Hydraulics Manual

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Hydraulics Manual
M 23-03 January 1997
Washington State Department of Transportation
Hydraulics Manual
M 23-03 January 1997
Washington State Department of Transportation

Environmental and Engineering Service Center Hydraulics Branch
Contents
Page
Chapter 1
Design Policy
1-1 General 1-2 Responsibility 1-3 Hydraulic Reports 1-4 Storm Frequency Policy Appendix Conversion Table
1-1 1-1 1-1 1-2 1-4 1-1-1 2-1 2-1 2-2 2-2 2-3 2-3 2-13 2-14 2-14 2-15 2-16 2-1-1 2-2-1 3-1 3-1 3-1 3-2 3-2 3-3 3-3 3-4 3-4 3-5 3-6 3-8 3-8 3-34 3-41
Chapter 2
Hydrology
2-1 2-2 2-3 2-4 General Hydrology Selecting A Method Drainage Basin The Rational Method 2-4.1 General 2-5 Santa Barbara Urban Hydrograph Method 2-6 Published Flow Records 2-7 USGS Regression Equations 2-8 Flood Reports 2-9 Mean Annual Runoff Appendixes USGS Streamflow Gage Peak Flow Records USGS Regression Equation Data and Mean Annual Runoff Data
Chapter 3
Culvert Design
3-1 Overview 3-1.1 Metric Units and English Units 3-2 Culvert Design Documentation 3-2.1 Common Culvert Shapes and Terminology 3-2.2 Hydraulic Reports 3-2.3 Required Field Data 3-2.4 Engineering Analysis 3-3 Hydraulic Design of Culverts 3-3.1 Culvert Design Flows 3-3.2 Allowable Headwater 3-3.3 Tailwater Conditions 3.3.4 Flow Control 3-3.5 Velocity in Culverts General 3-3.6 Culvert Hydraulic Calculations Form
Hydraulics Manual January 1997
Page i
Contents
Page 3-3.8 Example 3-4 Culvert End Treatments 3-4.1 Projecting Ends 3-4.2 Beveled End Sections 3-4.3 Flared End Sections 3-4.4 Headwalls and Slope Collars 3-4.5 Wingwalls and Aprons 3-4.6 Improved Inlets 3-4.7 Energy Dissipators 3-4.8 Culvert Debris 3-5 Miscellaneous Culvert Design Considerations 3-5.1 Multiple Culvert Openings 3-5.2 Camber 3-5.3 Minimum Culvert Size 3-5.4 Alignment and Grade 3-5.5 Angle Points 3-5.6 Upstream Ponding 3-47 3-51 3-51 3-52 3-52 3-53 3-53 3-54 3-54 3-55 3-58 3-58 3-58 3-59 3-59 3-60 3-60 4-1 4-1 4-1 4-2 4-3 4-6 4-9 4-10 4-11 4-15 4-18 4-1-1 5-1 5-1 5-2 5-2 5-3 5-4 5-4 5-6 5-7 5-10
Chapter 4
Open Channel Flow

4-1 General 4-2 Determining Channel Velocities 4-2.1 Field Measurement 4-2.2 Mannings Equation 4-3 Critical Depth 4-4 River Backwater Analysis 4-5 River Stabilization 4-5.1 Bank Barbs 4-5.2 Drop Structures 4-5.3 Riprap Bank Protection Appendix Mannings Roughness Coefficients (n)
Chapter 5
Drainage of Highway Pavements

5-1 Roadway and Structure Geometrics and Drainage 5-2 Computing Runoff for Highway Pavements 5-3 Rural Highway Drainage 5-3.1 Slotted Drains and Trench Systems 5-3.2 Drop Inlets 5-4 Gutter Flow 5-5 Grate Inlets 5-5.1 Capacity of Inlets on a Continuous Grade 5-5.2 Capacity of Inlets in Sag Locations
Page ii
Contents
Page
Chapter 6
Storm Drains
6-1 6-2 6-3 6-4 Introduction Design Features Data for Hydraulics Report Storm Drain Design Handheld Calculator Method 6-4.1 General 6-4.2 Location 6-4.3 Discharge 6-4.4 Drain Design Section 6-4.5 Drain Profile 6-4.6 Remarks Storm Drain Design Computer Analysis Hydraulic Grade Line 6-6.1 Friction Losses in Pipes 6-6.2 Junction Entrance and Exit Losses 6-6.3 Losses from Changes in Direction of Flow 6-6.4 Losses from Multiple Entering Flows Drywells Construction Materials and Practices for Drains 6-8.1 Structural Design 6-8.2 Pipe Materials for Storm Drains 6-8.3 Pipe Joints for Storm Drains 6-8.4 Testing Storm Drains Subsurface Drainage
6-1 6-1 6-1 6-3 6-4 6-4 6-4 6-4 6-7 6-8 6-8 6-8 6-9 6-10 6-11 6-11 6-12 6-13 6-14 6-14 6-14 6-15 6-15 6-15 7-1 7-1 7-2 7-2 7-2 7-3 7-4 7-5 7-7 7-8 8-1 8-1 8-1 8-1 8-2 8-6 8-6
6-5 6-6
6-7 6-8
6-9
Chapter 7
Fish Passage
7-1 Introduction 7-2 Types of Structures 7-2.1 General 7-2.2 Bridges 7-2.3 Open Bottom Culverts 7-2.4 Full Culverts 7-3 Design Flows 7-4 Existing Culverts 7-5 Grade Control Structures
Chapter 8
Pipe Materials
8-1 Classification of Pipe 8-1.1 Drain Pipe 8-1.2 Underdrain Pipe 8-1.3 Culvert Pipe 8-1.4 Storm Sewer Pipe 8-1.5 Sanitary Sewer Pipe
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Contents
Page 8-2 Pipe Materials 8-2.1 Concrete Pipe 8-2.2 Metal Pipe General 8-2.3 Thermoplastic Pipe General 8-2.4 Ductile Iron Pipe 8-3 Pipe Alternates 8-4 Pipe Corrosion Zones and Pipe Alternate Selection 8-4.1 Corrosion Zone I 8-4.2 Corrosion Zone II 8-4.3 Corrosion Zone III 8-5 Corrosion 8-5.1 pH 8-5.2 Resistivity 8-5.3 Methods For Controlling Corrosion 8-6 Abrasion 8-7 Pipe Joints 8-8 Pipe Anchors 8-9 Pipe Rehabilitation 8-10 Pipe Design 8-10.1 Categories of Structural Materials 8-10.2 Structural Behavior of Flexible Pipes 8-10.3 Structural Behavior of Rigid Pipes 8-10.4 Foundation, Bedding, and Backfill 8-10.5 Structural Analysis and Fill Height Tables 8-10.6 Pipe Cover 8-10.7 Shallow Cover Installation 8-11 Fill Height Tables 8-7 8-7 8-8 8-11 8-14 8-14 8-15 8-15 8-16 8-18 8-24 8-25 8-25 8-25 8-27 8-30 8-30 8-31 8-31 8-31 8-31 8-32 8-33 8-34 8-34 8-34 8-36 9-1 9-1 9-1 9-1 9-2 9-2 9-2 9-3 9-5 9-6 9-6 9-7 9-8 9-13
Chapter 9
Highway Rest Areas

