Witchcraft in the Central Balkans I: Characteristics of Witches Author(s): T. P. Vukanovi Reviewed work(s): Source: Folklore, Vol. 100, No.

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Folklorevol. 100:i, 1989

Witchcraftin the Central BalkansI: of Characteristics Witches

T. P. VUKANOVIC THE conservatismof the peoples of the CentralBalkansensuredthat many traditional beliefs and ritual practicessurvived till the end of the nineteenth century, and even that some traces of them remainedin the first decades of the twentieth. Noteworthy evil elementsin this inheritance the varioussupernaturally beings (vampires, are witches, the rootsof such concepts areno doubt to be tracedbackto the prehistoric demons, etc); past, some 5000 to 3000 years BC. The written recordsof Greece and Rome allude to the reputationof Thessaly in Classical times as a region where witches abounded; this is mentionedby Apuleius, Lucian, Ovid, and Horace,especiallyin connexionwith the greatlegendarysorceress Medea. But it is only in medievaltimes, when persecution of allegedwitchesbeganin the Balkansas well as in the restof Europe,that moredetailed documentationbecomes available. The first reports of witch-hunts among the South Slavs were from Croatia in the mid-fourteenth century.The earliestis a legaldocumentfromZagrebin 1360 concerning two women of that town, Alicia and Margareta,who were accused of being witches. The verdict of the town's law was that they must producesix witnesses to testify that they were not witches, and that if they were ever caught in such evil practicesagain, they would be burnt at the stake.The next, in 1369, refersto a certain Dragica, who a The Courttold her to produce supposedlyestranged marriedcouple by her witchcraft. a guaranteeof twelve witnesses to give evidence that she had not done the evil deed; it also decreed that if she managedto defend herself from the chargesthis time, but were caught at evil practicesagain, she would be burnt at the stake.In 1379, Zagreb Town Council sentenced the widow of a certain Peter Rubinovi' and the widow and to daughterof a certainPeterkon produce,within eight days, 25 witnesseseach to testify to their innocence;they too were warnedthat they would be burnt if they were caught practisingwitchcraftagain. However,becauseof the high numberof witnessesrequired from them, they appealed to the Higher Law Court.' As these instances show, the measuresagainstwitches in Zagrebat this period were not very harsh, being more in the nature of a warning and a suspended sentence, nor is there mention of torture. However, in the coastaltowns of Dalmatia, where witches were mostly tried by the Catholic authorities, medieval sentences were often excessively severe. There is an instancedating from 1444 at Sibenik which is relatedin certainold theologicalsources. There it is alleged that an old experienced witch from Vrlika,called Mrna Ratkova, had in her youth won the affectionsof men by magicalmeans. Later,at the time when the 'high magic' of the Renaissancewas in vogue, she continued using witchcraftto lure rich lovers to her daughter Dobra. She managed to cast a spell on a nobleman from Sibenik, Dragan DraganiC, but his relativesfound means to bring both mother and daughterto trial beforethe Inquisitor,FatherIvan from Trogir.In agreementwith the Bishop of Sibenik, Djordje Sisigorie, legal proceedingswere taken, ending in the

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T. P. VUKANOVIC

following severeverdict:Mrna was to be led through the town by her daughter,seated on a donkey but turned backwardsto face its tail, and smearedwith excrement;they wereto be accompanied a police guard,and both must wearpapermitresand pictures by of the Devil. In addition, Mrna was to be brandedon the foreheadand face. However, beforethe executionof this horrifyingsentence,the friendsof the beautifulDobrafound a way for them both to escape from jail.2 Such occurrenceswere of course part of a much wider patternof accusations,panics and trialsthroughoutEurope,the historyof which is well known. Typicalof the period was Article Ten of the CroatianAssembly in 1609, which empoweredall citizens of Croatiato search for witches and to hand them over to the nobleman responsiblefor the districtfor punishment.If he foundthem guilty but failedto punish them, he would forfeithis sword,the emblem of his rank.From 1640 to 1752 there were 28 witch trials in Zagreb.3 were of women, ranging from the age of twenty to eighty; some were All both old and blind, but were broughtto court in chains, tortured,and eventuallyburnt at the stake. In general terms, the charges against them were of four types: they had denied God and made pacts with the Devil; they caused storms and hail and frosts; they causedsicknessesand deathsin humanbeings and in animals;they magicallystole milk from other people's cows. In the 28 Zagreb trials, the following incidents are mentionedas causes of suspicion sufficient for a woman to be chargedwith witchcraft: A child picking mushroomswith a neighbour picked more than she did; later he fell ill, and she was suspected of causing it. If a child picked a garlic bulb or some fruit froma neighbourand then got a headache,the womanwhose gardenit was was thought to be a witch who had done this. If a womansaidof a sick neighbourthat he was beyond cure and he then died, she was thought to have brought death on him; but equally, if she said he would live, it was as a witch that she saved him, because 'she lifted the spell of illness'. If a woman cursed thieves who stole her grapes at night and they subsequentlyfell ill, she was said to be a witch. The innocent remark'There will be roast meat here for me too,' uttered by a sister on seeing turkey gibblets in a riddle in her brother's house before the midnight Mass of Christmas Eve, turned out fatal for her, for three days later a child from that household died, and it was provedin the law court that she had procuredthe child's death in that way. Another woman was accused because she dissuadedher neighboursfrom going in the field to weed wheat, saying they would be caught in a rainstorm;presently a heavy storm burst, and she was prosecutedas a witch for having 'made'the rain. If someone'sarm or neck swelled in the night, witches were said to have bitten him as he slept; hence, a woman would be suspected.If a child calledout to his motherin his sleep, at the sametime mentioning the name of some woman of the village who was allegedlystranglinghim in his sleep, or if he had a fever and spoke of some woman neighbour,this undeniablyprovedher to be a witch. One woman scolded her son for stealing, and when this young man's child died shortly afterwards, proclaimedthat his own mother had killed the child, he sued her, and testifiedthat she was a witch. Womenwerealso accusedand tried because strangenoises had been heardfrom an attic at night, or a cow's milk ceased or turned sour, or a cow escapedfrom her pen, or accidentallycrushed her calf to death, or hens would not lay, or would not hatch their chicks. There werealsooccasionswhen womenwerekilledas witcheswithoutanylegalprocess at all. In 1685 there was a severecrop failurewhich, acordingto the masses, had been brought about by witches. Any woman then reportedto be a witch would be caught

WITCHCRAFT IN THE CENTRAL BALKANS

11

and mercilesslyburnt 'in peasantrage'without any trial, either ecclesiasticalor secular. However, in the following year the peasants were punished for having taken the law into their own hands; 'they had to kneel for severalhours in church on certain days, and repent.'4
THE ORIGIN AND CHARACTERISTICS OF WITCHES

