Application of ICTs in Agric

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AEM 204 Information and Communication Technology in Agriculture

(3 Credits)
Block II Application of ICTs in Agricultural Development

Unit - 1 : Unit - 2 : Unit - 3 : Unit - 4 : Geographical Information Systems (GIS) Remote Sensing Applications in Agriculture E-Governance Cyber Extension 3-29 31-46 47-61 63-82
Post Graduate Diploma in Agricultural Extension Management (PGDAEM)
Published by National Institute of Agricultural Extension Management (MANAGE), Rajendranagar, Hyderabad 500 030, Andhra Pradesh, India First Published: 2008 MANAGE, 2008 All rights reserved . No part of this work may be reproduced in any form, by mimeograph or any other means without permission in writing from the MANAGE. Shri K.V. Satyanarayana, IAS Director General National Institute of Agricultural Extension Management (MANAGE), Rajendranagar, Hyderabad 500 030 Andhra Pradesh, India Program Coordinators Dr. M.N. Reddy, Director (Agri. Extn. & Commn.) & Principal Coordinator (PGDAEM) Ph. Off: (040) 24014527, email: mnreddy@manage.gov.in
Dr. N. Balasubramani, Assistant Director (Agri. Extn.) Ph. Off: (040) 24016702-708 Extn. 275, email: balasubramani@manage.gov.in
Course Coordinator Dr. V.P .Sharma, Director (ITDP) National Institute of Agricultural Extension Management (MANAGE), Rajendranagar, Hyderabad 500 030, Andhra Pradesh, India Ph. Off: (040) 24016690, email: vpsharma@manage.gov.in Contributors Shri G.Bhaskar, Asst. Director (IT) National Institute of Agricultural Extension Management (MANAGE), Rajendranagar, Hyderabad 500 030, Andhra Pradesh, India Ph. Off: (040) 24016690, email: bhaskaragvjji@manage.gov.in
Information and Communication Technology in Agriculture
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Unit 1 Geographical Information Systems (GIS)

Structure
1.0 Objectives 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Overview 1.3 History of GIS development 1.4 Components of GIS 1.5 Functions of GIS 1.6 Technology used in GIS 1.7 Spatial analysis with GIS 1.8 GIS software 1.9 The future of GIS 1.10 List of GIS software 1.11 Let us sum up 1.12 Key words 1.13 Further readings 1.14 Check your progress
1.0 Objectives
After going through this unit you will be able to
Understand the importance of Geographical Information Systems. Appreciate the Concept, elements, functions and technology of GIS And, apply the GIS to solve agricultural problems.
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1.1 Introduction
Geographical Information System (GIS) is a technology that provides the means to collect and use geographic data to assist in the development of Agriculture. A digital map is generally of much greater value than the same map printed on a paper as the digital version can be combined with other sources of data for analyzing information with a graphical presentation. The GIS software makes it possible to synthesize large amounts of different data, combining different layers of information to manage and retrieve the data in a more useful manner. GIS provides a powerful means for agricultural scientists to provide better service to the farmers and farming community in answering their query and helping in a better decision making to implement planning activities for the development of agriculture.
1.2 Overview
A Geographical Information System (GIS) is a system for capturing, storing, analyzing and managing data and associated attributes, which are spatially referenced to the Earth. The geographical information system is also called as a geographic information system or geospatial information system. It is an information system capable of integrating, storing, editing, analyzing, sharing, and displaying geographically referenced information. In a more generic sense, GIS is a software tool that allows users to create interactive queries, analyze the spatial information, edit data, maps, and present the results of all these operations. GIS technology is becoming essential tool to combine various maps and remote sensing information to generate various models, which are used in real time environment. Geographical information system is the science utilizing the geographic concepts, applications and systems. Geographical Information System can be used for scientific investigations, resource management, asset management, environmental impact assessment, urban planning, cartography, criminology, history, sales, marketing, and logistics. For example, agricultural planners might use geographical data to decide on the best locations for a location specific crop planning, by combining data on soils, topography, and rainfall to determine the size and location of biologically suitable areas. The final output could include overlays with land ownership, transport, infrastructure, labour availability, and distance to market centers.
1.3 History of GIS Development

The idea of portraying different layers of data on a series of base maps, and relating things geographically, has been around much older than computers invention. Few thousand years ago, the early man used to draw pictures of the animals they hunted on the walls of caves. These animal drawings are track lines and tallies thought to depict migration routes. While simplistic in comparison to modern technologies, these early records mimic the two-element structure of modern geographic information systems, an image associated with attribute information.
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Geographical Information Systems (GIS)
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Possibly the earliest use of the geographic method, in 1854 John Snow depicted a cholera outbreak in London using points to represent the locations of some individual cases. His study of the distribution of cholera led to the source of the disease, a contaminated water pump within the heart of the cholera outbreak. While the basic elements of topology and theme existed previously in cartography, the John Snow map was unique, using cartographic methods, not only to depict but also to analyze, clusters of geographically dependent phenomena for the first time. The early 20th century saw the development of photo lithography where maps were separated into layers. Computer hardware development spurred by nuclear weapon research led to general-purpose computer mapping applications by the early 1960s. In the year 1962, the worlds first true operational GIS was developed by the federal Department of Forestry and Rural Development in Ottawa, Canada by Dr. Roger Tomlinson. It was called the Canada Geographic Information System (CGIS) and was used to store, analyze, and manipulate data collected for the Canada Land Inventory. It is an initiative to determine the land capability for rural Canada by mapping information about soils, agriculture, recreation, wildlife, forestry, and land use at a scale of 1:50,000. CGIS was the worlds first system and was an improvement over mapping applications as it provided capabilities for overlay, measurement, and digitizing or scanning. It supported a national coordinate system that spanned the continent, coded lines as arcs having a true embedded topology, and it stored the attribute and location specific information in a separate files. Dr. Tomlinson is known as the father of GIS, for his use of overlays in promoting the spatial analysis of convergent geographic data. In 1964, Howard T Fisher formed the Laboratory for Computer Graphics and Spatial Analysis at the Harvard Graduate School of Design, where a number of important theoretical concepts in spatial data handling were developed. This lab had major influence on the development of GIS until early 1980s. Many pioneers of newer GIS grew up at the Harvard lab and had distributed seminal software code and systems, such as SYMAP, GRID, and ODYSSEY. By the early 1980s, M&S Computing (later Intergraph), Environmental Systems Research Institute (ESRI) and CARIS emerged as commercial vendors of GIS software, successfully incorporating many of the CGIS features, combining the first generation approach to separation of spatial and attribute information with a second generation approach to organizing attribute data into database structures. More functions for user interaction were developed mainly in a graphical way by a user friendly interface (Graphical User Interface), which gave to the user the ability to sort, select, extract, reclassify, reproject and display data on the basis of complex geographical, topological and statistical criteria. During the same time, the development of a public domain GIS begun by the U.S. Army Corp of Engineering
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Research Laboratory (USA-CERL) in Champaign, Illinois, a branch of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers to meet the need of the United States military a software for land management and environmental planning. In the 1980s and 1990s, industry growth spurred by the growing use of GIS on Unix workstations and the personal computers. By the end of the 20th century, the rapid growth in various systems had consolidated and standardized on relatively few platforms and users were beginning to learn the concept of viewing GIS data over the Internet, requiring uniform data format and transfer standards. More recently, there is a growing number of free, open source GIS packages, which run on a range of operating systems and can be customized to perform specific tasks. As computing power increased and hardware prices slashed down, the GIS became a viable technology for state development planning. It has become a real Management Information System (MIS), and thus able to support decision making processes.
1.4 Components of GIS

GIS enables the user to input, manage, manipulate, analyze, and display geographically referenced data using a computerized system. To perform various operations with GIS, the essential components needed are: software, hardware, data, people and methods.
Software
GIS software provides the functions and tools needed to store, analyze, and display geographic information. Key software components are (a) a database management system (DBMS) (b) tools for the input and manipulation of geographic information (c) tools that support geographic query, analysis, and visualization (d) a graphical user interface (GUI) for easy access to tools. GIS software are either commercial software or software developed on Open Source domain, which are available for free. However, the commercial software is copyright protected, can be expensive and is available in terms number of licensees. Currently available commercial GIS software includes ArcGIS, GeoMedia, Geomatica MapInfo, Gram++ etc. Out of these ArcGIS is the most popular software package. And, the open source software are AMS/MARS etc.
Hardware
Hardware is the computer on which a GIS operates. Today, GIS runs on a wide range of hardware types, from centralized computer servers to desktop computers used in stand-alone or networked configurations. Minimum configuration required to run ArcGIS 9.0 application is as follows:
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Platform: Operating System: CPU Speed: Processor: Memory/RAM: Display Properties: Swap Space: Disk Space: Browser: Version 6.0.)
PC-Intel Windows XP Professional Edition, Home Edition 800 MHz minimum, 1.0 GHz recommended or higher Pentium or higher 512 MB or higher Greater than 256 color depth 300 MB minimum Typical 605 MB NTFS, Complete 695 MB FAT32 + 50 MB for installation Internet Explorer 6.0 Requirement:
(Some features of ArcInfo Desktop 9.0 require a minimum installation of Microsoft Internet Explorer
Data
The most important component of a GIS is the data. Geographic data or Spatial data and related tabular data can be collected in-house or bought from a commercial data provider. Spatial data can be in the form of a map/remotely-sensed data such as satellite imagery and aerial photography. These data forms must be properly geo-referenced (latitude/longitude). Tabular data can be in the form attribute data that is in some way related to spatial data. Most GIS software comes with inbuilt Database Management Systems (DBMS) to create and maintain a database to help organize and manage data.
Users
GIS technology is of limited value without the users who manage the system and to develop plans for applying it. GIS users range from technical specialists who design and maintain the system to those who use it to help them do their everyday work. These users are largely interested in the results of the analyses and may have no interest or knowledge of the methods of analysis. The user-friendly interface of the GIS software allows the nontechnical users to have easy access to GIS analytical capabilities without needing to know detailed software commands. A simple User Interface can consist of menus and pull-down graphic windows so that the user can perform required analysis with a few key presses without needing to learn specific commands in detail.
Methods
A successful GIS operates according to a well-designed plan and business rules, which are the models and operating practices unique to each organization.
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1.5 Functions of GIS

General-purpose GIS software performs six major tasks such as input, manipulation, management, query, analysis, and visualization.
Input
The important input data for any GIS is digitized maps, images, spatial data and tabular data. The tabular data is generally typed on a computer using relational database management system software. Before geographic data can be used in a GIS it must be converted into a suitable digital format. The DBMS system can generate various objects such as index generation on data items, to speed up the information retrieval by a query. Maps can be digitized using a vector format in which the actual map points, lines, and polygons are stored as coordinates. Data can also be input in a raster format in which data elements are stored as cells in a grid structure (the technology details are covered in following section). The process of converting data from paper maps into computer files is called digitizing. Modern GIS technology has the capability to automate this process fully for large projects; smaller jobs may require some manual digitizing. The digitizing process is labour intensive and time-consuming, so it is better to use the data that already exist. Today many types of geographic data already exist in GIScompatible formats. These data can be obtained from data suppliers and loaded directly into a GIS.
Manipulation
GIS can store, maintain, distribute and update spatial data associated text data. The spatial data must be referenced to a geographic coordinate systems (latitude/longitude). The tabular data associated with spatial data can be manipulated with help of data base management software. It is likely that data types required for a particular GIS project will need to be transformed or manipulated in some way to make them compatible with the system. For example, geographic information is available at different scales (scale of 1:100,000; 1:10,000; and 1:50,000). Before these can be overlaid and integrated, they must be transformed to the same scale. This could be a temporary transformation for display purposes or a permanent one required for analysis. And, there are many other types of data manipulation that are routinely performed in GIS. These include projection changes, data aggregation, generalization and weeding out unnecessary data.
Management
For small GIS projects it may be sufficient to store geographic information as computer files. However, when data volumes become large and the number of users of the data becomes more than a few, it is advised to use a database management system (DBMS) to help store, organize, and manage
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data. A DBMS is a database management software package to manage the integrated collection of database objects such as tables, indexes, query, and other procedures in a database. There are many different models of DBMS, but for GIS use, the relational model database management systems will be highly helpful. In the relational model, data are stored conceptually as a collection of tables and each table will have the data attributes related to a common entity. Common fields in different tables are used to link them together with relations. Because of its simple architecture, the relational DBMS software is being used widely. These are flexible in nature and deployed in applications both within and without GIS.
Query
The stored information either spatial data or associated tabular data can be retrieved with the help of Structured Query Language (SQL). Depending on the type of user interface, data can be queried using the SQL or a menu driven system can be used to retrieve map data. For example, you can begin to ask questions such as: Where are the soils suitable for sunflower crop? What is the dominant soil type for Paddy? What is the groundwater available position in a village/block/district? Both simple and sophisticated queries utilizing more than one data layer can provide timely information to officers to have overall knowledge about situation and to take a more informed decision.
Analysis
GIS systems really come into their own when they are used to analyze geographic data. The processes of geographic analysis often called spatial analysis or geo-processing uses the geographic properties of features to look for patterns and trends, and to undertake what if scenarios. Modern GIS have many powerful analytical tools to analyse the data. The following are some of the analysis which are generally performed on geographic data.
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Overlay Analysis
The integration of different data layers involves a process called overlay. At its simplest, this could
be a visual operation, but analytical operations require one or more data layers to be joined physically. This overlay, or spatial join, can integrate data on soils, slope, and vegetation, or land ownership. For example, data layers for soil and land use can be combined resulting in a new map which contains both soil and land use information. This will be helpful to understand the different behaviour of the situation on different parameters.
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B.
Proximity Analysis
GIS software can also support buffer generation that involves the creation of new polygons from
points, lines, and polygon features stored in the database. For example, to know answer to questions like; How much area covered within 1 km of water canal? What is area covered under different crops? And, for watershed projects, where is the boundary or delineation of watershed, slope, water channels, different types of water harvesting structures required, etc.
Visualization
GIS can provide hardcopy maps, statistical summaries, modeling solutions and graphical display of maps for both spatial and tabular data. For many types of geographic operation the end result is best visualized as a map or graph. Maps are very efficient at storing and communicating geographic information. GIS provides new and exciting tools to extend the art of visualization of output information to the users.
1.6 Technology used in GIS

Data creation
Modern GIS technologies use digital information, for which various digitized data creation methods are used. The most common method of data creation is digitization, where a hard copy map or survey plan is transferred into a digital medium through the use of a computer-aided design program with georeferencing capabilities. With the wide availability of rectified imagery (both from satellite and aerial sources), heads-up digitizing is becoming the main avenue through which geographic data is extracted. Heads-up digitizing involves the tracing of geographic data directly on top of the aerial imagery instead of through the traditional method of tracing the geographic form on a separate digitizing tablet.
Relating information from different sources

If you could relate information about the rainfall of a state to aerial photographs of county, you might be able to tell which wetlands dry up at certain times of the year. A GIS, which can use information from many different sources in many different forms, can help with such analyses. The primary requirement for the source data consists of knowing the locations for the variables. Location may be annotated by x, y, and z coordinates of longitude, latitude, and elevation, or by other geocode systems like postal codes. Any variable that can be located spatially can be fed into a GIS. Different kinds of data in map form can be entered into a GIS. A GIS can also convert existing digital information, which may not yet be in map form, into forms it can recognize and use. For example, digital satellite images generated through remote sensing can be analyzed to produce a map-like layer of digital information about vegetative covers. Likewise, census or
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hydrologic tabular data can be converted to map-like form, serving as layers of thematic information in a GIS.
Data representation
GIS data represents real world objects such as roads, land use, elevation with digital data. Real world objects can be divided into two abstractions: discrete objects (a house) and continuous fields (rain fall amount or elevation). There are two broad methods used to store data in a GIS for both abstractions: Raster and Vector.
Raster
A raster data type is, in essence, any type of digital image. Anyone who is familiar with digital photography will recognize the pixel as the smallest individual unit of an image. A combination of these pixels will create an image, distinct from the commonly used scalable vector graphics, which are the basis of the vector model. While a digital image is concerned with the output as representation of reality, in a photograph or art transferred to computer, the raster data type will reflect an abstraction of reality. Aerial photos are one commonly used form of raster data, with only one purpose, to display a detailed image on a map or for the purposes of digitization. Other raster data sets will contain information regarding elevation, a DEM (Digital Elevation Model), or reflectance of a particular wavelength of light. Digital elevation model, map, and vector data, Raster data type consists of rows and columns of cells each storing a single value. Raster data can be images (raster images) with each pixel containing a color value. Additional values recorded for each cell may be a discrete value, such as land use, a continuous value, such as temperature, or a null value if no data is available. While a raster cell stores a single value, it can be extended by using raster bands to represent RGB (red, green, blue) colors, colormaps (a mapping between a thematic code and RGB value), or an extended attribute table with one row for each unique cell value. The resolution of the raster data set is its cell width in ground units. Raster data is stored in various formats; from a standard file-based structure of TIF JPEG formats , to binary large object (BLOB) data stored directly in a relational database management system (RDBMS) similar to other vector-based feature classes. Database storage, when properly indexed, typically allows for quicker retrieval of the raster data but can require storage of millions of significantly sized records.
Vector
A simple vector map, using each of the vector elements: points for wells, lines for rivers, and a polygon for the lake. In a GIS, geographical features are often expressed as vectors, by considering those features as geometrical shapes. In the popular ESRI Arc series of programs, these are explicitly called shape files. Different geographical features are best expressed by different types of geometric shapes.
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Points
Zero-dimensional points are used for geographical features that can best be expressed by a single grid reference; in other words, simple location. For example, the locations of wells, peak elevations, features of interest or trailheads. Points convey the least amount of information of these file types.
Lines or polylines
One-dimensional lines or polylines are used for linear features such as rivers, roads, railroads, trails, and topographic lines.
Polygons
Two-dimensional polygons are used for geographical features that cover a particular area of the earths surface. Such features may include lakes, park boundaries, buildings, city boundaries, or land uses. Polygons convey the most amount of information of the file types. Each of these geometries are linked to a row in a database that describes their attributes. For example, a database that describes lakes may contain a lakes depth, water quality, pollution level. This information can be used to make a map to describe a particular attribute of the dataset. For example, lakes could be coloured depending on level of pollution. Different geometries can also be compared. For example, the GIS could be used to identify all wells (point geometry) that are within 1-mile (1.6 km) of a lake (polygon geometry) that has a high level of pollution. Vector features can be made to respect spatial integrity through the application of topology rules such as polygons must not overlap. Vector data can also be used to represent continuously varying phenomena. Contour lines and triangulated irregular networks (TIN) are used to represent elevation or other continuously changing values. TINs record values at point locations, which are connected by lines to form an irregular mesh of triangles. The face of the triangles represent the terrain surface.
Advantages and disadvantages

