Volcanic Eruptions

How are Volcanoes Formed?

Volcanoes are formed in various sizes and shapes. Cone-shaped volcanoes are the most common ones. Some volcanoes are only a long crack in the earth's crust. Volcanoes that resemble high mountains are the ones that are formed due to many volcanic eruptions. According to the theory of plate tectonics, the crust of the earth has many rigid plates that are floating. It is the pressure created by the currents caused by the heat energy from the earth's core that causes the movement of these plates. When the pressure becomes intense, the plates either move towards each other or away from each other horizontally. When two plates collide, one of the plates goes beneath the other, causing a friction in the earth's crust. The pressure caused by the friction will cause the underlying rocks to melt and make the magma rise. The hot, orange-red lava is thrown out of the mountaintop. Volcanoes of this type are considered threats to living beings. Their eruptions are violent and cause destruction to all living things in their proximity. A gap is formed when two layers of plates move away from each other. The hot lava rises through this gap. Volcanoes of this type occur on the ocean bed and is not visible. However, if a volcano erupts violently from an ocean, it rises above the ocean to create an island. Some volcanoes are formed in hotspot areas. The hotspots are the center-points of the earth plates. These plates are connected to the hot mantle of the earth. In brief, volcanoes are formed when the hot lava (magma) shoots out of the earth's crust. The lava becomes hard on cooling down to form a volcanic mountain.

Causes of Volcanic Eruption

The buoyancy and pressure of the gas within the earth's crust cause a volcano to erupt. Magma is formed when the upper mantle of the earth melts. A volcano erupts when the magma (the hot liquid) rises upwards by the pressure of gas that is dissolved in it. This is one of the three predominant theories. According to the second theory, magma contains dissolved substances such as water, sulfur dioxide and carbon dioxide. The solubility of the gases is high as the pressure increases. The solubility of water decreases as the magma moves closer to the earth's surface and eventually separates from the magma.When the ratio of the gases becomes more in magma it causes the magma to disintegrate into

pyroclasts, a combination of partially molten and solid fragments, and the volcano erupts explosively. The third theory says that a volcano erupts when new magma is injected into a chamber that is already brimming with magma of similar or different compositions. The eruption occurs when the magma moves upwards due to the additional push exerted by the injection of new magma. Positive and negative effects of an eruption Positive Negative

The dramatic scenery created by volcanic Many lives can be lost as a result of a eruptions attracts tourists. This brings income to volcanic eruption. an area. The lava and ash deposited during an eruption breaks down to provide valuable nutrients for the soil. This creates very fertile soil which is good for agriculture The high level of heat and activity inside the Earth, close to a volcano, can provide opportunities for generating geothermal energy. If the ash and mud from a volcanic eruption mix with rain water or melting snow, fast moving mudflows are created. These flows are calledlahars. Lava flows and lahars can destroy settlements and clear areas of woodland or agriculture. Human and natural landscapes can be destroyed and changed forever.

Mount Pinatubo is part of a chain of composite volcanoes along the Luzon arc on the west coast of the island (area map). The arc of volcanoes is due to the subduction of the Manila trench to the west. The volcano experienced major eruptions approximately 500, 3000, and 5500 years ago. The events of the 1991 Mount Pinatubo eruption began in July 1990, when a magnitude 7.8 earthquake occurred 100 kilometers (62 miles) northeast of the Pinatubo region, determined to be a result of the reawakening of Mount Pinatubo. In mid-March 1991, villagers around Mount Pinatubo began feeling earthquakes and vulcanologists began to study the mountain. (Approximately 30,000 people lived on the flanks of the volcano prior to the disaster.) On April 2, small explosions from vents dusted local villages with ash. The first evacuations of 5,000 people were ordered later that month. Earthquakes and explosions continued. On June 5, a Level 3 alert was issued for two weeks due to the possibility of a major eruption. The extrusion of a lava dome on June 7 led to the issuance of a Level 5 alert on June 9, indicating an eruption in progress. An evacuation area 20 kilometers (12.4 miles) away from the volcano was established and 25,000 people were evacuated. http://geography.about.com/od/globalproblemsandissues/a/pinatubo.htm

Wildfires

Description:
A wildfire is any uncontrolled fire in combustible vegetation that occurs in the countryside or a wilderness area. Other names such as brush fire, bushfire, forest fire,desert fire, grass fire, hill fire, peat fire, vegetation fire, and veldfire may be used to describe the same phenomenon depending on the type of vegetation being burned. A wildfire differs from other fires by its extensive size, the speed at which it can spread out from its original source, its potential to change direction unexpectedly, and its ability to jump gaps such as roads, rivers and fire breaks. Wildfires are characterized in terms of the cause of ignition, their physical properties such as speed of propagation, the combustible material present, and the effect of weather on the fire. Wildfires occur on every continent except Antarctica. Wildfires are a common occurence in Australia especially during the long hot summers usually experienced in the southern regions such a Victoria, Australia. Due to Australia's hot and dry climate, wildfires (commonly refered to as bushfires in Australia) pose a great risk to life and infrastrucure during all times of the year, though mostly throughout the hotter months of summer and spring.. In the United States, there are typically between 60,000 and 80,000 wildfires that occur each year, burning 3 million to 10 million acres of land depending on the year. Fossil records and human history contain accounts of wildfires, as wildfires can occur in periodic intervals Wildfires can cause extensive damage, both to property and human life, but they also have various beneficial effects on wilderness areas. Some plant species depend on the effects of fire for growth and reproduction, although large wildfires may also have negative ecological effects. Strategies of wildfire prevention, detection, and suppression have varied over the years, and international wildfire management experts encourage further development of technology and research. One of the more controversial techniques is controlled burning: permitting or even igniting smaller fires to minimize the

amount of flammable material available for a potential wildfire. While some wildfires burn in remote forested regions, they can cause extensive destruction of homes and other property located in the wildland-urban interface: a zone of transition between developed areas and undeveloped wilderness.