9-1 General 9-2 Submittal 9-2.1 Water Supply System Data Requirements 9-2.2 Sewage Disposal System Data Requirements 9-3 Water Supply 9-3.1 Test Well 9-3.2 Water Demands at Rest Areas 9-3.3 Reservoirs 9-4 Sewage Disposal 9-4.1 Municipal Sewer Systems 9-4.2 Long Distance Pressure Sewers 9-4.3 Septic Tank and Drainfield 9-4.4 Sewage Lagoons
10:F:DP/HM
Page iv
Contents
Page
Chapter 1
Design Policy
1-1 General 1-2 Responsibility 1-3 Hydraulic Reports 1-4 Storm Frequency Policy Appendix Conversion Table
1-1 1-1 1-1 1-2 1-4 1-1-1
11B:F:DP/HM
Page 1-i
Page 1-ii
Chapter 1
1-1 General
Design Policy
Various types of drainage facilities are required to protect the highway against surface and subsurface water. Drainage facilities must be designed to convey the water across, along, or away from the highway in the most economical, efficient, and safe manner without damaging the highway or adjacent property. The purpose of this manual is to provide detailed information on the subjects of hydrologic and hydraulic analysis related to highway design. This manual should be used in conjunction with the Washington State Department of Transportation (WSDOT) Highway Runoff Manual and the WSDOT Design Manual, specifically Section 1210. The following chapters provide the information necessary to complete hydrologic and hydraulic analysis for nearly all the situations that will be encountered during normal highway design. When a designer encounters a situation that is not described in this manual, the regional hydraulics contact or the Olympia Service Center (OSC) Hydraulics Branch should be contacted for assistance. Designers are encouraged to request assistance as soon as questions or problems arise in a project since this often reduces the amount of redesign and it often allows more alternative solutions for the final design. Designers should always keep in mind the legal and ethical obligations of WSDOT concerning hydraulic issues. The final project design should be carefully examined to determine if the project causes any significant changes to existing stormwater runoff and natural drainage facilities both upstream and downstream of the project. Care must be taken to ensure that the highway construction does not interfere with or damage any of these facilities.
1-2
Responsibility
The Project Engineers Office is responsible for the preparation of correct and adequate drainage design. Actual design work may be performed in the Project Engineers Office, by another WSDOT office, or by a private consulting engineer. However, in all cases, it is the Project Engineers responsibility to ensure that the design work is completed and that a hydraulic report is prepared as described in Section 1-3 of this manual. The hydraulic report should be completed during the early stages of design to allow adequate time for review prior to final Plans, Specifications, and Estimates (PS&E) preparation. The Project Engineers Office is also responsible for initiating the application for hydraulic related permits required by various local, state, and federal agencies. While the region is responsible for the preparation of hydraulic reports and PS&E for all drainage facilities except bridges, assistance from the OSC Hydraulics Branch may be requested for any drainage facility design, including the following: 1. Hydraulic design of unique drainage facilities (siphons, channel changes, etc.). 2. Structural design of hydraulic structures (culvert headwalls, fish ladders, etc.).
Page 1-1
Design Policy
3. Analysis of streambank erosion and migration and design of stabilization countermeasures. 4. Flood plain studies and river hydraulic analysis. 5. Special hydrological analysis (snowmelt estimates, storm frequency prediction, etc.). 6. Analysis of closed drainage basins. The OSC Hydraulics Branch takes primary responsibility in the following areas: 1. Ensuring that the information in the WSDOT Hydraulics Manual is accurate and current. 2. Ensuring that the engineering related information in the WSDOT Highway Runoff Manual is accurate and current. 3. Hydraulic analysis of bridges, including hydraulic conveyance, floodplain impacts, deck drainage, and foundation scour. 4. Hydraulic and structural design of all large span corrugated metal culverts. 5. Hydraulic design of large span concrete culverts. 6. Hydraulic design of pumping facilities. 7. Maintaining WSDOT Standard Plans involving drainage items. 8. Design of water supply and sewage disposal systems for safety rest areas. 9. Providing the Washington State Attorney Generals office with technical assistance on hydraulic issues. 10. Reviewing and approving Type A Hydraulic Reports. 11. Providing the regions with technical assistance on hydraulic issues that are the primary responsibility of the region. 12. Providing basic hydrology and hydraulics training courses to the regions.
1-3
Hydraulic Reports
The hydraulic report is intended to serve as a complete documented record containing the engineering justification for all drainage modifications that occur as a result of the project. The primary use for a hydraulic report will be to allow review of the design and to assist in the preparation of the PS&E. The writer should approach the hydraulic report from the position of its defense in a court of law. It should be clearly written and show conditions before and after construction. The final copy of the hydraulic report must be stamped with a professional engineers seal and signed by the project engineer. Hydraulic reports will be one of two types. Type A reports are intended for major hydraulic work, such as large culverts, storm sewers, stormwater facilities, pump stations, and rest area modification for water and sewage. Three copies of these reports are required. One copy is kept in the Project Engineers Office for reference during plan preparation and construction. One copy is sent to the regional hydraulics contact, which will become WSDOTs permanent copy, and shall be kept on file in the region
Page 1-2
Design Policy
archives for an indefinite period of time. One copy is sent to the OSC Hydraulics Branch, and will be kept for at least 10 years. Approval is required from all three recipients. Type B hydraulic reports are intended for minor hydraulic work. Two copies are required, one for the Project Engineers Office and one for the regional hydraulics contact. Approval is required from both recipients. OSC review and approval is not required for this type of project. Minor work includes such things as installing culverts with a diameter equal to or less than 1200 millimeters (48 inches), extending existing culverts of all diameters a distance less than 50 percent of their original length, installing underdrainage systems, and making minor changes to pavement drainage. Since there are many different types of projects designed and constructed by WSDOT, there is no set format for a hydraulic report. The hydraulic report must be well organized and contain all of the information necessary such that an engineer with no prior knowledge of the project could read the hydraulic report and fully understand the design. Items that should be included in a hydraulic report when applicable to the project are: 1. Title page listing the project name, associated state route, associated milepost(s), project number, and name, signature, and professional civil engineer license stamp of the project engineer. 2. Table of contents. 3. Vicinity map with the location of the project clearly shown. 4. An introduction which discusses the hydraulic features of the project and why they are being installed. The project site conditions and layout should be discussed. Photographs are often helpful in describing the site. There is no need to discuss the overall purpose of the project unless it is pertinent to some of the decisions made during design of the hydraulic features. If the project includes installation of stormwater best management practices (BMPs), then the introduction should state if there are local agency stormwater design guidelines that are different from WSDOT design guidelines. 5. Discussion of site conditions as observed during inspection(s) of the site by the designer. This discussion will serve to confirm what is shown on maps and site plans, and it will note any features that will influence drainage design but are different than shown on maps and site plans. 6. Discussion of soil testing that has been performed at the site. This usually includes soil pH and resisitivity to determine acceptable pipe alternates, and soil infiltration and groundwater level for stormwater BMP design. 7. Maps showing drainage basins significant to the project. The maps should show the entire drainage basins, including portions that are off WSDOT right of way. If the project has several drainage basins which contribute to various hydraulic features, then each drainage basin should be clearly labeled and the same label should be referred to in the hydrologic and hydraulic calculations. When the change between existing and post construction conditions is important to the
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Design Policy
calculations, the maps should show both conditions, on separate maps if necessary for clarity. Maps should always be of an adequate scale to allow reviewers to verify all information used in the calculations. 8. Hydrologic and hydraulic design calculations for all hydraulic features (e.g., culverts, storm drains, stormwater BMPs, inlets, gutters, ditches, streambank stabilization). Calculations include both the actual numerical calculations, and a discussion of what assumptions were made to perform the calculations and how the input parameters were determined. The calculations should always include enough supporting information to allow reviewers to completely duplicate the process used through the original design; however, excessive data which duplicates information already provided can often make the calculation process less understandable. Whenever possible, calculation methodologies described in this manual should be followed. If a different method is selected, the reason for not using the standard WSDOT method should be explained. Figures from this manual, standard WSDOT design forms, and suggested software should be used whenever possible to make the presentation of the information uniform throughout WSDOT. 9. Preliminary plans for the project showing locations of all the hydraulic features. These plans may change before final PS&E but should be of the same quality that is used for final PS&E. In some situations, combining drainage basin maps with these plans will improve overall clarity. 10. Profiles of all culverts, storm drains, stormwater BMPs, ditches, and channels. Similar to the plans, these should be done to the same quality as final PS&E drawings. 11. Traffic analysis data (only necessary for safety rest area designs). If the designer is uncertain of how to organize a hydraulic report, the regional hydraulics contact should be consulted for information. For any type of project, the regional hydraulics contact should be able to provide an example of a hydraulic report from a previous project. The OSC Hydraulics Branch can also be contacted for information regarding the best way to prepare a hydraulic report.
1-4
Storm Frequency Policy

The design of a hydraulic structure requires an investigation to determine the runoff from the drainage area contributing flow. The amount of runoff from a drainage area will vary depending on the storm frequency that is being analyzed. The less frequent the storm is, the greater the associated precipitation will be and thus the greater the runoff will be. Ideally, every hydraulic structure would be designed for the largest possible amount of flow that could ever occur. Unfortunately, this would require unusually large structures and would add an unjustifiable amount of cost to the projects; therefore hydraulic structures are analyzed for a specific storm frequency. When selecting a storm frequency for design purposes, consideration is given to the potential degree of damage to the roadway and adjacent property, potential hazard and inconvenience to the public, the number of users on the roadway, and the initial construction cost of the hydraulic structure.
Page 1-4
Design Policy
The way in which these factors interrelate can become quite complex. WSDOT policy regarding design storm frequency for typical hydraulic structures has been established so the designer does not have to perform a risk analysis for each structure on each project. The design storm frequency is referred to in terms of mean recurrence interval (MRI) of precipitation or high flows. MRI is the average interval between events equal to or greater than a given event. It can also be viewed as the probability that such an event will occur in any one year. For example, a peak flow having a 25-year recurrence interval has a 4 percent probability of being equaled or exceeded in any future year. A peak flow having a 2-year recurrence interval has a 50 percent probability of being equaled or exceeded in any future year. The greater the MRI, the lower the probability that the event will occur in any given year. It is important to keep in mind that MRI does not indicate that events occur on a time schedule. MRI cannot be used to predict time of occurrence. Each event is independent of all others, so the chance that a 25-year peak flow will occur this year remains the same regardless of what flows occurred last year. The correct way to view MRI is that it predicts the average occurrence of events over an extended period of time. For example, a 25-year peak discharge is a flow that is expected to be equaled or exceeded four times in 100 years. Figure 1-4 lists the recommended MRIs for design of hydraulic structures. Based on past experience, these will give acceptable results in most cases. Occasionally, the cost of damages may be so great, or the level of services using the roadway may be so important, that a higher MRI is appropriate. Good engineering judgment must be used to recognize these instances and the design modified accordingly. In high risk areas, a statistical risk analysis (benefit/cost) may be needed to arrive at the most suitable frequency.
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Design Policy
Type of Structure Gutters Storm Drain Inlets On Longitudinal Slope Storm Drain Inlets Vertical Curve Sag Storm Drain Laterals Storm Drain Trunk Lines Ditches Standard Culverts Design For HW/D Ratio Standard Culverts Check For High Flow Damage Bottomless Culverts Design For HW Depth Bridges Design For Flow Passage And Foundation Scour Bridges Check For High Flow Damage Figure 1-4
Design Frequency for Hydraulic Structures
MRI (Years) 10 10 50 10 25 10 25 100 25 and 100 100 500
Page 1-6
Appendix 1-1
Length
1 inch 1 foot 1 mile 1 mile = = = = 25.4 millimeters 0.3048 meters 5,280 feet 1.609 kilometers
Conversion Table
Area
1 acre 1 acre 1 hectare 1 square mile 1 square mile = = = = = 0.4047 hectares 43,560 square feet 10,000 square meters 640 acres 1 section of land
Volume
1 gallon 1 cubic foot 1 cubic foot 1 acre-foot 1 acre-foot = = = = = 3.785 liters 7.48 gallons 0.0283 cubic meters 1,233.6 cubic meters 43,560 cubic feet
Flowing Water Rates

