fastener act like springs in series
and each section must be considered.
FIGURE 29
Illustration of a boll having five body sections and
one thread section (L6).

LS L6
1
The stretch/load relationship for this type of configuration is:
Ll.L = (Fp/E)(LlI A1 + L21 A2 + L31 A3 + ... L61 A6)
For the more common nut and bolt configuration, the stretch/load
relationship is:
Ll.L = (Fp/E)[LB/AB + (LG-LB)/As + (HN1+HN2)/(2 As)]
We have made a standard assumption here that one-half the nut and
one-half the bolt head are in the stressed length of the bolt. This as-
sumption is illustrated in Fig. 20 in LENGTH, EFFECTIVE. The effective
length LE is measured from mid-nut to mid-nut.
Stretch Measurement
Micrometers, displacement gages or ultrasonic extensometers may be
used to measure stretch.
A "C" type micrometer requires access to both ends of the fastener
and a reasonably short fastener length (Fig. 30). Measurements are
more accurate if small steel balls are first embedded in the ends (centers)
of the bolt.
FIGURE 30
C .. mlcrometer Measurements.
A depth micrometer can be used with a DATUM ROD if the stud
is drilled and the datum rod is seated at one end of the stud (see illus-
tration under DATUM ROD). The depth micrometer then shows the
stretch of the fastener relative to the datum rod.
Displacement gages, mounted on a reference frame, may be used
to measure stretch of the fastener. Both ends of the fastener must be
accessible.
An ultrasonic extensometer may be used to measure the stretch of
the fastener due to load (Fig. 31).
112 Procedures Reference Manual
FIGURE 31
Ultrasonic instrument used to measure the bolt
stretch.
o+.JfZ}
o
,-,
Each of these methods requires two measurements; one of the un-
loaded fastener and a measurement after the load is applied. The stretch
is calculated from the clifference between the two measurements. Record
keeping is therefore imperative.
Practical Considerations for Stretch
Control
Accuracy Stretch measurements are the most accurate method of
controlling preload on actual joints (see ACCURACY).
Measuring Devices The magnitude of the stretch is usually
thousandths of an inch. As a rule-of-thumb, a fastener stretches .001"
for each 30,000 psi stress and each 1.0" of effective length. Accurate
instruments and techniques must be employed. The resolution of the
instrument must be on the order of .0001".
Temperature If the fastener temperature changes between the initial
and final measurements, a temperature compensation must be made
to the stretch reading.
A 3 deg. F change in temperature of a steel fastener loaded to 50%
of yield will produce a 1% difference in the stretch measurements.
-'
-------------------- ",--
Bolting Procedures Reference Mo.. ..(1 113
When using depth rods, the depth rod should be of the same material
as the fasteners and it should be kept at the same temperature as the
fastener. This will compensate for the stretch of the fastener which is
due to temperature change.
STRIPPED THREADS
STUDS, BROKEN
(See FASTENERS, BROKEN)
TEMPERATURE, HIGH
(See THERMAL EFFECTS)
TENSILE STRENGTH
The maximum tensile load a fastener can support before it breaks.
(See ULTIMATE STRENGTH.)
114 Bo._ '6 Procedures Reference Manual
TENSILE STRESS AREA
The hypothetical cross-sectional area of the threaded region of a fas-
tener; used to compute average tensile stress in the fastener, proof
loads, etc. It is based upon the mean of the pitch diameter and minor
diameter of the threads. (See THREAD STRESS AREAS for Table.)
TENSIONERS
(See ASSEMBLY PROCEDURES-Tensioning; TENSIONING-
Hydraulic)
A tool, usually hydraulic, used to tighten a bolt by pulling onit rather
than torquing it.
TENSIONING, HYDRAULIC
Hydraulic tensioners are widely used to preload large threaded
fasteners. They are generally used for fasteners of greater than 11/2"
diameter. Many people believe that tensioners provide near-perfect
preload control, since the tool's hydraulic ram exerts a controlled and
accurate force on the fastener during the assembly operation. Unfor-
tunately, however, the fastener does not retain all of this load when
the tensioner is removed. This loss of load is referred to as "tensioner
efficiency' I or " elastic recovery' I. A review of the tensioning process
is needed to identify the factors which affect the tensioner efficiency.
Tensioning Process
Figure32 is a cross-section of a typical hydraulic tensioner. The main
features of the unit are the puller bar, annular hydraulic piston, nut
rundown mechanism and tensioner base.
Bolting Procedures Referencl:: ~ " ' l ~ n u a l 115
FIGURE 32
Cut-away view of a typical hydraulic tensioner.
_ FLUID UNDER
PRESSURE
Figure 33 illustrates the tensioning process:
o Tensioner Installation
-The tensioning base is positioned over the stud and nut.
-The puller bar is run down on the exposed stud threads.
-The top of the puller engages the drive piston.
o Tensioning Load Applied
-Hydraulic pressure is applied to the piston.
-Axial force is applied to the stud, causing it to stretch.
-The axial force is reacted by the joint as shown. The jOint
is compressed under the tensioner base, under the lower
nut and at the joint interface. Note that the upper nut
and the jOint immediately beneath the upper nut are not
stressed.
o Nut Rundown
-While the tensioner load is still applied, the upper nut is
run down against the jOint.
.--------------
-The upper nut and the joint surface are now strained
slightly, depending on the r;tagnitude of rundown .
torque. This small compressIve stress acts m parallel wIth
the larger stress beneath the tensioner base.
o Pressure Release
-The hydraulic pressure is released and the tensioner
removed. The upper nut and stud are noW carrying full
load. There is embedment of material at the thread sur-
faces and at the nut bearing surface. These embedments
cause a loss of load.