Turning from trial recordsto folk traditions,we find in the CentralBalkanscertain mythologicallegends about the origin of witches. Notably, in Salvonijathe story goes that some time afterGod had drivenAdamand Eve fromParadise took pity on them he and went to see what they were doing. They had twelve children by then, but were ashamedto admitthe realnumber,so they told God that they had only six, and brought six to show Him. Then God told them: 'Let there be as many invisible as there are visible.' From then on, those who had been hidden became invisible. 'They are the elves and witches. Today too there are as many invisible people as there are visible, for the invisible ones are born and die in the same way as we, the visible people, do.' Similarlyit used to be said in Zagreb,in the remotepast,that therewereas manywitches as 'blades of grass and leaves' To explain why one woman ratherthan anotherbecomes a witch, variousbeliefs are held. In Conavli, near Dubrovnik(Dalmatia),it is said that a female child born in a redcaul will becomea morica a grown-upgirl - that is to say,she will be a Nightmare, as one who torments sleepers by lying on their chests and weighing them down to suffocation, so that they cannot get up, or shout, or breathe. And when the morica marries,she becomes a witch.5Among the Serbs of Herzegovina,a witch is a woman who was conceived at an evil hour, or on the eve of a major holy day, or on the eve of one of the Twelve Good Fridaysin the year;alternatively, is one who has learnt she 'the art of witchcraft'from an old witch, 'and so she herself became a witch.'6Among the Kuce tribe in Montenegroit is said that a witch is born in a red caul, which her mother hides away and then hands over to the daughterwhen she comes of age and is able to work evil.7 It has long been customaryamong Serbs to consider a woman to be a witch if she possessesa devilish spirit which, accordingto tradition,leavesher body and transforms itself into a butterfly,a hen, or a turkey;in this shape it flies from house to house eating little children.On the whole, it is the old, ugly women, neveryoung, people, particularly pretty ones, who are said to be witches.8 Fromfieldworkamongthe Serbsin Sretacka ziupa,near Prizren,one learnsthat there witches are usually thought to be women without children, or those whose children keep dying. As they remain at home, their soul goes out 'like rising smoke'; such a witch has a 'petty' soul, and her breath tugs at a child's soul 'till it pulls it It is customaryin many areasfor those who mention witches to add a briefout'. curseformula. Thus at Crveni village on the Rogozna river people say that witches, 'evil upon them!', have wings. At Lesak village in Ibar valley it is said that a witch ('let her turn into stone!') is born in a caul. However, if a woman of the household where a female baby is born thus takes a stone and throws it over the house, crying 'Listen, all people, great and small! A witch has been this formula will 'expose'the baby and prevent her from growing up to be a born!', witch.

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T. P. VUKANOVIC

In Rakovica,a suburb of Belgrade,cross-eyedwomen were formerlybelieved to be witches, and moreovereach was bound to have a tail.9The Serbs of Srem also thought they were old women with tails.'" On the island of Hvar an old woman with a protrudingchin, long pointed nose, deep-set eyes and gaunt face was thought to be either a witch or a Nightmare." At Vlasenica in Bosnia any woman with hairless armpits and legs was thought to be a witch.12 In Zeta in Montenegro,the signs were wrinkledskin in the shape of a cross under the nose, a thick moustache,and hairy legs; such women were believed to harm people.13 In Samobor, Croatia, it was believed that a woman who wants to become a witch must copulate with the Devil and bear a child of his, which must die and be cooked so long that it turns into an unguent called coprnicka mast ('witch's unguent'); this, rubbedunder the armpits, enablesa witch to fly. It is also said here that this ointment is made out of children who died unbaptized, 'who are called invisible children.'4 The following are the names for female witches among the South Slavs: barka, brina, brkaca, coprnica,hman], morna, kamenica, karavesltica, konjobarka, krstaca, potkovanica, krljavestica, prokletnica, spravs'a,srkad, rogulja, skamenjenica, striga, stringa,tamoona, vesterka, ves~ica, polunodnik, Viska.Male witches arecalled:cosernjak, ctrigun,vesac, vestac, vesier, vis'un, vjesiurak.'5
FLIGHT AND SHAPE-CHANGING

That witches can transformthemselves into anything is a very old and widespread belief. In the central Balkans they are said to change at will into certain animals including toads, owls, variousblack birds, the ordinaryeagle, butterflies,bitches, cats, hens, turkeys and mice - but never into a pigeon or an imperial eagle, for they can rarelyharm the latter. There are many accounts of the ointment they use for flying. Some say it is made by their Kapetanica (femalecaptain)fromthe excrementof black swine, with the words 'Let this unguentbe with us when we fly, to keepus alive.' Others,thatthe Devil supplies them with it when they need it. At the same time it is also believed that 'all a witch need do is tie a broomstickbehind her' and she will take off into the air. However, the ointment is considered a better means, for, they say, a certain 'lame Jelenkafell froman oak-tree when mounting a broomstick'somewherenear Zagreb'acrossthe Sava river'.Witches also ride on weaving beams, while holding a stick or rod by which they pull the hearts out of their victims' chests.'6 ointmentis made Among Serbs in Herzegovinait is believedthat the shape-changing of human fat mixed with and cooked in child's blood, to which 'certainherbs' are also added. This enables witches to get wings which are not of feathersbut of flesh, like a bat's.'7These Serbs also believed that a witch strips naked at night, when everyone else is asleep, and strikes the preklad,the metal or stone grate in the fireplace, three or four times with a rod, while speaking as though she were calling to a ram. Out of the grateappearsa black pot; she puts her hands in it, and with her greasyhands rubs herself all over her body.' Similarbeliefs were widespreadin other areasof the South Slays,'9 as well as among the Gegs, a group of tribes in northern Albania, where a stone preklad was believed to be a seat for witches.20 In the famous poem 'The MountainWreath' PeterPetrovieNjegos, Prince-Bishopof Montenegro(1813-1851), by an old woman speaks of the shape-changingointment:

WITCHCRAFT IN THE CENTRAL BALKANS

We have a certain herb for this, Which herb we cook within a pot; With which we all anoint in turn, Upon which we are witches all.21

13

A well-knownscholar,M. Res'tar,commentingon this passage,says it was commonly believed that this unguent was made of 'cooked toad or butter made from mare's milk'.22 The famous TurkishgeographerEvlija Celebija, writing in 1652, tells an amazing of story aboutthe transformation a Bulgarianwoman fromthe mountainvillage Balkan K6yi. This old Bulgarianwomanchangedher seven children,sons and daughters,into chickens by means of a handful of ash from the hearth which she strewedover their naked bodies while they were sleeping in bed. She then strewedher head with ashes from the same hearth and changed herself into a hen. This aroused anxiety and excitementamongthe Turkishtravellers.But the hen and her chicks turnedinto human beings againaftera Bulgarianpeasanttook out his penis fromhis breechesand urinated on them. The woman and her children were then takenby the peasantsto church to a priestfor prayer. Celebijawas also told that this woman,being a witch, used to change herself into an animal once a year on a winter night.23
GOING TO THE SABBATH

