Discovery of Atomic Particles Electron - Discharge Tube experiments J.J.

Thomson studied the passage of electricity through gases at extremely low pressure in a cylindrical glass tube in detail. He was discovered that at extremely low pressure, gases become conductors of electricity and emit streaks of light, which flows in the form of cathode rays. Experiment and observations In its simplest form, the electron-discharge tube consists of a cylindrical glass tube about 50 cm long, closed at both ends. It is also called the discharge tube or Crookes tube. The tube is fitted with two metallic electrodes, which are connected to a source of high voltage. It is filled with gas and is connected to a side tube, through which the gas can be evacuated to any desired pressure with the help of a vacuum pump. Discharge Tube Experiment The following observations were discovered: At normal temperatures, all gases were non-conducting, in spite of high voltage (500010,000 volts) being applied between the electrodes in the discharge tube. The residual gas in the tube became 'conducting'. When the pressure of the gas was reduced to 10-2 atm. the gas emitted a flow of light evacuating some of the gas with the help of vacuum pump, through the side tube. When the pressure in the discharge tube was further reduced, the residual gas continued to conduct electricity but its light emission glow became weaker and finally stopped glowing at about 10-4 atm pressure. At this pressure, the glass tube only showed a greenish fluorescence at the anode end. The glow in the tube at low gas pressures of 10-2 to 10-4 atm was due to the bombardment at the glass by certain rays, which were emitted from the cathode as streaks of light and moved towards the anode end. The colour of the light depended on the nature of the gas used. These rays were named as cathode rays because their point of origin was the cathode. Nature of cathode rays Further experiments established the following properties of cathode rays. The rays travel in straight lines from the cathode to the anode. This is proved because when an object is placed in the path of a cathode ray in the discharge tube, the light gets blocked in the area of the object and fluorescence is seen only in regions outside the shadow. Further it casts a shadow away from the cathode, on the opposite side). The rays consist of material particles and can produce a mechanical effect. For example, when a small paddle wheel is placed between the electrodes of the discharge tube, it rotated. These material particles are charged with a negative charge. This is proved on exposing cathode rays to electrical or magnetic fields. They deflect towards the positively charged plate.

They have a heating effect i.e., when they strike a thin metal foil it gets heated up. They produce fluorescence or glow on striking glass or certain other materials. They produce X-rays on striking hard metals like copper, tungsten etc. They penetrate through thin sheets of aluminium or other metal. Cathode rays affect photographic plates. The ratio of charge to mass (charge/mass) is the same for all the cathode rays irrespective of the type of gas used in the tube. The above observations confirmed the existence of negatively charged particles called electrons as particles that made up the cathode rays. Charge and mass of electron Ratio of the charge of electrons to its mass (e/m): The charge to mass ratio is found by measuring the deflection of a ray under the simultaneous influence of electrical and magnetic fields, applied perpendicularly to each other as well as to the direction of the flow of light. This is illustrated in the figure below: Determining e/m ratio A high voltage charge accelerates cathode ray electrons between cathode and anode. After the anode, a circular disc selects a straight beam and directs it past the electric and magnetic fields, which are perpendicular to each other as well as to the direction of the motion of the light beam. The beam is deflected according to the relative strengths of the electric and magnetic fields and the ratio of e/m controls the deflection. By measuring the deflection and the field strengths of the two fields the e/m ratio can be calculated. Determination of the charge of electrons The charge of electrons is determined by Millikan's experiment in 1909. Small drops of oil formed by a sprayer are allowed to fall in between a positively charged upper metal plate and a negatively charged lower metal plate. The space between the two plates is irradiated with X-rays. This displaces some electrons of the air molecules, which consequently get attached to the oil droplet. The fall of the oil drop is observed through a microscope. The charged plates create an electrical field in the upper direction, which counteracts the gravity influence on the drop of oil. By adjusting the electric field strength to a level equal to the downward gravitational force, the drop remains stationary in mid-air. The charge on the droplet is then determined by the amount of charge on the plates and the mass of the droplet. The mass of the droplet is determined earlier, from the rate of fall of droplet through the air when the metal plates were uncharged. From the experiments of Millikan, the charge on the electron is found to be 1.602 x 10-19 coulombs. Millikan's oil drop experiment Calculation of the mass of the electron The mass of an electron (m) is determined by dividing the value of 'e' by e/m.