FIGURE 33
Tensioning process
TENS10NER
ENGAGES STUD
NUT RUN DOWN
Les
STUD
PULLED
TENSIONER
REMOVED
Bolting P.rocedures Reference Manual 117
Practical Considerations for Tensioning
Insure that the tensioner has enough load capacity. The tensioner load.
will have to be 25-30% higher than the preload desired in the stud.
The most important part of the tensioning process is the nut run-
down. If the nut is not run down firmly or if it binds during rundown,
zero preload can result.
ThIngs That AHect Nut Rundown (And Therefore Accuracy).
D The nut rundown mechanism should be well constructed.
Right angle gear arrangements are preferable. You want
high, controlled rundown torque.
D Fine stud threads can cause the nut to bind during run-
down. Coarse threads are preferable.
D The tensioner base is very important. It must fit squarely
on the joint surface to allow the tensioner to pull along the
axis of the stud. Check the base for signs of yielding or
distortion. A distorted base can cause interference with the
nut, preventing nut rundown.
D The studs should be perpendicular to the joint surface.
Non-perpendicularity results in stud bending and binding
of the nut during Shinuning the tensioner can
correct for perpendicularity problems.
THERMAL EFFECTS
(See Also THERMAL STRESSES)
A Significant change in temperature (100 deg.(F) or more) of a previ-
ously tightened jOint can create several different types of problems.
Loss of Strength of the Material
See YIELD STRENGTH for details of the effect of elevated temperatures
on the strength of bolting materials. This change in strength must be
considered when choosing bolt materials and/or preloads for high tem-
perature service.
118 BoltIng Procedures Reference Manual
Loss of Preload
A change in temperature can result in loss of preload for one or more
of the following reasons:
Modulus of Elasticity Effect
Assuming that bolts and joint members experience the same increase
in temperature and have the same modulus of elasticity, the change
in preload and clamping force on the joint can be estimated from:
Fp2 Fpl EZ/El
Where: EZ Modulus of elasticity at final
temperature (psi)
El Modulus of elasticity at initial
temperature (psi)
Fp2 Final preload (Ibs)
Fpl Initial preload (lbs)
Gasket Creep
Current operating temperatures can be high enough to cause creep of
elastomeric and other gasket materials. Unfortunately, there's little hard
data on the amount of creep one can expect. (See GASKET CREEP
for details.)Preload is lost as the gasket "flows .out from under" the
bolt load,
Gasket Hysteresis
If the flange material has a higher COEFFICIENT OF EXPANSION than
the bolt material or the flange becomes hotter than the bolts, then the
clamping force on the jOint (and the stresses in the bolts) will increase
(se'e THERMAL STRESS for details), If this is a transient condition (for
example, if the bolts eventually reach the flange temperature), then
the increase in clamping force disappears, If everything in the joint
were fully elastic, the preload and clamping force would merely return
to their original room temperature levels. Unfortunately, however,
gaskets (including spiral-wound) exhibit a lot of hysteresis-that is,
when compressed and then released, they do not return to their original
thickness. They take a permanent set-and this means a permanent
reduction in preload. The problem can be especially bad if carbon steel
bolts are used in an aluminum or stainless steel flange.

Bolting P;rocedures Reference Manual 119
One possible result: a thermal cycle (or several of these) can cause
a previously tight joint to start leaking.
FIGURE 34
Illustration of the stresses created in the gasket and
in the baits of an heat exchanger during initial room
temperature bolt-up, Initial pressurization, as the sys-
tem Is put on-line and heats up, and finally as it starts
to cool down. The Chart at the top shows the current
temperature In the channel side, shell side and bolts.
The chart at the bottom shows stresses in the gasket
and (with a different origin) in the bolts. Note that the
stresses are created by the initial bolt-up process, are
reduced somewhat at pressurization, Increase during
the first portion of the heat-up cycle (when the tem-
perature of the bolts significantly lags that of the
flange members), are reduced as the bolt temperature
continues to rise,and fall off further If the system is
now turned off and starts to cool down.
The eventual loss in gasket stress during heat-up is
caused by the fact that the gasket will not recover the
compression created by differential expansion be-
tween bolt and joint members.
8M
600'
,
,
,
,
400'
206
100-"
0
0
0
1I
/
oV
//
BOLT UP

:50 00"
C
-" 'f?
,-
. ,
t;;ru
/'
- -- SHElL S!DE
I
I
,-
I
I. 1\
1;' \
0.0. GASKET
1// \\
f:0 fI. 1.0.
l?o;ASKET \ l\
:::--
I
\1'---
.
,
"
I-
--
0/
BO
'1---
PRESS RIZA HEAT UP 1 HEAT UP 2 COOL
120 ,. ___ mg Procedures Reference Manual
Differential Expansion Effect
Differential expansion creates the increase in preload which leads to
subsequent gasket set and loss of preload. It's also possible, of course,
for expansion between bolts and joint members to create an immediate
loss in preload. If the coefficient of the bolts is greater than that of the
flange members and/or the bolts are hotter than the flange, then the
bolts" expand away" from the flange and some preload will be lost.
As an example, steel bolts will expand a little farther than a cast iron
flange-if the temperature of each is raised by the same amount. The
fact that flanges tend to be hotter than bolts <at least if the joints aren't
insulated) often prevents a problem in such cases.
Stress Relaxation
A creep-related phenomenon called stress relaxation can also cause a
loss of preload at very high temperatures over a period of time. The
chart below shows the stress relaxation response of a number of bolting
materials.
References . The following documents and texts have helped us pre-
1. Hayashi, K. and A. Chang. Development of a Simple
Finite Element Model for Elevated Temperature Bolted
Flanged Joint. Paper written for research project spon-
sored by the Subcommittee on Bolted Flanged Connec-
tions of the Pressure Vessel Research Committee of the
Welding Research Council. New York. To be published.