There are advantages and disadvantages to using a raster or vector data model to represent reality. Raster data sets record a value for all points in the area covered which may require more storage space than representing data in a vector format that can store data only where needed. Raster data also allows easy implementation of overlay operations, which are more difficult with vector data. Vector data can be displayed as vector graphics used on traditional maps, whereas raster data will appear as an image that may have a blocky appearance for object boundaries. Vector data can be easier to register, scale, and re-project. This can simplify combining vector layers from different sources. Vector data are more compatible with relational database environment. They can be part of a relational table as a normal column and processes using a multitude of operators.
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The file size for vector data is usually much smaller for storage and sharing than raster data. Image or raster data can be 10 to 100 times larger than vector data depending on the resolution. Another advantage of vector data is it can be easily updated and maintained. For example, for adding, a new highway the raster image will have to be completely reproduced, where as in the vector data, can be easily updated by adding the missing road segment. In addition, vector data allow much more analysis capability especially for networks such as roads, power, rail, telecommunications, etc. For example, with vector data attributed with the characteristics of roads, ports, and airfields, allows the analyst to query for the best route or method of transportation or the largest port with an airfield within 60 miles and a connecting road that is at least two lane highway. Raster data will not have all the characteristics of the features it displays.
Voxel
Selected GIS additionally support the voxel data model. A voxel (a portmanteau of the words volumetric and pixel) is a volume element, representing a value on a regular grid in three dimensional space. This is analogous to a pixel, which represents 2D image data. Voxels can be interpolated from 3D point clouds (3D point vector data), or merged from 2D raster slices.
Non-spatial data
Additional non-spatial data can also be stored besides the spatial data represented by the coordinates of a vector geometry or the position of a raster cell. In vector data, the additional data are attributes of the object. For example, a forest inventory polygon may also have an identifier value and information about tree species. In raster data the cell value can store attribute information, but it can also be used as an identifier that can relate to records in another table.
Data capture
Data capturei.e entering information into the systemconsumes much of the time of GIS practitioners. There are a variety of methods used to enter data into a GIS where it is stored in a digital format. Existing data printed on paper or PET film maps can be digitized or scanned to produce digital data. A digitizer produces vector data as an operator traces points, lines, and polygon boundaries from a map. Scanning a map results in raster data that could be further processed to produce vector data. Survey data can be directly entered into a GIS from digital data collection systems on survey instruments. Positions from a Global Positioning System (GPS), another survey tool, can also be directly entered into a GIS.
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Remotely sensed data also plays an important role in data collection and consist of sensors attached to a platform. Sensors include cameras, digital scanners and LIDAR, while platforms usually consist of aircraft and satellites. The majority of digital data currently comes from photo interpretation of aerial photographs. Soft copy workstations are used to digitize features directly from stereo pairs of digital photographs. These systems allow data to be captured in 2 and 3 dimensions, with elevations measured directly from a stereo pair using principles of photogrammetry. Currently, analog aerial photos are scanned before being entered into a soft copy system, but as high quality digital cameras become cheaper this step will be skipped. Satellite remote sensing provides another important source of spatial data. Here satellites use different sensor packages to passively measure the reflectance from parts of the electromagnetic spectrum or radio waves that were sent out from an active sensor such as radar. Remote sensing collects raster data that can be further processed to identify objects and classes of interest, such as land cover. When data is captured, the user should consider if the data should be captured with either a relative accuracy or absolute accuracy, since this could not only influence how information will be interpreted but also the cost of data capture. In addition to collecting and entering spatial data, attribute data is also entered into a GIS. For vector data, this includes additional information about the objects represented in the system. After entering data into a GIS, the data usually requires editing, to remove errors, or further processing. For vector data it must be made topologically correct before it can be used for some advanced analysis. For example, in a road network, lines must connect with nodes at an intersection. Errors such as undershoots and overshoots must also be removed. For scanned maps, blemishes on the source map may need to be removed from the resulting raster. For example, a fleck of dirt might connect two lines that should not be connected.
Raster-to-vector translation
Data restructuring can be performed by a GIS to convert data into different formats. For example, a GIS may be used to convert a satellite image map to a vector structure by generating lines around all cells with the same classification, while determining the cell spatial relationships, such as adjacency or inclusion. More advanced data processing can occur with image processing, a technique developed in the late 1960s by NASA and the private sector to provide contrast enhancement, false colour rendering and a variety of other techniques including use of two dimensional Fourier transforms.
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Since digital data are collected and stored in various ways, the two data sources may not be entirely compatible. Ingenerel a good GIS software must be able to convert geographic data from one structure to another.
Projections, coordinate systems and registration

A property ownership map and a soils map might show data at different scales. Map information in a GIS must be manipulated so that it registers, or fits, with information gathered from other maps. Before the digital data can be analyzed, they may have to undergo other manipulationsprojection and coordinate conversions for example, that integrate them into a GIS. The earth can be represented by various models, each of which may provide a different set of coordinates (e.g., latitude, longitude, elevation) for any given point on the earths surface. The simplest model is to assume the earth is a perfect sphere. As more measurements of the earth have accumulated, the models of the earth have become more sophisticated and more accurate. In fact, there are models that apply to different areas of the earth to provide increased accuracy (e.g., North American Datum, 1927 - NAD27 - works well in North America, but not in Europe). Projection is a fundamental component of map making. A projection is a mathematical means of transferring information from a model of the Earth, which represents a three-dimensional curved surface, to a two-dimensional mediumpaper or a computer screen. Different projections are used for different types of maps because each projection particularly suits certain uses. For example, a projection that accurately represents the shapes of the continents will distort their relative sizes. See Datum for more information. Since much of the information in a GIS comes from existing maps, a GIS uses the processing power of the computer to transform digital information, gathered from sources with different projections and/or different coordinate systems, to a common projection and coordinate system. For images, this process is called rectification.
1.7 Spatial Analysis with GIS

Data modeling
It is difficult to relate wet/lands maps to rainfall amounts recorded at different points such as airports, television stations, and high schools. A GIS, however, can be used to depict two- and threedimensional characteristics of the Earths surface, subsurface, and atmosphere from information points. For example, a GIS can quickly generate a map with isopleths or contour lines that indicate differing amounts of rainfall.
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Such a map can be thought of as a rainfall contour map. Many sophisticated methods can estimate the characteristics of surfaces from a limited number of point measurements. A two-dimensional contour map created from the surface modeling of rainfall point measurements may be overlaid and analyzed with any other map in a GIS covering the same area. Additionally, from a series of three-dimensional points, or digital elevation model, isopleths lines representing elevation contours can be generated, along with slope analysis, shaded relief, and other elevation products. Watersheds can be easily defined for any given reach, by computing all of the areas contiguous and uphill from any given point of interest. Similarly, an expected thalweg of where surface water would want to travel in intermittent and permanent streams can be computed from elevation data in the GIS.
Topological modeling
A GIS can recognize and analyze the spatial relationships that exist within digitally stored spatial data. These topological relationships allow complex spatial modeling and analysis to be performed. Topological relationships between geometric entities traditionally include adjacency (what adjoins what), containment (what encloses what), and proximity (how close something is to something else). In the past, were there any gas stations or factories operating next to the swamp? Any within two miles (3 km) and uphill from the swamp?
Networks
A GIS can simulate the routing of materials along a linear network. Values such as slope, speed limit, or pipe diameter can be incorporated into network modeling in order to represent the flow of the phenomenon more accurately. Network modeling is commonly employed in transportation planning, hydrology modeling, and infrastructure modeling. If all the factories near a wetland were accidentally to release chemicals into the river at the same time, how long would it take for a damaging amount of pollutant to enter the wetland reserve?
Cartographic modeling
The cartographic modeling was (probably) coined by Dana Tomlin in his PhD dissertation and later in his book which has the term in the title. Cartographic modeling refers to a process where several thematic layers of the same area are produced, processed, and analyzed. Tomlin used raster layers, but the overlay method (see below) can be used more generally. Operations on map layers can be combined into algorithms, and eventually into simulation or optimization models.
Map overlay
The combination of two separate spatial data sets (points, lines or polygons) to create a new
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output vector data set. These overlays are similar to mathematical Venn diagram overlays. A union overlay combines the geographic features and attribute tables of both inputs into a single new output. An intersect overlay defines the common area where both inputs overlap and retains a set of attribute fields for each. A symmetric difference overlay defines an output area that includes the total area of both inputs except for the overlapping area. Data extraction is a GIS process similar to vector overlay, though it can be used in either vector or raster data analysis. Rather than combining the properties and features of both data sets, data extraction involves using a clip or mask to extract the features of one data set that fall within the spatial extent of another data set. In raster data analysis, the overlay of data sets is accomplished through a process known as local operation on multiple rasters or map algebra, through a function that combines the values of each rasters matrix. This function may weigh some inputs more than others through use of an index model that reflects the influence of various factors upon a geographic phenomenon.
Automated cartography
Digital cartography and GIS both encode spatial relationships in structured formal representations. GIS is used in digital cartography modeling as a (semi) automated process of making maps, so called Automated Cartography. In practice, it can be a subset of a GIS, within which it is equivalent to the stage of visualization, since in most cases not all of the GIS functionality is used. Cartographic products can be either in a digital or in a hardcopy format. Powerful analysis techniques with different data representation can produce high-quality maps within a short time period. The main problem in Automated Cartography is to use a single set of data to produce multiple products at a variety of scales, a technique known as Generalization.
Geostatistics
Geostatistics is a point-pattern analysis that produces field predictions from data points. It is a way of looking at the statistical properties of those spaties data. It is different from general applications of statistics because it employs the use of graph theory and matrix algebra to reduce the number of parameters in the data. When phenomena are measured, the observation methods dictate the accuracy of any subsequent analysis. Due to the nature of the data (e.g. traffic patterns in an urban environment; weather patterns over the Pacific Ocean), a constant or dynamic degree of precision is always lost in the measurement. This loss of precision is determined from the scale and distribution of the data collection. To determine the statistical relevance of the analysis, an average is determined so that points
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(gradients) outside of any immediate measurement can be included to determine their predicted behavior. This is due to the limitations of the applied statistic and data collection methods, and interpolation is required in order to predict the behavior of particles, points, and locations that are not directly measurable. Interpolation is the process by which a surface is created, usually a raster data set, through the input of data collected at a number of sample points. There are several forms of interpolation, each which treats the data differently, depending on the properties of the data set. In comparing interpolation methods, the first consideration should be whether or not the source data will change (exact or approximate). Next is whether the method is subjective, a human interpretation, or objective. Then there is the nature of transitions between points: are they abrupt or gradual. Finally, there is whether a method is global (it uses the entire data set to form the model), or local where an algorithm is repeated for a small section of terrain. Interpolation based on Spatial Autocorrelation Principle recognizes that data collected at any position will have a great similarity to, or influence of those locations within its immediate vicinity. Digital elevation models, triangulated irregular networks, Edge finding algorithms, Theissen Polygons, Fourier analysis, Weighted moving averages, Inverse Distance Weighted, Moving averages, Kriging, Spline, and Trend surface analysis are all mathematical methods to produce interpolative data.
Address Geocoding
Geocoding is calculating spatial locations (X,Y coordinates) from street addresses. A reference theme is required to geocode individual addresses, such as a road centerline file with address ranges. The individual address locations are interpolated, or estimated, by examining address ranges along a road segment. These are usually provided in the form of a table or database. The GIS will then place a dot approximately where that address belongs along the segment of centerline. For example, an address point of 500 will be at the midpoint of a line segment that starts with address 1 and ends with address 1000. Geocoding can also be applied against actual parcel data, typically from municipal tax maps. In this case, the result of the geocoding will be an actually positioned space as opposed to an interpolated point. It should be noted that there are several (potentially dangerous) caveats that are often overlooked when using interpolation. Various algorithms are used to help with address matching when the spellings of addresses differ. Address information that a particular entity or organization has data on, such as the post office, may not entirely match the reference theme. There could be variations in street name spelling, community name, etc. Consequently, the user generally has the ability to make matching criteria more stringent, or
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to relax those parameters so that more addresses will be mapped. Care must be taken to review the results so as not to erroneously map addresses incorrectly due to overzealous matching parameters.
Reverse geocoding
Reverse geocoding is the process of returning an estimated street address number as it relates to a given coordinate. For example, a user can click on a road centerline theme (thus providing a coordinate) and have information returned that reflects the estimated house number. This house number is interpolated from a range assigned to that road segment. If the user clicks at the midpoint of a segment that starts with address 1 and ends with 100, the returned value will be somewhere near 50. Note that reverse geocoding does not return actual addresses, only estimates of what should be there based on the predetermined range.
Data output and cartography

Cartography is the design and production of maps, or visual representations of spatial data. The vast majority of modern cartography is done with the help of computers, usually using a GIS. Most GIS software gives the user substantial control over the appearance of the data.
Cartographic work serves two major functions:

First, it produces graphics on the screen or on paper that convey the results of analysis to the people who make decisions about resources. Wall maps and other graphics can be generated, allowing the viewer to visualize and thereby understand the results of analyses or simulations of potential events. Web Map Servers facilitate distribution of generated maps through web browsers using various implementations of web-based application programming interfaces/(AJAX, Java, Flash, etc). Second, other database information can be generated for further analysis or use. An example would be a list of all addresses within one mile (1.6 km) of a toxic spill.
Graphic display techniques

Traditional maps are abstractions of the real world, a sampling of important elements portrayed on a sheet of paper with symbols to represent physical objects. People who use maps must interpret these symbols. Topographic maps show the shape of land surface with contour lines; the actual shape of the land can be seen only in the minds eye. Today, graphic display techniques such as shading based on altitude in a GIS can make relationships among map elements visible, heightening ones ability to extract and analyze information. For example, two types of data were combined in a GIS to produce a perspective view of a portion of San Mateo County, California.
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The digital elevation model, consisting of surface elevations recorded on a 30-meter horizontal grid, shows high elevations as white and low elevation as black. The accompanying Landsat Thematic Mapper image shows a false-color infrared image looking down at the same area in 30-meter pixels, or picture elements, for the same coordinate points, pixel by pixel, as the elevation information. A GIS was used to register and combine the two images to render the three-dimensional perspective view looking down the San Andreas Fault, using the Thematic Mapper image pixels, but shaded using the elevation of the landforms. The GIS display depends on the viewing point of the observer and time of day of the display, to properly render the shadows created by the suns rays at that latitude, longitude, and time of day.
Spatial ETL
Spatial ETL tools provide the data processing functionality of traditional Extract, Transform, Load (ETL) software, but with a primary focus on the ability to manage spatial data. They provide GIS users with the ability to translate data between different standards and proprietary formats, whilst geometrically transforming the data en-route.
1.8 GIS software

Geographic information can be accessed, transferred, transformed, overlaid, processed and displayed using numerous software applications. Within industry commercial offerings from companies such as ESRI and Mapinfo dominate, offering an entire suite of tools. Government and military departments often use custom software, open source products, such as Gram++, GRASS, or more specialized products that meet a well-defined need. Free tools exist to view GIS datasets and public access to geographic information is dominated by online resources such as Google Earth and interactive web mapping. Originally up to the late 1990s, when GIS data was mostly based on large computers and used to maintain internal records, software was a stand-alone product. However, with increased access to the Internet and networks and demand for distributed geographic data grew, GIS software gradually changed its entire outlook to the delivery of data over a network. GIS software is now usually marketed as combination of various interoperable applications and Application Programe Interfaces (APIs).
Data creation
GIS processing software is used for the task of preparing data for use within a GIS. This transforms the raw or legacy geographic data into a format usable by GIS products. For example, an aerial photograph may need to be stretched using photogrammetry so that its pixels align with longitude and
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latitude gradations. This can be distinguished from the transformations done within GIS analysis software by the fact that these changes are permanent, more complex and time consuming. Thus, a specialized high-end type of software is generally used by a skilled person in GIS processing aspects of computer science for digitization and analysis. Raw geographic data can be edited in many standard database and spreadsheet applications and in some cases a text editor may be used as long as care is taken to properly format data. A geo-database is a database with extensions for storing, querying, and manipulating geographic information and spatial data.
Management and analysis

GIS analysis software takes GIS data and overlays or otherwise combines it so that the data can be visually analysed. It can output a detailed map, or image used to communicate an idea or concept with respect to a region of interest. This is usually used by persons who are trained in cartography, geography or a GIS professional as this type of application is complex and takes some time to master. The software performs transformation on raster and vector data sometimes of differing datums, grid system, or reference system, into one coherent image. It can also analyse changes over time within a region. This software is central to the professional analysis and presentation of GIS data. Examples include the ArcGIS family of ESRI GIS applications, Smallworld, Gram++ and GRASS.
Statistical
GIS statistical software uses standard database queries to retrieve data and analyse data for decision making. For example, it can be used to determine how many persons of an income of greater than 60,000 live in a block. The data is sometimes referenced with postal codes and street locations rather than with geodetic data. This is used by computer scientists and statisticians with computer science skills, with an objective of characterizing an area for marketing or governing decisions. Standard DBMS can be used or specialized GIS statistical software. These are many times setup on servers so that they can be queried with web browsers. Examples are MySQL or ArcSDE.
Readers
GIS readers are computer applications that are designed to allow users to easily view digital maps as well as view and query GIS-managed data. By definition, they usually allow very little if any editing of the map or underlying map data. Readers can be normal standalone applications that need to be installed locally, though they are often designed to connect to data servers over the Internet to access the relevant information. Readers can also be included as an embedded application within a web page, obviating the need for local installation. Readers are designed to be relatively simple and easy to use as well as free.
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Web API
This is the evolution of the scripts that were common with most early GIS systems. An Application Programming Interface (API) is a set of subroutines designed to perform a specific task. GIS APIs are designed to manage GIS data for its delivery to a web browser client from a GIS server. They are accessed with commonly used scripting language such as VBScript or JavaScript. They are used to build a server system for the delivery of GIS that is to make available over an Intranet.
Distributed GIS
Distributed GIS concerns itself with Geographical Information Systems that do not have all of the system components in the same physical location. This could be the processing, the database, the rendering or the user interface. Examples of distributed systems are web-based GIS, Mobile GIS, Corporate GIS and GRID computing.
Mobile GIS
GIS has seen many implementations on mobile devices. With the widespread adoption of GPS, GIS has been used to capture and integrate data in the field.
Open-source GIS software