Charge/mass (e/m) = 1.76 x 108 coulomb/g Charge (e) = 1.602 x 10-19 coulombs. = 9.1 x 10-28g Charge(q)=+or -ne Electron An electron is defined as a subatomic particle which carries one unit of electrical charge (1.602 x 10-19 C) and has a mass of 9.1 x10-28g. The mass of an electron is almost negligible, being 1/1837th the mass of an atom of hydrogen. The charge of an electron is the smallest known electrical charge and is referred to as unit negative charge. The discharge tube experiments showed that irrespective of the gas used or the nature of the material of the cathode, all electrons were found to have the same mass and same charge and therefore the same e/m ratios. Thus electrons of all cathode rays are the same and only electrons (no gaseous atoms) make up the fundamental common particles of the rays. Later on it was found that all electrons emitted from all sources and by all methods have the same mass and same charge. Thus, the electron in the atom is the universal constituent of all matter. Anode rays and the discovery of protons Since atoms on the whole are neutral, the presence of negatively charged electrons suggested the presence of positively charged particles. Experiment and characteristics E.Goldstien modified the discharge tube experiments by using a perforated cathode. After evacuating the tube he applied high voltage across the electrodes. Apart from the usual cathode rays emerging from the perforations, he found a new set of rays emerging and travelling in the opposite direction. In similar experiments to those of Thomson's involving electric and magnetic fields he observed, that like the cathode rays, these rays also deflect but in the opposite direction. They were attracted towards negative plates establishing their positive nature. He called these rays as anode rays. Anode rays Goldstein's experiment Characteristics of anode rays These travel in straight lines and cast shadow of the object placed in their path. They are deflected by magnetic and electric fields in the opposite direction to that of cathode rays. The anode rays produce mechanical and heating effects also. The charge to mass ratio is smaller than that of the electrons, showing that these particles are heavier than the cathode ray particles. The charge to mass ratio depends upon the nature of the gas.

The charge and mass of the positive particles The e/m ratio of the anode rays obtained from hydrogen gas was found to be highest and equivalent to 9.58 x 104 C g-1. These particles also carried a charge of 1.602 x 10-19 C. Thus, the mass of the positive particle from hydrogen gas is, As the mass of the electron is 9.1 x 1028 g, the ratio of the mass of positive particle obtained from hydrogen to the mass of an electron is, The positive particle from hydrogen is 1837 times heavier than the electron. This positively charged particle was called proton. The proton is produced by the loss of an electron from a neutral hydrogen atom and is thus a hydrogen ion H+. The mass of H is found to be 1837 times that of an electron and so the mass of the proton is nearly the same as that of a hydrogen atom. Proton The proton has a mass equal to that of hydrogen atom, which is equal to 1.67 x 10-24 g or 1.0073 amu while it has an unit positive charge of +1.602 x 10-19 C. Discovery of Neutrons The whole mass of an atom has found to be in the nucleus, which means that the nucleus must contain protons equal to the mass of the atom. As the number of protons is equal to the atomic number, the atomic mass should be equal to the atomic number. But for all atoms except hydrogen the atomic mass was found to be more than the atomic number. To account for the remaining mass Rutherford predicted the presence of neutral particles having mass equal to that of protons. In 1932, James Chadwick bombarded a thin sheet of beryllium element with particles and observed the generation of highly penetrating rays consisting of neutral particles. These particles had a mass nearly the same as that of hydrogen atom and did not have a charge. Since these particles were electrically neutral, they were named as neutrons. Neutron A neutron is a particle having a mass equal to 1.67 x 10-24 g same as that of a hydrogen atom and no electrical charge. Some Important Terms Relating to Atomic Structure Atomic number This is the number of protons present in the nucleus or the number of electrons present outside the nucleus. It is denoted by the letter 'Z'. Atomic number (Z) = Nuclear charge or number of protons (p) = Number of electrons (e) Mass number The sum of the number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom is called the mass number. It is represented by the letter A. Mass number (A)= Number of protons (p) + number of neutrons (n) From the knowledge of atomic number and mass number the number of electrons, protons