2. White, P. E., Mountford Corrosion Resistant Fasteners-
High and Low Temperature Stud Bolting. GKN Fasteners
Corrosion Lab, Reprint No. 32. .
3. Winter, R. Bolting Document. Tennessee Eastman Corpo-
ration. 1980.
J
Bolting Procedures Reference Manual
FIGURE 35
Stress relaxation In various bolt materials when they
are subjected to high temperatures. Exposure was
for 1,000 hours in each test. As an. example, a
carbon steel bolt will lose approximately 30% 01 Its
Initial preload II exposed to 300 degrees C lor 1,000
hours. It will lose approximately 90% 01 Its Initial
preload II exposed to 400 degrees C for the same
length of time.
.00
TEMPERATURE ~ c
Source: British Standard BS 4882: 1973; Bolting for Flanges and Pressure
Containing Purposes.
121
122 Procedures Reference Manual
THERMAL STRESSES
(See Also THERMAL EFFECTS)
Differential expansion between bolts and flange members can in-
crease or decrease preloads, stresses and the clamping force in the joint.
Remember that the joint members are trapped between bolt head and
nut or between two nuts or nut and tapped hole, etc. If, because of
a change in temperature, the bolts expand more (or shrink less) than
the flange members, then stresses and forces will decrease. If the bolts
expand less, or shrink more, forces and stresses will increase.
A Thermal Stress Worksheet is provided to help you compute the
change in stress in your own application.
THREAD STRESS AREAS .
When computing the average stress in the threaded region of a fas-
tener, one must make some' assumption about the cross-sectional area
of the threads. A conservative assumption is to base stress calculations
on the area defined by the root diameter of the threads (Ar; in2)
Ar 0.7854 (D-1.3IN),
Where: 0 The nominal diameter of the bolt (in)
N Number of threads per inch
The ASME Code uses root areas for design purposes.
In actual fact, the helical threads strengthen the threaded portion
of the fastener somewhat. Experiments show that one can assume an
effective cross-section based on the mean of the pitch and root diameters
of the threads. For a UN thread, this area, called the Tensile Stress
Area (As; in2)(and widely used by fastener manufacturers, designers,
users, etc.), can be computed from:
As 0.7854 (0-0.97 43/N)'
Where: (Symbols and units same as above)
Table which follows, lists root and tensile stress areas for coarse
threads between 1/4-20 and 4-8.
TABLE K
Tensile Siress (As) and Thread Rool (Ar) Cross-
Secllonal Areas
THREAD As (lN2) Ar (IN2)
112-13 0.142 0.126
9116-12 0.182 0.162
518-11 0.226 0.202
314-10 0.334 0.302
718-9 0.462 0.419
1-8 0.606 0.551
1 118-8 0.790 0.728'
1 114-8 0.969 0.890
1 318-8 1.23 1.16
1 112-8 1.49 1.41
1 518-8 1.78 1.68
1 314-8 2.08 1.98
1 718-8 2.41 2.30
2-8 2.50 2.30
2 114-8 3.56 3.42
2 112-8 4.44 4.29
2314-8 5.43 5.26
3-8 6.51 6.32
3 114-8 7.69 7.49
3 112-8 8.96 8.75
3314-8 10.34 10.11
4-8 11.81 11.57
THREAD STRIPPING
The threads will strip when the axial forces on the fastener exceed
the shear strength of the male or female threads. The main factors which
determine stripping strength are the size of the fastener, the length of
engagement of the threads and the strength of the material from which
the fastener is made. A number of secondary factors, discussed later,
also can affect stripping strength.
MaterIal Strength
The shear strength of most fastener materials is approximately 60% of
the ultimate strength. For numerical data, see HARDNESS OF BOlTS
or, for a brief summary list of ultimate strengths, see Material Selection
under S1RENGTH OF FASTENERS-Static.
Length of Engagement
Increasing the length of engagement between male and female threads
increases the cross-sectional area of the material which must be sheared
to strip the threads. As a result, heavy hex nuts or deep tapped holes
are less easy to strip than regular nuts or shallow holes.
The effect of length is less than you might expect, however. The first
few (in-board) threads that engage each other absorb most of the load
transmitted from male to female threads. Therefore, adding more lightly
loaded threads at the other end of the nut doesn't increase stripping
strength as much as we'd like. But it helps up to a point: to a length
of 11/2 diameters or so. Beyond that, it's a waste of material.
It's a good idea to design the fastener so that the bolt or stud will
break before the threads strip-since a break is easier to detect. As a
general rule of thumb you'll have a "break-before-strip" situation if
the cross-sectional stripping area of the threads is twice that of the tensile
stress area of the male threads (because the tensile strength is roughly
twice the shear strength).
See THREAD STRESS AREAS for tensile stress areas. Table L gives
thread stripping areas for a length of engagement equal to one nominal
diameter of the fastener. Using this information we can see that, for
a 11/4-8, Class 2A thread, a length of engagement equal to about 314
D would develop the full strength of the body, so a heavy hex nut (with
a height of D) should never strip. All this, of course, assumes correct
materials for both parts, correct tolerances on male and female threads,
no previous thread damage, etc.
The Influence of Size
The threads on a large fastener are "longer" per turn and have thick-
er roots than the threads on a small fastener. This means that the per-
thread area which must be sheared to strip the threads is greater on
the larger fastener and that means greater stripping strength.
Doubling the diameter of a fastener will roughly double the stripping
strength per inch of thread engagement. Doubling the diameter also
. typically means doubling the length of engagement as well (a nut height
or tapped hole depth equal to one nominal diameter is usually used
in industry). As a result, stripping strength usually increases by about
four times as fastener diameter is doubled. (Doubling the diameter also
increases the tensile strength of the body by a factor of 4, so stripping
strength keeps pace with tensile strength as the nominal size is
changed.)