Many GIS tasks can be accomplished with open-source GIS software, which are freely available over Internet for download. With the broad use of non-proprietary and open data formats such as the Shape File format for vector data and the Geotiff format for raster data, as well as the adoption of OGC standards for networked servers, development of open source software continues to evolve, especially for web and web service oriented applications. Well-known open source GIS software includes GRASS GIS, Quantum GIS, MapServer, uDig, OpenJUMP gvSIG and many others. PostGIS provides an open , source alternative to geo-databases such as Oracle Spatial, and ArcSDE.
1.9 The future of GIS

Many disciplines can benefit from GIS technology. An active GIS market has resulted in lower costs and continual improvements in the hardware and software components of GIS. These developments will result in a much wider use of the technology throughout science, government, business, and industry. The GIS applications including public health, crime mapping, national defense, sustainable development, agriculture, rural development, natural resources, landscape architecture, archaeology, regional and community planning, transportation and logistics. GIS is also diverging into location-based services (LBS). LBS allows GPS enabled mobile devices to display their location in relation to fixed assets (nearest restaurant, gas station, police station), mobile assets (friends, children, police car) or to relay their position back to a central server for display or other processing. These services continue to develop with the
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increased integration of GPS functionality with increasingly powerful mobile electronics such as cell phones, PDAs and laptops.
Web Mapping
In recent years there has been an explosion of mapping applications on the web such as Google Maps, and Live Maps. These websites give the public access to huge amounts of geographic data with an emphasis on aerial photography. Some of them, like Google Maps, expose an API that enable users to create custom applications. These vendors applications offer street maps and aerial/satellite imagery that support such features as geocoding, searches, and routing functionality. Some GIS applications also exist for publishing geographic information on the web that include MapInfos MapXtreme, Intergraphs GeoMedia WebMap, ESRIs ArcIMS, ArcGIS Server, AutoDesks Mapguide and the open source MapServer.
Exploring Global Change with GIS

Maps have traditionally been used to explore the Earth and to exploit its resources. GIS technology, as an expansion of cartographic science, has enhanced the efficiency and analytic power of traditional mapping. Now, as the scientific community recognizes the environmental consequences of human activity, GIS technology is becoming an essential tool in the effort to understand the process of global change. Various map and satellite information sources can combine in modes that simulate the interactions of complex natural systems. Through a function known as visualization, a GIS can be used to produce images - not just maps, but drawings, animations, and other cartographic products. These images allow researchers to view their subjects in ways that literally never have been seen before. The images often are equally helpful in conveying the technical concepts of GIS study-subjects to non-scientists.
Adding the dimension of time

The condition of the Earths surface, atmosphere, and subsurface can be examined by feeding satellite data into a GIS. GIS technology gives researchers the ability to examine the variations in Earth processes over days, months, and years. As an example, the changes in vegetation through a growing season can be animated to determine when drought was most extensive in a particular region. The resulting graphic, known as a normalized vegetation index, represents a rough measure of plant health. Working with two variables over time would then allow researchers to detect regional differences in the lag between a decline in rainfall and its effect on vegetation. GIS technology and the availability of digital data on regional and global scales enable such analyses. The satellite sensor output used to generate a vegetation graphic is produced by
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the Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer (AVHRR). This sensor system detects the amounts of energy reflected from the Earths surface across various bands of the spectrum for surface areas of about 1 square kilometer. The satellite sensor produces images of a particular location on the Earth twice a day. AVHRR is only one of many sensor systems used for Earth surface analysis GIS and related technology will help greatly in the management and analysis of these large volumes of data, allowing for better understanding of terrestrial processes and better management of human activities to maintain world economic vitality and environmental quality.
Semantics and GIS

Tools and technologies emerging from the W3Cs Semantic Web Activity are proving useful for data integration problems in information systems. Correspondingly, such technologies have been proposed as a means to facilitate interoperability and data reuse among GIS applications and also to enable new mechanisms for analysis. Ontologies are a key component of this semantic approach as they allow a formal, machinereadable specification of the concepts and relationships in a given domain. This in turn allows a GIS to focus on the meaning of data rather than its syntax or structure. For example, reasoning that a land cover type classified as Deciduous Needle leaf Trees in one dataset is a specialization of land cover type Forest in another more roughly-classified dataset can help a GIS automatically merge the two datasets under the more general land cover classification. Very deep and comprehensive ontologies have been developed in areas related to GIS applications, for example the Hydrology Ontology developed by the Ordnance Survey in the United Kingdom. Also, simpler ontologies and semantic metadata standards are being proposed by the W3C Geo Incubator Group to represent geospatial data on the web. Recent research results in this area can be seen in the International Conference on Geospatial Semantics and the Terra Cognita Directions to the Geospatial Semantic Web workshop at the International Semantic Web Conference.
GIS and Society

With the popularization of GIS in decision making, scholars have began to scrutinize the social implications of GIS. It has been argued that the production, distribution, utilization, and representation of geographic information are largely related with the social context. For example, some scholars are concerned that GIS may not be misused to harm the society. Other related topics include discussion on copyright, privacy, and censorship. A more optimistic social approach to GIS adoption is to use it as a tool for public participation.
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Open Geospatial Consortium (OGC) standards

The Open Geospatial Consortium (OGC) is an international industry consortium of 334 companies, government agencies and universities participating in a consensus process to develop publicly available geo-processing specifications. Open interfaces and protocols defined by OpenGIS Specifications support interoperable solutions that geo-enable the Web, wireless and location-based services, and mainstream IT, and empower technology developers to make complex spatial information and services accessible and useful with all kinds of applications. Open Geospatial Consortium (OGC) protocols include Web Map Service (WMS) and Web Feature Service (WFS). GIS products are broken down by the OGC into two categories, based on how completely and accurately the software follows the OGC specifications. Compliant Products are software products that comply with OGCs OpenGIS Specifications. When a product has been tested and certified as compliant through the OGC Testing Program, the product is automatically registered as compliant on this site. Implementing Products are software products that implement OpenGIS Specifications, but have not yet passed a compliance test? Compliance tests are not available for all specifications. Developers can register their products as implementing draft or approved specifications, though OGC reserves the right to review and verify each entry.
1.10 List of GIS software

Commercial or proprietary GIS software
Most widely used notable proprietary software applications and providers: ESRI Products include ArcView 3.x, ArcGIS, ArcSDE, ArcIMS, and ArcWeb services. GRAM++ GIS Low-cost GIS software product developed by CSRE, IIT Bombay. Autodesk Products include MapGuide and other products that interface with its flagship AutoCAD software package. Cadcorp Developers of GIS software and OpenGIS standard Intergraph Products include GeoMedia, GeoMedia Profesional, GeoMedia WebMap ERDAS IMAGINE A proprietary GIS, Remote Sensing, and Photogrammetry software developed by Leica Geosystems Geospatial Imaging. SuperGeo Products include SuperGIS Desktop & extensions, SuperPad Suite, SuperWebGIS & extensions, SuperGIS Engine & extensions, SuperGIS Network Server and GIS services.
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SuperMap GIS Products include SuperMap iServer .NET/Java, SuperMap Deskpro, SuperMap Objects, SuperMap Express, SuperMap IS .NET, eSuperMap, SuperNavigation Engine, FieldMapper and services. IDRISI Proprietary GIS product developed by Clark Labs. MapInfo Products include MapInfo Professional and MapXtreme. integrates GIS software, data and services. MapPoint Proprietary GIS product developed by Microsoft. Caliper Products include Maptitude, TransCAD and TransModeler. Develops GIS and the only GIS for transportation. Pictometry Proprietary software which allows oblique images to be draped with shapefiles. Black Coral Inc a leading edge product company developing geospatial collaboration capabilities that enable better outcomes for personnel and tactical teams operating in emergency response and military environments. STAR-APIC european GIS developer, offers GIS products (WinSTAR, STAR GIS), spatial data servers (STAR Server, STAR NeXt, GEOSPatial Hub), GIS-based business solutions (AquaSTAR, STAR ELEC, PipeGuardian, etc.). CARIS (Computer Aided Resource Information System) GIS systems for hydrography and cadastral systems. GMS Three-dimensional environment for building geologic and groundwater models Manifold System Low-cost GIS software package. Oracle Spatial Product allows users to perform basic geographic operations and store common spatial data types in a native Oracle environment. Orbit GIS Generic and multi-purpose GIS toolkit, written in Java. Safe Software Spatial ETL products including FME, SpatialDirect and the ArcGIS Data Interoperability Extension. Smallworld developed in Cambridge TatukGIS Products include a GIS development toolkit, Internet Map Server, GIS Editor, free GIS Viewer, Aerial Imagery Corrector. Axpand Proprietary GIS cartography product developed by Axes Systems. Modules include data import/export, automatic generalization, visualization and on-screen editing, pre-print configuration.
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Open source software

Most widely used open source applications: GRASS Originally developed by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, open source: a complete GIS MapServer Web-based mapping server, developed by the University of Minnesota. Chameleon Environments for building applications with MapServer. GeoNetwork opensource A catalog application to manage spatially referenced resources GeoTools Open source GIS toolkit written in Java, using Open Geospatial Consortium specifications. gvSIG Open source GIS written in Java. ILWIS ILWIS (Integrated Land and Water Information System) integrates image, vector and thematic data. JUMP GIS Java Unified Mapping Platform. MapWindow GIS Free, open source GIS desktop application and programming component. OpenLayers open source AJAX library for accessing geographic data layers of all kinds, originally developed and sponsored by MetaCarta PostGIS Spatial extensions for the open source PostgreSQL database, allowing geospatial queries. Quantum GIS QGIS is a user friendly Open Source GIS that runs on Linux, Unix, Mac OSX, and Windows. TerraView GIS desktop that handles vector and raster data stored in a relational or georelational database.
Other GIS software

AccuGlobe Fully functional GIS and geoanalysis software platform for Windows developed by DDTI (ddti.net) and available free of charge, but not open source. CrossView for ArcGIS created by A-Prime Software, CrossView is a wizard-based ArcGIS plugin, which enables map cross-sectioning and profile creation. GeoBase Geospatial platform developed by Telogis. A particular focus is placed on real-time processing for reverse-geocoding, geofencing, etc.
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LandSerf Free GIS written in Java My World GIS Intuitive low-cost GIS platform for Windows and Mac OSX with robust/intuitive geoprocessing tools, developed for educational. Panorama Russian GIS for military uses. SPRING GIS software developed at INPE SavGIS Free and complete GIS software available in French, English and Spanish MapTools Suite of open-source GIS products and platforms. OpenStreetMap Online map viewer, with map editing capability.
1.11 Let us Sum Up

Geographical Information System (GIS) is the most important and useful system for decision making in Agricultural sector by the functionaries. GIS will help to ascertain the ground level realities with the help of spatial data obtained from various resources. In GIS one can integrate data from various sources such as Remote Sensing Data and Image with that of data of land records and agricultural census. It would be more appropriate to use GIS applications in agro-based enterprise to ascertain the scope of activities and monitoring of activities.
1.12 Key Words

Decision Making: It is a settlement in bringing out conclusive results. Datum: Data is a plural form datum. Data are facts, records of an event that has occurred or is about to take place. Database: A database is a controlled collection of data about the subject, physically organized and stored so as to provide universal access ability among the users. GIS: Geographical Information Systems Geonatistics: Information: Information is a result of data processing or meaningful data or facts. Open source GIS: Spatial Data: It is the collection of the geographical information from the space.
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1.13 Further Readings

Bolstad, P (2005) GIS Fundamentals: A first text on Geographic Information Systems, Second Edition. . White Bear Lake, MN: Eider Press, 543 pp. Burrough, P and McDonnell, R.A. (1998) Principles of geographical information systems. Oxford .A. University Press, Oxford, 327 pp. Campbell, J.B. (2002). Introduction to remote sensing, 3rd ed., The Guilford Press. ISBN 1-57230640-8. Chang, K. (2007) Introduction to Geographic Information System, 4th Edition. McGraw Hill. Elangovan,K (2006)GIS: Fundamentals, Applications and Implementations, New India Publishing Agency, New Delhi208 pp. Longley, P Goodchild, M.F Maguire, D.J. and Rhind, D.W. (2005) Geographic Information Systems .A., ., and Science. Chichester: Wiley. 2nd edition. Maguire, D.J., Goodchild M.F., Rhind D.W. (1997) Geographic Information Systems: principles, and applications Longman Scientific and Technical, Harlow. Web links: http://www.sfu.ca/rdl/GIS/tour/comp_gis.html
1.14 Check Your Progress

1. 2. What is GIS? How GIS can be useful in Agriculture? Name at least three GIS Software that you aware? List the features of each GIS Software?
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Unit 2 Remote Sensing Applications in Agriculture

Structure
2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 Objectives Introduction Overview History of remote sensing Data acquisition techniques Types of resolution Converting remote sensing data into geospatial data Visual image interpretation Creating elevation data from remote sensing data Remote sensing software
2.10 Applications of remote sensing and GIS 2.11 Let us sum up 2.12 Key words 2.13 Further readings 2.14 Check your progress
2.0 Objectives
Understand the importance of Remote Sensing applications in Agriculture, Appreciate the concept, elements, functions and technology of Remote Sensing, and Apply the Remote Sensing to solve agricultural problems.
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2.1 Introduction
Remote Sensing (RS) is a technology that provides the means to collect and use geographic data to assist in the development of Agriculture. Remote Sensing in the most generally accepted meaning refers to instrument-based techniques employed in the acquisition and measurement of spatially organized or geographically distributed data on some properties such as spectral, spatial, physical of an array of target points of objects and materials from a distance from the observed target without physical contact. Remote sensing of the environment by geographers is usually done with the help of mechanical devices known as remote sensors. These gadgets have a greatly improved ability to receive and record information about an object without any physical contact. Often, these sensors are positioned away from the object of interest by using helicopters, planes, and satellites. Most sensing devices record information about an object by measuring an objects transmission of electromagnetic energy from reflecting and radiating surfaces. Remote sensing imagery has many applications in mapping land use and cover, agriculture, soils mapping, forestry, city planning, archaeological investigations, military observation, and geological surveying.
2.2 Overview
Remote Sensing is the technology that is now the principal tool by which the Earths surface and atmosphere, the planets, and the entire Universe are being observed, measured, and interpreted from such vantage points as the terrestrial surface, earth-orbit, and outer space. The term remote sensing was coined by Ms Evelyn Pruitt in the mid-1950s when she was working with the U.S. Office of Naval Research outside Washington, D.C as a oceanographer. Remote Sensing is the most generally accepted meaning refers to Instrument-based techniques employed in the acquisition and measurement of spatially organized data/information on some properties such as spectral, spatial, physical of an array of target points within the sensed scene that correspond to features, objects, and materials, doing this by applying one or more recording devices not in physical, intimate contact with the item(s) from at a finite distance from the observed target, in which the spatial arrangement is preserved. Various techniques involve pertinent to the sensed scene (target) by utilizing electromagnetic radiation, force fields, or acoustic energy sensed by recording cameras, radiometers and scanners, lasers, radio frequency receivers, radar systems, sonar, thermal devices, sound detectors, seismographs, magnetometers, gravimeters, scintillometers, and other instruments. In simpler terms, Remote Sensing can be defined as gathering data and information about the
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physical world by detecting and measuring signals composed of radiation, particles, and fields emanating from objects located beyond the immediate vicinity of the sensor devices. In the broadest sense, remote sensing is the small or large-scale acquisition of information of an object or phenomenon, by the use of either recording or real-time sensing devices that is not in physical or intimate contact with the object such as by way of aircraft or spacecraft or satellite. In practice, remote sensing is the stand-off collection through the use of a variety of devices for gathering information on a given object or area. Thus, Earth observation or weather satellite collection platforms, ocean and atmospheric observing weather buoy platforms, Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI), Positron Emission Tomography (PET), and space probes are all examples of remote sensing. In modern usage, the term generally refers to the use of imaging sensor technologies including but not limited to the use of instruments aboard aircraft and spacecraft, and is distinct from other imaging-related fields such as medical imaging. There are two kinds of remote sensing. (1) Passive sensors detect natural energy / radiation that is emitted or reflected by the object or surrounding area being observed. Reflected sunlight is the most common source of radiation measured by passive sensors. Examples of passive remote sensors include film photography, infrared, and radiometers. (2) Active collection, on the other hand, emits energy in order to scan objects and areas whereupon a passive sensor then detects and measures the radiation that is reflected or backscattered from the target. RADAR is an example of active remote sensing where the time delay between emission and return is measured, establishing the location, height, speed and direction of an object. Remote sensing makes it possible to collect data on inaccessible areas. Remote sensing applications include monitoring deforestation, the effects of climate change on Arctic and Antarctic regions, coastal and ocean depths, availability of water in the ground, and many more. Orbital platforms collect and transmit data from different parts of the electromagnetic spectrum, which in conjunction with larger scale aerial or ground-based sensing and analysis, provides researchers with enough information to monitor trends such natural long and short term phenomena. Other uses include different areas of the earth sciences such as natural resource management, agricultural fields such as land usage and conservation, national security, ground-based and stand-off collection on border areas.
2.3 History of Remote Sensing