The next group of populartraditionsto be consideredconcernsthe belief that there is a magic formula enabling witches to fly, which must be correctly pronounced, otherwise the user will come to harm. Among the Serbs of the CentralBalkansthere are various such magic words, notably: 'Let me not catch on thorn nor bough, but The go straightto the trouble-stirring threshing-floor.'24 Serbson the bordersof Croatia believed that witches setting out for their sabbathsaid, 'Let me not catch on log, nor stump, nor tree, nor stone, nor Todor'spear-tree.'25In Herzegovina,the formulawas, 'Let me not catch on rock, nor tree, nor turf, nor thorn, but go straightto a field under 26 the oak-tree.' (Accordingto tradition, one favouritemeeting-placeof witches is an where they sit at a golden table and drink from golden cups.)27 oak-tree, In Bukovica,Dalmatia, it is believed that if a witch, at the moment of taking flight, were to say 'In the name of Jesus' or 'God help me' she would remain naked at the same spot, unable to takeoff.28Terriblestorms,whistling, and noise are said to follow witches when they fly through the air.29 Finally,among the Serbs of Sirini z'upain Kosovo it is believed that the sparksthat fly up from live coals are 'some kind of witches.30
WITCHES' SABBATHS

On this matterwe may look first at the evidence presentedat trials, then at popular traditions. In 1743, a certain Bara Duganka was tried in the court at Zagreb, and recountedhow she had been initiated into the order of witches. At dawn on Trinity Sunday she went out into her front yard, where there were severalwitches, and also the Devil, dressedin the formalred suit of the Croats.He was the leader,and he marked the newcomerwith 'the devil's seal' by pricking her with a needle (it could also have been done by a slap). Such a gatheringof witches was called a 'CopernicusGuild'-this title havingbeen given under the influence of the RomanCatholic Church,in allusion

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T. P. VUKANOVIC

to the famousbut supposedly irreligiousastronomer. Gatheringsmost often took place before Christmas,or on St Elijah's Day (July 7), or at Whitsun, early in the morning or late at night, and before some Christian symbol such as a dome, a cross, or an inscription. The Devil must be presentat each initiation;that is how the witch 'enrols under the Devil's banner'.Old women were always easily admitted;it was harderfor young ones. Each group of women formed a kumpanija(company),whose leaderwas a devil, always dressed in the formal red national costume of Croatia;only once did he wear a green suit, and once he even had dog's paws. He would usually drive the witches in a coach with six black horses. They addressedhim as 'Mister',but he also had names such as Filip, Kralj, Lucifer, Matek, Matic'ek,Pogan, Premus'andSilnjak. He would give a feast in their honour, with bread, meat and sausages. They would dance with him, singly, or in a group. In 1657 when JelaMagdalenika on trialfor witchcraft,she spokein her statement was of one who was both 'devil and priest' to witches. He would serve a rich meal, with wine, afterwhich they would dance. In some cases there was no devil and a witch was leader of the group; she was called glavarica('head'), or gospa ('lady'), or kapetinaca ('femalecaptain')or stara majka('old mother'). At these gatheringssome witches did the menial tasks, such as collecting wood, makingfires, serving food, washingup. The glavarica baked cakes and made pies. These gatheringstook place on certain nights, usually at the change of the moon, sometimes at a crossroads,or by the gallows, on some meadow, or in the vicinity of a hamlet, or beneath an oak (rarelya lime), or sometimeson Mount Medvednica,near Zagreb.There, they would eat half-cooked red meat, cooked pork and roast veal, and drinkmulled wine or cold wine, and afterwards dance a lot.31 These descriptionsof the Sabbathelicited during the witch trials are parallelledin folk traditions.Among the Serbsin Herzegovina, is believedthat shortlybeforeMarch it witches elect one of themselvesto be their chief, at a gatheringor Sabbath.The person elected has the right, during her term of office, to spareanyone of her kin from being sacrificed, unlike any other witch, who must yield one of her children or some other person of her kin. Witches are said to boast at their gatheringsof how many persons they have killed, expressingthis as 'how many dzeferdara (muskets)each had caused to be hung up on a peg, and how many mothers each had caused to grieve!' Hence, a popular saying about a woman supposed to be a witch: 'Let her be, let her go, for she has hung up three hundred muskets on the pegs,' meaning 'she has killed three hundred men.'32 Once at Poljicein Dalmatia,according a traditional to story,therewas a greatgathering of witches - 'males, females, noblemen, priests, friars.'When they caught sight of a peasant they cried, 'Here's a newcomer!' and offered him a golden cup to drink a toast.33 A bronze threshing-flooris held to be one of the usual meeting-placesfor witches, and there they are said to come in fine clothes and dance the hora.34 Treestoo areoften mentioned-an oak, pear-tree,or an old olive-tree. They are said to gather at one particularold elm near 'id, and also at an elm near Socanicain the Ibar valley,where they dance the kolo, and from where they all rush together at their intended victim, though only one of them does the actual killing. In Dalmatia, witches are believed to meet in Pula. They are also said to meet at crossroadsto decide what they are going

IN WITCHCRAFT THE CENTRALBALKANS

15

to do, andhow.35In BokaKotorska, Montenegro, aresaidto holdtheirmeeting they when thereis sunshineand rainat the sametime, and to recite:
Sunshine rain, and Herecomestrouble; Witches gathering, are That'sevenworse!36

In Sumadija, central in is to Serbia,sunshineandraintogether saidby the peasants meanthat 'a witch is in labour.'37 Certain calendrical aresaidto betimeswhenwitches theirmeetings. dates hold Among the Kucein Montenegro, thesearethe eveningof Christmas andon March1.38 Eve SomeSerbsin Herzegovina believe 'on gather the sweptthreshing-floor' theygenerally on March1 in spring,on St Jevdokija's (March14), at the autumnequinoxof Day and 22, September and on St Joachim's Anna'sDay (September 21).39 Othercommunities believethey gatherwhenever thereis a strongwind, in which of of and it theyenjoydancing. Amongthe Croats the islands Brac' Hvar, wasbelieved that they gathered stormy in weather whentherewas thunderandlightning,which five on happened or six timesa year,andthaton theseoccasions they feasted human hearts.40
HARMDONE BY WITCHES HUMANBEINGS TO

The women accused witchcraft thetrialsheldin Zagreb of in between 1640and1752 in stated theirconfessions theyhadcommitted that various deedsby magic.They evil hadstrangled theirownunbaptized babiesandusedtheircorpses theirwitchcraft. for suckled babies whoweresleeping thestubble in Theyhadsecretly fields,theirmothers afterspittingbehindthemagainst evil eye. havingleft themthereas theyworked, the themto a crossroads wheretheywouldeat up They wouldstealthesechildren, carry theirhearts,andthen bringthemback,dead,to theiroriginalplace.They practiced deadlymagicas follows:they wouldmakea wedgeof hawthorn wood,singeit, and driveit intothe ground frontof theirthreshold, in wheretheywouldrotate to make it a funnel-shaped hollow,intowhichtheywouldpourmilk.Afterthat,theywouldheat an ironspit in the fireandplungeit into the milk,saying,'Now we havedonewhat we intended.' wasbelieved the person whomthe spellwasaimed It that at wouldshortly die. Again,somewouldgreasea knifewith lard,Christmas honey,resin,or juniper buds,drawa circlewith it in the fireplace, stickthe knifeinsideit; the intended and victimwouldfallsickanddie veryshortly. in the weekof a newmoontheywould Or, for dye wool greenand put it in a spring-trap the victimto stepon, by whichyarn they would measurehis foot; they would then tie knots in it and throwit away ofteninto runningwater. somewhere, Finally,they couldbringfeveron someoneby himgrated sorrel to drink.Witches restored root also giving affection between married or had coupleswho quarrelled wherethe husband deserted wife;theywouldgive his the wives'someherbandwaterin a pot to rubtheircheeksandbreasts with, andto
put into their husbands' food,'and also 'dog's and cat's blood to sprinkle on the path their husbands would take to go to their mistresses,who would then take a dislike to them.41