Bolting Procedures Reference 'tv1allual 125
Stripping Strength Equations
and female and internal) threads can strip along several
different cross-sectlOns, depending upon the relative hardness of nut
and bolt materials,. of fit, etc. The equations for computing
can h<; qUIte mvolved and require, as inputs, detailed thread
dimensIons .are not used. The necessary equations and
the thread dimenslOns requrred to solve them can be found in Standard
ANSI B1.1 or in any edition of MACHINERY'S HANDBOOK (Industrial
Press, Inc., New York).
An estimate of the preload required to strip the threads (Fs) can be
by multiplying the shear strength of the material (Ss) by the
stnppmg area (At) tabulated in Table L. Note that these areas are for
threads, and for a length af engagement equal to one nominal
diameter of the fastener (appropriate for thick or heavy hex nuts). Regu-
lar hex nuts typically have a length of 0.875 D). The areas tabulated,
furthermare, are for UNC or UNtlueads. You can estimate the stripping
strength af other threads by using the follOWing rules-af-thumb:
o The stripping areas of female threads are 1.3 to 1.5 times
the areas of the mating male threads (the multiplier is
smaller for larger fasteners).
o The stripping areas of fine pitch external threads (UN F) are
equal to that for Coarser threads up through
of 1 7/8 inches. As diameters get larger, the finer
pitch (now UN) lose ground. By 4" the stripping area of
the UNC thread is 5% greater than that of the UN.
o The stripping areas for fine pitch internal threads are 4-5%
less than those for coarser threads for all sizes except those
in the 1/1 to 1318" range, where coarse and fine areas are
essentially equal.
126 Reference Manual
TABLE L
Stripping Areas lor External Threads (In in' per
Length 01 Engagement Equal 10 One Nominal
Diameter)
STRiPPiNG AREA
Thread Ciass 2A Thread Ciass 3A Thread
1/4-20
5/16-18
3/8-16
7/16-14
1/2-13
9/16-12
5/8-11
3/4-10
:!Jl-9

1 1/8-8
1 1/4-8
1 3/8-8
1 1/2-8
1 5/8-8
1 3/4-8
1 7/8-8
2-8
2 1/4-8
2 1/2-8
2 3/4-8
3-8
3 1/4-8
3 1/2-8
33/4-8
4-8
Secondary Factors
0.092
0.147
0.216
0.296
0.390
0.502
0.624
0.908
1.25
1.66
2.13
2.65
3.22
3.86
4.55
5.30
6.09
6.96
8.84
10.95
13.28
15.84
18.62
21.63
24.79
28.28
The following factors also affect stripping strength:
0.096
0.157
0.232
0.321
0.427
0.548
0.681
1.01
1.38
1.82
2.329
2.913
3.55
4.26
5.04
5.03
6.81
7.72
9.83
12.18
14.80
17.67
20.8
24.15
27.79
31.64
o A tighter fit between male and female threads increases
stripping strength. When fasteners are coated, allowance is
left for the coating thickness; this can contribute to lower
stripping strength.
o A thin-walled nut will strip more readily than a thickwalled
one (more nut dilation).
o Lubricating the fastener before assembly can also increase
dilation and reduce stripping strength by a few percent.
Bolting Reference Manual 127
o Threads strip more readily when bolt and nut material are
of equal strength. For optimum safety (to guarantee that
the bolt will break before the nut threads will strip), use a
nut having a specified PROOF LOAD 20% greater than the
bolt's ultimate tensile strength.
o Threads will strip more readily if the fastener is torqued
during assembly (instead of tensioned) since torquing also
enhances dilation.
TORQUE,BREAKAWAY
The maximum torque required to loosen a fastener; to start the reverse
motion of the nut.
TORQUE, CONTROL OF
(See ASSEMBLY PROCEDURES-Torquing; TORQUING, SELEC-
TION OF)
TORQUE LOSS
TORQUE PROCEDURES
(See ASSEMBLY PROCEDURES-Torquing)
TORQUE, RESTARTING
The torque required to start additional forward motion in a previ-
ously tightened nut. Used for post-assembly inspection purposes.
TORQUE RELAXATION
TORQUE, SELECTION OF
General
The question most often asked by people who assemble bolted jOints
is "What torque should I use on these bolts"? We know from experience
that if we use the "wrong torque" something will go wrong: the bolts
will be broken during assembly or the joint will leak or it will shake
apart or something.
Newcomers to bolting always expect the I/experts!' to have a quick,
but correct, answer to the torque question. Sometimes this is possible.
But not always.
" The behavior of a bolted joint in service depends only indirectly on
how much torque was used. The main issue is whether or not the ten-
sion created in the bolts by that torque will clamp the joint members
together ;"'th a force great enough to resist failure, but small enough
so It won t damage the bolts, joint members, gaskets, etc. If the joint
has been overdeslgned (and most have been) and/or the service loads
and se",;,ice requirements are modest, then a wide range of bolt loads
will sabsfy these conditions. Many different torque values will be
"good" .
'-'
',---
Bolting Procedures Reference h., . ~ a l 129
In-more critical cases, however, it is impossible to specify a "good"
torque until we have carefully determined exactly what range of clamp-
ing force will resist the service loads without damaging parts. The more
demanding the service conditions, the more difficult it is to determine
the correct bolt force, or preload.
Another factor complicates the situation still further. Nearly 80 vari-
ables can affect the amount of preload achieved in a bolt by a given
torque, so even if we've managed to identify the preload which will
be best for that joint, we won't necessarily get that preload when we
tighten the bolts one by one. Another collection of variables then modi-
fies those initial preloads further as parts relax, as we tighten adjacent
bolts, etc. The result is wide variation in preload (see PRELOAD, LOSS
OF).
Again, in practice, most joints are overdesigned or "under-
challenged", so it doesn't matter if we don't get the preload we selected.