Beyond the primitive methods of remote sensing our earliest ancestors used to standing on a high mountains or tree to view the landscape. The modern discipline arose with the development of flight. The balloonist made photographs of cities from their balloons. The first tactical use was during the
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civil war. Messenger pigeons, kites, rockets and unmanned balloons were also used for early images. With the exception of balloons, these first, individual images were not particularly useful for map making or for scientific purposes. Systematic aerial photography was developed for military use beginning in World War I and reaching a climax during the Cold War with the use of modified combat aircraft. A more recent development is that of increasingly smaller sensor pods such as those used by law enforcement and the military, in both manned and unmanned platforms. The advantage of this approach is that this requires minimal modification to a given airframe. Later imaging technologies would include Infra-red, conventional, doppler and synthetic aperture radar The development of artificial satellites in the latter half of the 20th century allowed remote sensing to progress to a global scale. Instrumentation aboard various Earth observing and weather satellites such as Landsat, the Nimbus and more recent missions such as RADARSAT and UARS provided global measurements of various data for civil, research, and military purposes. Space probes to other planets have also provided the opportunity to conduct remote sensing studies in extra-terrestrial environment, synthetic aperture radar aboard the Magellan spacecraft provided detailed topographic maps of Venus. Recent developments include, beginning in the 1960s and 1970s with the development of image processing of satellite images. Several research groups in Silicon Valley including NASA, developed Fourier transform techniques leading to the first notable enhancement of imagery data. The introduction of online web services for easy access to remote sensing data in the 21st century mainly low/medium-resolution images, like Google Earth, has made remote sensing more familiar to the every one and has popularized the science.
2.4 Data Acquisition Techniques

Electromagnetic Radiation
Remote sensing is the practice of measuring an object or a phenomenon without being in direct contact with it. It is non-intrusive. This requires the use of a sensor situated remotely from the target of interest. A sensor is the instrument (camera) that takes the remote measurements. There are many different types of sensors, but almost all of them share something what they sense or take measurements of is usually Electro-Magnetic Radiation (EMR) or light energy. EMR is energy propagated through space in the form of tiny energy packets called photons that exhibit both wave-like and particle-like properties. Unlike other modes of energy transport, such as conduction (heating a metal skillet) or convection (flying a hot air balloon), radiation (as in EMR) is capable of propagating through the vacuum of space. The speed of that EMR in a vacuum (outer space) is approximately 300,000 kilometers per
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second (3 x 108 meters/second-1 or 186,000 miles/second-1). This is an extremely fast communications medium with visible light with its red, green, and blue colors that we see daily are an example of EMR. But there is a much larger spectrum of such energy. We often characterize this spectrum or range in terms of the wavelengths of different kinds of EMR. For a variety of reasons, there are some wavelengths of EMR that are more commonly used in remote sensing than other wavelengths.
Recording Electromagnetic Radiation

There are two broad categories of sensor systems used in remote sensing active and passive. Passive sensors rely on EMR from existing sources, most commonly the Sun. Due to the extreme temperatures and nuclear activity on the surface of the Sun, this massive energy source emits a broad and continuous range of EMR, of which visible light is only a small fraction. EMR emitted from the Sun travels through the vacuum of space, interacts with the atmosphere, reflects off objects and phenomena on Earths surface, and interacts with the atmosphere before arriving at a remote sensor system in the air or in orbit. Some of the Suns energy is absorbed by target objects such as water; rocks etc. on the surface of Earth and these are often heated as a result. Absorbed energy can then be re-emitted at longer wavelengths. Certain passive sensor systems are designed to record portions of this emitted energy. On the other hand, active sensors themselves generate the EMR that they need to remotely sense objects or phenomena. The active sensors EMR propagates from the sensor, interacts with the atmosphere, arrives at target objects such as trees, rocks, buildings, etc., interacts with these objects, and reflects back through the atmosphere and recorded by the sensor. Generally, there are two types of active sensors: A. B. Radar (Radio Detection and Ranging), which utilizes microwave energy, and LiDAR (Light Detection And Ranging), which utilizes near-infrared or visible energy.
Reflectance of Electromagnetic Energy

Remote sensing would be of little use if every object or phenomenon on Earth behaved in exactly the same way when interacting with EMR. Fortunately, different objects reflect portions of the electromagnetic spectrum with differing degrees of efficiency. Similarly, different objects emit previously absorbed EMR with differing degrees of efficiency. In the visible spectrum these differences in reflective efficiency account for the myriad of colors that we see. For example, plants appear green because they reflect greater amounts of green light than of blue or red light. Plotting the spectral reflectance levels of a given object or phenomenon by wavelength yields a spectral reflectance curve, or spectral signature. This signature is the remote sensing key to distinguishing between one type of target from another. For
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example, the signature of a deciduous tree is entirely different from that of an evergreen tree.
Analog or Film-based Sensors

Today, we hear the terms analog and digital when referring to a wide range of electronic devices. In general, analog devices operate using dynamic physical properties (e.g., chemical changes) while digital devices operate using numbers (0s and 1s). Remote sensor systems record patterns in incoming EMR using analog detectors. While all remote sensor systems have at least a partial complement of analog components, some sensor systems are completely analog. A prime example of this is a filmbased aerial camera. The emulsion of silver halide crystals in film responds chemically to EMR exposure. Further analog processing is used to generate negative and positive transparencies and hardcopy photographs. In an analog aerial camera, the length of exposure to incoming EMR is controlled through a shutter that opens for just a fraction of a second. While the shutter is open, the incoming light is focused on the film plane at the back of the camera using a high quality lens. With each exposure, the focused image of EMR causes a lasting chemical change to the exposed portion of film and a new unexposed section of film is needed in order to repeat the process. A film-based camera used for remote sensing differs in a few ways from a typical camera used for photography. For one thing, the film itself is much larger (nine inches wide). For another, the cameras focal length is much longer (about 175 mm). Without delving in detail into the science of photography, these differences allow the aerial camera to take better, larger-scale photographs even from a moving platform. Most cameras designed for this purpose are metric, meaning that their internal dimensions have been precisely calibrated and are reported to the user. This is vital to the practice of photogrammetry or taking detailed measurements on photographic maps.
Digital Sensors
Digital sensors also measure patterns in incoming EMR using analog detectors. However, measurements of EMR taken by each detector element are recorded, not using an analog medium such as film, but using numbers. These measurements are digitized through a process called analog-to-digital (A-to-D) conversion. Possible values are in a pre-defined range, such as 0 to 255. Each recorded numerical value is then stored on some kind of digital medium, such as a hard disk, as part of a raster dataset. The value in each raster cell represents the amount of energy received at the sensor from a particular circular area, instantaneous-field-of-view (IFOV) on the ground. Digital sensors make use of the same basic technology as a computer document scanner or a digital camera. In fact, specialized digital cameras are often used to acquire remote sensor data and professional-grade document scanners are often used to convert analog remote sensing data to digital data.
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The detectors in a digital sensor can be arranged in a number of different ways. One method utilizes a single detector for each frequency band. A scanning mirror is then used to capture EMR at each IFOV along a scan line. The forward motion of the sensor allows for additional scan lines and therefore a two dimensional image. This type of instrument is often referred to as a scanning mirror sensor. A second method is to have a linear array of detectors for each band. Each detector in an array records EMR for a single IFOV in the cross-track dimension i.e., perpendicular to the direction of flight. The forward motion of the sensor again allows for repeated measurements and two-dimensional imagery. This type of sensor system is often called a linear array push-broom scanner. Push-broom systems have several advantages over scanning mirror sensors. As they have fewer moving parts, they are generally more durable. Also, the process of assigning coordinates to push-broom data is much easier. A third digital sensor configuration is the one that is most like the operation of analog film-based systems. In this case, an entire area array is placed at the back of the sensor. Energy is focused through a lens onto this bank of detectors. These types of sensors are called digital cameras, or area array sensors. They are often used in similar applications as film-based cameras.
2.5 Types of Resolution

Resolution quantifies how distinguishable the individual parts of an object or phenomenon are. When discussing the specifications of remote sensor systems, we generally speak of four different types of resolution.
A. Temporal Resolution
Temporal resolution is how often a sensor visits, or can visit, a particular site to collect data. This is important because many applications depend on observing change in phenomena over time. A remote sensing instrument is mounted on a platform such as a satellite or an aircraft or a hot air balloon. The platform on which a sensor is mounted is the greatest determinant of that sensors temporal resolution. Some satellites orbit Earth without ever approaching its shadow - that is, they are in Sunsynchronous orbit. Other satellites maintain a fixed position above the rotating Earth - these are in geosynchronous orbit. In either case, these satellites have a regular and predictable temporal resolution (every 16 days). Some satellite-based sensors are more flexible than other ones because of their ability to point at various targets near their default field-of-view. These more flexible sensors may have a temporal resolution range (2-3 days). Sensors mounted on aircraft fly ad-hoc or on-demand missions with less predictable but more flexible temporal resolution (every hour).
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B.
Spatial Resolution
Spatial resolution describes the size of the individual measurements taken by the remote sensor
system. This concept is closely related to scale. With an analog sensor, such as film, the spatial resolution is commonly expressed in the same terms as the scale (e.g., 1:500). Since digital sensor records information in raster format the spatial resolution is the cell size (e.g., 3 x 3 meters) in ground units. Resolution is very important in accurably classifying the objects on the earths surface.
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Spectral Resolution
Spectral resolution describes the sensor systems ability to distinguish different portions of the
EMR spectrum. Some sensors are sensitive to visible light only, while others can also capture nearinfrared energy. The portions of the spectrum to which an instrument is sensitive are referred to as its bands. A sensor can have multiple bands, and bands can be of varying widths. Spectral resolution refers both to the number and width of the bands for a given sensor. A panchromatic band is a wide band that encompasses a large spectral range, often the entire visible spectrum. Commonly we call film that is sensitive to the entire visible range black and white film because often we print images from this sort of film in grayscale. However, there are analog and digital sensors that have wide panchromatic bands that also encompass the near infrared portion of the spectrum. When a sensor records only a few portions of the spectrum, i.e., contains only a few, relatively wide bands, it is said to be a multispectral system. A multispectral sensor might have two or three bands in the visible range, i.e. red, green, and blue and it might also have a few near-infrared or middle infrared bands. Typical multispectral systems have between 4 and 10 bands. Hyperspectral sensors have a large number of relatively narrow bands. By definition, hyperspectral sensors have a higher spectral resolution than multispectral sensors. Commonly a sensor is considered hyperspectral when it has at least 20 to 30 bands. Many such sensors have hundreds of bands. In general, a sensor with more spectral bands has a greater ability to distinguish between two objects with similar spectral properties. Each band in a digital dataset can be thought of as an individual raster layer. Visualize an image in three dimensions, with rows, columns, and bands filling the x, y, and z coordinates of a cube.
D.
Radiometric Resolution
Radiometric resolution describes the number of unique values that can be recorded by a sensor
system when measuring reflected or emitted EMR. In a digital system this is easily quantified as a number.
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Since the digital numbers in remote sensor data are stored in a computer, they are often expressed in terms of how many bits are used to store that variety of numbers (Ex., 8-bits, 11-bits). An 8-bit sensor would store a value for each measurement in an integer range from 0 to 255. With analog or filmbased systems, it is the quality of the film that determines its radiometric resolution.
2.6 Converting Remote Sensing Data into Geospatial Data

Remote sensing applications are rarely successful without at least some direct measurements / ground truth being taken within the area. However, truth is really a misnomer since there is always at least some error in measurements, even if they are taken directly. Ground reference would be a better descriptor. A correct term for measurements taken directly as opposed to remote measurements is in situ data collection. Several types of in situ measurements may be necessary for a given project or application. Almost all remote sensing projects require some amount of in situ data collection in order to perform geometric and radiometric calibration. Additional in situ data may be required to create reference maps of spatial variables, including biophysical properties.
Geometric Correction
When remote sensor data is initially collected it is not geospatial data. In order to make the transition to geospatial data, geometric correction must be applied to make the data into a real-world coordinate system. Beyond having no real-world coordinates assigned, the raw data also contains geometric distortion. This means that all of the objects or phenomena that can be seen in the data are not equally out of place relative to a desired coordinate system. Distortion generally increases away from the point in the data that were acquired at straight down. Distortion is therefore different depending on the sensor configuration (Ex., scanning mirror sensors vs. area array digital cameras). Another source of distortion are variations in the terrain and objects on the terrain. Tall objects and steeply sloping terrain lead to more distortion than flat objects on flat terrain. A basic method for geometric correction involves the use of a (GPS) receiver in the field. GPS measurements are taken at locations that are also easily identifiable in the imagery. These types of locations will vary according to the spatial resolution of the remote sensor data. Ideally, the smallest possible features that can be visualized in that data should be located in the field and their positions surveyed. These features should also be permanently situated. The recorded locations of these features in the study area are collectively known as control points. Road intersections typically make good control points. Features above the ground surface do not make good control points because they cause distortion. Control points should be collected at locations spaced evenly throughout the remote sensor image. In fact, the relative location of the control points is at least as important as the number of points.
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Once enough control points have been collected, they can be used to adjust the data to its approximate spatial position within a coordinate system. Most geospatial software packages provide an interface for doing this. As part of the process, the software package will typically report a number indicating the degree to which the desired transformation was successfully implemented. The success rate depends on the amount of distortion present in the raw data. Once the remote sensor data has undergone this process it is said to be georectified data.
Photogrammetry Correction
In order to create an image that is free from all major distortions, the terrain and sensor-induced distortions must be accounted for explicitly. This is done by using a combination of GPS control points, a digital elevation model (DEM), and a detailed report of the distortion present in the sensor system. When data has been corrected in this manner it is said to be orthorectified. In an orthorectified image, all points are in their proper x, y position and aligned as they would appear if one were looking straight down at them. The practice of orthorectification is part of photogrammetry the art of taking direct measurements from photos and other remotely sensed data. Measurements derived using photogrammetric techniques include the height of objects on the terrain, their x, y location, and the ground distance between objects.
Radiometric Correction
In addition to geometric distortion, EMR that is received by the sensor contains radiometric distortions. The source of these distortions is primarily the atmosphere and its dynamic constituents. If there were no atmosphere with which to contend, EMR recorded by the sensor would be a much more perfect representation of EMR reflected or emitted from the target object or phenomena. However, along the path between the target and the sensor, EMR must interact twice with the atmosphere. Some of this energy is scattered and some of it is absorbed. Atmospheric constitutes such as water vapor and pollution vary across space and time, and therefore these distortions make it particularly difficult to compare datasets collected at different times. There are various ways to minimize this distortion. Between-date radiometric differences can be minimized if the datasets are collected at similar times so that the Suns position is held constant. Also, acquiring data on a clear day will minimize the amount of water vapor and clouds. Even after taking these measures, many applications require additional radiometric correction to account for differences and distortions in the EMR values recorded at the sensor. This can be done in few different ways, each with some degree of difficulty and level of uncertainty in the results. Following three examples.
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One simple radiometric correction technique is to rescale all of the pixel brightness values in an image by identifying one of the darkest pixels and one of the brightest pixels. The darkest pixel is reassigned a value of 0, and the lightest a value of 255. The intermediate values are then rescaled to fit evenly in between. Although this method is very easy and requires no additional input data, it is the least reliable. This technique is known as a min-max contrast stretch. A second, simple method is referred to as empirical line calibration. In this method, several in situ radiometric measurements are taken over various objects concurrently with the acquisition of the remote sensor data. The instrument used for these measurements is called a radiometer. Unlike the remote sensor system, the radiometer is used to take measurements in situ with almost no atmosphere with which to contend. The data collected using the radiometer is used to develop a simple linear mathematical function to predict what the radiometric values should be over the entire image. A third method is more complex than either of the previous two. It relies on collecting explicit information on the environmental conditions at the time of the remote sensor data acquisition. This information might include a detailed profile of temperature and humidity within the atmospheric column, the Sun-Earth geometry, and the position of the sensor with respect to each pixel. This method is actually a group of methods, each requiring differing information. Automated computer algorithms are then used to process the remote sensor data along with the ancillary data to produce a radiometricallycorrected image.
2.7 Visual Image Interpretation

With the power of the human visual system, much information in remote sensor data can be acquired simply by visual inspection. Examples include the spatial extent of a lake, the location of roads, and the number of houses in a community. These are all variables that can be seen on the terrain and interpreted directly by visualizing the imagery. In these cases, a trained image analyst uses a combination of real-world experience and heuristic rules-of-thumb to interpret what is seen in the image and to determine its significance. The process of image interpretation can be broken down into its fundamental elements, including: absolute location (coordinates), relative location, size, shape, shadow, tone/color, texture, pattern, 3-dimensional characteristics and Color Composites. White light from the Sun is composed of EMR from all wavelengths within the visible spectrum. We can see this clearly when white light passes through a prism and separates into a rainbow. Combining these colors of the rainbow back together yields white light. Adding only some portions of the rainbow light will result in a different color. One can create any color by mixing the three primary ones red,
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green, and blue (additive color theory). Each pixel in a computer screen is actually made using three different light guns, one for each of these primary colors. These guns respond to commands by the computer to display with various intensities. The addition of the EMR emitted by these three guns determines what color the user perceives. The initial visualization of remote sensor data is an important aspect of an effective interpretation effort. Digital remote sensor data is displayed by assigning recorded brightness values to the three colour guns mentioned above. When the red, green, and blue bands in the visible spectrum are assigned to their respective red, green, and blue color guns, the displayed result is said to be a true color composite. However, remote sensor systems often measure EMR outside the visible range, requiring the creation of false color composites. For example, near-infrared bands are often displayed using the red color gun. When looking at a false color composite image, special care needs to be taken to interpret it correctly.
Automated Classification
Although manual image interpretation is valuable and often provides highly detailed and accurate information, many applications require that objects on the ground be classified faster and more costeffectively. In these cases it is necessary to automatically interpret, or classify, the image using computer algorithms. There are primarily two different ways to approach this goal. Both are based on the simple concept that similar objects or phenomena have similar spectral reflectance properties. The first method is referred to as an unsupervised classification. In this method, the computer algorithm operates without any prior knowledge of the scene. Pixels are grouped together based on the similarity of their spectral characteristics. These clusters of similar pixels, representing unique spectral classes, are then reported to the user, who is responsible for transforming them into information classes. This process can be aided with in situ data and/or manual image interpretation. Supervised classification, is the second method, requires that the uses have some knowledge of the actual objects and phenomena within the image. This knowledge could have been acquired through in situ data collection or manual image interpretation. The user specifies the classes (Ex. water, forest, crops) and then instructs, or trains, a computer algorithm by feeding it the exact location of several training examples for each class throughout the image. The computer algorithm examines the properties of these areas and then seeks similar regions throughout the image, eventually classifying the entire image. Spectral data is often the primary data source considered in the process, although recently more effort has been made to incorporate more advanced aspects, such as object shape and relative position.
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Mapping Spatial Variables