1 cubic foot per second 1 cubic foot per second 1 cubic foot per second 1 cubic foot per second 1 cubic foot per second = = = = = 0.0283 cubic meters per second 28.32 liters per second 448.83 gallons per minute 0.646 million gallons per day 1.984 acre-feet per day
Pressure
1 foot of water 1 foot of water 1 foot of water 1 atmosphere 1 atmosphere 1 atmosphere = = = = = = 2.988 Kilopascals 0.433 pounds per square inch 62.4 pounds per square foot 101.4 Kilopascals 14.70 pounds per square inch 33.94 feet of water
Appendix 1-1-1
Appendix 1-1-2
Contents
Page
Chapter 2
Hydrology
2-1 2-2 2-3 2-4 General Hydrology Selecting A Method Drainage Basin The Rational Method 2-4.1 General 2-5 Santa Barbara Urban Hydrograph Method 2-6 Published Flow Records 2-7 USGS Regression Equations 2-8 Flood Reports 2-9 Mean Annual Runoff Appendixes USGS Streamflow Gage Peak Flow Records USGS Regression Equation Data and Mean Annual Runoff Data
2-1 2-1 2-2 2-2 2-3 2-3 2-13 2-14 2-14 2-15 2-16 2-1-1 2-2-1
2C:F:DP/HM
Page 2-i
Page 2-ii
Chapter 2
2-1 General Hydrology
Hydrology
The Washington State Department of Transportation (WSDOT) Olympia Service Center (OSC) Hydraulics Branch uses several methods of determining runoff rates and/or volumes. Experience has shown them to be accurate, convenient, and economical. The following methods will be discussed in detail in subsequent sections of this chapter: 1. The Rational Method 2. The Santa Barbara Urban Hydrograph (SBUH) Method 3. Published Flow Records 4. United States Geological Survey (USGS) Regression Equations 5. Flood Reports Two other methods, documented testimony and high water mark observations, may be used as back-up material to confirm the results of the above statistical and empirical methods. Where calculated results vary from on-site observations, further investigation may be required. The additional two methods are: 6. Documented Testimony Documented testimony of long-time residents should also be given serious consideration by the designer. The engineer must be aware of any bias that testifying residents may have. Independent calculations should be made to verify this type of testimony. The information that may be furnished by local residents of the area should include, but not be limited to the following: a. Dates of past floods. b. High water marks. c. Amount of drift. d. Any changes in the river channel which may be occurring (i.e., stability of streambed, is channel widening or meandering?). e. Estimated velocity. f. Description of flooding characteristics between normal flow to flood stage. 7. High Water Mark Observations Sometimes the past flood stage from a drainage area may be determined by observing high water marks on existing structures or on the bank of a stream or ditch. These marks along with other data may be used to determine the discharge by methods discussed in the Open Channel Flow chapter or the Culverts chapter of this manual. Additional hydrologic procedures are available including complex computer models which can give the designer accurate flood predictions. However, these methods, which require costly field data and large amounts of data preparation and calculation
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Hydrology
time, can rarely be justified for a single hydraulic structure. The OSC Hydraulics Branch should be contacted before a procedure not listed above is used in a hydrologic analysis. For the sake of simplicity and uniformity, the OSC Hydraulics Branch will normally require the use of one of the first five of the seven methods listed above. Exceptions will be permitted if adequate justification is provided.
2-2
Selecting a Method
Each of the first five methods listed above are appropriate to use for different design conditions and none of the methods will cover all situations. The first step in performing a hydrologic analysis is to determine which method is most appropriate. Generally there is no need to select more than one method. 1. Rational Method: This method is used when peak discharges for small basins must be determined. It is a fairly simple and accurate method especially when the basin is primarily impervious. The rational method is appropriate for culvert design, pavement drainage design, storm drain design, and some stormwater facility designs. 2. SBUH Method: This method is used when peak discharges and runoff volumes for small basins must be determined. This method is not complicated but requires a computer due to its computationally intensive nature. The SBUH method is required for many stormwater facility designs and can also be used for culvert design, pavement drainage design, and storm drain design. 3. Published Flow Records: This method is used when peak discharges for large basins must be determined. This is more of a collection of data rather than a predictive analysis like the other methods listed. Some agencies (primarily the USGS) gather streamflow data on a regular basis. This collected data can be used to predict flood flows for the river and is typically more accurate than calculated flows. Published flow records are most appropriate for culvert and bridge design. 4. USGS Regression Equations: This method is used when peak discharges for medium to large basins must be determined. It is a set of regression equations that were developed using data from streamflow gaging stations. The regression equations are very simple to use but lack the accuracy of published flow records. USGS regression equations are appropriate for culvert and bridge design. 5. Flood Reports: This method is used when peak discharges for medium to large basins must be determined. It is basically using results from an analysis that has been conducted by another agency. Often these values are very accurate since they were developed from an in-depth analysis. Flood report data are appropriate for culvert and bridge design.
2-3
Drainage Basin
The size of the drainage basin is one of the most important parameters regardless of which method of hydrologic analysis is used. To determine the basin area, select the best available topographic map or maps which cover the entire area contributing surface runoff to the point of interest. Outline the area on the map or maps and determine the size in square meters, acres, or square miles (as appropriate for the specific equations), either by scaling or by using a planimeter. Sometimes drainage basins are
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Hydrology
small enough that they fit entirely on the CADD drawings for the project. In these cases the basin can be digitized on the CADD drawing and calculated by the computer. Any areas within the basin that are known to be non-contributing to surface runoff should be subtracted from the total drainage area. The USGS has published two open-file reports titled, Drainage Area Data for Western Washington and Drainage Area Data for Eastern Washington. Copies of these reports can be obtained from the OSC Hydraulics Branch and the Regional Hydraulics Contacts. These reports list drainage areas for all streams in Washington where discharge measurements have been made. Drainage areas are also given for many other sites such as highway crossings, major stream confluences, and at the mouths of significant streams. These publications list a total of over 5,000 drainage areas and are a valuable time saver to the designer. The sites listed in these publications are usually medium sized and larger drainage basin areas. Small local drainage areas need to be determined from topographic maps as outlined above.
2-4
The Rational Method

The rational method is used to predict peak flows for small drainage areas which can be either natural or developed. The rational method can be used for culvert design, pavement drainage design, storm drain design, and some stormwater facility design. The greatest accuracy is obtained for areas smaller than 40 hectares (100 acres) and for developed conditions with large areas of impervious surface (e.g., pavement, roof tops, etc.). Basins up to 400 hectares (1,000 acres) may be evaluated using the rational formula; however, results for large basins often do not properly account for effects of infiltration and thus are less accurate. Designers should never perform a rational method analysis on a basin that is larger than the lower limit specified for the USGS regression equations since the USGS regression equations will yield a more accurate flow prediction for that size of basin. The formula for the rational method is: CIA Q = ---------Kc where: Q = Runoff in cubic meters per second (cubic feet per second for English units) C = Runoff coefficient in dimensionless units I = Rainfall intensity in millimeters per hour (inches per hour) A = Drainage area in hectares (acres) Kc = Units conversion factor of 360 (1 for English units) When several subareas within a drainage basin have different runoff coefficients, the rational formula can be modified as follows: I ( CA ) Q = ------------------Kc where: CA = C1 A1 + C2 A2 + Cn An
2-4.1 General
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Hydrology
Hydrologic information calculated by the rational method should be submitted on DOT Form 235-009 (see Figure 2-4.1). This format contains all the required input information as well as the resulting discharge. The description of each area should be identified by name or stationing so that the reviewer may easily locate each area.
2-4.2 Runoff Coefficients

The runoff coefficient C represents the percentage of rainfall that becomes runoff. The rational method implies that this ratio is fixed for a given drainage basin. In reality, the coefficient may vary with respect to prior wetting and seasonal conditions. The use of an average coefficient for various surface types is quite common and it is assumed to stay constant through the duration of the rain storm. Frozen ground can cause a dramatic increase in the runoff coefficient. When this condition is coupled with heavy rainfall and, perhaps, melting snow, the runoff can be much greater than calculated values that did not account for these conditions. This condition is common for larger basins that are above 300 m (1000 ft.) in elevation and is automatically accounted for in the USGS regression equations. For small basins where the rational method is being used, the designer should increase the runoff coefficient to reflect the reduction in infiltration and resulting increased surface runoff. In a high growth rate area, runoff factors should be projected that will be characteristic of developed conditions 20 years after construction of the project. Even though local storm water practices (where they exist) may reduce potential increases in runoff, prudent engineering should still make allowances for predictable growth patterns. The coefficients in Figure 2-4.2 are applicable for peak storms of 10-year frequency. Less frequent, higher intensity storms will require the use of higher coefficients because infiltration and other losses have a proportionally smaller effect on runoff. Generally, when designing for a 25-year frequency, the coefficient should be increased by 10 percent; when designing for a 50-year frequency, the coefficient should be increased by 20 percent; and when designing for a 100-year frequency, the coefficient should be increased by 25 percent. The runoff coefficient should never be increased above 0.90.
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Hydrology
Type of Cover Pavement and Roofs Earth Shoulders Drives and Walks Gravel Pavement City Business Areas Suburban Residential Single Family Residential Multi Units, Detached Multi Units, Attached Lawns, Very Sandy Soil Lawns, Sandy Soil Lawns, Heavy Soil Grass Shoulders Side Slopes, Earth Side Slopes, Turf Median Areas, Turf Cultivated Land, Clay and Loam Cultivated Land, Sand and Gravel Industrial Areas, Light Industrial Areas, Heavy Parks and Cemeteries Playgrounds Woodland and Forests Meadows and Pasture Land Pasture with Frozen Ground Unimproved Areas
Flat 0.90 0.50 0.75 0.50 0.80 0.25 0.30 0.40 0.60 0.05 0.10 0.17 0.25 0.60 0.30 0.25 0.50 0.25 0.50 0.60 0.10 0.20 0.10 0.25 0.40 0.10 Figure 2-4.2
Rolling 2%-10% 0.90 0.50 0.80 0.55 0.85 0.35 0.40 0.50 0.65 0.07 0.15 0.22 0.25 0.60 0.30 0.30 0.55 0.30 0.70 0.80 0.15 0.25 0.15 0.30 0.45 0.20
Hilly Over 10% 0.90 0.50 0.85 0.60 0.85 0.40 0.50 0.60 0.70 0.10 0.20 0.35 0.25 0.60 0.30 0.30 0.60 0.35 0.80 0.90 0.25 0.30 0.20 0.35 0.50 0.30
Runoff Coefficients for the Rational Method 10-Year Return Frequency
2-4.3 Time of Concentration