As service conditions become more difficult, however, we'll find that
we have to take more and more pains to control the uncertainties in
the torque-preload relationship.
Detailed torque selection procedures are given in the section on
PRELOAD, SELECTION OF. We've chosen to put them there, rather
than here, because selection of preload is the more basic issue. Torquing
is the most cornmon way to achieve the desired preload, but TENSION-
ERS or HEATERS can also used. In any event, see PRELOAD, SELEC-
TION OF, for a variety of ways (graded from simple to difficult) to pick
a torque.
You'll note in the preload selection discussion that we end up using
the same final equation to pick torque (for each preload selection
procedure)-
T=KDFp/12
so where's this" difficulty" we were talking about? The inrease in the
difficulty (and the accuracy) of our selection. of torque is not visible
in this "tmiversal" equation. It is built into the care we take to determine:
Fp the clamping force or preload which will be acceptable for
the joint and
K called the NUT FACTOR, an experimentally determined
constant which summarizes the many factors influencing
the torque-preload relationship.
TORQUE-TURN PROCEDURES
(See ASSEMBLY PROCEDURES-Turn of Nut)
TRAINING BOLTING PERSONNEL
A number of plants have reported that proper training and
supervision of bolting crews led to a significant reduction in bolted jOint
problems, The training did not involve new types of tools or new
procedures-merely instruction in the correct use of existing tools and
current procedures, The usefulness of training is confirmed by an NRC
study which shows a significant decrease in the incidence of bolting
problems as a plant gains experience-Le" as it le.arns how to do the
job better.
No formal training programs have been defined as yet for bolting
personneL This is surprising, considering the number of bolted joints
in a typical plant. One needs oniy compare this situation with the effort
that has been made to define the training needs and qualifications for
welded joint personnel to see the disparity, Attempts are under way
to change this, '
Resource Materials
The Electric Power Research Institute has prepared three video cassette
training films for nuclear plant bolting engineers and mechanics, This
Reference Manual is another step, again sponsored by EPR!. Both cas-
settes and manual should make it easier for management to organize
and' conduct in-plant training sessions.
Training Program Recommendations A training program should
deal with the following issues:
o The basic behavior and "physics" of bolted joints on an
elementary leveL (The cassettes provide this,)
o The proper use of the tools, lubricants, gaskets, etc" select-
ed by the plant (the cassettes address this issue, too),
o How to detect and respond to bolted joint problems (a
main focus of this manual),
'---
Bolting Procedures Reference Mi>.. . ..tl 131
o The importance of "doing it right" (the cassettes and
manual),
Reference The following document has helped us prepare this
section-and can give you additional informtion,
1, NUREG-1095, "Evaluation of Responses to IE Bulletin
82-02", Nuclear Regulatory Commission,
TURN OF NUT
(See ASSEMBLY PROCEDURES; TURN OF NUT)
A formal tightening procedure which consists of snugging all the
bolts in the joint, followed by measured turn of the nut through an
additional half turn or the like; widely used in structural steel assembly
operations, Properly used turn-of-nut procedures always tighten the
fastener past yield,
ULTIMATE STRENGTH
The maximum load that a test specimen or a fastener supports prior
to fracture, To express strength as a stress the load is divided by the
original tensile cross-section of the fastener or specimen,
The room temperature ultimate strengths for common bolting materi-
als will be found in Tables in STRENGTH OF BOLTING MATERIALS
and in HARDNESS OF FASTENERS,
ULTRASONICS
(See EXTENSOMETER)
132 Bolt. l)rocedures Reference Manual
VIBRATION LOOSENING
Vibration can loosen bolts, often causing complete loss of the nut
(and bOlt). VariQus explanations have been given for this, but none
of them fully explain all of the problems which have been encountered
in the field. Most people agree, however, that the following conditions
are required before the nut will fully loosen under vibration:
D The vibratory force must have a component at right angles
to the axis of the bolts-a force which, when high enough,
will cause the joint members to slip past each other. (Vibra-
tory forces parallel to the bolt axis will partially loosen the
bolt, causing it to lose perhaps 10-20% of initial preload-
but only transverse forces will fully loosen it.)
f I There mus t be some slip clearance between male and female
threads, and between bolts and jOint members, to allow
transverse slip to occur.
If these conditions exist, it may take only six severe slip cycles to
fully loosen the nut. This means that thermal cycles or flexing of the
structure or joint members themselves can loosen it. More commonly,
hundreds or thousands of tiny vibration-induced slip motions do the
job.
Here are some ways to fight self-loosening. They are graded roughly
in order of increasing cost or complexity:
D Increase thread and joint friction forces. If these are high
enough, there'll be no transverse slip and therefore no self-
loosening. Friction will increase if you:
-eliminate thread lubricants
-increase preloads (see PRELOAD, SELECTION OF, Level
4 for guidance)
-compensate for any RELAXATION of the fasteners (by an
extra pass with the wrench, for example). This increases
residual preload, which in turn determines the size of the
friction forces.
D Use anaerobic adhesives to "glue" the male and female
threads together. These are available for operating tempera-
tures to 450 deg. F or so. At higher temperatures (up to
2000 deg. F) some people use linseed oil. It carbonizes. The
nuts must be hammered to break them loose, but there's
no damage to the threads.
BaIting Procedures Reference M a n ~ a l 133
D Add collars under bolt head and nut(s) and use longer
bolts-the longer the better. (A bolt having a length to
diameter ratio of 8:1 or more will "never" loosen, some
experts say.)
D Use bolts with fine pitch threads instead of coarse (flatter
helix angle helps).
o Use special, vibration resistant nuts such as those with a
nylon locking collar or interference fit threads. (Avoid the
latter if you also have FATIGUE problems or STRESS COR-
ROSION CRACKING with these bolts. The interference can
increase stress concentrations.) See Fig. 25 for an illustra-
tion of a nylon collar nut.