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T. P. VUKANOVIC"

These statements the witch trialsaresimilarin manywaysto the mythical-traditional at beliefs laterobservedamongthe peasantry, manyof which arevery ancient.Thus among the Croats, ever since antiquity, witches have been believed to take the form of cats and suck people at night, so that their breastsare swollen next day.42 similar belief A existed among the Serbs, where some victims are said to die straightawaybecause the witch has eaten their hearts, while others can keep on living as long as the witch has ordered.43 woman who was a witch and was not satisfied with her husband would A kill him by takinghis heart out." Accordingto Serbs in Herzegovina,a person whose heart has been taken out by a witch who has touched him with her rod would soon be killed by something wooden, or would commit suicide with a knife, or would fall ill at once and die within a few hours.45 Particularlyinterestingis the belief of the Montenegrins in the vicinity of Bar in the ancient past that in orderto takea child's heart out a witch would put 'a little ring of vine twig' on his chest on the side where the heart was, whereuponhis heartwould spring out from his chest without making a wound in it. The Kuci of Montenegro thought witches devoured fine and beautiful children, especially boys;46 also that witches caused discord and enmity between people.47 it Among Serbsin the southerndistrictof Leskovac, was thoughtthat witchesrelieved themselves in the woods, and that their excretawere in the form of 'a white foam-like liquid'; whoever touched this would have his home ruined as a result of the witches' Croatson the islands of Brac and Hvar believed that if someone did not utter wrath.48 a curse against witches when speaking of them they would 'at that very moment take his heart out, or make him be struck by lightning, or cause him to have a stroke';the most frequent of these acts was to bring lightning down on the speaker.49 was also It at occasionallysaid among Croatsthat anyone who sat or slept under an oak-tree night would be eaten by witches."s belief that Finally,one must note an interestingand ancient mythological-traditional a witch only has power to harm members of her own clan and kindred,and can do no harm to others, especiallyto her enemies. Obviously this is inconsistentwith some of the beliefs and tales given already,for instancewith those incidents recordedin the Zagrebtrials where woman were accusedof magicallyharmingchildrenor adults who had angeredthem by stealing from them. Nevertheless,the principle was well known. PetarPetrovid Njegos, the Serbianpoet, alludesto it in his work'The MountainWreath' in these words, spoken by an old witch:
To one we hate no harm we do! But be he dear, or of our kin, Then blot we out all trace of him.51

There is a popular Serbiansaying about it: "Whereshould a witch go, if not in her own kindred, to do her harm?'52 And in a Serbian folksong a shepherd, Radoje, complains to his sister Jana:
Witches have eaten me up; While Mother pulled my heart out, My uncle's wife held a burning coal for her!53

WITCHCRAFT IN THE CENTRAL BALKANS

HARMDONE TO LIVESTOCK AND CROPS

17

Witcheswere said to kill domesticlivestock,especiallyyoung oxenand horses-chiefly those of their relativesand friends, and afterthem those of other peasantsin the village and district. In and around Zagrebin the 17th and 18th centuries witches were said to have placed 'crushedcheese' in pigs' troughs to prevent people raising pigs. They also frequentlytook the milk from other people's cows. To do this they would go to the crossroadsearly in the morning during the week of the new moon and gatherdew with their left hand, which they then gave other people's cows to drink. In the old days, people in Herzegovina and Montenegro held witches responsible in times of Likewise,among the Kuc~tribe in Montenegro pestilence among cattle and poultry.54 were said to drinkfreshcow's milk in the pen at the gate where cows were milked, they In especially on St. George's Day.55 the district of Vranjein Southern Serbia, on the eve of St George'sDay shepherdswould staynakedall night in the sheep-folds protect to their sheep against witchcraft." The Serbs of Metolysko believed that on this date witches rode roundthe village naked,on weaving-beams, as to transferthe peasants' so milk to their own pails for the rest of the year. As regards cropdamage,it was commonlybelievedin the CentralBalkansthat witches can directthe movementsof clouds, particularly those of hailstorms, so in the course and of the summer can at their pleasure destroythe crops and vineyardsand orchardsof people they hate. They are said to be so skilled at this that they can select and damage one plot or tract of land only. During the Zagrebtrialsin the period 1640-1752,severalwomen condemnedto death confessedto havingmadehailstorms destroy to and in crops,fruit-trees vineyards summer, and having broughtfrost in winter. They made the hail on mountaintops-on Mount Medvednica for preference,and also on Mount Okiinica and Mount Tuskanec.The Devil, they claimed, drove them there in a coach. They made the hail at night out of the lye which women used for soaking and washing clothes on a Tuesday,Friday or Saturdayin the week of a new moon; or else they made it out of white soil and clay,or stones and snow, which they collectedin winterand storedin a largecave inside Mount Medvednica, 'and they could also makeit out of the waterfrom the watermill in which the Devil soakedit to makeit hard.'They would say:'Ride the hail and destroy crops!' They would makeone, two or three frosts aroundChristmas.They could also raise a cloud with a whirlwind in it to transporta witch wherevershe wanted. When they had finished their weather magic, the Devil took them home again in his coach. If their magic failed, they believed it was because the parishpriest had thwartedthem by making the sign of the cross at the clouds, or because of belfries bearing sacred symbols-in Zagreb,the belfries of St Mark's Church and of the Chapel of the Holy Spirit were particularlymentioned. The Zagrebwitches also statedin their confessionsthat they deprivedpeople of their cropsby going into the fields earlyin the morningand collectingearsof grain-especially rye-in their aprons, to make bread of them. Similarly,they would put onto the fire before sunrise any yarn spun in the week of the new moon, and it would turn into a sausage which they ate. Finally, on the day of sowing wheat they practicedsorcery against vermin, and refused to lend fire from the hearth to anyone. In one of the Zagrebcourt documents is a case where witches stole twelve jugs of wine from casks in the cellar of a peasant at Sestinah, while from somebody else they stole four jugs. It was said that they drankall the wine and refilled the empty vessels

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T. P. VUKANOVIC

with water." Parallelscan be found in Croatianfolk beliefs, where it is thought that if wine starts turning sour in the casks this is a sign that witches have drunk from it and refilled the casks with their urine; they were said to take only the best wines.5s
MALEWITCHES