and neutrons in an atom can be easily predicted. For example, Lithium has an atomic number = 3 and mass number = 7 Number of electrons = Atomic number = 3 Number of protons = Atomic number = 3 Number of neutrons = A - Z = 7 - 3 = 4 An atom is represented by its symbol for the element (X) with the atomic number written on the lower side of the symbol and the mass number written on the upper side. Problem 1. How many protons and neutrons are there in the following nucleus? Solution Atomic number Z = 8, Mass number A = 17 Number of protons = Z = 8 Number of neutrons + number of protons = A Number of neutrons + 8 = 17 Number of neutrons = 17- 8 = 9 Atomic number Z = 12, Mass number A = 25 Number of protons = Z = 12 Number of neutrons = A - number of protons = 25 - 12 = 13 2. Find (i) the total number of neutrons and (ii) total mass of neutrons in 7 mg of 14C. Assume: mass of neutron = mass of hydrogen atom. Solution Mass number of 14C is 14. So, 14 g of 14C contain 6.023 x 1023 atoms of 14C 0.007g of 14e contains = 3.012 x 1020 atoms Number of neutrons in 1 atom of 14C = 14 - 6 = 8 Number of neutrons in 7 mg of 14C = (8 x 3.012 x 1020) = 24.1 x1020 Mass of the neutron = mass of hydrogen atom = 1.675 x 10-27 kg Hence, mass of the neutron in 7 mg of 14C = 1.675 x 10-27 kg x 24.1 x1020 = 40.36 x 10-7 kg Isotopes Sometimes, atoms of the same element have the same atomic number but different mass numbers. These are called isotopes. The nuclei of these atoms have same number of protons but different number of neutrons.

The properties of isotopes differ depending upon their mass Different isotopes of an element exhibit similar chemical properties. Hydrogen has three isotopes namely, hydrogen-H (protium), deuterium-D and tritium-T with mass numbers 1, 2 and 3 respectively. Three isotopes of hydrogen Isotopes of some common elements Isobars The atoms of different elements, which have the same mass number but different atomic number are called isobars. These have different number of protons but equal sum of the number of protons and neutrons. Some typical isobars Isotones The atoms of different elements, having the same number of neutrons but different atomic number are called isotones. Some typical isotones Thomson's Model and its Limitation J.J.Thomson proposed the first simple and most primitive model of the structure of an atom in 1898, when the neutron was not yet discovered. He tried to explain the arrangement of electrons and protons within an atom by considering an atom to consist of a diffused sphere of uniform positive charge, of radius 10-8 cm, into which the negatively charged electrons were embedded just like raisins dotted evenly in a plum pudding. The model was thus called as 'raisin pudding' model of the atom. Limitations of Thomson's model There was no distinct place of existence for the electrons or the protons i.e., they were not concentrated in any particular part of the atom. It would be difficult to separate the positive and negative charges by this model as evidenced by the discharge tube experiments. The mass of the atom was spread evenly throughout it. Since the model could not satisfy experimental facts, scientists later discarded it. The subsequent detection of radioactive rays by Henry Becquerel and discovery of radioactivity by Marie and Pierre Curie led to more discoveries on the structure of the

atom. Rutherford found out the nature of the radioactive , and rays and devised an alternate theory of atomic structure. Properties of , and rays

Rutherford's model The discovery of radioactive particles let Rutherford to perform an experiment where he bombarded a thin sheet of gold with '' particles obtained from a radioactive substance. On striking the gold foil some of the particles scattered and produced flashes on a zinc sulphide (ZnS) screen placed at the back of the gold foil. These tiny flashes were observed by a movable microscope. The observations made in this scattering experiment were as follows: Most of the '' particles pass through the metal and are undeflected. Some of the '' particles are deflected through small angles. Only a very few of them are deflected through as much as 90o or even larger angles. As Thomson's atomic model was not in conformity with the results of the scattering experiment. Rutherford concluded that: Most of the space inside the atom was empty or hollow since most of the '' particles passed undeflected. Some of the particles that deflect with large angles indicated that some heavy positively charged body was present inside the body of the atom, which repelled the like charge of the