There are certain aspects of phenomena that must be sensed while in direct contact with an object. For example, it is impossible to directly measure the live biomass, the amount of living matter, present in a stand of vegetation without harvesting the vegetation, processing it to remove water and foreign substances, and then weighing it. However, it is possible for a trained person to estimate the biomass present in a particular stand of vegetation without coming in direct contact with it. In a similar manner, remote sensing principles provide a way to quantify what is seen and provide information, such as biomass or other biophysical variables, which are present in an image. Mapping biomass requires taking some in situ measurements of the vegetation of interest. These measurements are used to build a mathematical model relating to the quantity of biomass to the spectral reflectance values in the remote sensor data. An example of this type of equation might be: Biomass = Bias + (Constant A x Near-infrared) + (Constant B x Red) In addition to using the band values directly, it has been shown that specific mathematical combinations of band values are effective for mapping various phenomena. For example, the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) is often highly related to a number of vegetation properties, including green biomass. There are many other band indices for use in vegetation, geologic, and other application areas.
2.8 Creating Elevation Data from Remote Sensing Data

Elevation is another example of a continuous variable that can be remotely sensed. This can be done in several different ways. One is through collecting stereoscopic pairs of images. In each pair, the images partially overlap. The fact that the two images are acquired from different positions allows us to extract 3D (2D plus height) information from the overlapping portion. This method is a branch of photogrammetry. The operating principle is closely related to how our eyes detect 3D information by combining the different images from our two eyes. In fact, stereoscopic pairs of remote sensor images can viewed through a device called a stereoscope, thus enabling the user to see the terrain in 3D. Today there are specialized computer software packages that allow users to make quantitative elevation calculations directly from stereoscopic imagery. When a large number of these measurements are taken, an elevation surface / DEM can be derived. A second, related method is radar interferometry. Differences in radar signals acquired over the same area from different positions can be used to create an elevation surface. A third method of deriving elevation data is to use LiDAR data. Most of the time, the collection of LiDAR data results in a series of x, y, z points. Once the points that have reflected off the ground are
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separated from those that reflected off other objects above the ground, a digital surface representing the ground can be created. Old data from remote sensing is often valuable because it may provide the only long-term data for a large extent of geography. At the same time, the data is often complex to interpret, and bulky to store. Modern systems tend to store the data digitally, often with lossless compression. One of the best systems for archiving data series is as computer-generated machine-readable form. They can be created, copied, filed and retrieved by automated systems. They are about as compact as archival magnetic media, and yet can be read by human beings with minimal, standardized equipment.
2.9 Remote Sensing Software

The most used software in remote sensing are ESRI (Environmental Systems Research Institute), ERDAS, RSI ENVI, IDRISI, GRASS, ERMapper, AutoDesk etc. The most free remote sensing software seems to be Chips (CopenHagen Image Processing System) for windows and a large number of popular Free and Open Source software options exist for remote sensing data analysis, ranging from programming APIs and toolkits like GDAL, to full featured desktop applications like GRASS GIS, and OpenEV.
2.10 Applications of Remote Sensing and GIS

Remote sensing is an important tool to provide important information on soils, land evaluation, land degradation, crop distribution, crop growth, availability of water resources etc. The information of Remote Sensing can be improved in its efficiency by combining with conventional technologies / ground surveys and also the advanced tools such as GIS for analysis and interpretation. Remote sensing data is available in digital form and can be used as an input layer to GIS software. The software such as ArcInfo/ERDAS, which supports for both remote sensing and GIS data. The advent of technology in storage capacity, processing capabilities, relational databases, and enhanced graphical user interface has given more capabilities to work on remote sensing and GIS data for analysis and interpretation of data. Use of GIS in combination with remote sensing enhances the decision-making in following ways; Process identification to enable comparison of different acquisitions through time. Identification of agricultural and other development problems. Evaluation of possible technical interventions for conservation or reclamation measures. Monitoring of soils, water, and land degradation processes.
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Crop Production Databases

Crop production database is used to know how many hectares have been cultivated, where the cultivation has occurred and what will be likely production, i.e. Area and Production of various crops can be assed with the help of remote sensing and GIS applications. Crop distribution help in modeling of climatic and other environmental changes and their effects on agriculture.
Crop growth and yield determination:

Crop growth and yield are determined by a number of factors such as genetic potential of crop cultivar, soil, weather, cultivation practices such as date of sowing, amount of irrigation and fertilizer and biotic stresses. However, generally for a given area, year-to-year yield variability has been mostly modeled through weather as a predictor using either empirical or crop simulation approach. With the launch and continuous availability of multi-spectral (visible, near-infrared) sensors on polar orbiting earth observation satellites remote sensing data has become an important tool for yield modeling. RS data provide timely, accurate, synoptic and objective estimation of crop growing conditions or crop growth for developing yield models and issuing yield forecasts at a range of spatial scales. RS data have certain advantage over meteorological observations for yield modeling, such as dense observational coverage, direct viewing of the crop and ability to capture effect of non-meteorological factors. An integration of the three technologies, viz., crop simulation models, RS data and GIS can provide an excellent solution to monitoring and modeling of crop at a range of spatial scales.
Crop Monitoring
The use of GIS along with RS data for crop monitoring is an established approach in all phases of the activity, namely preparatory, analysis and output. In the preparatory phase, GIS is used for (a) stratification/zonation using one or more input layers (climate, soil, physiolgraphy, crop dominance, etc.), or (b) preparing input data (weather, soil and collateral data) which is available in different formats to a common format. In the analysis phase, GIS is mainly used through operations on raster layers of NDVI or computing VI profiles within specified administrative boundaries. The final output phase involves GIS for aggregation and display of outputs for defined regions (e.g., administrative regions) and creating map output products with required data integration through overlays.
2.11 Let us Sum Up

The use of remote sensing technology has rapidly expanded for the development of various sectors including Agriculture. The remote sensing techniques will continue to be very important factor in the improvement of present system of acquiring agricultural data. The remote sensing provides various platforms for agricultural survey. Satellite imagery has unique ability to provide the actual synoptic views
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of large area at a time, which is not possible for conventional survey methods and also the process of data acquisition and analysis are very fast through Geographic Information System as compared to the conventional methods. The importance of remote sensing applications to agricultural sector involve land use pattern, crop production, crop yield determination, and crop monitoring.
2.12 Key Words

Data Correction: Geometric and radiometric correction of remote sensing data. Digital Data: Data that is coded in a discrete, numerical format Digital Elevation Model (DEM): A representation of the topography of the Earth in digital format that is, by coordinates and numerical descriptions of altitude.

Campbell, J.B. (2002). Introduction to remote sensing, 3rd ed., The Guilford Press. ISBN 1-57230640-8. Jensen, J.R. (2007). Remote sensing of the environment: an Earth resource perspective, 2nd ed., Prentice Hall. Jensen, J.R. (2005). Digital Image Processing: a Remote Sensing Perspective, 3rd ed., Prentice Hall. MATHER, P .M.(1987)/ Computer processing of Remotely sensed image: An introduction. PATEL SURENDRA SINGH, A.N.(1992). Remote Sensing: Principles and Applications, Scientific publishers.

1. 2. What is Remote Sensing? How Data can be acquired? Name at least two important applications of Remote sensing and GIS ?
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Unit 3 E-Governance
Structure
3.0 Objectives 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Concept and definition of e-Governance 3.3 e-Government and e-Governance 3.4 Benefits of e-Governance 3.5 Critical Success Factors for e-governance 3.6 E-Governance: ecology and components 3.7 Stages of e-Governance 3.8 Let us sum up 3.9 Key words 3.10 Further readings 3.11 Check your progress
3.0 Objectives
Understand the concept and components of e-Governance Develop an understanding of the role of e-government and e-governance in todays society and in public organizations, with an emphasis on the effective management of information and its flow Appreciate the need and benefits of e-Governance Understand the Critical Success Factors for E-Governance
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3.1 Introduction
Empowering the citizen via electronic governance has been gaining momentum across liberal economies in the world where democratic principles underlie the government constitutional structures. This has been further enabled by the growing use of new information and communication technologies (ICTs), particularly designed for strengthening democratic governance around the world. E-governance is widely acknowledged as the application of new ICTs, especially the Internet and World Wide Web (WWW), as channels for engaging citizens in government as well as facilitating delivery of government information and services. ICT has a vital role to play in all transactions that the government undertakes. It helps the government cut red-tapism, avoid corruption, and reach citizens directly. This realization is wide spread among all the states of the country. Almost every state has an IT policy in place with the aim of evolving itself from being an IT-aware to an IT-enabled government. State governments are fast recognizing the benefits of an IT-enabled working environment and IT-enabled service delivery. Effective use of ICTs in government or E-Governance is perceived as a facilitator. Governments, at central and state level, in general feel necessity of that being accessible online 24/7 to the average citizen. Why e-Governance? The basic objective of e-Governance is to support and simplify governance for government, citizens and businesses. The use of ICTs can connect these three segments and support processes and activities. Other objectives are to make government administration more transparent, speedy and accountable, while addressing the societys needs and expectations through efficient public services and effective interaction between the people, businesses and government.
3.2 Concept and Definition of e-Governance

Definitions of E-governance vary and efforts to incorporate all of them in one single statement seem impossible. However, a common thing is that e-governance refers to the use of Information and Communication Technology (ICT), particularly web based applications, to provide access to and deliver information / service to the public, business, other agencies and governmental entities faster, cheaper, easier and more efficiently. This in turn enhances relationships, enlarges the overall customer base and improves core business operations through reexamination of internal processes. Other definitions go beyond this main core. Wimmer and Traunmuller (2000) consider Egovernment as a guiding vision towards modern administration and democracy. For them it is concerned with the transformation that government and public administration have to undergo in the coming decades. Hence, e-government is not an option. Instead it is a must for the governments to use the benefits of the information technology in order not to fall behind. Lawson see E-government as transferring
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power to people by operating by a one stop, non-stop way and doing more for less. e-Governance is defined by M. Backus (Backus, M. , 2001), as the application of electronic means in (a) interaction between government and citizen and between government and businesses as well as (b) in internal government operations to simplify and improve democratic, government and business aspects of governance. The term electronic means above stands for Internet and other ICT applications; The term interaction stands for delivery of government products and services, exchange of information, communication, transactions, and system integration; Government consists of levels and branches. Government levels include- Central, State, District, Block (Taluka), Mandal level government agencies/ departments/ institutions. Government branches include- Parliament, Judiciary, Police, Civil Services and all branches of administration. Government operations include all back-office processes and inter-governmental interactions within the total government body.
3.3 e-Governance and e-Government

e-Governance and e-Government are two very distinct terms. Whereas e-Governance is a broader topic that deals with the whole spectrum of the relationship and networks within government regarding the usage and application of ICTs, e-Government is a narrower discipline dealing with the development of online services to the citizen, i.e. government services such as e-agriculture, e-passport, e-tax, e-transportation, e-health, etc. E-Governance is a wider concept that defines and assesses the impact that technologies are having on the practice and administration of governments and the relationships between public servants and the civil society, and dealings with the elected bodies or outside groups, such as not-for-profit organizations, NGOs or private sector corporate entities. E-Governance encompasses a series of necessary steps for government agencies to develop and administer, in order to ensure successful implementation of e-government services to the public at large. E-Government: E-Government or Electronic Government is the delivery of more convenient, customeroriented and cost effective public services and sharing of information through electronic media. Specifically, e-Government harnesses information and communication technologies (such as Wide Area Networks, the Internet, and mobile computing) to transform relations with citizens, businesses, and other arms of government. E-government is an administration where citizens can avail of government services such as land records, filing of tax, etc, E-Government is also defined as the use of Information and Communication Technologies to provide better government services. This definition usually refers to more efficient, more transparent and potentially two-way information flow between the government and citizens. But the fact
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is that in most of the cases e-Government is not more than digitalization of the operational functions of the government. The Global e-Government Readiness Report says the role of government has to be reoriented and redefined from that of managerial authority to that of leadership in a multi-centered government, the culture of governance needs to change from being bureaucratic to participatory from authoritative to accountable, from being monopolistic to being competitive and innovative, from being closed to being participatory, from being autocratic to democratic, and from being exclusive to inclusive. E-Governance is socially inclusive governance with the promise of good governance and effective participation and inclusion of citizens. E-Governance: E-Governance is the development, deployment and enforcement of the policies, laws and regulations, necessary to support the functioning of a Knowledge Society as well as of e-Government. E-Governance brings about anytime anywhere access to the citizen. E-governance is about transforming the relationship between governments and their citizens through the use of information technologies, and that E-government is about delivering government services using information technologies.
3.4 Benefits of e-Governance

E-Governance was initiated worldwide to improve speed, transparency, efficiency and reliability of the Government services. The basic premise to undertake e-Governance initiatives was to harness the advantages of ever-enlarging network and reach of Internet for improving reach, timeliness, credibility and consistency of Government services. E-governance offers the potential to bring citizens closer to their governments. Regardless of the type of political system that a country has, the public benefits from interactive features that facilitate communication between citizens and government. The scope as well as potential benefits of e-Governance are increasing with enrichment of e-services by various departments/ agencies. The following are direct benefits of e-Governance: Faster, easier, more convenient service Convenience, Near to Home, more services at one place Faster processing, shorter wait, shorter queues at Government offices Less number of trips to government offices Better interaction environment; No harassment Reduced transport cost Avoids wage loss for daily-wage earners Better quality service
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More accurate and legible documents, easy recovery from errors, Lesser corruption, increased transparency Improved access to offices (nearer home, 24X7 or at least 12X6, in place of limited number of working hours or only on working days) and functionaries No intermediaries There are some derived benefits of e-Governance services, as the back-end procedures and
databases are also linked to services. This streamlining of data-networking helps the concerned departments to handle queries and complaints more effectively. These benefits include: Improved complaint handling, complaint tracking Introduces transparency in data, decisions/actions, rules, procedures and performance of Govt. agencies Automates processes to take away discretion Reduces arbitrariness in decision making Entry point for simplification of rules and reengineering processes Makes decisions traceable- tracks actions Builds accountability- greater access to information through web publishing-role of civil society Provides documentation to citizens for follow up Tracks procedural/ human delays Easier to fix responsibility/ accountability Modularizes Tasks Making Outsourcing Possible Introduces competition amongst delivery channels and departments Standardized documentation of comments/ objections leads to effective supervision- through comparative indicators Centralizes data for better audit and analysis Integration of data across applications-provides improved intelligence Enables unbiased sampling for audit purposes
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Further, there are social benefits of e-Governance projects and services as it induces increased skill and knowledge among the young and curious citizenry. E-Governance creates more job opportunities at grass-root level. Just like the PCO (Public Call Offices) revolution in telecommunications created over a million jobs in 90s, the Community Services Centres (CSCs) are potential creator of over two million jobs in next five years, if the 1,00,000 CSCs are made operational by Ministry of Information Technology, as planned.
3.5 Critical Success Factors

A large number of e-Governance projects have been taken up within and outside India. Within our country there are over a hundred e-Governance projects currently operational (at various stages). Some of these are highly successful, benefiting a large number of people and also generating resources to make them self-sustainable. The e-Seva project of Government of Andhra Pradesh is one such project. More than 50 government services including payments of telephone-bills, property tax and many more services are available at e-Seva centres. Some other e-Governance projects are delivering high quality information services to the clientele and have potential to be replicated country-wide. EKrishi- Market Driven Agricultural Initiative through IT enabled Agri-Business Centres in Kerala State project of Kerala and Digital Mandi project of IIT Kanpur can be categorized under such projects. Against a handful of highly successful and replicable projects there are numerous examples of eGovernance projects which have failed to grow beyond pilot stage. Studies have indicated that there are certain critical factors for each successful e-Governance project. Studies carried out within and outside the country have indicated the following as some of the critical success factors for e-Governance projects: Political will Overall Vision and National e-Strategy Full ownership and support of Chief Executive Officer and senior staff Effective and Appropriate Project Management ICT Infrastructure (telephones, broadband connectivity, computers and ELECTRICITY) Access (within reachdistance as well economic) Education of Clients Participation of Clients Culture Cooperation and Collaboration with Private Sector
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Technology Human Resources Finances Legal Framework
3.6 E-Governance: Ecology and Components

The last 2 decades in the history of mankind have seen enormous growth of technology and its utilization for creating a better global society by disseminating the knowledge down to common man, thereby transcending the geographical boundaries. The accessibility of knowledge is not confined to any nation. Thus the whole world has acquired a bigger vision of coexisting with divergent societal patterns. Unlike other sectors, the application of ICTs in Governance has larger implications on interactions with structural systems of politics and bureaucracy, and value systems of society. For success of e-Governance projects, it is important to understand the whole context or ecology of e-Governance. Professor Sangeeta Sharma (2002) has suggested concept of Ecology of E-Governance. To understand the ecology of EGovernance it would be pertinent to identify the components, then to elaborate upon how these components interact with each other to deliver the output/ service to society. Components of E-governance: The following components can be identified: Political Component with Enactment dimension. Technological Component with Electronic dimension. Social Component with Egalitarian dimension. Cultural Component with Ethical dimension. Psychological Component with Extensional dimension. Service Component with Empowerment dimension.
3.6.1 Political Component

The political system is essential aspect of governance. It holds responsibility of rationalizing various operative frameworks by enacting laws. This helps to maintain & sustain the cohesive force that is required by society to integrate its people and abide them to follow a uniform policy to fulfill their targets. This refers to the importance of e of enactment of laws to stop society from disintegration.
3.6.2 Technological Componen