Balkan folklore also has traditions about male witches, siriguni;they too are evil supernaturalbeings, but their malevolenceis commonly believed to be less than that of female witches. They are said to be exceptionallystrong and powerful, to be lucky in gambling(especiallyat cards),and generallyto have beautifulwomen 'becausethey bewitch them'. When wronged they are very revengeful;they set their enemy's house on fire or cut his vines down at night. However, there is an old saying that anyone harmed by witches will be doubly compensatedby God. The male witch, like his female counterpart,is often said to have been born with a caul; such an infant may also be suspected of being a werewolf," just as we saw above that the female baby with a caul may become a Nightmare as well as a witch. When the male witch (vesiae)growsup and becomes a man, he can eat up a child each day and each night. In various regions (e.g. Drenica, Metohijski podgor, Djacovic) it is said that whenever the word vesiac is utteredone should add a curse: 'Let him eat out his own heart!',or 'Let his knee bend!' The latter is based on the idea that a male witch walks without bending his kneees, and so implies 'May he lose his powers and become like other people!' A male witch's son is called a vis'6un. The Croatsof the island of Brac'havea proverb 'Like s~rigun, like vis'un,' 'Like father like son'. Accordingto traditionalfolk belief, if a strigunis flying through the air and needs power, he can at that very moment 'cause his wife to give birth to a baby vis'dun, even though she is not pregnant'.In popular belief a sirigunis more like a helpful wizard than a witch (s~riga); however, they can usually do harm by looking through the left sleeve of their coat.60 Among Serbs in Bosnia, on the other hand, the male witch is said to do all the same harmful acts as the female one does, e.g. killing people, eating children, and so on.61 Men were less often broughtto trial for witchcraftthan women, but in 1687 a certain miller from Zagrebwas suspectedand prosecutedfor hanging the Devil in his mill and for sitting on a hen's eggs to hatch out chicks.62
IDENTIFICATION

Accordingto the traditionalsupernaturalbeliefs of Balkanpeoples, witches can be recognizedby certainphysical signs, by variousmagic rituals designed to detect them, and by certain persons gifted with power to recognizethem. As instances of physical signs, one may note the beliefs in Herzegovina 'that a woman with a wicked look in her eyes is a realwitch' and that a womanwith a moustacheis 'a downrightand shrewd witch'.63 Among Serbs of the Croatianbordersand in the areasof Levae and Tumenie in Sumadija they are said never to eat garlic because they cannot stand its smell.64 The Dalmatians of Poljce make a cup of ivy-wood from which they serve drinks at Christmas;if a woman refusesto drink from it, it is a sign that she is a witch. Anyone meeting a suspected witch on the road should greet her with 'Praise be to Jesus!' If she does not reply clearly,but stammers,this shows 'The evil spirit is in her'.65Finally, the Serbs of Djakovica,a small town in the provinceof Kosovo,believed that no witch would evey say mas;ala ('long life')to wish well to a child, andcould be recognized this. by

IN WITCHCRAFT THE CENTRALBALKANS

19

Various morecomplicated ritualswereknownin Dalmatia. the time of the first At or Massof Christmas (i.e.at midnight at dawn), Austrian calleda kreutzer the coin Day shouldbe cut intofourquarters, eachcalleda soldino, theseshouldbe put at the and fourcornersof the church.WhenMassis overand peopleareleaving,womenwho will arewitches become the but confused be unableto passthrough doorway, they and will attack priest,who will only be ableto protect the himselfagainst themwith the missal.The personwho had put downthe piecesof kreutzer mustrun home,where he shouldremain untilthe witchesget home.An alternative lyingflaton his stomach was whichhadbeenblessedat Shrovetide the over practice to throwa log of fig-wood churchon Christmas if therewas a witchinside,it wasthoughtshe wouldnot Day; be ableto findherwayout.65" Another wayof identifying old witches Dalmatia in was this:at WhiteShrovetide the Saturday Ash several preceding Wednesday) (i.e. youths wouldgatherandtakea new gourdthathadneverbeenused, fill it with water, and sealit up;theywouldthenwalkround villagecarrying andwhentheyreturned the it, to the housetheyhadstarted fromtheywouldsay:'Thewitches whomwe have round madea circle shallnotbe ableto urinate weuncork gourd.' common till this The tonight beliefwas that if therewereanywitchesin the villagetheywouldbe forced go to to beg the youthsto uncorkthe gourdso that they couldurinate.66 In MejaPraputnik was saidone can recognise sirigaby lookinginto her eyes, it a for if one sees oneselfreflected upsidedownin them, she is said to be a witch.67 Croatian rituals identification, thosein Dalmatia, of like stressthe church, here but the objectusedis the teljig, bowor loopof the simpleoxbowtypeof yoke.Among the the Croats Sinjit wasbelieved of that if a teljig with whicha blackox hadploughed wasthrownoverthe churchduringa service,any witchesinsidewouldbe unableto themselves attacking priest."6 the get out, andwouldrushto the altarto revenge by On the islandof Hvarit is believed everystriga restless that is Massandmoves during aboutall the time,andsomemustevenget out of the church because veryDevil 'the himselfdrivesthemout'.69 Bukovica beliefis the sameas in Sinj, exceptthat In the the teljfig must be thrownthreetimes, and that it mustbe done at Christmas at or In Montenegro is saidthatif the teljig a blackox is thrown it of overthe roof Easter.7" the all insidewill be forced stoop,andbe unable move to to during service, the witches until it is thrownback.71 Such rites go backto an ancientbelief that supernatural evil dwellon the roofsof buildings; beings(including demons) hurlingan apotropaic overthe roofwill banishthem. object In Zaostrog, SremandBosnia, wasbelieved if thechurch it that Dalmatia, Slavonica, doorwasdecorated Ruta(atypeof greenmossfroma treeor stone) Christmas with on it Eve,no witchwouldbe ableto get in or out.72Likewise, was saidin Montenegro andHerzegovina witches that werebestrecognized Easter; someone at if wereto turn a tile on the churchroofwhile peoplewereattending servicethen, everywitch the wouldstoopandwouldhaveto staylikethatwithoutbeingableto moveuntilthe tile wasput backthe rightway.73On the Montenegrin coastit is believed witches that can be recognized sticking ornamental intothethreshold door-post thechurch; an or of by pin they will be unableto leavethe buildingtill it is removed."7
On the island of Krk there was a belief that if on Christmasnight, when the church was full of worshippers, someone were to encircle it with a white thread at the foot of the walls and then bury the threadunder its threshold,together with a little spoon he had himself made from ivy-wood, no witch or Nightmare who happened to be in