If rainfall is applied at a constant rate over a drainage basin, it would eventually produce a constant peak rate of runoff. The amount of time that passes from the moment that the constant rainfall begins to the moment that the constant rate of runoff begins is called the time of concentration. This is the time required for the surface runoff to flow from the most hydraulically remote part of the drainage basin to the location of concern.
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Hydrology
Actual precipitation does not fall at a constant rate. A precipitation event will begin with a small rainfall intensity then, sometimes very quickly, build to a peak intensity and eventually taper down to no rainfall. Because rainfall intensity is variable, the time of concentration is included in the rational method so that the designer can determine the proper rainfall intensity to apply across the basin. The intensity that should be used for design purposes is the highest intensity that will occur with the entire basin contributing flow to the location where the designer is interested in knowing the flow rate. It is important to note that this may be a much lower intensity than the absolute maximum intensity. The reason is that it often takes several minutes before the entire basin is contributing flow but the absolute maximum intensity lasts for a much shorter time so the rainfall intensity that creates the greatest runoff is less than the maximum by the time the entire basin is contributing flow. Most drainage basins will consist of different types of ground covers and conveyance systems that flow must pass over or through. These are referred to as flow segments. It is common for a basin to have flow segments that are overland flow and flow segments that are open channel flow. Urban drainage basins often have flow segments that are flow through a storm drain pipe in addition to the other two types. A travel time (the amount of time required for flow to move through a flow segment) must be computed for each flow segment. The time of concentration is equal to the sum of all the flow segment travel times. For a few drainage areas, a unique situation occurs where the time of concentration that produces the largest amount of runoff is less than the time of concentration for the entire basin. This can occur when two or more subbasins have dramatically different types of cover (i.e., different runoff coefficients). The most common case would be a large paved area together with a long narrow strip of natural area. In this case, the designer should check the runoff produced by the paved area alone to determine if this scenario would cause a greater peak runoff rate than the peak runoff rate produced when both land segments are contributing flow. The scenario that produces the greatest runoff should be used, even if the entire basin is not contributing flow to this runoff. The procedure described below for determining the time of concentration for overland flow was developed by the United States Natural Resources Conservation Service (formerly known as the Soil Conservation Service). It is sensitive to slope, type of ground cover, and the size of channel. The designer should never use a time of concentration less than 5 minutes. The time of concentration can be calculated as follows: L L 1.5 T t = ----------- = ---------------K H K S Tc = Tt1 + Tt2 + + Ttnz where: Tt = Travel time of flow segment in minutes Tc = Time of concentration in minutes L = Length of segment in meters (feet for English units) H = Elevation change across segment in meters (feet)
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Hydrology
K = Ground cover coefficient in meters per minute (feet per minute) H S = Slope of segment ------- in meters per meter (feet per L feet) K (metric) 50 75 125 200 275 375 450 725 950 925 1,200 1,425 350 550 850 600 950 1,525 K (English) 150 280 420 600 900 1,200 1,500 2,400 3,100 3,000 3,900 4,700 1,100 1,800 2,800 2,000 3,100 5,000
Type of Cover Forest with heavy ground cover Minimum tillage cultivation Short pasture grass or lawn Nearly bare ground Small roadside ditch w/grass Paved area Gutter flow
Storm Sewers
Open Channel Flow (n = .040) Narrow Channel (w/d =1) Open Channel Flow (n = .040) Wide Channel (w/d =9)
100 mm deep 150 mm deep 200 mm deep 300 mm diam. 450 mm diam. 600 mm diam. 300 mm deep 600 mm deep 1.20 m deep 300 mm deep 600 mm deep 1.20 m deep Figure 2-4.3
Ground Cover Coefficients
2-4.4 Rainfall Intensity

After the appropriate storm frequency for the design has been determined (see Chapter 1) and the time of concentration has been calculated, the rainfall intensity can be calculated. Designers should never use a time of concentration that is less than 5 minutes for intensity calculations, even when the calculated time of concentration is less than 5 minutes. It should be noted that the rainfall intensity at any given time is the average of the most intense period enveloped by the time of concentration and is not the instantaneous rainfall. The equation for calculating rainfall intensity is: m I = -----------( Tc ) n where: I = Rainfall intensity in millimeters per hour (inches per hour in English units) Tc = Time of concentration in minutes m and n = Coefficients in dimensionless units (see Figures 2-4.4A and 2-4.4B)
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Hydrology
The coefficients (m and n) have been determined for all major cities for the 2-, 5-, 10-, 25-, 50-, and 100-year mean recurrence intervals (MRI). The coefficients listed are accurate from 5-minute duration to 1,440-minute duration (24 hours). These equations were developed from the 1973 National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Atlas 2, Precipitation-Frequency Atlas of the Western United States, Volume IX-Washington. The designer should interpolate between the two or three nearest cities listed in the tables when working on a project that is in a location not listed on the table. If the designer must do an analysis with a storm duration greater than 1,440 minutes, the rational method should not be used.
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Hydrology
2-Year MRI Location m n Aberdeen and Hoquiam 129 0.488 Bellingham 109 0.549 Bremerton 96 0.480 Centralia and Chehalis 92 0.506 Clarkston and Colfax 128 0.628 Colville 88 0.558 Ellensburg 73 0.590 Everett 94 0.556 Forks 106 0.410 Hoffstadt Cr. (SR 504)101 0.448 Hoodsport 114 0.428 Kelso and Longview 108 0.507 Leavenworth 77 0.530 Moses Lake 66 0.583 Mt. Vernon 100 0.542 Naselle 116 0.432 Olympia 97 0.466 Omak 77 0.583 Pasco and Kennewick 73 0.590 Port Angeles 109 0.530 Poulsbo 97 0.506 Queets 108 0.422 Seattle 90 0.515 Sequim 89 0.551 Snoqualmie Pass 92 0.417 Spokane 88 0.556 Stevens Pass 120 0.462 Tacoma 91 0.516 Vancouver 74 0.477 Walla Walla 85 0.569 Wenatchee 80 0.535 Yakima 98 0.608
5-Year MRI m n 158 0.488 142 0.555 123 0.487 123 0.518 174 0.633 138 0.593 132 0.631 132 0.570 130 0.412 132 0.462 138 0.428 140 0.515 105 0.542 128 0.634 133 0.552 144 0.441 123 0.472 129 0.618 132 0.631 138 0.531 126 0.513 132 0.423 123 0.531 127 0.569 122 0.435 138 0.591 155 0.470 121 0.527 103 0.496 141 0.609 124 0.566 149 0.633
10-Year MRI m n 179 0.487 167 0.559 143 0.490 146 0.524 209 0.635 177 0.610 179 0.649 160 0.575 148 0.413 156 0.469 157 0.427 164 0.519 143 0.575 178 0.655 159 0.557 156 0.432 143 0.474 168 0.633 178 0.649 159 0.531 149 0.516 149 0.423 143 0.530 156 0.577 167 0.459 177 0.609 208 0.500 145 0.533 125 0.506 185 0.627 157 0.579 187 0.644
25-Year MRI m n 208 0.487 201 0.562 170 0.494 178 0.530 256 0.638 230 0.626 240 0.664 199 0.582 172 0.414 189 0.476 182 0.428 197 0.524 202 0.594 243 0.671 193 0.561 190 0.443 168 0.477 222 0.647 240 0.664 187 0.532 178 0.519 172 0.423 175 0.539 195 0.585 196 0.459 231 0.626 217 0.484 176 0.539 154 0.515 246 0.645 202 0.592 239 0.654
50-Year MRI m n 229 0.487 226 0.563 190 0.496 201 0.533 291 0.639 271 0.635 287 0.672 228 0.585 190 0.415 214 0.480 200 0.428 221 0.526 248 0.606 295 0.681 218 0.564 204 0.440 188 0.478 263 0.654 287 0.672 208 0.532 200 0.521 190 0.423 200 0.545 226 0.590 223 0.461 271 0.635 269 0.499 200 0.542 177 0.520 291 0.653 237 0.600 278 0.659
100-Year MRI m n 250 0.487 251 0.565 210 0.498 225 0.537 325 0.639 311 0.642 335 0.678 256 0.586 208 0.416 238 0.484 219 0.428 246 0.529 281 0.611 346 0.688 245 0.567 226 0.436 208 0.480 304 0.660 335 0.678 229 0.532 222 0.523 208 0.424 222 0.545 255 0.593 259 0.476 313 0.643 316 0.513 223 0.545 199 0.525 337 0.660 271 0.605 317 0.663
Index to Rainfall Coefficients (Metric Units)
Figure 2-4.4A
2-Year MRI Location m n Aberdeen and Hoquiam 5.10 0.488 Bellingham 4.29 0.549 Bremerton 3.79 0.480 Centralia and Chehalis 3.63 0.506 Clarkston and Colfax 5.02 0.628 Colville 3.48 0.558 Ellensburg 2.89 0.590 Everett 3.69 0.556 Forks 4.19 0.410 Hoffstadt Cr. (SR 504) 3.96 0.448 Hoodsport 4.47 0.428 Kelso and Longview 4.25 0.507 Leavenworth 3.04 0.530 Moses Lake 2.61 0.583 Mt. Vernon 3.92 0.542 Naselle 4.57 0.432 Olympia 3.82 0.466 Omak 3.04 0.583 Pasco and Kennewick 2.89 0.590 Port Angeles 4.31 0.530 Poulsbo 3.83 0.506 Queets 4.26 0.422 Seattle 3.56 0.515 Sequim 3.50 0.551 Snoqualmie Pass 3.61 0.417 Spokane 3.47 0.556 Stevens Pass 4.73 0.462 Tacoma 3.57 0.516 Vancouver 2.92 0.477 Walla Walla 3.33 0.569 Wenatchee 3.15 0.535 Yakima 3.86 0.608
5-Year MRI m n 6.22 0.488 5.59 0.555 4.84 0.487 4.85 0.518 6.84 0.633 5.44 0.593 5.18 0.631 5.20 0.570 5.12 0.412 5.21 0.462 5.44 0.428 5.50 0.515 4.12 0.542 5.05 0.634 5.25 0.552 5.67 0.441 4.86 0.472 5.06 0.618 5.18 0.631 5.42 0.531 4.98 0.513 5.18 0.423 4.83 0.531 5.01 0.569 4.81 0.435 5.43 0.591 6.09 0.470 4.78 0.527 4.05 0.496 5.54 0.609 4.88 0.566 5.86 0.633
10-Year MRI m n 7.06 0.487 6.59 0.559 5.63 0.490 5.76 0.524 8.24 0.635 6.98 0.610 7.00 0.649 6.31 0.575 5.84 0.413 6.16 0.469 6.17 0.427 6.45 0.519 5.62 0.575 6.99 0.655 6.26 0.557 6.14 0.432 5.62 0.474 6.63 0.633 7.00 0.649 6.25 0.531 5.85 0.516 5.87 0.423 5.62 0.530 6.16 0.577 6.56 0.459 6.98 0.609 8.19 0.500 5.70 0.533 4.92 0.506 7.30 0.627 6.19 0.579 7.37 0.644
25-Year MRI m n 8.17 0.487 7.90 0.562 6.68 0.494 7.00 0.530 10.07 0.638 9.07 0.626 9.43 0.664 7.83 0.582 6.76 0.414 7.44 0.476 7.15 0.428 7.74 0.524 7.94 0.594 9.58 0.671 7.59 0.561 7.47 0.443 6.63 0.477 8.74 0.647 9.43 0.664 7.37 0.532 7.00 0.519 6.79 0.423 6.89 0.539 7.69 0.585 7.72 0.459 9.09 0.626 8.53 0.484 6.93 0.539 6.06 0.515 9.67 0.645 7.94 0.592 9.40 0.654
50-Year MRI m n 9.02 0.487 8.89 0.563 7.47 0.496 7.92 0.533 11.45 0.639 10.65 0.635 11.30 0.672 8.96 0.585 7.47 0.415 8.41 0.480 7.88 0.428 8.70 0.526 9.75 0.606 11.61 0.681 8.60 0.564 8.05 0.440 7.40 0.478 10.35 0.654 11.30 0.672 8.19 0.532 7.86 0.521 7.48 0.423 7.88 0.545 8.88 0.590 8.78 0.461 10.68 0.635 10.61 0.499 7.86 0.542 6.95 0.520 11.45 0.653 9.32 0.600 10.93 0.659
100-Year MRI m n 9.86 0.487 9.88 0.565 8.26 0.498 8.86 0.537 12.81 0.639 12.26 0.642 13.18 0.678 10.07 0.586 8.18 0.416 9.38 0.484 8.62 0.428 9.67 0.529 11.08 0.611 13.63 0.688 9.63 0.567 8.91 0.436 8.17 0.480 11.97 0.660 13.18 0.678 9.03 0.532 8.74 0.523 8.18 0.424 8.75 0.545 10.04 0.593 10.21 0.476 12.33 0.643 12.45 0.513 8.79 0.545 7.82 0.525 13.28 0.660 10.68 0.605 12.47 0.663
Index to Rainfall Coefficients (English Units)
Figure 2-4.4B
Hydrology
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Hydrology
2-4.5 Rational Formula Example