This relates to educate people who are in the bureaucratic structure or outside its periphery
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regarding use of electronic means to develop better connectivity within and with the system. It requires use of computers (a) in developing the data-base, (b) in networking to facilitate the communication and (c) in creating e-knowledge workers so as to increase their potentiality. This focuses on e of electronic knowledge and its proper utilization.
3.6.3 Social Component

The fundamental duty of any government is to educate a society which is based on the principles of equality and justice. A society which is classless with no distinction between haves and haves-not, where nobody is marginalized from the main stream, and is committed to provide a respectful essence of life to its people without any discrimination of cast or race must be set up. This is possible when people are aware of their rights & duties on the one hand, and know about the governmental policies made for them on related issues on the other, hence a vigilant society can be evolved where they can raise their voices by questioning the governmental decisions. This would help in attaining the e of egalitarian society with thrust on equality.
3.6.4 Cultural Component

With the advent of the era of knowledge explosion there is a need to reorient some of the value patterns without eroding the fundamental normative structure of any social system. The need to create value patterns conducive for e-governance to operate focusing on work ethos therefore cannot be denied. Thus to work out the ethical framework is the key to move further by discarding obsolete set of values that come in the way of potential utilization. Thus e of ethical framework has to be the focal point in constructing a morality-based system.
3.6.5 Psychological Component

Developing required psyche so as to facilitate formation and inculcation of right type of attitudes in the people is prerequisite for efficiency. Apart form this; readiness to connect to people, to listen to their queries, to look for solutions, to improve communicative skills etc. will be necessary elements for behavioral modifications. Hence personality adjustments must be carried out to cater to the needs of common man. This specifically relates to e of extension of self so as to have constructive collaborative social relationships.
3.6.6 Service Component

The ultimate function of any welfare government is to serve. As a provider of good services to its people it has to assimilate the basic needs and also expectations of common man in to the documentation of policy, which then has to be implemented in the right spirit. This develops a constant pressure on the government to respond to public demands as this leads to the realization of power they can exercise on
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government to maintain impartiality, integrity and transparency in its functioning. This explains e of empowerment of people in any system.
Interactions among Various Components

Now let us analyze the interactive relationship amongst the various components identified above so as to get an insight in to understanding the ecology of e- Governance. These components are not only interdependent but are also interrelated with each other in the way that output of one component becomes input of the other component. Thus a relationship of all purpose type emerges which gets substantiated by assimilating the impact of external forces. A schematic representation is self explanatory in this regard. The definitive interrelationships between the various components reciprocate e-Governance in such a way that resultant impact would be the transformation of society in to one that has right knowledge, right morality, and right way of perpetuating practicing ethos.
Political Component E1 E2
Technical Component
Service Component
E6 E-Governance
E3
Social Component
E4 E5 Psycho. Component Economic Component
E1: Enactment, E2: Electronic Know-How, E3: Egalitarian E4: Economization, E5: Extension and E6: Empowerment
Figure 3.6: Ecology of E-Governance (Re-produced with permission from Prof. Sangeeta Sharma 3.6 (2002))
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3.7 Stages of e-Governance

Stages of e-governance refer to the degree of progress made by a Government towards the ultimate e-governance goal. There are a number of models on maturity stages of government service delivery and available methodologies to measure it. According to Gartner and Christopher (Gartner and Christopher), The e-Government matures in four stages namely
a)
Presence
Web site that lists cursory information about an agency, such as hours of operation, mailing
address, and/or phone numbers, but has no interactive capabilities; b) Interaction Provides simple interactions and generally revolve around information provision, designed to help the customer avoid a trip to an office or make a phone call by making commonly requested information and forms available round the clock;
c)
Transaction
Provides citizens the facility for self-service operations by allowing to complete electronically entire
tasks such as license renewals, paying taxes and fees, and submitting bids for procurement contracts. The activities still involve primarily a one-way flow of information; and
d)
Transformation
The highest order of evolution for e-government initiatives which facilitates seamless flow of
information and collaborative decision making between all levels of government and private partners by removing organizational barriers. The most comprehensive and widely used model is the one suggested by Layne and Lee (2001). According to Layne and Lee model e-government is an evolutionary phenomenon and it evolves in four stages of growth. The four stages outline the structural transformation of e-Governance services and interactions as they progress towards fully integrated and amalgamated with the traditional public administration. These stages are: 1. Cataloguing 2. Transaction 3. Vertical integration 4. Horizontal integration
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3.7.1 Cataloguing
In stage one of cataloguing, initial efforts of governments are focused on establishing an on-line presence for the government. Many state governments efforts on web development and forms-on-line initiatives belong to this stage. Examples of functionalities at this stage are mostly limited to on-line presentations of government information. Towards the end of this stage, mostly pushed by citizens demands, governments begin to establish index pages or a localized portal site in which scattered electronic documents are organized so that citizens can search for and view detailed government related information and download necessary forms. This first stage is called cataloguing, because efforts are focused on cataloguing government information and presenting it on the web.
3.7.2 Transaction
As government websites evolve, officials as well as citizens come to realize the value of the Internet as another service channel for citizens and want to exploit it. Citizens demand to fulfill government requirements on-line instead of having to go to a specific location to complete paperwork. Electronic transactions offer a better hope for improved efficiency for both the customer and the agency than simply cataloguing information. In addition, such capabilities provide the opportunity for a broader democratic process by holding interactive conversations with constituents who are reluctant or unable to attend public hearings. There is no question that fully functional e-government will make service delivery more efficient and increase savings for both government and the citizen. This second stage is the beginning of the e-government as a revolutionary entity changing the way people interact with their government. This stage empowers citizens to deal with their governments on-line anytime, saving hours of paperwork, the inconvenience of traveling to a government office and time spent waiting in line. At this stage, citizens can be served on-line by e-government. While the cataloguing stage helps citizens fact-finding process, this transaction stage e-government presents government on the other side of the Internet as an active respondent. It is now a two-way communication.
3.7.3
Vertical Integration
At this stage, the focus is now moving toward transformation of government services, rather
than automating and digitizing existing processes. Making government electronic is not simply a matter of putting existing government services on the Internet. What should and will be happening are permanent changes in the government processes themselves and possibly the concept of government itself. Just as electronic commerce is redefining private business and society in terms of processes and product, electronic government initiatives should be accompanied by re-conceptualization of the government service itself. In the long run, the full benefit of e-government will be realized only when organizational changes
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accompany technological changes. After on-line transaction services become prevalent and mature, citizens expectations will increase. Most transaction stage systems are localized and fragmented. A natural progression will be the integration of scattered systems at different levels (vertical) and different functions (horizontal) of government services. Agencies often maintain separate databases that are not connected to other governmental agencies at the same level or with similar agencies at the state and national level. For example, a state input-dealer license database is often separate from a local (district level) business license database. Further, that state license system is probably not connected to the state vendor database. It is expected that vertical integration within the similar functional walls but across different levels of government will happen first, because the gap between levels of government is much less than the difference between different functions/ ministries. Many state government departments interact more closely with their central government and district counterparts than other departments at the same level of government. Consequently, at stage three central, state and local counterpart systems are expected to connect or, at least, communicate to each other. While some departments websites currently provide links to other governmental agencies at different levels, vertical integration goes beyond this simple interconnection. If a citizen conducts a transaction with a state agency, the transaction information will be propagated to district and central government counterparts. These various levels of systems are connected and talk to each other so that results of transactions from one system can be interchanged with another system. Physically, this may be integrated as a central database or a connected web of databases communicating with each other.
39.7.4
Horizontal Integration
The full potential of information technology, from the citizens perspective, can only be achieved by horizontally integrating government services across different functional walls (or silos). The limitations of the functional nature of both the public and private sector will become clearer as more public administrators begin to see the vision opened by the Internet. Typically, citizens requiring assistance from governments need more than one service. Those requiring housing also need governmental assistance for education, food, medical attention, etc. To overcome this problem, some state governments provide one stop service centers where, for example, the homeless can come and obtain information about jobs, etc. Governments continually fight the battle of getting services to the people who need them the most. The horizontal integration of the stage four will considerably improve those efforts. Databases across different functional areas will communicate with each other and ideally share information, so that information obtained by one agency will propagate through out all government functions. In addition, citizens could conduct business across a wide variety of requirements.
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As an example, when a citizen applies for a drivers license after moving to another state, the basic residence record could be propagated to different functional service branches of government such as the health and the district level election department so that the citizen does not have to fill out a personal record form for each governmental agency. Horizontal integration refers to system integration across different functions in that a transaction in one agency can lead to automatic checks against data in other functional agencies.
9.8 Let us Sum Up

E-governance refers to the use of Information and Communication Technology (ICT), particularly web based applications, to provide access to and deliver information / service to the public, business, other agencies and governmental entities faster, cheaper, easier and more efficient. E-Government can advance the agenda on Governance reform, transparency, anti- corruption, and empowerment. Potential of e-Governance is recognized but implementation is difficult and has many dimensions. Gains are real but risks need to be understood. Challenge is to promote wide spread use in areas where benefits outweigh risks. Stages of e-governance refer to the degree of progress made by a Government towards the ultimate e-governance goal. According to Layne and Lee model e-government is an evolutionary phenomenon and it evolves in four stages of growth. These stages are: 1. Cataloguing, 2. Transaction, 3. Vertical integration, and 4. Horizontal integration.
9.9 Key Words

e-Governance is a broader topic that deals with the whole spectrum of the relationship and networks within government regarding the usage and application of ICTs. e-Government is a narrower discipline dealing with the development of online services to the citizen, more the e on any particular government service such as e-agriculture, e-passport, e-tax, etransportation or e-health. Critical Success Factors Overall Vision and National e-Strategy, Political Will, Full ownership and support of Chief Executive Officer and senior staff, Effective and Appropriate Project Management, ICT Infrastructure (telephones, broadband connectivity, computers and ELETRICITY), Access (within reachdistance as well economic), Education of Clients, Participation of Clients, Culture, Cooperation and Collaboration with Private Sector, Technology, Human Resources, Finances and appropriate Legal Framework are some of the critical success factors for e-Governance to succeed. Stages of e-Governance refer to the degree of progress made by a Government towards the ultimate e59
governance goal. These stages are: 1. Cataloguing, 2. Transaction, 3. Vertical integration, and 4. Horizontal integration.
3.10 Further Reading

Accenture., (2000, 2001, 2002, 2003, 2004, 2005): e-Government Leadership Realizing the Vision, (http://www.accenture.com/home/default.htm ) last viewed on September 14, 2007 Araujo M.C.R. and Grande J.I.C., (2003): Performance in E-Government: Web Site Orientation to the Citizens in Spanish Municipalities. Proceedings of European Conference on e-Government, Trinity College, Dublin Backus, M., (2001): E-Governance and Developing Countries : Introduction and Examples, Research Report Number 3, April 2001, (http://www.ftpiicd.org/ files/research/reports/report3.pdf) last viewed September 14, 2007. Bhatnagar S., (2003): Transparency and corruption: Does E-Government help?, Indian Institute of Management Ahmedabad, Draft paper prepared for the compilation of CHRI 2003 Report OPEN SESAME: looking for the right to information in the Commonwealth, Human Rights Initiative (CHRI), 2003, full text available at www.iimahd.ernet.in/ ~subhash/pdfs/CHRIDraftPaper2003.pdf (last viewed August 14, 2007) Chadwick A. and C. May, (2003): Interactions Between States and Citizens in the Age of Internet: eGovernment in the United States, Britain and the European Union, Governance: An International Journal of Policy, Administration and Institutions, Vol 16, Issue 2, pg-271 Chircu A. M, Lee D. Hae-Dong (2005): E-government: Key success factors for value discovery and realization, Electronic Government, pp. 1124, Vol.2, No. 1. 2005 Conflux, (2005): The e-Government Conference, held between 17-19 October 2005. in New Delhi, India. Conference Report available on www.csdms.in /conflux / conflux200_report.pdf (last viewed August 14, 2007) eINDIA2007,(2007): Proceedings of eIndia 2007 Summit, July 31 August 3, New Delhi, India (last viewed August 14, 2007) Irani Z., T. Elliman et al., (2002): Evaluating the Benefits, Costs and Risks of Developing an E-Government Infrastructure (E-GOV-IT): A proposed Research Agenda. Proceedings of the 2nd European Conference of E-Government (ECEG), St. Catherines College, Oxford University, United Kingdom, EDS Layne K., Lee J. (2001): Developing Fully Functional e-Government- A four - stage Model, Goverment
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Information Quarterly 18, pages 122-136 at eprint.iitd.ac.in/dspace/bitstream/2074/1111/1/ guptagov2002.pdfMitra A , (2005): Direction of electronic governance initiative within two worlds: case for a shift in emphasis, Electronic Government, Vol.2, No.1, 2005. Porter, (2002): The Second Annual Report into Key Government Web Sites. Available from: www.porterresearch.com/govt2002.html. Sharma sangeeta, (2002): The Second Annual Report into Key Government Web Sites. Available from: www.porter-research.com/govt2002.html. West D., (2007): Some steps Towards Implementing E-government, CM SIGCAS Computers and Society, Volume 37, Issue 1 (June 2007) Wimmer, M., Traunmuller, R.(200): Trends in electronic goverment: managing distributed knowledge, IEEE Computer Society, London, paper presented at 11th International Workshop on Database and Expert Systems.

1. 2. 3. What is the basic objective of e-Governance? How does ICT improve the effectiveness of Government services? Differentiate between E-Government and E-Governance? What are the Stages of e-Governance? Are these stages strictly hierarchical? Can a country/ state start the e-Governance with Vertical Integration, straight away?
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Unit 4 Cyber Extension

Structure
4.0 Objectives 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Information needs of farming community 4.3 Traditional information access mechanism 4.4 Concept of cyber extension 4.5 Cyber extension: tools 4.6 Success stories of cyber extension 4.7 Cyber Extension current trends in India and other countries 4.8 Let us sum up 4.9 Key words 4.10 Further readings 4.11 Check your progress
4.0 Objectives
Appreciate the Information needs of Farming Community; Understand the concept and importance of Cyber Extension; Develop an understanding of tools of Cyber Extension; Have insight of some success stories of Cyber Extension in India; Have knowledge of sources and access mechanism for the Agricultural Information; and Understand the need and Importance of Electronic Publishing in Agriculture.
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4.1 Introduction
ICTs or Information and Communication Technologies are emerging as an important tool for the development of societies and have driving forces in the economies world-wide. ICTs are no more confined to assist high-end research and development; the new technologies have made significant improvements in the life-styles and the efficiency-levels all sectors of economy. The positive impact of ICTs is most visible in service-sector, where the efficiency levels have gone very high. New businesses like Business Process Out-sourcing (BPOs), Banking and Insurance, the entertainment industry and other industries and organizations, are all taking maximum advantage of the ICT revolution.
Women Cyber Extension: Women working with computer at Manchal watershed The Agriculture sector is gearing itself to make optimal use of the new information and communication technologies. At the Government of India level, a number of important initiatives have been taken to provide IT Hardware and connectivity to all organization involved in Agricultural Education, research, development and dissemination. Simultaneously Agricultural content development initiatives have been take by Ministry of Agriculture, in collaboration of National Informatics Centre (NIC), to provide marketing information of various agricultural commodities to the farming community. Another content-creation and aggregation initiative is being supported by Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR), under its World Bank aided project National Agricultural Innovations Project (NAIP), wherein the Leading ICT institutions like IIT Kanpur, IIT Mumbai, IITKM, Kozikode and International Crop Research Institute for Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT) have been roped in to guide National Agricultural Research System to design, development and implement Knowledge Management Systems (KMS) in Agriculture.
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ICTs are thus emerging as very important tools for Agricultural Extension, and it is now a must for every Agriculture graduate to have working knowledge of Computers, Communications, Internet and WorldWide-Web.
4.2 Information Needs of Farming Community

Indias Agriculture has now entered a post-Green revolution stage. Demands for agriculture technology are changing and diversifying. Demands for information are changing. In 1960s and 70s the farmers were asking for crop-technology and packages of practices, whereas now the focus has shifted to market prices and value-addition opportunities. The main objective of farmers concern has shifted from high production to high returns, and hence the issues like quality, timeliness and postharvest technology are getting prominence in the farmers queries. There are a few key areas for action by the systems (both in public and private domain), to enable enhanced income for farmers and the rural community. These are: Reform in food laws. Improving cropping practices and efficiency. Improving infrastructure. Creation of a common Indian market by removing barriers in movement of agriculture produce. One of the areas where there is a consensus emerging, is that the existing extension system is unable to cope with the challenges facing the agricultural sector. At the same time extension is recognized as a key imperative in achieving the objectives of enhanced rural farm income. An average farmer in India is deprived of the information regarding latest farming technology and markets. This information is available in disconnected packets across the country. But the people possessing the information have no cost effective means to reach the rural masses. The farmers too do not have an easy and affordable access to this information. Farmers in developing countries get much of that know-how from family, friends and input dealers. Public and private extensions are additional sources of information for farmers. Information is crucial in agriculture production, in addition to land and capital. Faster transmission of improved farm technologies can revolutionalise agriculture. Matching the speed of technology transfer with that of farmers acceptance can bring prosperity among farm families. Agriculture is an age-old practice and farmers have vast experience thus their sentiments, perceptions must be respected. There are several pockets of excellence in both knowledge and practices, and ICT offers the promise of overcoming this. More investment in ICT applications for agriculture development in India is
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need of the hour. Not only to redress the growing imbalance in information, but also to reduce property, increase participation, improve governance, manage natural resources and improve opportunities for woman. Farmers information needs have expanded considerably during last two decades. Earlier the information needs were limited to crop management related issues, but now more and more farmers are asking about marketing issues, latest market prices in national and international markets. These information needs can not be addressed by one department or Agricultural scientists alone. There has to be an on-line network of multi-stakeholders in the Agriculture-value-chain to address farmers current and emerging information needs. The Akshaya Project of Government of Kerala has identified the following as the critical information needs for the farming community: Access to warehouse, markets with prevailing price information Access to (government information on) schemes, subsidies, modern agricultural methods, best practices, soil testing, seeds, plantlets, fertilizers, pest control Facilities for grading agricultural produce and ensuring correct price for their produce Logistics support, cost sharing possibilities Access to micro credits Agri Insurance support/faster claim processing There are many other information needs of the farmers. Information need, by its very nature is a dynamic concept, and hence the ICT enabled systems are more suitable to address the information needs of the clientele groups.
4.3 Traditional Information Access Mechanism