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T. P. VUKANOVIC

the church could get out, and so they could easily be identified. But if they found out who had set the trap he could only escape by sailing away by boat; for, accordingto common belief, witches and Nightmares can only cross the sea in eggshells, which is not easy to arrangequickly.7" In Slavoniait was believedthat anyonewishing to identifywitchesmust startmaking a stool on St Lucy's Day (December 13) and finish it by ChristmasEve (January6): he must then take it into church for the Midnight Mass and step onto it at midnight, and then would be able to recognizeall witches and wizardsin the church. He would of course have to leave at once, for they would kill him if they caught him in front of the churchaftermidnight.Similarlyit was believedthat a man couldrecognize witches at the midnightserviceif he went therewearinga new kozuh(sleevelesssheepskinjacket) wich had been begun on St Lucy's Day and finished on Christmas Eve. According to a traditionaltale, there was a man who did this, but as he left the church his third neighbour,a wizard,hit him on the head with a broom. Luckily,he had a tuft of wolf's hair sewn onto his hat and the name of Jesus stamped on its lining, otherwise they would have killed him, for no one could see who was beating him.76 Among the Serbs in Srem, the ritual for identifying witches was to takethe crumbs from the Christmas Eve supper into church for the service on Christmas Day.77 In BosanskaKrajina,whoever puts on his clothes inside out, and also the insoles of his sandals,and hides at a crossroads the eve of St George'sDay will see witches on at their gatheringin the still of the night, and will be able to catch them unharmed In by them.78 Vlasenica,Bosnia, when someonewas harmedby a witch and was pretty sure who she was, he would take a pair of grebeni(carding combs) and lay them somewherewhere the suspectedwoman would pass between them; then he would put them together and place them over a fire. The guilty woman would come hurrying to him to beg him to separate them so that she could pass between them again It backwards.79 was also a custom in this region to take out of one's mouth the first mouthful of the supper one eats when the Lenten fast ends on Easter Saturday,and to put it in the hollow of the left knee and keep it there throughoutsupper;afterwards, one takes it in one's hand and looks around, and it is believed that one can then see the witches sparklingand glowing like embers.s0 Bosnia, the belief was that a man In who wished to discover witches must catch a snake alive before the Day of the Forty Martyrs (March 22, also known as Mladenci,Day of the Newly-Weds);he must cut its head off, put a garlic clove in it, and plant it all in the garden. He must pick this garlic at Easter or on St Peter's Day and wear it when he went to church; he would then know which women they were, for every one of them would ask him to give her some of his garlic."'Similar customs were recordedin Grbljacounty (Dalmatia),and Sumadijadistrict (Serbia).82 The same belief has also existed a long time among the Serbs, though for them the date is the Feast of the Annunciation (March 25).83 In the late 19th and early 20th centuries Serbs of Montenegrindescent in the areas of Jablanica Toplicabelievedthat duringthe Good Fridayservice,at which clappers and and wooden gongs areused insteadof bells, an unlockedpadlockand its key werecarried round the church from left to right, and that at the entrancethe padlock was locked and thrown over the church;the idea was that no witches would be able to leave until it was found and unlocked. It is a strongbelief amongthe peoplesof the centralBalkansthat a priestcan recognize any witch during Mass, at one or other of the few moments when the liturgy requires him to be turned towardsthe congregation,and thus able to surveythem. In Bukovica

WITCHCRAFT THE CENTRALBALKANS IN

21

thisis thought be whenthepriests carrying holydonations to are the the through church, at whichtime they can recognise femalewitchesby a kindof cuca(a long drooping wattlelikea turkey's) whichhangsfromtheirheads,andmalewitches a smallhorn by on theirheads.Moreover, who couldstepon the priest'sfootat this moment anyone wouldbe able to see them as he does."4 In Konavli, nearDubrovnik, alsoon HvarandBrac,it is saidthatwhena friar and Massturnstowards congregation sayorate the to he saying fratres (pray, brethren) will see a pairof hornson everywitch'shead."5 the islanders Krkbelieved of Similarly, thatatthe oratefratresfriar a wouldrecognize witches Nightmares all and because they wereturningtheirbehindsto the altar."6 Herzegovina, In Serbsthoughtthata priest couldrecognize witchesin church seeingtwo stripesdowntheirfaces,invisible to by themwith thesestripesto distinguish themfromhonest else;'Godbranded everyone Besidesthis, Herzegovinians believed also that 'everypriestcan recognize women.'"87 eachwitch,because whilegivingthemCommunion seesbloodyteethin themall, he but not for the worldwouldhe denounce them';instead,he urgesthemto confess, forwhena witchmadea confession, wassaid,'shecouldnot be a witchanylonger it even if she wantedto.'88 in it Similarly Montenegro was believedpriestscould 'see in a witch'steeth'at Communion, wereafraid denounceher and but to something to preferred wait for her to repent."8
HOWWITCHES LOSETHEIRPOWERS

when he grows up to protect him from being shot with a rifle-bullet. There is a folktalecurrentamong the Serbs in the Ibar Valleyabout a certain witch ('May she turn into stone!' and 'May she bend and become so small as to fit under her own knee!')who is said to have lived in the mid-19thcentury,at the time of Turkish

confession hernature of ensure a witch that Voluntary will, it is commonly believed, loses all her supernatural them. Suchconfession powersand can neverrecover may be madeto a priest,but also,it is said,to the earthor to the greengrass, withan oath, threetimesrepeated, neverto practice witchcraft again.Oragain,a witchmayconfess to the hearth; must rakethe fire,confessher sin, swearsolemnlyto God that it she will neverhappen 'to again,andthenbankthe fireup withcoal-dust coverthe oath'."90 Suchan ex-witch retain she may,however, powersbeyondthoseof mostpeople; may then be considered sorceress a fortune-teller. a or It was mentioned an earlier in sectionof this paperthat whena babyis bornin a caul she must be 'exposed' denounced the utteringof a formula, orderto i.e. in by her A of mustthrowa stoneoverthe roof, destroy witch-powers. woman the houshold crying'Listen,all people,greatand small,a witchhas been born!'(Leakvillage,in Sometimes new-born the Kosovo). babyis takenout into the streetso that a chance and passer-by act as its godfather give it a name.The Serbsin the areaRogozni may havea storyof a peasant womannamedVelika calledVelja and who borea babygirl witha caul,so oneof the olderwomenof the household out stepped intothe courtyard and announced loudlyto the whole village:'Listen,folks,Veljahas bornea witch!' - and 'the babygirl diedrightaway'. AmongSerbsin the villageson both banksof the Kopaonik, grandmother a cauledinfantmustprevent becoming male the of it a orfemale witchbyclimbing ontothe roofof thehouseandshouting: 'Listen, everyone, A and a great small! witchhasborne witch-child!' the Curiously, caulitselfis considered lucky;it is keptfor use as an amuletfor the infant,who, if he is male,will wearit

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T. P. VUKANOVIC

rule. She was forcedto disclose her evil deeds by the sub-pasha,Ali-aga.The woman's husband came to the pasha because he thought his wife was dead, but the pasha said she was not, and told him to move her round so that her feet were where her head had lain. Soon after,a mouse came and ran round the woman'sfeet. 'This is her soul' said the Aga. They turned her back, and the mouse whipped straightinto her mouth, and she woke, saying 'Oh my, I fell asleep!'9'
DEAD WITCHES