Compute the 25-year runoff for the Olympia watershed shown above. Three types of flow conditions exist from the highest point in the watershed to the outlet. The upper portion is 10.0 hectares of forest cover with an average slope of 0.15 m/m. The middle portion is 2.5 hectares of single family residential with a slope of 0.06 m/m and primarily lawns. The lower portion is a 2.0 hectares park with 450 mm storm sewers with a general slope of 0.01 m/m. L 550 200 250 Tc = ----------- = -------------------- + ----------------------- + ---------------------------K S 50 0.15 125 0.06 1 ,200 0.01 Tc = 28 min + 7 min + 2 min = 37 min m 168 I = ------------ = -------------------- = 30.0 mm/hr n ( Tc ) ( 37 ) 0.477 CA = 0.20(10.0 ha) + 0.40(2.5 ha) + 0.10(2.0 ha) = 3.2 ha I ( A ) ( 30.0 ) ( 3.2 ) Q = -------------- = --------------------------- = 0.27 m3/s (9.4cfs) Kc 360
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Hydrology
2-5
Santa Barbara Urban Hydrograph Method

When designing flood control structures and some stormwater treatment facilities, the designer must know more than just the peak flow that will occur. Along with the peak flow, the volume of runoff must be calculated as well as the relationship between time and the rate of runoff. The only way to accomplish this is to use a method of analysis that incorporates a hydrograph. A hydrograph is a graphical representation of flow versus time. Of the several commonly accepted hydrograph methods, the Santa Barbara Urban Hydrograph (SBUH) method is the best suited for the types of projects that WSDOT designs. It was developed to calculate flows from small to medium sized urban basins using input data that is readily available and equations that are easily understood. While not all WSDOT projects are in urban basins, it is typically the paved surfaces (similar to urban areas) that generate the majority of the total flow. The SBUH method is computationally intensive. Calculations for even a single drainage area would take hours if done by hand. Because of this, the only practical way to perform an analysis is to use a computer application. The equations used are simple enough to be incorporated into a spreadsheet which would provide accurate calculations; however, it is highly recommended that one of the commercially available computer programs that includes the SBUH method be used. The advantage of using commercial software is the overall consistency of input and output formats and the reliability obtained from being tested in several different design circumstances. There are several commercially available computer programs that include the SBUH method. Each of these programs have certain features that make them unique from other programs but the primary calculations are performed the same way. Because of this, nearly any commercially available computer program that includes the SBUH method is acceptable for designing WSDOT projects. Site licenses for the computer program WaterWorksTM have been purchased by each WSDOT region and by the Washington State Ferries Division so this program and associated manual are available to all WSDOT designers. The OSC Hydraulics Branch encourages the use of WaterWorksTM whenever performing an SBUH method analysis. The OSC Hydraulics Branch is available to lend technical assistance on using WaterWorksTM. The SBUH method only calculates flow that will occur from surface runoff and thus is not accurate for large drainage basins where ground water flow can be a major contributor to the total flow. As a result, the SBUH method is most accurate for drainage basins smaller than 40 hectares (100 acres) and should never be used for drainage basins larger than 400 hectares (1,000 acres). Chapter 3 of the WSDOT Highway Runoff Manual discusses the details of performing an analysis using the SBUH method. The Highway Runoff Manual also includes information on flood control structures and stormwater treatment facilities which will be used in conjunction with almost all SBUH method analyses.
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Hydrology
2-6
Published Flow Records

When available, published flow records provide the most accurate data for designing culverts and bridge openings. This is because the values are based on actual measured flows and not calculated flows. The streamflows are measured at a gaging site for several years. A statistical analysis (typically Log Pearson Type III) is then performed on the measured flows to predict the recurrence intervals. The USGS maintains a large majority of the gaging sites throughout Washington State. A list of all of the USGS gages that have adequate data to develop the recurrence intervals and their corresponding flows is provided in Appendix 2-1. In addition to these values, the OSC Hydraulics Branch maintains records of daily flows and peak flows for all of the current USGS gages. Also, average daily flow values for all current and discontinued USGS gages are available through the Internet on the USGS homepage (note that these are average daily values and not peak values). Some local agencies also maintain streamflow gages. Typically, these are on smaller streams than the USGS gages. While the data obtained from these gages is usually of high enough quality to use for design purposes, the data is not always readily available. If the designer thinks that there is a possibility that a local agency has flow records for a particular stream then the engineering department of the local agency should be contacted. The OSC Hydraulics Branch does not maintain a list of active local agency streamflow gages.
2-7
USGS Regression Equations

While measured flows provide the best data for design purposes, it is not practical to gage all rivers and streams in the state. A set of equations have been developed by the USGS to calculate flows for drainage basins that do not have a streamflow gage. The equations were developed by performing a regression analysis on streamflow gage records to determine which drainage basin parameters are most influential in determining peak runoff rates. The equations break the state up into nine unique hydrologic regions. A map of the regions can be found in Appendix 2-2. The various hydrologic regions require different input variables so the designer should determine which set of equations will be used before gathering data for the analysis. Appendix 2-2 also contains precipitation information that is required input for many of the equations. Other input parameters such as total area of the drainage basin, percent of the drainage basin that is in forest cover, and percent of the drainage basin that is in lakes, swamps, or ponds will need to be determined by the designer through use of site maps, aerial photographs, and site inspections. The equations are listed in Figures 2-7.1 through 2-7.9. Each figure contains one set of equations for a hydrologic region of the state. Each figure also lists the statistical accuracy of the individual equations and describes the required input parameters for the equations and their limits of usage. The designer should be careful not to use data that is outside of the limits specified for the equations since the accuracy of the equations is unknown beyond these points. The designer must be aware of the limitations of these equations. They were developed for natural basins so any drainage basin that has been urbanized should not be analyzed with this method. Also any river that has a dam and reservoir in it should not be analyzed with these equations. Finally, the designer must keep in mind that due
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Hydrology
to the simple nature of these equations and the broad range of each hydrologic region, the results of the equations contain a fairly wide confidence interval, represented as the standard error. The standard error is a statistical representation of the accuracy of the equations. Each equation is based on many rivers and the final result represents the mean of all the flow values for the given set of basin characteristics. The standard error shows how far out one standard deviation is for the flow that was just calculated. For a bellshaped curve in statistical analysis, 68 percent of all the samples are contained within the limits set by one standard deviation above the mean value and one standard deviation below the mean value. It can also be viewed as indicating that 50 percent of all the samples are equal to or less than the flow calculated with the equation and 84 percent of all samples are equal to or less than one standard deviation above the flow just calculated. The equations were developed with data ranging through the 1992 water year. They represent updates to the USGS regression equations developed for Washington State in 1973 and the designer should disregard the previous version of the equations. The equations are only presented in English units. While WSDOT is in the process of converting to metric units, the equations were developed by the USGS which is not actively converting to metric units. In the interest of keeping the equations in their original form, no metric conversion was performed for this manual. To obtain metric flow data, the designer should input the necessary English units data into the appropriate regression equation and then multiply the results by 0.02832 to convert the final answer to cubic meters per second. The OSC Hydraulics Branch has a computer program available for distribution that does the calculations for these equations.
2-8
Flood Reports
Flood reports have been developed for many rivers in Washington State. Most of these reports, and the ones that are most readily accessible, have been developed by the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA). Other reports have been developed by the United States Army Corps of Engineers and by some local agencies. These reports are a good source of flow information since they were developed to analyze the flows during flooding conditions of a particular river or stream. The types of calculations used by the agency conducting the analysis are more complex than the rational method or USGS regression equations and because of this are more accurate. The increased time required to perform these complex calculations is not justified for the typical structure that WSDOT is designing; however, if the analysis has already been performed by another agency, then it is in WSDOTs best interest to use this information. Flood study data should never be used in place of published flow records. The OSC Hydraulics Branch maintains a complete set of FEMA reports and also has several Corps of Engineers flood reports. Regional Environmental Offices should be contacted for local agency reports.
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Hydrology
2-9
Mean Annual Runoff