The traditional information access mechanism of farmers was mostly influenced by the respective state government/ Agriculture Universitys information delivery mechanisms. In early fifties, the Gramsevak / VLWs served as a key-man in Community Development Programme. They had multiple functions to perform and Agriculture was just one of the subjects. The National Extension Scheme launched in 1953, was the first scheme to have specific focus on Agricultural extension. In early sixties and seventies the department of Agriculture at district level was the sole information provider on the crop varieties, package of practices and also on pest and disease control measures to be taken. Their efforts were complemented by the farmers and Agriculture input dealers, by canvassing these messages to the fellow farmers. The launching of Training and Visit system (T&V), under National Agricultural Extension Projects I, II and III, during 1970s and 80s gave a great fillip to information delivery mechanism of State Agriculture
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departments, as it introduced a system of regular and crop/ season specific interaction among Agricultural research scientists, State Agriculture departments and farmers. The fortnightly workshops were a novel concept to have a regular interaction among the scientists and the extension functionaries. The establishment of KVKs (in almost all rural districts), and support of mass-media particularly the All India Radio and Doordarshan have played a very important role in the diffusion of new Agricultural technologies. The print media, the vernacular press also supplemented the extension efforts at local levels. The private T.V. channels are a new entry, and have got tremendous positive feedback from farmers. The other traditional extension mechanisms included demonstrations, farmers meetings and krishi-melas at district, state and national level.
4.4 Cyber Extension: Use of ICTs in Agricultural Extension

Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) have opened whole new set of options for the Agricultural Extension scientists, Extension officers in the research and extension system to improve the speed, accuracy of the communications at relatively lower costs. The ICT tools like Internet, e-mail, on-line Expert Systems, Call Centres and information portals on Agricultural marketing information, packages of practices and subject specific discussion groups on Internet have enhanced access of Extension personnel to the latest information within and outside the country. Communication is the central mechanism of Extension process. ICTs provide new dimensions to communication as a process. These include: Access to Information resources of the whole world, beyond state and national boundaries (improved reach). Most of the time access is free (less cost). Instant access to the important resources people and literature. Extension journals, newsletters (less time). Facilitates two-way communication e-mails, Chat Groups, discussion forums. Information is available any time. Little or virtually no chance for Information-distortion, as the communication is between the user and communicator directly. Easy documentation as all the communication is in digital form, including e-mails, audio and video exchange. All the above dimensions of proper use of ICTs have generated a lot of interest among the Agricultural Extension Scientists and extension functionaries. This whole new field of interest and
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application- Use of ICTs in Agricultural Extension is emerging as a body of knowledge, popularly known as Cyber Extension.
Defining Cyber Extension

Cyber - According to Oxford Dictionary the word Cyber means, relating to Information Technology, the Internet, and virtual reality, the Cyber Space. Cyber Space - Cyber Space is the imaginary or virtual space of computers connected with each other on networks, across the globe. These computers can access information in the form of text, graphic, audio, video and animation files. Software tools on networks provide facilities to interactively access the information from connected servers. The cyber space thus, can be defined as the imaginary space behind the interconnected telecommunications and computer networks, and the virtual world. Extension - Extension stands for the action or process of enlarging or extending something. It could be extension of area, time or space. Cyber Extension - Cyber Extension can be defined as the Extension over Cyber Space. As the word extension is subject-neutral, so is cyber extension. But in the applied context of agriculture, cyber extension means using the power of online computer networks with the help of communication channels to deliver the content in the form of text, graphics, audio and video either passively or interactively to facilitate dissemination of agricultural technology. Cyber Extension includes effective use of Information and Communication Technology, national and international information networks, internet, expert systems, multimedia learning systems and computer based training systems to improve information access to the farmers, extension workers, research scientists and extension managers. Same concept is being promoted under the titles like e-Extension, tele-Extension, e-Agriculture by various national and international organizations/ universities.
4.4.1 Agricultural Extension

Agricultural Extension, according to Dr. D. Benor, relates to the process of carrying the technology of scientific agriculture to the farmer in order to enable him to utilize the knowledge and better the economy. Agriculture extension service seeks to impart the necessary skills to the farmers for undertaking improved agricultural operations, to make available to them timely information improved practices in an easily understandable form, suited to their level of literacy and awareness, and to create in them a favourable attitude for innovation and change (Benor et. al 1984). Extension is an on-going process of getting useful information to people (the communication dimension) and then in assisting those people to acquire the necessary knowledge, skills and attitudes to utilise this information, or technology (the educational dimension) effectively. Thus, Extension is a central mechanism in the agricultural development
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process, both in terms of technology transfer and human resources development (Samanta, 1993). According to Ensminger (1957) extension is education and that its purpose is to change attitudes and practices of the people with whom the work is done. Leagans (1961) conceptualized extension education as an applied science consisting of content derived from research, accumulated field experiences and relevant principles drawn from the behavioural sciences synthesized with useful technology into a body of philosophy, principles, content and methods focused on the problems of out-of-school education for adults and youth. Agricultural extension is part of a system of actors who influence farmers decisions. It includes agricultural researchers, political authorities, farmer organizations, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), farmer training centers and the media. These actors assume the functions of research, information dissemination, training and so on. The primary goal of agricultural extension is to assist farming families in adapting their production and marketing strategies to rapidly changing social, political and economic conditions so that they can, in the long term, shape their lives according to their personal preferences and those of the community. The task of extension, thus, is to improve interactions among actors within the Agricultural Knowledge System (AKS) so that farmers have optimum access to any information that could help them enhance their economic and social situation. Agricultural extension is then, in the first instance, a facilitator between actors in the AKS. This mediating function focuses on improving those relationships that promise to be most beneficial to farmers. Agriculture Extension generally known as a process and a system in which information, knowledge and skills relating to farming practices are transmitted through various channels and methods to its clients. Agricultural extension is generally perceived as central in formulating and disseminating knowledge and in teaching farmers to be competent decision makers. The National Commission on Agriculture (1976) refers to extension as an out-of-school education and services for the members of the farm family and others directly or indirectly engaged in farm production, to enable them to adopt improved practices in production, management, conservation and marketing. The National Commission further stated that, agricultural extension is not only imparting knowledge and securing adoption of a particular improved practice but also aims at changing the outlook of the farmers to the point where they will be receptive to, and on their own initiative, continuously seek means of improving their farm occupation, home and family life in totality. What is unique for extension is the application of the knowledge of this discipline in socio-economic transformation of the rural communities. In this context, Extension may be defined as the science of
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developing capability of the people for sustainable improvement in their quality of life. The main aim of extension is human resource development.
4.5 Cyber Extension Tools

As we defined Cyber Extension as the Extension over Cyber Space, all the tools of Internet used for browsing the Agricultural Information form the basket of Cyber Extension tools. The major Cyber Extension tools are: o E-Mail Interactive Expert Systems on Crop Pests and Diseases INTERNET browsing for Extension Information Video Conferencing Call Centers; SATCOM Networks Discussion Groups and News Groups
4.5.1 E-Mail
e-mail is the most often used communication tools in new age. In all sectors- education, business, services, e-mail has replaced letters, faxes and even telephone calls in the new generation working culture. In Agriculture sector the use of e-mail is limited by the non-availability of connectivity to the cutting-edge functionaries in the State Departments of Agriculture. This limitation is being overcome very fast and most of the state governments have initiated projects to connect all their departments, and also field level offices to provide on-line connectivity to the officers and staff. The mission mode projects under Government of Indias National e-Governance Plan also all the central government offices working under Ministry of Agriculture are being given high-bandwidth connectivity. Once all this system is in place (which is likely to be within the 11th Five Year Plan itself), the e-mail should become the most powerful extension communication mechanism among the Agricultural scientists, extension functionaries, agricultural processing and supply-chain companies and the farmers. Even now some KVKs like KVK Babaleswar in Ahmednagar and Baramati in Pune (Maharastra) are using e-mail mechanism highly effectively to send extension messages to innovative farmers.
4.5.2 Interactive Expert Systems on Crop Pests and Diseases

Expert systems are the programmes written to solve problems or give advice in specific subjects. In the Agricultural context the subject specific knowledge of a particular expert or a number of experts on crop-pest or disease is organized in a computer program in such a way that a user (Student, farmer or
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extension worker) can indicate the symptoms in text form, data form or digital image (with color), the Computer assists the user to diagnose the problem- the pest or disease and then depending on its extent and stage of problem suggests preventive as well as curative measures for the same. The additional information on pest life-cycle favourable conditions for their growth may also be indicated. Expert systems can be used both in on-line and off-line mode. In on-line mode the users can interact with the Research organizations expert systems to diagnose the field problems and can offer advice to farmers and fisherman. A number of ICAR institutions are working on development of crop-specific Expert systems to assist the field functionaries. The expert-systems are thus very important tools for Cyber Extension.
4.5.3 INTERNET Browsing for Extension Information

Browsing the World Wide Web for the required information is the most often used Information Access method on the Internet. The agricultural scientists, students, extension functionaries, traders and farmers, all can access required information in a very short time, if the same is available on the Internet. The information on crop-science and package of practices is being hosted and up-loaded by ICAR institutes and State Agricultural Universities (SAUs), and the information on Government programmes, projects, schemes is being hosted by concerned state government or central government departments/ agencies. For example all the relevant information on Government of India centrally sponsored schemes on Support to the State Extension Programmes for Extension Reforms, Mass Media Support to Agriculture Extension, and Agriclinics and Agribusiness Centres, are available on MANAGE (National Institute of Agricultural Extension Management) web-site- www.manage.gov.in .The mega-portal of dacnet.nic.in provides information all divisions, schemes, of the Ministry of Agriculture, government of India. Similarly information on major state government supported projects is available on their web-sites. This information is extremely helpful for the farmers, extension functionaries and the agricultural scientists and students. The demand for prices information for the agricultural produce has been growing, as more and farmers are asking for the prices of their produce in near-by markets. A number of web-sites are providing the Agricultural produce prices on on-line basis. The important websites giving the Agricultural market price information are: www.agmarnet.nic.in , www.agriwatch.com , market.ap.nic.in, emandi.mla.iitk.ac.in etc. Web-browsing for finding the required information is growing at rural information kiosks as well. In remote villages of Pondicherry, MSSRF has reported that a number of farmers visit the Village Information Kiosks to find see and read the Newspapers on-line.
4.5.4 Video Conferencing

Video conferencing (VC) is remote meeting between two or more individuals present at geographically dispersed locations. National Informatics Centre (NIC), in India has established Video71
Conferencing studios at 490 places in the country (as on 15 September 2007, source: www.vidcon.nic.in). These studios provide state-of-the-art 2-way video-conferencing facility among 2-4 sites at one point of time. As 15 State Agricultural Universities including- Assam Agricultural University, Jorhat (Assam), Anand Agricultural University, Anand (Gujarat), Acharya N.G. Ranga Agricultural University, Hyderabad (Andhra Pradesh), University of Agricultural Science, Dharwad (Karnataka), Mahatma Phule Krishi Vidyapeeth, Rahuri (Maharashtra), CCS Haryana Agricultural University, Hissar (Haryana), Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana (Punjab), Maharanapratap Agricultural University, Udaipur (Rajasthan), Sher-KeKashmir, University of Agriculture Science and Technology, Jammu (J & K), G.B.Pant University of Agriculture Science and Technology, Pantnagar (Uttarakhand), Rajender Agriculture University, Samistipur (Bihar), Birsa Agriculture University, Ranchi (Jharkhand), West Bengal Agricultural University, Kalyani (West Bengal), Allahabad Agricultural Institute, Naini (Uttar Pradesh), CS Azad University for Agriculture Science and Technology, Kanpur (Uttar Pradesh), along with a number of State Level Agricultural Extension and Management Training Institutions (SAMETIs) of Himachal Pradesh, Orrisa, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Jharkand and Bihar are having video conferencing facilities, this infrastructure provides a huge opportunity for two-way interaction among the scientists, extension workers and farming community of the concerned states. This facility is being extensively used for interaction among resource persons and training participants in training programmes being conducted at SAMETIs. Still there is a lot of untapped potential, the video conferencing offers to the farming community. At the village kiosks level, the VC facility is being used very effectively by Tamilnadu University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences (TANUVAS), to interact with the farmers at village information kiosks having two-way VC facility in the Madurai district of Tamilnadu.
Ex-P -President Dr. Kalam Video conference with honourable Ex-President Dr. Abdul Kalam
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4.5.5 Call Centers and SATCOM Networks

The call centers have proved to be a extremely effective mechanism for customer service support in a number of services and industries. Almost all Banks, Consumer Appliances Manufacturing Companies, Automobiles and Railways, etc, have made use of call centers to provide online, 24X7 (round the clock on all seven days) information services to their customers. In India the Kisan Call Centres (KCC) were established on January 21, 2004, providing online agriculture advice and information to the farmers, across the whole country, using a toll free telephone number 1551. The farmers can make a call from anywhere in the state, the call lands at the concerned state call centre and the farmer gets the response in his/ her own language from the agriculture graduates at the call centre or the experts at identified agriculture university or research centre in the state. Over 20 lakh calls were answered within first three years of KCC. Thus Kisan Call Centres are an important cyber extension tools to provide two-way communication mechanism between the agricultural scientist and the farmers. Some of the states (e.g. Andhra Pradesh) and a few State Agricultural Universities (e.g. CCSHAU, Hissar) are running their own call centres in addition to Kisan Call Centre.
SATCOM Networks
Satellite Communications (SATCOM) provide another option for one-way or two-way communication on audio as well as video. Development Education and Communication Unit (DECU) of Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) has established a number of communication studios to provide one-way video and two-way audio facilities to support development communication. These SATCOM studios offer excellent services to agricultural scientists to communicate with farming community on video. One-way video and two-way audio sets are highly economic (within a price range of Rs.50,000/ - to Rs.60,000/-) and have been set up at more than 3000 locations in the country, under various projects. This infrastructure is being used optimally some of the agricultural universities. The Anand Agricultural University (AAU), Gujarat, runs a programme called Gujarat Satellite Krishi Gosthee (GAUSAT-KRU), providing one-way video and two-way audio communication among the scientists of AAU and the farmers of the state. The Scientists of AAU, come to the SATCOM studio of Gujarat at Gandhinagar, and the farmers interact with them from the Sardar Smriti Kendras (SSKs) having SATCOM facilities at various districts. The SATCOM is thus one of the important tools of Cyber Extension to facilitate two-way interaction among the stakeholders.
4.6 Success Stories of Cyber Extension

There are several Cyber Extension initiatives in place in India, each addressing a part of the needs. The role of extension machinery should therefore be to harness each of them so that the complete package is available to the target-population. The expectation is that Cyber Extension will facilitate the
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country to bridge the divide between expertise and the recipients. Several organizations/ agencies have tried various models fueled by this promise and now time may be appropriate to sit and analyse, in order to see what is likely to work better for farmers in rural areas. The broad classification of ICT initiatives, currently in place: Central Government initiatives to provide connectivity to Extension System NATP-ITD component, ICAR- Extension component under NATP NIC initiative in Kolhapur, Sangli Districts of , Maharashtra (Warna Wired Villages). State initiatives Maharashtra Government initiative to promote Information kiosks, Kerala Government (Akshaya project) to connect all village panchayats etc. NGOs projects Information Villages Project in Pondicherry by MSSRF Chennai Rural connectivity and allied services providers such as Drishtee, n-logue etc. Private and cooperative sector transaction related initiatives such as those of ITC, Mahindra, EID Parry, NDDB, etc. Pure information services providers such as iKisan, Community India, Agriwatch, Indiaagronet, etc. Multiple rural services, which include agriculture extension such as Warna, Gyandoot, Tarahaat etc. Knowledge networks and knowledge banks such as Honey Bee Network, Harit Gyan, Indian Society of Agri-Business Professionals etc. In addition to the above eight classes of initiatives, there is a ninth entity involved Entrepreneurs operating as partners in the form of kiosk owners, franchisees, in the districts and taluks. Most of the initiatives work with entrepreneurs as partners (at village level). These entrepreneurs are the final links in the chain. The sustainability of all these initiatives is critically linked to the sustainability of these entrepreneurs. Two success stories are discussed below in sections 10.6.1 and 10.6.2.
4.6.1 The Akshaya project:E-Krishi Project of Kerala Government

The Akshaya project, first started in the rural Malappuram district of Kerala, India, and now project spread over to seven more districts in the state was the first district-wide e-literacy project in India and one of the largest known Internet Protocol (IP) based wireless networks in the world. In November 2002, the state government of Kerala put into place a project, piloted in Malappuram, that aimed for one person in every family to be computer literate in Kerala, to be familiarized with the basic use of computer
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and empowered to access innumerable services that Information and Communication Technology offers. Malappuram is now what is said to be Indias First E-literate District. The mission continues to make Kerala the First E-literate state in India. In Malappuram district alone, Akshaya has conducted one of the worlds largest computer literacy drives, claiming to reach over 600,000 households, representing more than 3.6 million people, in less than 6 months. The project has created a unique brand of state-funded computer access centers, and simultaneously led to a massive wireless infrastructure, providing a wide range of services and making way to many future opportunities. The project involves setting up around 5000 multi purpose community technology centres called Akshaya e- kendras across Kerala. Run by private entrepreneurs, each e-kendra set up within 2-3 kilometres of every household, will cater to the requirements of around 1000-3000 families to make available the power of networking and connectivity to common man. Akshaya is a social and economic catalyst focusing on the various facets of e-learning, e-transaction, e-governance, information and communication.
4.6.1.1 Project Objectives