Some think witches continue their evil afterdeath. It is said that when one has been ten years in the grave her shadow rises up and 'walks'(Crkolezvillage in Metohijsko Podgorje).But she walks 'as a ghost, not as an animatedcorpse' and 'cutslike a sword'; whoever is harmed by her dies at once (Plakaonicavillage on the river Rogozna). Therefore,when a siriga dies it is thought that her heel-stringsand the tendonsbehind her knees should be cut with a black-handled knife, to prevent her leaving her grave and visiting her home to harm people.92
CONCLUSION

This survey of the characteristics and activities ascribedto witches in Balkanfolkbeliefs and witch-trialshas shown certain aspects which will be easily parallelledin WesternEurope (e.g. much that concerns the pact with the Devil, the Sabbath, the Some particular similarities may be due to shared stereotyped flying-ointment).93 assumptionson the part of inquisitorsand judgeswho elicited statementsfrom women on trial, sometimes under threatof torture;other, broader,similarities(e.g. as regards the type of harm allegedly done by witches) reflect a deep-rootedshared inheritance of folk-belief.On the other hand, there arebeliefs and ritualsprominentin the Balkans but rareor absent in West Europe,e.g. those for detectingwitches in church and those surroundingthe birth of an infantwith a caul. In the second part of this article I shall describethe numerousapotropaic objectsand ritualactionsformerly employedby Balkan peasants to protect themselves from witchcraft,which are richly elaborateand form a striking feature in Balkan folk traditions. Knicaninova14, 11000 Beograd
NOTES In these notes frequently cited journalsare referredto by the following abbreviations: GZM = Glasnik Zemaljskog muzejau Bosni i Hercegovini (Sarajevo) SEZ = Srpski etnografiski zbornik(Beograd) ZNZ = Zbornikza narodniiwvoti obicaje Juinih Slovena (Zagreb) 1. See pp. 84-5 of I. Tkalck, 'Parniceproti vjes'ticam Hrvatskoj' u ('LawsuitsagainstWitchesin Croatia'), Rad Jugoslavenska CIII (Zagreb, 1891), 83-116. akademijaznanosti i umjetnosti p. 2. P.Kolendit,'Vjesticeu SibenicuXV vijeka'('Witchesin 15th Century Sibenik'),ZNZ XXVI: 2 (Zagreb, 1928), pp. 358-70. 3. Tkalcxl, op. cit., pp. 86-9. 4. Tkalcke, cit., 86-9; J. W. Valvazor, EhredesHerzogthums Krains(Ljubljana/Nfirnberg op. 1689, ed. Janeza Krajkav Novem Mestu, 1887), Vol. IV bk. xii, ch. 1. 5. Pavlina pl. Bogdan Bijelit, ZNZ XIII (1908), pp. 306-7. 6. T.A. Bratit, GZM XIV (1904), p. 288 7. S. Duck, 'Zivoti obic-aji the SEZ XLVIII(1931),p. 293. plemenaKuca'('LifeandCustomsof KucaTribe'),

WITCHCRAFT THE CENTRALBALKANS IN

23

8. V.S. Karadzke, Srpski rjecnik(SerbianDictionary),(Wien, 1818; photographicreprint, Beograd 1969), s.v. vjestica.Among the Serbs of the Leskovacregion in Southern Serbia, witches are believed to be 'some evil femalebeings': see D.M. Djordjevi?, Zivot i obicajinardniu leskovac7wm kraju(PeasantLife and Customs in the LeskovacRegion), (Leskovac, 1985), p. 135. 9. A. Petrovik,RakovicaI (Beograd, 1938) p.72. 10. M. D. Sarik,SEZ LIV (1939), p. 136. 11. A. I Carie, GZM IX (1897), pp. 495, 713. 12. T. Dragicevie, GZM XX (1908) p. 454. 13. I. Radulovie, GlasniketnologiskimuzejaBeogradXI (1936), P. 62 14. M. Lang, ZNZ XIX (1914), pp. 123-5. 15. Tkalii, op. cit., in n.1, pp. 95, 105; CariE,op. cit. in n.ll, p. 710; J. Kolarski~ ZNZ XXIII (1918), p. 49; V. Vuletie,SEZ L (1934), p. 161;M. S. Filipovi6,SEZ LIV (1939),p. 520; M.D. Skaljie,SEZ LIV (1939), u Juinih Slovena'('Witch Beliefs among South Slavs'), p. 136; T.R. Djordjevie,'Vesitica narodnomverovanju SEZ LXVI (1953), pp. 5, 53. 16. Tkalcdk, cit., in n. 1, p. 106. See also Bratit, op. cit. in n. 6, pp. 234, 247; Karadjzie,op. cit., in op. n. 8, loc. cit.; T. R. Djordjevie,op.cit., in n.15, p. 27. 17. V. Vrc'evi?, Srbadija(1876), p. 74 18. J. Pamucina, Srbsko-dalmatinski magazin(1867), p. 49. 19. See V. ArdaliU, ZNZ XXII (1917), p. 306; Duci, op. cit., in n.7, p. 294; N. Begovie, Zivot i obicaji Srba granicara(Life and Customsof the SerbianFrontiersmen), (Zagreb, 1887), p. 199; J. Milcetit, ZNZ VI (1901), p. 233. 20. A. Haberlandt,Kulturwissenschaftliche von Albanienund Serbien Beitrige zur Volkskunde Montenegro, (Wien, 1917), p. 72; T. P. Vukanovi?,'Preklad'('The Grate'),Studijeiz Balkanskog folklora III, 'Ognjiste u kaolararijum folkloruJuznih Slovena'('The Hearth as the Abode of the Laresin the Folkloreof the South Slavs', Vranjski glasnik VII (1971), p. 175. 21. P. P. Nyegosh, 'The Mountain Wreath' transl. by James W. Wiles (London, 1930), p. 185. 22. P. P. Njegos GorskiVijenac ('The MountainWreath'), (Titograd,1965),commentary M. Resetar, 316. p. by 23. G. Elezovit, 'Prividjenjeili obmanaEvlije Celebije,'Zbornik RadovaXIV (Beograd,1951),pp. 109-16. 24. Karadzic,loc. cit. in n.8. 25. Begovi6, op. cit., in n. 19, p. 199. 26. L. Grdji6Bjelokosi?, narodai o narodu(FromandAboutthePeople), Iz (Novi Sad, 1898), Vol. II, p. 34; Brati6, op.cit. in n.6, p. 288; Karadjz16, cit. in n.8; Carrie, op. cit. in n.11, p. 710; Pamucina, op. cit. loc. in n.18, p. 49; S. Milinovi6, Arkiv za povjestnicu V jugoslavnicknijzevnosti (1859), p. 217; V. Ardalie,ZNZ X (1905), p. 238; Duchi, op.cit. in n.7, p. 294. 27. Karadzk, loc. cit. in n. 8; Djordjevi?,op. cit. in n.15, p. 33. 28. J. Ardalie, Srbsko-Dalmatinski magazin(1865), p. 43. 29. F.Ivanis'evi6, ZNZ X (1905), p. 231. 30. J. Djordjevie,SEZ XXXII (1925), p. 397. 31. Tkalcak,op. cit., in n.1, pp. 103-5. 32. Bratit, op. cit. in n.6, pp. 289-90; Djordjevit, op. cit. in n., p. 37. 33. Ivanis'evik, cit. in n.29, p. 237. 34. V. Cajkanovie,SEZ XLI (1927), p. 417. op. 35. Djordjevi6,op. cit. in n.15, pp. 29-30. 36. V. Vric-evit,SEZ L (134), p. 18. 37. M. D. Milic'evie, 'Zivot Srba seljaka'('The Life of Serbian Peasants'),SEZ I (1894), p. 595. 38. Duci', op.cit., in n.7, p.294. 39. Brati', op. cit., in n.6, p 289. 40. Carie, op. cit., in n.ll, p. 710. 41. Tkalcle, op. cit. in n.1, pp. 86-7, 105-6. 42. J. Vujanovie,ZNZ I (1896), p. 324. 43. Karadzkh, cit.in n.8. loc. 44. Carie, op. cit., in n.11, p. 710. 45. Bratie, op.cit. in n. 6, p. 289. 46. M.M. Jovovit, ZNZ 1 (1896), p. 99; Ducide,op. cit. in n.7, p. 293. 47. Ducic, loc. cit. 48. Djordjevie, op.cit. in n.8, p.135. 49. Carie, op.cit. in n.ll,p. 710. 50. S. Banovit, ZNZ XXIII (1918), p.194. 51. Njegos(Nyegosh), trnsl. Wiles, as in n.21, p. 185.