D Pin or tack-weld joint members to prevent relative slip.
Dowel pins or interference-body bolts can be used (Bethle-
hem makes one for structural use).
D Prevent or reduce the amount of vibration seen by the
joint. Some possible ways to do this:
-Add stiffeners to joint members
-Add mass to change natural frequencies
-Use shock absorbers and/or shock mounts to dampen the
vibration
D Have a vibration expert study the system to determine the
causes and possible cures for the vibration.
D Reshape joint members to prevent relative slip.
FIGURE 36
The lolnt members have been shaped to resist trans-
verse Slip. This can be a very effective way to light
vibration loosening.
D Redesign the joint so that the axis of the fasteners is parallel
to the direction of vibration rather than perpendicular to it.
134 Bolli rocedures Reference Manual
WASHERS-CRUSH
Crush washers of the type illustrated below are used to control initial
preload in bolts and to indicate, on a previously tightened jOin:, w h ~ t h e r
or not the bolts were properly tightened. They are used prImarily In
structural steel applications.
FIGURE 37
Crush washer used to measure preload. The washer
is interposed between the joint member and a con-
ventional washer as shown In the small sketch.
;.ITTI-:
In practice, the crush washer is placed against the joint with its
"bumps" upwards. A flat washer is placed on top of the crush washer
and the nut follows.
As the nut is tightened, the gap between the washers gets smaller.
When a feeler gage can no longer be inserted between the two washers,
the bolt has been tightened by the specified amount.
The bumps on the crush washer take a permanent set; the washer
cannot be reused. If relaxation occurs in the bolt after tightening, the
washer will not show it. But an inspector can indeed tell at any time
after initial tightening whether or not the bolt was tightened. And the
accuracy cited for the original preloading process is fairly
good-+I-IO%is often cited.
A caution. A number of bolting crews have discovered that the bolts
are easier to tighten if the bumps on the washers are first pounded
flat with a hammer or ground down on a wheel. No crew should be
allowed to take advantage of this technological discovery!
Bolting Procedures Reference 1\.1... d.ral 135
WASHERS-PLAIN
Hard washers are recommended or specified in a number of bolting
standards. They bring several advantages to the bolted joint:
o By spreading the load placed by the bolt or nut on the
joint they increase the ratio between jOint and bolt stiffness
(see STIFFNESS OF BOLT AND FASTENER). This can
help reduce bolt FATIGUE problems.
o Washers make the interface forces between joint members
more uniform. This can improve gasket performance.
o Washers can bridge slotted or oversized holes, facilitating
assembly of poorly mated parts. They are frequently used
for this purpose on structural steel jobs, for example (and
are mandatory in many such applications).
o Washers can Significantly reduce the friction between a
turning nut and the jOint members. This reduces the size of
the bolting tool reqUired, reduces the torques required and
often improves the ACCURACY and repeatability of the
torquing operations.
o Washers can prevent damage to soft joint surfaces.
o Washers reduce the amount of EMBEDMENT between nut,
bolt and joint members, reducing RELAXATION after
tightening.
YIELD STRENGTH
The stress level which will produce a small, previously defined
amount of pennanent deformation in the fastener. Defonnation of 0.2%
is often used to define yield, for example.
The yield strengths of common bolting materials can be found in the
chart below.
FIGURE 38
Yield strength of various bolting materials are a
function of temperature <an values are approximate).
,eo
'"
'"
~ o o 300 700
BOlt TEMPERATURE (of)
/ ~ . , ~ ~ .
-------------- \_-
FIGURE 38
Continued
Bolting Procedures Reference Mai .... al 137
A-ASTM A 193 & A320 GRS 88. 88M
8-ASTM A193 8. A320 GR 8BC
C-ASTM A193 87; A320 L43; A540 824 CL 5 UP TO 6" OIA
E-ASTM A540 821 CL 1 UP TO 4" OIA
F-ASTM A540 821 CL 2 UP TO 4" OIA
G-ASTM A540 821 CL 3 UP TO 6" OIA
H-ASTM A540 821 CL 4 UP TO 6" OIA
I-ASTM A540 824 CL 1 UP TO 8" OIA
J-ASTM A540 824 CL 2 UP TO 9.5" OIA
K-ASTM A540 824V CL 3 UP TO 11" OIA
L-ASTM A540 824 CL 4 UP TO 9.5" OIA
Table 1-1.3 of Appendix I, Section Ill. Division 1 ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel
Code, Nuclear Power Plant Components.
Bolting Procedures Reference Ma, 141
GASKET STRESS WORKSHEET
(For Raised Face, Carbon Steel Flanges)
Joint Identlflcatlon ______________ _
Fastener Size _____ ,Materlal _________ _
Data Required (with symbols and units)
10 of Sealing Surface (10; inches __________ _
OD of Sealing Surface (OD; inches, _________ _
Type of Gasket ________________ _
Contained Pressure (P; psi), ____________ _
Number of Bolts in Joint (n) ____________ _
Recommended Seating Stress (SGI; psi)(Ref. A) _____ _
Recommended Residual Stress/Pressure Ratio (Rm)(Ref. A)
References: (A) Gasket Factors
1. Compute, if required, and enter the nominal bolt preload
in each bolt at assembly (Fp; Ibs). For example, if preload
is specified by torque (T; ft-lbs) then-
Fp ~ 12 T / K D ~ Ibs
(See PRELOAD, CALCULATION OF for details, if
uncertain. )
2. Compute the total, nominal clamping force on the gasket
at assembly (FGA; Ibs).