Sometimes it is necessary to determine the mean annual flow or runoff for a given stream. When published flow records are available they are the best source of information. Minor streams which do not have any gaging records available can be estimated by the following procedure: Metric Units: Q = where: ( MAR )A ----------------------1 ,241
Q = Mean annual runoff in m3/s MAR = Mean annual runoff in inches taken from Appendix 2-2 A = Area of the drainage basin in square kilometers
English Units: ( MAR )A Q = ----------------------13.6 where: Q = Mean annual runoff in cfs MAR = Mean annual runoff in inches taken from Appendix 2-2 A = Area of the drainage basin in square miles
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Hydrology
Washington State Hydrology USGS Regression Equations Region 1

SR __________________ __________________ Date Project __________________________________ _ Made By _________________________________ Equations: Q 2yr Q 10yr Q 25yr Q 50yr Q 100yr = = = = = 9.61 A 0.931 ( P2)1.61
1.68 (P2) 1.69 (P2) 1.70 (P2) 1.70 (P2)
( Standard Error = 2 (Standard Error = 3 (Standard Error = 3 (Standard Error = 3 (Standard Error = 3 Limits
13.9 A 0.925 16.1 A 0.926 17.7 A 0.926 19.3 A 0.926 Legend
Q A P2
= = =
Flow (cfs) 2) (0.15 miles2 A 1,300 miles Drainage Basin Area ) (miles2 2 Year, 24 Hour Precipitation (inches) in P2 8.0 in) (2.5 Return Frequency
Description of Area
P2
Figure 2-7.1
USGS Regression Equations Region 1
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Hydrology

SR __________________ __________________ Date Project __________________________________ _ Made By _________________________________ Equations: Q 2yr Q 10yr Q 25yr Q 50yr Q 100yr = = = = = 0.067 A 0.866 0.107 A 0.861 0.126 A 0.859 0.139 A 0.857 0.153 A 0.856 Legend Q A MAP = = =
1.59 (MAP )
(MAP)1.62 (MAP)1.63 (MAP)1.64 (MAP)1.64
Flow (cfs) 2) (0.08 miles2 A 1,540 miles Drainage Basin Area ) (miles2 Mean Annual Precipitation (inches) (23 in MAP 170 in) Return Frequency
Description of Area
MAP
Figure 2-7.2
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Hydrology

SR __________________ __________________ Date Project __________________________________ _ Made By _________________________________ Equations: Q 2yr Q 10yr Q 25yr Q 50yr Q 100yr = = = = = 0.823 A 0.877 0.826 A 0.870 0.905 A 0.867 0.808 A 0.864 0.809 A 0.862 Legend Q A MAP = = =
1.02 (MAP )
(MAP)1.15 (MAP)1.17 (MAP)1.23 (MAP)1.26
Flow (cfs) 2) (0.36 miles2 A 2,240 miles Drainage Basin Area ) (miles2 Mean Annual Precipitation (inches) (42 in P2 132 in) Return Frequency
Description of Area
MAP
Figure 2-7.3
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Hydrology

SR __________________ __________________ Date Project __________________________________ _ Made By _________________________________ Equations: Q 2yr = 0.028 A 0.885 0.300 A 0.867 0.642 A 0.862 1.02 A 0.858 1.52 A 0.855 Legend Q A F MAP = = = = F-0.156 (MAP)1.84 F-0.254 (MAP)1.50 F-0.282 (MAP)1.39 F-0.297 (MAP)1.33 F-0.319 (MAP)1.27 ( Standard Error = 79 (Standard Error = 7 (Standard Error = 7 (Standard Error = 7 (Standard Error = 7 Limits
Q 10yr = Q 25yr = Q 50yr = Q 100yr =
Flow (cfs) 2) (0.21 miles2 A 2,220 miles Drainage Basin Area ) (miles2 Forest Cover (percent) (0.01% F 100%) Mean Annual Precipitation (inches) (10 in MAP 108 in) Return Frequency
Description of Area
MAP
Figure 2-7.4
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Hydrology

SR __________________ __________________ Date Project __________________________________ _ Made By _________________________________ Equations: Q 2yr Q 10yr Q 25yr Q 50yr Q 100yr = = = = = 23.4 A 0.888 S0.228 S0.153 ( Standard Error = 6 (Standard Error = 5 (Standard Error = 6 (Standard Error = 6 (Standard Error = 8 Limits
70.5 A 0.769 103 128 160 Legend
A 0.732 S0.127 A 0.714 S0.112 A 0.692 S0.093
Q A S
= = =
Flow (cfs) 2) (0.38 miles2 A 638 miles Drainage Basin Area ) (miles2 Area of Lakes, Ponds & Swamps (percent) % S 7.8 %) (0.01 Return Frequency
Description of Area
Figure 2-7.5
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Hydrology

SR __________________ __________________ Date Project __________________________________ _ Made By _________________________________ Equations: Q 2yr Q 10yr Q 25yr Q 50yr Q 100yr = = = = = 2.25 A 0.720
0.833 (MAP )
17.5 A 0.720 37.5 A 0.712 61.2 A 0.710 95.6 A 0.709 Legend
(MAP)0.493 (MAP)0.369 (MAP)0.289 (MAP)0.216
Q A MAP
= = =
Flow (cfs) 2) (0.50 miles2 A 1,300 miles Drainage Basin Area ) (miles2 Mean Annual Precipitation (inches) (10 in MAP 116 in) Return Frequency
Description of Area
MAP
Figure 2-7.6
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Hydrology

SR __________________ ___________________ Date Project __________________________________ _ Made By __________________________________ Equations: Q 2yr Q 10yr Q 25yr Q 50yr Q 100yr = = = = = 6.78 A 0.668 ( Standard Error = 119 (Standard Error = 59% (Standard Error = 67% (Standard Error = 76% (Standard Error = 8 7%) Limits (0.25 miles2 A
2) 1,040 miles
51.0 A 0.641 99.7 A 0.635 149 217 Legend
A 0.632 A 0.623
Q A
= =
Flow (cfs) Drainage Basin Area ) (miles2 Return Frequency
Description of Area
Figure 2-7.7
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Hydrology

SR __________________ __________________ Date Project __________________________________ _ Made By _________________________________ Equations: Q 2yr Q 10yr Q 25yr Q 50yr Q 100yr = = = = = 27.8 104 159 207 260 Legend Q A F = = = Flow (cfs) Drainage Basin Area ) (miles2 Forest Cover (percent) Return Frequency A 0.820 F-0.222 ( Standard Error = 87% (Standard Error = 85% (Standard Error = 94% (Standard Error = 103 (Standard Error = 113 Limits
2) (0.59 miles2 A 689 miles (0.01 % F 100%)
A 0.832 F-0.377 A 0.833 F-0.418 A 0.834 F-0.442 A 0.834 F-0.461
Description of Area
Figure 2-7.8
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Hydrology

SR __________________ __________________ Date Project __________________________________ _ Made By _________________________________ Equations: Q 2yr Q 10yr Q 25yr Q 50yr Q 100yr = = = = = 15.8 A 0.702 ( P2)1.08
0.683 (P2)
79.0 A 0.617 138 185 264 Legend
0.543 A 0.591 (P2) 0.464 A 0.576 (P2) 0.389 A 0.563 (P2)
Q A P2
= = =
Flow (cfs) 2) (0.54 miles2 A 2,500 miles Drainage Basin Area ) (miles2 2 Year, 24 Hour Precipitation (inches) in P2 2.4 in) (1.1 Return Frequency
Description of Area
P2
Figure 2-7.9
Page 2-25
Page 2-26
Appendix 2-1
USGS Streamflow Gage Peak Flow Records