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52. V. S. Karadzie,Srpskenarodne poslovical(SerbianFolk Proverbs), (Beograd, 1900), no. 3134. 53. V. S. Karadzie,Srpskenarodne pjesme(SerbianFolksongs), (Leipzig, 1824), Vol I, no. 237. 54. Tkalcik, op.cit.in n.1, p. 87; V. Bogisie, Zboniksadainjihpravnihobicajau Juinih Slovena (Codexof the Contemporary Judicial Customsof the South Slavs (Zagreb, 1874), Vol. I, p. 640. 55. Ducli, op. cit. in n.7, p. 293. 56. V. Stojancevie, 'VranjskoPomoralvje, etnoloska ispitivanja' ('Ethnological Research in Vrjansko Pomoralvje'),SEZ LXXXVI (Beograd, 1974), p. 105. Among many tribes and peoples there exist beliefs about milk being stolen on the eve of St. George's Day; see J. G. Frazer,The GoldenBough(1890), Vol. II, XLVIII (1937), pp. 65, 67. pp.334 ff.; S. K6nig, Folk-Lore 57. Tkalcid, op. cit. in n.1, pp. 87, 106-7. 58. Ardalie, op.cit. in n.28, p. 43; ZNZ XXII (1917), p. 308. 59. See RomanJakobsonand Marc Szeftel, 'The VseslavEpos,'in RomanJakobson; SelectedWritings (The Hague-Paris,1966),Vol. IV,pp. 301-68;and, with D. Ruzicie,'The SerbianZmajOgnjeniVukandthe Russian Vseslav Epos,' in op.cit, pp. 369-79. 60. Carit, op. cit. in n.ll, p. 712; J. Kotarski,ZNZ XXIII (1918), p. 49. 61. J. Sajnovit, ZNZ III (1898), pp. 205-256. 62. Valvasor,loc. cit. in n.4. 63. Pamucina, op.cit. in n.18, p.50. 64. Begovit, op.cit. in n.19, p. 199; S.M.Mijatovid,SEZ XXXIII (1925), p.41. 65. Ivanisevit, op.cit. in n.29, p.233. 65a. Ibid. 66. Ardalit, op.cit. in n.19, p. 310; cf. Djordjevit, op.cit. in n.15, p.12. 67. Djordjevie, op.cit. in n.30, p. 397. 68. V. Vuletit-Vukasovit, L (1934),p. 164;L.-B.Ilia, Narodnislavonski SEZ Folk Customs), (Slavonian obicaji VII (Zagreb, 1864), p. 93; D.S. Dez'elit, Arkiv za povjestnicu jugoslavensku (Zagreb, 1863), p. 218. 69. Carie, op.cit. in n.11, p.713. 70. Djordjevit, op.cit.in n.15, p.16. 71. Ardalie, op.cit. in n.28, p.43. 72. J. Lovretie, ZNZ VII (1902), p. 122; M. Stojanovit, Slike iz Zivota hrvatskoganarodeu Slavoniju (Illustrations the Life of the Croatsin Slavonia), (Zagreb, 1891), p. 259. of 73. V. Vrcevie, Srbadija(1876), p. 74; Bratit, op.cit.in n.6, p.289. 74. Jovovi', op.cit. in n.46, p.99 75. J. Milcetie, ZNZ X (1905), p. 236 76. Vrcevie,op.cit.in n.73, p.74; Djordjevie,op.cit.in n.15, p.16. 77. M.D.Skarid,SEZ LIV (1939), p. 138. 78. T. Dragicevie, GZM XX (1908),pp. 453, 455-6. 79. Ibid. 80. Ibid. 81. Ibid. 82. A. Vasiljevid, Bosanskavila (Sarajvo,1895), p. 74; Milicevie, op. cit. in n.37, p. 98; SEZ V.S.Karadzke, L (1934), p. 29; Vuletit-Vukasovie, op.cit.in n.68, p.64; T. Vukanovie,'Lovna zmije u Jugoslaviji'('Snake Hunting in Yugloslavia'),Narodna starina XIV (Zagreb, 1939), p. 125. 83. Karadzke, op.cit. in n.8, s.v.Blagovjest (Feast of the Annunciation). 84. Ardalit, op.cit. in n.28, p.43. 85. B.Bijeli', ZNZ XIII (1908), p.307; Carid, op.cit. in n.ll, p. 711. 86. Milc'etie, op.cit. in n.75, p.232. 87. Bratit, op.cit. in n.6, p. 289. 88. Pamucdna,op.cit. in n.18, p.50 89. Vrc-evie, cit. in n.73, p.74. For similarbeliefs among the Gypsies in Voivodina,see T. P. op. Vukanovie, Romi (Gigani) u Jugoslaviji Vranje (1983), pp. 298-9. 90. Bratie, op. cit. in n.6, p. 290; cf. Djordjevie,op.cit. in n.15, pp. 48-9. 91. Cf. Karadzk1, II loc.citin n.8; A. Petrovie,Rakovica (Beograd,1939),p. 73; Vrcevie,op.cit.in n.73, p. 74. 92. Vrcevie, op.cit. in n.73, p. 52. 93. Much has been writtenon this topic in everycountry;useful materialcan be foundin Julio CaroBaroja, The World the Witches of (London, 1964);GustavHenningsen, TheEuropeanWitch-Persecution (Copenhagen, and 1973); Rossel H. Robbins,TheEncyclopedia Witchcraft Demonology of (New York, 1959).