FGA ~ n Fp ~ ____________ lbs
142 Boltii'_..., Reference Manual
3. Compute the full surface sealing area of the gasket
(AC, in')
AC 0.7854 ( OO'-lD') in'
4. Now use #2 and #3 above to compute the initial stress on
the gasket at assembly (SCI; psi)
SCI FCA/AC ____________ psi
Is this seating stress greater than the acceptable stress
found in CASKET FACTORS and listed above? If so,
continue the calculations with the same nominal preload
you've used so far. If not, increase that nominal and
recycle to step #2. (Note: If the calculated stress exceeds
the listed gasket factor by a large amount, consult the
gasket manufacturer to see if it's an acceptable stress.)
New Nominal Fp Ibs
5. Compute the pressure load on the joint (LP; Ibs)
LP 0.7854 P (lD') Ibs
6. The pressure load will partially relieve the joint. Compute
the net clamping force on the joint alter the system has
been pressurized (FN; lbs)
FN FCA-LP __________ Ibs
7. Compute the residual stress on the gasket (SC2; psi)
SCR FN/AC psi
8. Compute the ratio between this residual stress and the
contained pressure (Rm)
Rm SCRIP - ____ ,....--, ____ ----, __ _
Does Rm exceed the recommended residual stress/con-
tained pressure ratio as per CASKET FACTORS? If so,
your nominal preload is accepted. If not, choose a higher
nominal preload and recycle to step #2.
New Nominal Fp Ibs
9. Convert the final nominal preload to nominal torque (T;
It-Ibs)
T K 0 Fp / 12 _________ It-Ibs
(See NUT FACTORS for K, if required.)
CalculatIons Made By _____________ _
__________________ __

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Bolting Procedures Reference >lal 145
TORQUE COMPUTATION
WORKSHEET -LEVEL 3
Joint Identification ____________________________ _
Fastener Size Material _________ _
(Ref: MATERIALS: IDENTIFICATION OF)
Percent of Yield. The first decision you'll have to make, when using
the worksheet, is, "'What percentage of yield is correct for this
application?" Since this is a Level 3 procedure, the decision is not a
critical one, and can be made by considering "common practice' I , Here
are some typical values.
PERCENTAGE APPROPRIATE FOR SITUATIONS
OF YIELD SUCH AS THESE
.25 Foundation or anchor bolts which see no
cyclic or vibration loads; or any unimportant
non-gasketed joint exposed to static loads. *
AO Gasketed pressure boundary joints, including
those covered by the ASME Code, which
have not given trouble and/or are in "routine
service" .
(This recommendation is for carbon steel,
raised face flanges. For others see FLANGES,
UNCOMMON MATERIALS; FLANGES,
O-RING, etc.)
.50 "Average" non-gasketed joint, with no great
demands upon it; no particular safety or per-
formance requirements; and you have no
design information to suggest a higher or
lower preload.
* "High preload problems"-STRESS CORROSION CRACKING,
THREAD STRIPPING or joint failure, for example-are less common
than "low preload problems". However, they may also require
preloads of 25-30%. These are Level 4 problems, however, and should
not be solved by use of the above table.
.70 A gasketed or non-gasketed joint with which
you've had "low preload" problems in the
past (leaks, vibration loosening or fatigue).
You want a relatively high, but safe, preload;
and are going to use simple torquing pro-
cedures to tighten the bolts (procedures ex-
pected to give torque-preload scatter of
+1-30% or so).
.85 Critical gasketed or non-gasketed joints which
have been consistent trouble-makers in the
past and require maximum safe preload.
You're planning to use datum rods, or ultra-
sonics, or other means to control the tight-
ening process with exceptional accuracy.
1. List the following factors. Use the references cited to look
up the necessary data, if required.
Percentage of yield strength
to which fasteners are to be
tightened (as a decimal) Ref:
The Table above.
NOMINAL DIAMETER OF
BOLT
YIELD STRENGTH of Bolt
Mat'l.
Tensile Stress Area of the
Threads (Ref: THREAD
STRESS AREAS)
NUT FACTOR (Ref: NUT
FACTOR)
Conversion Factor (inch-lbs
to ft-Ibs)
M ~ O . ____ _
D ~ _____ inches
Sy ~ ______ psi
As ~ _____ (in')
K ~
C ~ 0.0833
2. Multiply all of the above together to compute the torque.
In computer format:
COMPUTED TORQUE
M*D*Sy*As*K*C = __________ It-lbs
Bolting Procedures Reference Mal.. 147
3. If using a pevailing torque fastener, add the prevailing
torque to the torque calculated above.
Notes:
Calculation Made By, ___________ _
Date' _________________ _
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Bolting Procedures Reference Ma.. ..... al 149
PRELOAD/TORQUESELECTION
WORKSHEET -LEVEL 4
.Joint Identiflcatlon _______________ _
Fastener Size _____ Material _________ _
Data Required (with symbols and units)
a) Nominal preload put in bolts at assembly
(Fp; lbs) lbs
Alternate to above: Nominal torque used at assembly
(T; ftlbs) ________ --ftlbs; plus type of
lubricant used ________________ _
NUT FACTOR for lubricant (K) ________ -,-
Note: The nominal preload (Fp) is the best estimate of the
preload which is currently being applied to the
fasteners. This preload may have been obtained
from a number of sources such as: torque table
(level 2), a torque/preload calculation (level 3), a
vendor recommendation or simply from experience.
The accuracy of the preload estimate is not impor
tant at this point, since it is just a starting point for
the calculations. If the estimate is poor (either high
or low), more iteration may be reqUired to arrive at
an acceptable preload.
b) Accuracy of preload developed at assembly ref:
ACCURACY(A;%), __ - - - - - - - ~ ______ - - ~ ~ ~
c) Tensile stress area of bolts (As, in
2
)(Ref:THREAD STRESS
AREAS) in'
d) YIELD STRENGTH of bolts at operating temp
(Syt; psi) _______________ psi
Calculations:
1. Compute, if required, and enter nominal preload (Fp, lbs)
Fp 12 T/(K lbs
2. Use tool ACCURACY to compute max and min assembly
preloads (Fpmin , Fpmax; lbs)
Fpmin Fp (1-A/l00) ________ lbs
Fpmax Fp (1 + AIlOO) lbs
3. Use the THERMAL STRESS worksheet to compute the
stress which will be created by a change in temperature
following assembly. If there is no temperature change,
enter zero here. (Thermal stress isSTH; psi)
STH psi
4. Compute the change in tension in the bolts, created by
the temperature change (FT; lbs)
FT STH As ____________ lbs
Note: FT can be either positive or negative (See
THERMAL STRESS for details.)