The major objectives of the Akshaya Project is to make at least one person in each of over 6 million families in the state, e-literate and Delivery of public service and e-governance applications through e-kendras. The specific objectives include: To enhance the quality of available IT infrastructure in the state, and also by providing facilities for rural connectivity infrastructure To accelerate the development of local content relevant to the population. To enable e-transaction and e-governance services through the centres Generate over 50,000 employment opportunities in 3 years. To bridge the gap between the Information Poor and the Information Rich For Creation of a society which is ready for capitalizing on Knowledge for economic and social development. Akshaya Centres to work as social and economic catalysts for the overall development of the society To Empower individuals and communities through enhanced access to information, education and communication facilities To Integrate communities through creation of e-networks and development of the core sectors like Agriculture, Health, Education, Industry and Resources.
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4.6.1.2 Access Points

The project has already connected 634 villages through e-centres in the Mallapuram District. In the phase I. Under the second phase of the Akshaya Project was rolled out in seven district of Kasargod, Kannur, Kozhikode, Thrissur, Ernakulam, Pathanamthitta and Kollam in 2004, establishing 1333 more e-centres. Further the state Government has decided to implement the project in remaining six more districts namely Thiruvananthapuram, Alapuzha, Kottayam, Idukki, Palakkad and Wayanad. Thus Kerala will become the first Indian state to have a comprehensive e-Governance Project.
4.6.1.3 Key Services

Akshaya works on a 5 + 8 + 5 model towards achieving sustainability. The first five are core services that are offered by all the Akshaya Centres. Eight services are more related to industry and are offered by Selected Akshaya Centres. There are also five ways to maintain good relation and to update with community. The core services include:
a.
Training centre
One of the important services at Akshaya Centre is imparting programmes to citizens. All the
courses are approved by the Government and a certification for merit will also be provided through an online certification mechanism. Some of the courses offered are the following- Basic Computer Literacy Package, e-vidya- MS office Package, Spoken English course programme, Arabic Typing Tutor, Multimedia Training Programmes, Hardware Assembling and Maintenance and Computer Courses/ e-tuition for Students. All these courses have a common fee structure, and govt certification through an online package. Govt is providing assistance to faculty training, course module development, continuous training support and certification.
b.
Information Kiosk
Akshaya is envisaged as a one stop information centre. All kinds of information will be made
available through the centres. Content has been already generated in five core areas including, Health, Agriculture, Career, Education and Laws and regulations. Govt also digitized all applications forms, govt schemes and delivered through Akshaya network. Encouragement for digitizing and updating locally relevant content is also given to Akshaya Centres.
c.
E-transaction centre
Extension of Friends Services through Akshaya centres is implemented through this initiative.
Presently KSEB and BSNL bills are collected through this package. Entrepreneurs can collect Rs.5 per bill customer for offering this service.
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d.
e-governance cell
Government already had taken decisions to covert Akshaya Centres as the last mile units for e-
governance delivery. Akshaya Centre will be used for delivering various e-governance services to the public, which include, Pubic Grievances Redressal System, Decision Support systems, Online processing of applications, information dissemination services, digital extension of various campaign/awareness programmes, telemedicine, agriculture intervention etc. Many initiatives like e-parathi (District Collectors Public Grievance Redressal Mechanism, e-krishi, etc has been started).
e.
Communication hub
Akshaya Centres will also be developed as a Communication hub, which will have all ICT based
communication facilities to the common man. In Malappuram all the Akshaya Centres are connected to Wireless internet which enable the centres for various connectivity based services. Intranet based services are also initiated through the network. This is initiative is very important in Kerala as Kerala has lot of population living out side the country. The next category under Akshaya Business Development has identified eight services. These includeDigitization and Data Management, Hardware Sales and Maintenance, Financial Kiosk, Travel and Travel Tourism, Multimedia, Animation and Designing centre, IT enabled Vocational Training, Health Care and Product Selling Division. In addition the Akshaya Project has identified 5 ways to maintain good relation and to update with community. These are important steps to keep community informed and interested in new developments. These are- Shradha The Kids Club, Mithra Club for the Unemployed, Sakthi The Womens Club, Bhoomi The Farmers Club and Friends of Akshaya.
4.6.1.4 Project Beneficiaries

Akshaya Project of Kerala is one of the most comprehensively planned and executed e-Governance projects in India. The project when fully operational will benefit the entire population of the State.
4.6.1.5 Project Funding

Till 2006, a total of Rs. 32.2 Crores (Rupees 322 Million) has been invested on the Mallapuram pilot project (634 e-centres). Out of this Rs. 6.2 crores on Connectivity Content Generation and campaign is invested by State Government, Rs. 7 Crores on e-Literacy by Local self-Government and the rest Rs. 19 crores on setting up the e-Centres is invested by Entrepreneurs. The project funding is likely to remain on same lines for the rest of 13 districts.
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4.6.2 Warana Wired Village Project

Warna Nagar, a cluster of 70 villages in Maharashtra is an eye of the Wired Villages project. In 1960, a visionary Shri Tahasaheb Kore propagated the idea of co-operatives in Warna Nagar, as a method of achieving socio-economic development. He showed how this could bring all the farmers together, to share information, increase productivity, and profits. Thus was born the Warna Nagar CoOperative Society. The society has a Chairman and a Board of Members and is free from political influence and society members are free to elect the board members. There are about eight sub cooperative bodies, working under this main society viz.; Warna Dairy Development Society, Warna Cooperative Bank, Warna Foods, Warna Womens Co-operative society etc. Sugarcane is major crop of this area and most of the sugar production of the two districts Kolhapur and Sangli is processed at this Society. From each village 200 - 300 farmers are registered as society members. The Wired Village project was initiated by Mr. Vinay Kore, the present Chairman of the Warna Co-operative Society in 1996, the actual implementation began in April 1998. The Project has been jointly implemented by GOI through National Informatics Centre (NIC), Government of Maharashtra and Warna Co-operative Society with the share of financial support being in the ratio of 50:40:10. The manpower and maintenance cost is borne by the Warna Co-operative Society itself. The project area is a cluster of 70 villages consisting of 46 villages from Kolhapur and 24 villages from Sangli districts of Maharashtra. This project has been initiated to serve the information needs on different crop cultivation practices of major crops, sugarcane cultivation practices, pest and disease control, marketing information, dairy and sugarcane processing information etc. to the farmers, right up to their village level. NIC, Pune was involved in setting-up the hardware and software and NIC, Delhi established connectivity of WAN links such as VSAT and dial-up connections. The software required for the system such as web page designing, database designing and client based applications used by the farmers such as dairy, sugarcane information systems had been developed by the NIC, Pune.
4.6.2.1 Network Connectivity: Central Hub

The Central Hub, which is the main server station of Wired Villages is situated in Tahasaheb Kore Institute of Engineering Technology at Warna Nagar. This is equipped with servers based on Pentium II with 64 MB RAM, 4.1 GB hard disk and 32x CD-ROM drive. The 64 kbps bandwidth VSAT connection has been established as a gateway WAN link to NIC, Pune for connecting into their network and into global network. This enables the main computer center to down load information from NIC, Pune or the global network for latest information. The router is used to establish a WAN link to remote computer booths from the main computer centre. Presently the router supports 10 simultaneous connections i.e. 10 users can access information at a time.
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Computer Booths
The Computer Booths are serving as information centers for the farmers in their villages. The computer booth is operator by the booth operator and he is the main linkage between the farmers and information gateway center. The information sought relates to crops cultivation practices, land development, pesticides, diseases control details, marketing details, bills payments positions of sugarcane and dairy etc. Currently forty-six computer booths are functioning in Kolhapur and meeting the information needs of the farmers. In remaining 24 villages of Sangli district, computer booths and hardware was setup, and are waiting to link to Central Server Station. Apart from information retrieval, there are two client-based applications, to serve the farmers needs. They are (1) Dairy Information System (2) Sugarcane Information System. In Dairy Information System, the information on all the farmers, who are part of the dairy system, is maintained. Other details available to members of the dairy cooperatives include the quantity of milk supplied by each farmer, fat content, their billing information and credit details etc. This information is maintained and updated at the central database on daily basis. In Sugarcane Information System, information on shareholders is maintained. About 200-350 shareholders are there in each village for sugar cane crop. This system maintains the details of the cultivation schedule; quantity harvested and supplied to the society, deductions effected by the Society towards credit, net income due to the farmers is available with respect to each shareholder. Every village is also linked with the Directorate of Marketing in Pune, which facilitates farmers in getting information on rates of vegetables, fruits and other crops. The computer booths are provided with a Pentium II computer having 64 MB ram, 2 GB hard disk, printer and an UPS power backup system. A dial-up connectivity with a modem and telephone line has been used to connect the main computer center to retrieve the information, send the queries, grievances to the central server station. The speed of dial-up connection is around 19200 BPS to 28000 BPS and average connectivity time is about 10 seconds. Telephone charge of around Rs. 350/-, is paid by village level society.
4.6.2.2 Information Technology Center

Six Information technology Centers have been established to give training to staff, students and farmers of the village. These centers also function as computer booths and are maintained by a booth operator. The Centers have been provided with six Pentium II computers with configuration of Pentium II, 64-Mb RAM, 2GB hard disk and a dot-matrix printer. A dial-up connectivity with modem and telephone line has been used to connect the central server station to retrieve information, send the queries, grievances to the main center.
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NIC, Pune has developed a Computer Based Question Bank, in the local language Marathi which will be used to test the Computer knowledge awareness of the students of 5th to 10th standard. These students are being trained to get acquainted with the computer systems. Testing will be in subjects covered in the school like mathematics, science etc. and a certain percentage of marks will be awarded from this test to the final marks of the students. A batch consisting of 5 students will be examined for 1 hour. This center also serves as a computer booth. NIIT is engaged in helping create CDs on different topics which when available will be used at these centres for interactive coaching. The field officer Mr. Kulkarni V.V., Agriculture Officer, of Panhala village, Kolhapur district expressed that Cyber-Extension would be the major form of technology dissemination in the near future and added that the advantages of the WAN systems were on spot data availability for different purposes, Avoidance of unnecessary movement of farmers from their home village to data center for different purposes, and access to all the information at village level.
4.6.2.3 the Farmers Feedback

An interaction with a few farmers in villages of Paragoam, Kuralap, Bhariwadi etc. indicated that farmers like the concept. They believe that the information from Wired Computers (WAN) is major source of getting information on crop technology. The ranking given by the farmers for source of information on crop technology, ranks wired computers as the best source followed by field officers and staff, radio &TV, print media and company sales persons. They agree that WAN provides all necessary information on cultivation technology and market situation etc., information is timely, the language is understandable as it is in the local Marathi language, information is reliable and its not costly. They also agree that it is beneficial not only for big farmers but also for marginal and small farmers. The farmers are expecting some more features to be added like processing of all loan, legal documents etc. from their village wired computers. The farmers are also ready to learn operating computers, if any training is given and are ready to contribute any marginal amount necessary for the maintenance and up-keep of the system. Booth operators of Paragoam, Bhairwadi, Kuralap and Panhala informed that an average of 20-25 farmers visit the computer booths every day for information on crop cultivation practices and disease control, marketing, dairy and sugarcane billing details etc. (Case Study done by Bhaskar, G. Assistant Director (IT) and Venkateshwar Rao, K., Programmer, MANAGE, Hyderabad, India in 2002).
4.7 Cyber Extension: Current Trends

Cyber Extension is now an established complementary and supplementary mechanism of Agricultural Extension. All Indian State Agricultural Universities, Indira Gandhi National Open University
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(IGNOU) and YC Maharastra Open University have included Cyber Extension or ICTs in Agricultural Extension as an integral part of their under graduate and post-graduate curriculum. The government of India has indicated to promote the use of Cyber Extension in the Extension reforms systems. Some of the state governments have initiated their own projects to improve the ICT connectivity of Agriculture departments in general and that of the Extension system in particular. The launch of Kisan Call Centre (1551) in January 2004 has added a new dimension to the Indian Extension System. It can be safely concluded that the Indian Agriculture is on threshold of a new communication mechanism, which will re-invigorate the Extension system to make optimal use of Research findings, extension personnel and the productive capacity of the Agriculture. Cyber Extension will further improve the international competitiveness and penetration of Indian Agricultural products, by providing timely information access to farming community of supply side and the prospective consumers on demand side.
4.8 Let us Sum Up

Cyber Extension is an important mechanism to support he Extension functionaries. The on-line information access on research, market demand, input-supply and the latest international know-how on crop-specific issues will help the extension officials to a very great extent. The availability of Frequently asked questions (crop-specific, area specific) will help the Officials at district and block level to provide latest information to the farmers with more accuracy and efficiency. The researchers will also get quick feed back on their recommendations and they can plan action-research project on more interactive basis. The cyber extension will thus bridge the communication gap between the four pillars of Extension system- The Research, Extension, Marketing and Farmers. The seamless interaction among these players will improve the efficiency and effectiveness of entire Agriculture system in the country.
4.9 Key Words

Cyber - According to Oxford Dictionary the word Cyber means, relating to Information Technology, the Internet, and virtual reality, the Cyber Space. Cyber Extension - Cyber Extension can be defined as the Extension over Cyber Space. As the word extension is subject-neutral, so is cyber extension. But in the applied context of agriculture, cyber extension means using the power of online networks, computer communications and digital interactive multimedia to facilitate dissemination of agricultural technology. Process of Agricultural Extension: Agricultural extension generally means as a process and a system in which knowledge and skills relating to farming practices are transmitted through various channels and extension methods to its intended clients.
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Benor et al. (1984): Training and Visit Extension, A World Bank Publication 1984. P-138 Cairncross, Frances (1998): The Death of Distance: Hoe The Communication Revolution will Change Our Lives. London, Orion Business Books. First published in United States by Harvard Business School Press, 1997. Ensminger, D. (1957): A Guide to Community Development, Ministry of Community Development and Cooperation, Govt. of India, New Delhi. Leagans, J.P (1961): Characteristics of Teaching and Learning in Extension Education, Extension Teaching . Methods, The Communication Process and Programme Planning to Meet Peoples Needs, in Extension Education in Community Development, Directorate of Extension, Govt. of India, New Delhi. NSSO (2005): Situation Assessment Survey of Farmers: Access to Modern Technology, NSS 59th Round (January- December 2003), National Sample Survey Organization, Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation, Government of India, June 2005. Samanta R.K. (1993): Extension Strategy for Agricultural Development in 21st Century. Mittal Publications Delhi. Sharma V.P (2004): Cyber Extension: Information and Communication Technology Applications for . Effective Agricultural Extension Services: Challenges, Opportunities, Issues and Strategies in Enhancement of Extension Systems in Agriculture, Report of the APO Seminar on Enhancement of Extension Systems in Agriculture, held during 15-20 December 2003 at University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan, an e-book published Asian Productivity Organization, Tokyo, Japan.

1. Define Cyber Extension. Is it an alternate mechanism or enabling mechanism to strengthen the existing Agricultural Extension System?
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AEM 204: Information and Communication Technology in Agriculture

(3 Credits)
Block I
Unit - 1 Unit - 2 Unit - 3 Unit - 4 Unit - 5 Unit - 6
ICT - An Overview
ICTs - Concepts and Relevance Computer Hardware Computer Software Computer Networking Internet for Information and Communication Expert Systems
Block II
Unit - 1 Unit - 2 Unit - 3 Unit - 4
Application of ICTs in Agricultural Development

Geographical Information Systems (GIS) Remote Sensing Applications in Agriculture E-Governance Cyber Extension
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AEM 204

(3 Credits)
Block II Application of ICTs in Agricultural Development
National Institute of Agricultural Extension Management

(An Organization of the Ministry of Agriculture, Govt. of India) Rajendranagar, Hyderabad 500 030, Andhra Pradesh, India www.manage.gov.in
84

Application of ICTs in Agric

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AEM - 204

AEM 204 Information and Communication Technology in Agriculture

Block II Application of ICTs in Agricultural Development

Post Graduate Diploma in Agricultural Extension Management (PGDAEM)

Information and Communication Technology in Agriculture

Unit 1 Geographical Information Systems (GIS)

Post Graduate Diploma in Agricultural Extension Management (PGDAEM)

1.3 History of GIS Development

Geographical Information Systems (GIS)

Post Graduate Diploma in Agricultural Extension Management (PGDAEM)

1.4 Components of GIS

Geographical Information Systems (GIS)

Post Graduate Diploma in Agricultural Extension Management (PGDAEM)

1.5 Functions of GIS

Geographical Information Systems (GIS)

Post Graduate Diploma in Agricultural Extension Management (PGDAEM)

1.6 Technology used in GIS

Relating information from different sources

Geographical Information Systems (GIS)

Post Graduate Diploma in Agricultural Extension Management (PGDAEM)

Advantages and disadvantages

Geographical Information Systems (GIS)

Post Graduate Diploma in Agricultural Extension Management (PGDAEM)

Geographical Information Systems (GIS)

Projections, coordinate systems and registration

1.7 Spatial Analysis with GIS

Post Graduate Diploma in Agricultural Extension Management (PGDAEM)

Geographical Information Systems (GIS)

Post Graduate Diploma in Agricultural Extension Management (PGDAEM)

Geographical Information Systems (GIS)

Data output and cartography

Cartographic work serves two major functions:

Graphic display techniques

Post Graduate Diploma in Agricultural Extension Management (PGDAEM)

1.8 GIS software

Geographical Information Systems (GIS)

Management and analysis

Post Graduate Diploma in Agricultural Extension Management (PGDAEM)

Open-source GIS software

1.9 The future of GIS

Geographical Information Systems (GIS)

Exploring Global Change with GIS

Adding the dimension of time

Post Graduate Diploma in Agricultural Extension Management (PGDAEM)

Semantics and GIS

GIS and Society

Geographical Information Systems (GIS)

Open Geospatial Consortium (OGC) standards

1.10 List of GIS software

Post Graduate Diploma in Agricultural Extension Management (PGDAEM)

Geographical Information Systems (GIS)

Open source software

Other GIS software

Post Graduate Diploma in Agricultural Extension Management (PGDAEM)

1.11 Let us Sum Up

1.12 Key Words

Geographical Information Systems (GIS)

1.13 Further Readings

1.14 Check Your Progress

Post Graduate Diploma in Agricultural Extension Management (PGDAEM)

Information and Communication Technology in Agriculture

Unit 2 Remote Sensing Applications in Agriculture

Post Graduate Diploma in Agricultural Extension Management (PGDAEM)