Period of Record 1964-79 1930-92 1954-65 1950-70 1965-79 Q2 (cfs) 1,130 5,740 1,730 176 2,280 Q10 (cfs) 2,000 8,650 2,320 219 3,670 Q25 (cfs) 2,490 10,000 2,640 236 4,400 Q50 (cfs) 2,880 11,000 2,870 248 4,960 Q100 (cfs) 3,300 12,000 3,110 258 5,520
Station Number 12009500 12010000 12010500 12010600 12010700
Station Name Bear Branch Near Naselle, Wash Naselle River Near Naselle, Wash Salmon Creek Near Naselle, Wash Lane Creek Near Naselle, Wash South Fork Naselle River Near Naselle, Wash South Nemah River Near Naselle, Wash North Nemah River Near South Bend, Wash North Nemah R Trib Near South Bend, Wash Williams Creek Near South Bend, Wash Willapa River at Lebam, Wash Fork Creek Near Lebam, Wash Green Creek Near Lebam, Wash Willapa River Near Willapa, Wash S Fk Willapa R Near Raymond, Wash
12010800 12011000
1963-77 1947-61 1965-68 1949-66
235 1,400
331 1,770
373 1,930
401 2,030
428 2,140
12011100
49
75
88
97
106
12011200 12011500 12012000 12012200 12013500 12014500
1965-79 1949-74 1954-79 1950-69 1949-92 1954-79
691 2,860 2,310 126 8,200 1,640
1,400 4,140 3,480 196 11,100 2,760
1,840 4,740 4,080 234 12,400 3,350
2,210 5,160 4,530 264 13,200 3,800
2,600 5,570 5,000 295 14,000 4,260
Appendix 2-1-1
Station Number 12015100 12015500 12016700 12017000 12019600 12020000 12020500 12020900 12021000 12024000
Station Name Clearwater Creek Near Raymond, Wash North River Near Brooklyn, Wash Joe Creek Near Cosmopolis, Wash North River Near Raymond, Wash Water Mill Creek Near Pe Ell, Wash Chehalis River Near Doty, Wash Elk Creek Near Doty, Wash S Fork Chehalis River Near Boistfort, Wash South Fork Chehalis R at Boistfort, Wash S Fork Newaukum River Near Onalaska, Wash Newaukum River NR Chehalis, Wash Salzer Creek Near Centralia, Wash Skookumchuck River Near Vail, Wash Skookumchuck River Near Centralia, Wash Skookumchuck River Below Bldy Rn Creek Skookumchuck R Trib Near Bucoda, Wash Skookumchuck River Near Bucoda, Wash
Period of Record 1965-79 1954-65 1949-70 1928-79 1950-70 1940-92 1945-79 1966-80 1945-65 1945-48 1958-79 1929-31 1943-92 1969-79 1968-92 1930-33 1940-69 1971-92 1960-75 1971-92
Q2 (cfs) 265 1,660 152 8,160 89 9,570 1,710 2,700 3,200 2,280
Q10 (cfs) 495 2,560 246 13,900 138 16,800 2,920 4,660 4,550 3,480
Q25 (cfs) 623 2,980 295 17,600 161 21,200 3,590 5,760 5,200 4,030
Q50 (cfs) 724 3,280 331 20,600 177 24,700 4,120 6,630 5,690 4,420
Q100 (cfs) 829 3,570 368 24,100 193 28,500 4,680 7,540 6,160 4,790
12025000 12025300 12025700 12026000 12026150 12026300 12026400
5,840 303 2,670 3,590 2,880 35 4,040
8,900 325 4,940 5,390 6,460 57 8,220
10,300 332 6,210 6,230 8,480 68 10,500
11,300 337 7,220 6,840 10,000 76 12,200
12,300 341 8,260 7,420 11,600 84 13,900
Appendix 2-1-2
Station Number 12027500 12029700 12030000 12031000 12032500 12034200
Station Name Chehalis River Near Grand Mound, Wash Chehalis River Near Oakville, Wash Rock Creek at Cedarville, Wash Chehalis River at Porter, Wash Cloquallum River at Elma, Wash East Fork Satsop River Near Elma, Wash W Fork Satsop R Trib Near Matlock, Wash Satsop River Near Satsop, Wash Wynoochee River Near Grisdale, Wash Big Creek Near Grisdale, Wash Wynoochee River Near Aberdeen, Wash Anderson Creek Near Montesano, Wash Wynoochee River Near Montesano, Wash Gibson Creek Near Quinalt, Wash Humptulips River Near Humptulips, Wash Big Creek Near Hoquiam, Wash
Period of Record 1929-92 1947-76 1945-74 1947-85 1987-92 1945-79 1958-73
Q2 (cfs) 25,100 28,800 1,120 29,200 3,130 3,000
Q10 (cfs) 41,400 41,900 1,480 42,400 4,650 4,510
Q25 (cfs) 50,700 48,500 1,620 49,000 5,340 5,210
Q50 (cfs) 58,000 53,400 1,720 54,000 5,820 5,710
Q100 (cfs) 65,700 58,500 1,820 59,000 6,280 6,090
12034700 12035000 12035400 12035450 12036000 12036650 12037400
1958-77 1930-92 1973-92 1973-92 1973-92 1973-85 1973-92
40 24,300 6,080 2,240 8,240 254 13,400
79 37,200 9,950 3,280 12,600 436 19,500
99 43,100 11,700 3,780 14,500 532 22,200
115 47,300 13,000 4,140 15,900 605 24,000
132 51,300 14,200 4,490 17,100 680 25,700
12038750 12039000
1965-75 1934-35 1943-79 1949-70
272 18,900
406 28,400
476 32,800
531 35,900
587 38,900
12039050
60
108
134
154
175
Appendix 2-1-3
Station Number 12039100 12039300
Station Name Big Creek Tributary Near Hoquiam, Wash North Fork Quinalt R Near Amanda Pk, Wash Higley Creek Near Amanda Park, Wash Quinalt River at Quinalt Lake, Wash Clearwater River Near Clearwater, Wash Queets River Near Forks, Wash Hoh River Near Forks, Wash Hoh River at US Hwy 101 Near Forks, Wash Sol Duc River Near Fairholm, Wash Sol Duc River Tributary Near Fairholm, Wash May Creek Near Forks, Wash Grader Creek Near Forks, Wash Calawah River Near Forks, Wash Dickey River Near La Push, Wash Sooes R Blw Miller Cr Near Ozette, Wash Hoko River Near Sekiu, Wash East Twin River Near Pysht, Wash
Period of Record 1949-68 1965-86
Q2 (cfs) 16 16,100
Q10 (cfs) 24 27,200
Q25 (cfs) 27 32,800
Q50 (cfs) 29 37,000
Q100 (cfs) 31 41,000
12039400 12039500 12040000 12040500 12041000 12041200 12041500 12041600
1955-74 1912-22 1926-92 1938-67 1931-67 1975-92 1927-64 1961-92 1918-21 1934-80 1956-75
174 21,800 19,800 64,600 18,500 31,800 9,460 26
300 37,100 30,700 97,400 29,600 51,700 16,200 48
366 44,900 36,300 114,000 35,300 61,000 19,800 60
417 50,800 40,600 126,000 39,600 67,600 22,500 69
468 56,700 45,000 138,000 44,000 73,900 25,200 80
12042700 12042900 12043000 12043100 12043163 12043300 12043430
1950-68 1950-88 1976-80 1985-92 1963-80 1976-86 1963-78 1963-78
485 323 17,800 8,220 3,490 6,780 940
708 481 29,800 13,200 5,780 11,000 1,280
804 555 35,800 15,900 6,900 13,400 1,420
870 607 40,300 18,000 7,720 15,200 1,510
932 658 44,800 20,300 8,520 17,100 1,600
Appendix 2-1-4
Station Number 12044000 12045500 12046800 12047100 12047300 12047500 12047700 12048000 12049400 12050500 12052400 12053000 12053400
Station Name Lyre River at Piedmont, Wash Elwha River Near Port Angeles, Wash East Valley Creek at Port Angeles, Wash Lees Creek at Port Angeles, Wash Morse Creek Near Port Angeles, Wash Siebert Creek Near Port Angeles, Wash Gold Creek Near Blyn, Wash Dungeness River Near Sequim, Wash Dean Creek at Blyn, Wash Snow Creek Near Maynard, Wash Penny Creek Near Quilcene, Wash Dosewallips River Near Brinnon, Wash Dosewallips R Tributary Near Brinnon, Wash Duckabush River Near Brinnon, Wash Hamma Hamma River Near Eldon, Wash Jefferson Creek Near Eldon, Wash Annas Bay Tributary Near Potlatch, Wash
Period of Record 1918-27 1927-92 1950-63 1949-70 1967-79 1953-69 1965-75 1924-30 1938-92 1949-70 1953-79 1949-68 1931-68 1951-70
Q2 (cfs) 714 13,300 21 92 1,280 430 65 2,890 27 209 207 4,350 38
Q10 (cfs) 1,220 24,200 45 238 2,920 1,330 133 5,720 60 480 461 8,180 57
Q25 (cfs) 1,460 29,900 59 340 3,970 1,990 172 7,180 80 640 600 10,300 67
Q50 (cfs) 1,640 34,100 70 430 4,860 2,580 203 8,260 96 768 702 11,900 74
Q100 (cfs) 1,820 38,400 81 533 5,840 3,250 235 9,340 114 901 806 13,600 81
12054000 12054500 12054600 12056300
1939-92 1952-79 1958-79 1950-70
4,450 3,460 2,300 51
7,010 5,560 3,110 134
8,150 6,560 3,420 192
8,940 7,280 3,610 244
9,690 7,990 3,790 302
Appendix 2-1-5
Station Number 12056500
Station Name N Fk Skokomish R Near Hoodsport, Wash North Fork Skokomish R Near Hoodsport, Wash Deer Meadow Creek Near Hoodsport, Wash N Fk Skokomish River Near Potlatch, Wash S Fk Skokomish River Near Hoodsport, Wash S Fk Skokomish River Near Potlatch, Wash South Fork Skokomish River Near Union, Wash Fir Creek Tributary Near Potlatch, Wash Skokomish River Near Potlatch, Wash Gold Creek Near Bremerton, Wash Tahuya River Near Bremerton, Wash Tahuya River Near Belfair, Wash Dewatto River Near Dewatto, Wash Big Beef Creek Near Seabeck, Wash Dogfish Creek Near Poulsbo, Wash Chico Creek Near Bremerton, Wash
Period of Record 1925-92
Q2 (cfs) 6,480
Q10 (cfs) 12,800
Q25 (cfs) 16,600
Q50 (cfs) 19,600
Q100 (cfs) 22,800
12057500
1926-30
7,820
12,400
14,800
16,600
18,500
12058000
1953-79
114
249
326
359
448
12059500 12059800
1945-92 1964-79
1,970 3,700
4,430 5,570
6,000 6,360
7,320 6,910
8,770 7,410
12060000 12060500
1924-32 1947-64 1932-84
8,520 11,800
15,400 18,300
19,100 21,100
21,900 23,100
24,800 25,000
12061200 12061500 12065500 12066000 12067500 12068500 12069550 12070000 12072000
1955-74 1944-92 1946-79 1946-56 1946-56 1948-79 1970-81 1948-73 1948-50 1962-79
139 16,100 118 331 709 1,030 551 129 473
228 23,400 209 510 1,030 1,680 767 219 876
276 26,900 252 591 1,190 2,010 861 270 1,130
313 29,400 283 648 1,300 2,250 927 310 1,340
350 31,800 313 702 1,410 2,500 990 352 1,570
Appendix 2-1-6