Causes of Wildfires
Wildfires are mainly caused due to climate change and human activities. Some of the common causes of wildfires are:

Lightning - Wildfires caused due to lightning occur at a frequency of three to five per year. Since lightning is usually associated with rain, such wildfires do not spread over large areas.

Human Carelessness - Majority of the cases of wildfires occur due to human carelessness, especially while handling fireworks. Debris burning and arson (burning to destroy property) are examples of other human activities that often result in wildfires.

Slash-and-Burn Farming - This common practice of farming refers to cutting and burning of woodlands and vegetation for clearing the land. Quite often, the slash-and-burn practice results in catastrophic wildfires.

Volcanic Activity - Sometimes, volcanoes create a favorable condition for ignition of wildfires in the nearby areas. Wildfires are also caused due to pyroclastic clouds, generated from active volcanoes.

Underground Coal Fires - Very often, underground coal fires cause wildfires. Underground coal fires are the slow and flameless forms of combustion, below the earth's surface. Such fires continue to burn for many years, resulting in the release of toxic fumes and destruction of vegetation and human property.

Though, natural disaster and human activity cause wildfires, it is estimated that 90 percent cases of wildfires are due to human interaction with nature, either directly or indirectly. Wildfires are more prevalent in summer and autumn. They are also common during droughts, when the fallen branches and leaves become dry and flammable. However, the overall spread of wildfires depend on weather, type of vegetation and geography

and topography of the area. Under the influence of strong winds, wildfires can spread to more than 40 miles a day, which is about 1000 acres per hour. In order to extinguish wildfires, firefighters use pulaski (combination of an ax and hoe) to dig a fireline. While constructing a fireline, the mineral soil is exposed (by removing the surface litter and organic matter), so as to stop the spread of wildfires. In case of huge wildfires, helicopters and airplanes are used for spraying water and fire-retardant chemicals to extinguish the fire.

EFFECTS:
The effects of wildfires are: People lose there homes, animals are killed and also lose there vegetation, affects the air quality, the wind and heat. The good that wildfires do is they burn old dead trees, leaves, grass, anything that mother nature has not yet destroyed herself. Most fires leave a lot of animals homeless to say, which causes them to come into the city's nearest the fire and create a lot of havoc in the city around people. Read more: http://wiki.answers.com/Q/What_are_the_effects_of_wildfires#ixzz213ingviJ

Related Issues

Thousands of Californians have been told to flee the path of intensewildfires threatening 12,000 homes in the Los Angeles area after two firefighters were killed trying to tackle the blazes. The state governor, Arnold Schwarzenegger, urged those in the fire's way to get out as ash rained down on cars in downtown Los Angeles. The fires were spreading in all directions in the dry conditions. Firefighters fixed their attention yesterday on the blaze's fast-moving eastern side where flames lapped at the foot of the vital communications and astronomy centre of Mount Wilson, and on the north-western front, where the two firefighters were killed on Mount Gleason, near the city of Acton. "We ask for your understanding, for your patience as we move through this difficult time, and please, prayers for the families of our two brothers that we lost," county deputy fire chief Mike Bryant said through tears at a news conference. Fire Captain Tedmund Hall, 47, and firefighter Specialist Arnaldo "Arnie" Quinones, 35, were killed in a crash, said Los Angeles county fire captain Mike Savage. Authorities did not give a cause for the crash, and officials would take no questions on the deaths. Television helicopter video last night showed an upside-down vehicle on the mountainside."Our hearts are heavy as we are tragically reminded of the sacrifices our firefighters and their families make daily to keep us safe," Schwarzenegger said in a statement. The blaze was only about five per cent contained and had scorched 71 square miles in the Angeles national forest. Mandatory evacuations were in effect for neighbourhoods in Glendale, Pasadena and other cities and towns north of Los Angeles. Officials said air quality in parts of the foothills bordered on hazardous. The fire, which broke out Wednesday afternoon, was the largest of many burning around California, including a new blaze in Placer county, north-east of Sacramento, that destroyed 60 structures, many of them homes. The southern California fire was expected to reach the top of Mount Wilson, where 22 television stations, many radio stations and cell phone providers have their transmitters, said US forest service captain Mike Dietrich.

Firefighters were pulled from the top of the mountain after clearing brush and spraying retardant on antennas because it was too dangerous for them to remain."We've done all the preparation we can," county fire spokesman Mark Savage said. Television stations said if the antennas burned broadcast signals would be affected but satellite and cable transmissions would not be. Two giant telescopes and several multimillion-dollar university programmes are housed in the century-old Mount Wilson observatory. The complex of buildings is both a historic landmark and a thriving modern centre for astronomy.

At least 18 homes were destroyed in the fire and firefighters expected to find many more, authorities said. While thousands fled, two people who tried to ride out the firestorm in a backyard hot tub were burned. The pair in Big Tujunga Canyon, on the south-western edge of the fire, "completely underestimated the fire" and the hot tub provided "no protection whatsoever", sheriff's spokesman Steve Whitmore said yesterday. The pair made their way to firefighters and were airlifted out by a sheriff's rescue helicopter. Deputies gave them adequate notification to evacuate from deputies but decided to stay, Whitmore said. Whitmore described their condition as "critical" but fire officials said one of the two was treated and released and the other remained hospitalised in stable condition. A third person was burned on Saturday in an evacuation area along highway two near Mount Wilson, officials said. Details of that injury were not immediately known. "There were people that did not listen, and there were three people that got burned and got critically injured because they did not listen," Schwarzenegger said at a news conference at the fire command post.