'' particle. This heavy, positively charged body was named as nucleus. As the number of heavy positively charged particles that undergo deflection was very small, the volume occupied by the nucleus must also be very small compared to the volume of the atom. As heavy particles like the '' particles deflected, the nucleus of the atom must also have an appreciable mass. Rutherford's nuclear model On the basis of the scattering experiment, Rutherford described the structure of the atom as: An atom consists of a positively charged nucleus surrounded by electrons that move around it. The positive charge of the nucleus is due to the protons. Electrons and protons are held together by coulombic force of attraction. The effective volume of the nucleus is extremely small as compared to the effective volume of the atom. The volume occupied by the nucleus is smaller by about 10-12 times the volume of the atom. The entire mass of the atom is concentrated at the nucleus. Since each atom is electrically neutral, the number of positive charges in the nucleus of an atom is equal to the number of electrons in it.

Rutherford's model of an atom Limitations of Rutherford's model Rutherford's model suffered some drawback. It could not explain the stability of the atom in-spite of the electrons revolving around the nucleus. Moving electrons should in principle emit radiations and lose energy. This should cause them to slow down, gradually get pulled towards the nucleus by following a spiral path and then ultimately fall into the nucleus. This should make the atom collapse and hence unstable. But this is not so in reality.

Planck's quantum theory At around the same time of the discovery of radio activity, Max Planck, in 1900, presented the results of his famous black body radiation experiments, which showed that light has a dual character, behaving like a particle as well as a wave. He gave the Quantum Theory of Radiation explaining electromagnetic radiation and energy. Its main features were: Radiant energy is emitted or absorbed discontinuously in the form of small packets of energy called 'quanta' (and not continuously as thought earlier). Each such quantum is associated with a definite amount of energy. In the case of light, the quantum of energy is called 'photon'. The amount of energy (e) associated with a quantum of radiation is

where 'h' is proportionality constant, universally referred to as Planck's constant. It has a fixed value of: h = 6.63 x 1034 joule/sec or h = 3.99 x 10-13 kJ sec mol-1 The total amount of energy emitted or absorbed by a body will be some whole number multiple of the quantum, i.e. E = nh , where n = 1, 2, 3, 4, .... In other words, a body can emit or absorb energy equal to 1h , 2h , 3h etc., and not as 1.6h , 2.4h , 3.2h etc. From electromagnetic wave nature of light

this can be written as where '' is the frequency, '' is the wavelength and 'c' is the velocity of the light wave.

We know that

Thus, the energy associated with a quantum of radiation depends inversely on its wavelength (or conversely with its frequency) i.e., higher the wavelength of radiation, lesser the energy associated with its quantum. For example, a photon of violet light will have more energy than that of a red light because the former has a lower wavelength. The concept of energy packets of light supports the corpuscular character. Quantum theory of radiation Albert Einstein used the Planck's quantum theory in 1905 to explain the photoelectric effect. According to Einstein when a photon struck a metal surface, a part of the total energy of the incident, called binding energy (the energy that binds the electron to the nucleus), was utilized in ejecting electrons from the metal atom. The remaining part of the total energy is given to the ejected electron in the form of kinetic energy. As light is propagated in the form of energy packets called photons, it can be treated as particles of light. On the other hand as light also exhibits the phenomena of interference and diffraction, which indicates that light, also has wave like character. These facts suggest that light has dual character i.e., particle as well as wave character. Problem 5. Calculate the energy of a photon of light having frequency of 3.0 x 1015 s-1 (Planck's constant h = 6.63 x 10-34 Js) Solution The energy of a photon is given by E = h where the frequency of light = 3.0 x 1015 s-1 Planck's constant, h = 6.63 x 10-34 J s E = (6.63 x 10-34 J s) x (3.0 x 101 s-1) = 6.63 x 3 x 1019 J