5. Combine #2 and #4 above to compute the preload scatter
as a result of the combined effects of tool accuracy and
thermal stress. (FATmax, FATmin; lbs)
FATmax Fpmax + FTH lbs
FATmin Fpmin + FTH lbs
Note: If FT is negative (relieves the joint) it will be
subtracted from Fpmin and Fpmax.
6. Check the minimum load (FATmin) computed above
against the sealing loads calculated using the Gasket
Stress Workskeet:
a. Let FATmin Fp in equation 2 of the Gasket Stress
Worksheet; calculate the clamping force FGA.
b. Calculate the residual gasket stress (Rm) using steps
6,7,8 (Gasket Worksheet).
c. If Rm is acceptable, continue; if not, adjust nominal
preload and return to step 1 of this worksheet
(Preload/Torque Selection Worksheet).

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Bolting Procedures Reference lvlQoual 151
d. Calculate the maximum stress on the gasket at
operating conditions (SGM).
SGM FN/AG
e. Compare SGM to the maximum gasket stress (see
GASKET FACTORS). If acceptable, continue; if not,
return to step 1 of this worksheet.
7. Calculate the maximum bolt stress Smax:
Smax FATmax/As __________ psi
8. Compare maximum stress Smax to 2/3 of the bolt yield
strength (Syt) at temperature. If Smax < 2/3 Syt
continue. If Smax > 2/3 Syp, return to step 1 of'this
procedure, enter new preload, and repeat all calculations.
9. When your choice of nominal preload has passed the
tests described in steps #6 and #8 above, list it here.
Final Nominal Fp --_________ lbs
10. If convert this preload to the nominal torque to
be specified for assembly of the joint (T; ft-lbs).
T=KDFp/12
T = ---------_____ ft-lbs
Computed By: ________________ _
Date _______________________ _
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Bolting Procedures Reference IVlarmal 153
THERMAL STRESS WORKSHEET
"oint Identification ______________ _
Data Required (with units and symbols)
Bolt Data.
Nominal diameter (D) in
Threads per inch (TPI) _____________ _
Body length (LBG) in
Length of threads within grip (LSG) in
Height of nut (HN) in
Height of head (or other nut) HH in
TENSILE STRESS AREA of the bolt As in'
Distance across flats, nut or head (Of) in
Grip length (LG) _______________ in
If bolts and joint have the same COEFFICIENT OF EXPANSION
and MODULUS OF ELASTICITY:
COEFFICIENT OF EXPANSION (ab) ______ in/in/oF
MODULUS OF ELASTICITY of each (Eb) at the operating
temp _________ (psi)
Operating temperature of the bolts (Tb) _______ OF
Operating temperature of the joint (Tj) ________ OF
If the modulii and/or coefficients differ
COEFFICIENT OF EXPANSION, bolts (ab) ____ in/in/oF
COEFFICIENT OF EXPANSION, joint (aj) ____ in/in/OF
MODULUS of bolts (Eb) at operating temp ______ psi
MODULUS of joint (Ej) at operating temp ______ psi
Common temperature at assy (To) _________ of
Final bolt temp (Tb) _______________ of
Final joint temp (Tj) ______________ of
Initial Calculations:
Effective length of the body of the bolt (LB)
LB = LBG + (HH/2)
Effective length of the threads (LS)
LS = LSG + (HN/2)
Cross-sectional area of the body (AB)
AB = 0.7854 D2
Effective stressed length of bolt (LE)
LE = LB + LS .
for a fully threaded stud:
LE = LS + HN/2
Procedure A
When bolts and joint members have the same coefficient of expan-
sion and the same modulus of elasticity:
Compute the stresses created in the bolt by the change in temper-
ature (L:.t) from:
STH = "b (LE-LG) (Tj-Tb)
Compute the resulting increase or decrease in preload and clamp-
ing force (FT) from:
FTH = (STH)As
Procedure B
When modulii and/or coefficients differ:
Compute the expansion (or contraction) of bolts (L:.L) and joint
members (L:.J) from:
L:.L = "b LE (Tb-To) = ____________ in
L:.j = "j LG (Tj-To) = ____________ in
Bolting Procedures Reference .,_, ..dlllal 155
Compute the stiffness of the bolts (Kb); Ibs/in
-If fully threaded
Kb=EAs
LE
-If not fully threaded
Kb = E As AB
LS AB + LB As
In calculator format this latter becomes:
(Eb*As*AB)/LS*AB) + (LB*As)) = Kb
Compute the effective cross-sectional area of that portion of
the joint which is loaded by one bolt.
Aj = 2.. [(Df + LG), - D2]
4 2
In calculator format this becomes:
0.7854*Df + LG/2)2 - D2) = Aj
Compute the stiffness of the jOint (Kj; lbs/in)
Kj = Ej Aj/LG = _____________ Ibs/in
Now compute the change in preload in the bolts (and clamping
force on the joint) (Fj; Ibs). If there is a gasket, the gasket stiffness
(Kg) is also introduced at this point.
FTH = (L:.L - L:.j) Kb Kj
Kb + Kj
In calculator format this becomes:
L:.L - L:.j)*(Kb*Kj)) I (Kb + Kj) = FTH
Calculations Made By ______________ _
Date ___________________ _

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