Station Number 12072600 12073500 12076500 12078400 12078600 12079000 12080000 12081000 12081300 12082500 12083000 12084000 12084500 12086500 12087000 12088000 12088400
Station Name Beaver Creek Near Manchester, Wash Huge Creek Near Wauna, Wash Goldsborough Creek Near Shelton, Wash Kennedy Creek Near Kamilche, Wash Schneider Creek Trib Near Shelton, Wash Deschutes River Near Rainier, Wash Deschutes River Near Olympia, Wash Woodland Cr Near Olympia, Wash Eaton Creek Near Yelm, Wash Nisqually River Near National, Wash Mineral Creek Near Mineral, Wash Nisqually River Near Alder, Wash Little Nisqually River Near Alder, Wash Nisqually River at La Grande, Wash Mashel River Near La Grande, Wash Ohop Creek Near Eatonville, Wash Nisqually River Near McKenna, Wash
Period of Record 1967-76 1948-69 1978-92 1952-79 1961-79 1992 1950-69 1950-82 1988-92 1946-64 1950-69 1960-88 1943-92 1943-92 1932-44 1921-43 1920-31 1945-92 1941-57 1928-32 1942-74 1942-63 1970-79
Q2 (cfs) 47 127 802 725 54 3,820 3,820 91 30 6,230 4,860 9,940 1,880 9,810 2,710 632 11,400
Q10 (cfs) 72 317 1,300 1,230 88 6,110 5,630 152 46 11,700 8,390 17,500 2,590 17,900 4,810 1,150 21,100
Q25 (cfs) 84 448 1,540 1,500 105 7,360 6,460 183 54 14,600 10,200 21,800 2,910 21,600 6,050 1,450 26,000
Q50 (cfs) 93 561 1,720 1,720 116 8,340 7,060 208 60 16,800 11,600 25,200 3,130 24,200 7,060 1,690 29,600
Q100 (cfs) 102 689 1,900 1,940 128 9,360 7,640 232 66 19,100 13,100 28,800 3,340 26,600 8,130 1,950 33,300
Appendix 2-1-7
Station Number 12089500 12090200 12090400
Station Name Nisqually River at McKenna, Wash Muck Creek at Roy, Wash North Fork Clover Creek Near Parkland, Wash Clover Creek Near Tillicum, Wash Flett Creek at Mt View Memorial Pk, Wash Flett Creek at Tacoma, Wash Leach Creek Near Fircrest, Wash Leach Cr Near Steilacoom, Wash Judd Creek Near Burton, Wash Puyallup River Near Electron, Wash Kapowsin Creek Near Kapowsin, Wash Puyallup River Near Orting, Wash Carbon River at Fairfax, Wash Carbon River Near Fairfax, Wash South Prairie Creek at South Prairie, Wash Puyallup River at Alderton, Wash Dry Creek Near Greenwater, Wash
Period of Record 1948-68 1978-92 1957-76 1960-75
Q2 (cfs) 9,840 403 148
Q10 (cfs) 19,500 640 179
Q25 (cfs) 24,900 748 191
Q50 (cfs) 29,100 823 199
Q100 (cfs) 33,400 896 206
12090500 12091060 12091100 12091200 12091300 12091700 12092000 12093000 12093500 12093900 12094000 12095000 12096500 12096800
1950-54 1960-70 1968-79 1980-92 1958-92 1958-92 1969-79 1912-26 1958-92 1928-32 1942-70 1932-92 1966-78 1930-78 1991-92 1950-79 1988-92 1916-27 1944-57 1957-75
179 45 57 70 91 92 4,410 337 6,600 4,440 4,210 3,020 13,200 21
361 82 89 163 183 144 8,250 590 11,400 9,380 8,280 5,820 20,100 43
464 102 104 231 243 172 10,300 716 13,700 12,200 10,600 7,270 23,500 58
546 118 116 294 294 194 12,000 808 15,400 14,300 12,400 8,350 25,900 70
630 135 127 367 351 216 13,600 900 17,000 16,600 14,300 9,430 28,400 83
Appendix 2-1-8
Station Number 12096950 12097000 12097500 12097700 12097850 12098500 12099600 12100000 12100500 12101500 12102200 12102800 12103200 12103400
Station Name Jim Creek Nr Greenwater, Wash White River at Greenwater, Wash Greenwater River at Greenwater, Wash Cyclone Creek Near Enumclaw, Wash White R Bl Clearwater R Near Buckley, Wash White River Near Buckley, Wash Boise Creek at Buckley, Wash White River at Buckley, Wash White River Near Sumner, Wash Puyallup River at Puyallup, Wash Swan Creek Near Tacoma, Wash S Fork Hylebos Creek Near Puyallup, Wash Joes Creek at Tacoma, Wash Green R Blw Intake Creek Near Lester, Wash Snow Creek Near Lester, Wash Friday Creek Near Lester, Wash Green River Near Lester, Wash
Period of Record 1965-75 1930-78 1930-78 1950-72 1975-76 1983-92 1942-92 1978-92 1978-92 1946-73 1942-92 1951-71 1990-91 1949-66 1958-73 1967-77
Q2 (cfs) 164 4,750 1,330 143 11,300 8,880 473 7,670 8,120 22,300 117 4.60 10 1,190
Q10 (cfs) 254 10,200 3,320 294 21,200 13,200 886 15,500 14,300 38,000 190 6.30 14 2,900
Q25 (cfs) 299 14,000 4,910 397 26,300 15,100 1,090 19,700 17,200 45,400 230 7.10 16 4,110
Q50 (cfs) 332 17,200 6,440 487 30,200 16,400 1,240 23,000 19,200 50,600 262 7.80 17 5,170
Q100 (cfs) 365 20,800 8,310 589 34,100 17,500 1,390 26,400 21,200 55,600 294 8.40 19 6,390
12103500 12104000 12104500
1946-65 1946-77 1946-90
892 274 4,720
1,890 656 11,500
2,500 947 16,100
3,000 1,220 20,100
3,540 1,540 24,600
Appendix 2-1-9
Station Number 12104700 12105000 12105710
Station Name Green Canyon Creek Near Lester, Wash Smay Creek Near Lester, Wash North Fork Green River Near Lemolo, Wash Green River Below Howard Hanson Dam Bear Creek Near Eagle Gorge, Wash Green River Near Palmer, Wash Deep Creek Near Cumberland, Wash Newaukum Creek Near Black Diamond, Wash Big Soos Creek Near Auburn, Wash Big Soos Creek Above Hatchery, Auburn, Wash Green River Near Auburn, Wash Mill Creek Near Auburn, Wash Mill Creek Tributary Near Auburn, Wash Green River at Tukwila, Wash North Fork Cedar River Near Lester, Wash South Fork Cedar River Near Lester, Wash
Period of Record 1961-74 1950-73 1957-87
Q2 (cfs) 173 464 1,100
Q10 (cfs) 305 1,020 2,070
Q25 (cfs) 375 1,382 2,540
Q50 (cfs) 428 1,700 2,870
Q100 (cfs) 482 2,060 3,200
12105900 12106000 12106700 12107200 12108500
1961-92 1947-56 1964-92 1950-70 1945-92
8,220 416 8,400 65 645
11,300 822 11,600 110 1,230
12,500 1,060 12,900 131 1,590
13,300 1,260 13,800 146 1,880
14,000 1,470 14,600 161 2,180
12112500 12112600
1945-56 1961-92
647 718
1,130 1,240
1,390 1,480
1,590 1,650
1,800 1,820
12113000 12113200 12113300 12113350 12113500
1962-92 1949-70 1959-75 1962-84 1945-64
8,740 46 5 9,030 796
11,800 72 9 11,900 1,720
13,000 84 12 12,900 2,320
13,800 93 14 13,600 2,830
14,400 102 16 14,200 3,390
12114000
1945-83
447
981
1,350
1,680
2,060
Appendix 2-1-10
Station Name Cedar R Below Bear Cr, Near Cedar Falls, Wash Cedar River Near Cedar Falls, Wash Green Point Creek Near Cedar Falls, Wash Rex River Near Cedar Falls, Wash Canyon Creek Near Cedar Falls, Wash Cedar River at Cedar Falls, Wash Taylor Creek Near Selleck, Wash Cedar River Near Landsburg, Wash Rock Creek Near Maple Valley, Wash Cedar River at Renton, Wash May Creek at Mouth, Near Renton, Wash Coal Creek Near Bellevue, Wash Valley Creek Near Bellevue, Wash Mercer Creek Near Bellevue, Wash Juanita Creek Near Kirkland, Wash Issaquah Creek Near Issaquah, Wash Issaquah Cr At Mouth, Near Issaquah, Wash
Period of Record 1946-64 1976-92 1946-92 1957-88
Q2 (cfs) 1,670
Q10 (cfs) 3,430
Q25 (cfs) 4,560
Q50 (cfs) 5,520
Q100 (cfs) 6,580
12115000 12115300
2,770 73
5,360 130
6,860 158
8,060 177
9,320 196
12115500 12116100 12116500 12117000 12117500 12118500 12119000 12119600 12119700 12119800 12120000 12120500 12121000 12121600
1946-92 1946-92 1915-92 1957-92 1905-92 1946-76 1946-92 1956-58 1965-79 1964-79 1949-67 1970-77 1956-92 1964-90 1946-64 1964-92
1,700 48 1,490 891 2,560 81.8 3,120 218 154 42 280 146 662 1,470
3,190 89 3,560 1,810 5,430 167 5,380 380 256 86 513 316 1,300 2,630
3,970 110 5,200 2,360 7,460 211 6,670 460 314 116 656 436 1,700 3,160
4,560 127 13,600 2,810 9,270 244 7,690 519 362 143 775 543 2,050 3,540
5,160 144 14,200 3,300 11,400 276 8,760 577 412 173 905 667 2,440 3,890
Appendix 2-1-11
Station Number 12121700 12122500 12123000 12123300 12124000 12125000 12125200
Station Name Tibbetts Creek Near Issaquah, Wash Bear Creek Near Redmond, Wash Cottage Lake Cr Near Redmond, Wash Evans Creek Tributary Near Redmond, Wash Evans Cr above mouth Near Redmond, Wash Sammamish River Near Redmond, Wash Sammamish River Near Woodinville, Wash North Creek Near Bothell, Wash Sammamish River at Bothell, Wash Swamp Creek at Kenmore, Wash Lyon Creek at Lake Forest Park, Wash McAleer Creek at Lake Forest Park, Wash S F Skykomish River Near Skykomish, Wash Beckler River Near Skykomish, Wash S Fk Skykomish River Trib at Baring, Wash S F Skykomish River Near Index, Wash Troublesome Creek Near Index, Wash
Period of Record 1964-68 1972-77 1980-81 1985-91 1956-65 1949-69 1956-77 1940-57 1966-92
Q2 (cfs) 153 155 77.8 24 126 738 1,470
Q10 (cfs) 310 341 135 42 186 1,240 2,100
Q25 (cfs) 398 450 165 51 213 1,500 2,350
Q50 (cfs) 466 537 187 57 233 1,690 2,520
Q100 (cfs) 535 629 209 62 252 1,880 2,670
12126000 12126500 12127100 12127300 12127600 12130500
1946-74 1940-63 1964-90 1964-75 1964-75 1930-31 1947-70 1930-33 1947-70 1951-70 1914-82 1930-41
304 1,140 440 109 142 6,410
445 1,690 704 147 215 12,600
515 1,940 838 162 248 16,300
566 2,110 939 174 273 19,300
618 2,280 1,040 184 297 22,500
12131000 12132700 12133000 12133500
5,580 107 23,200 937
10,500 183 44,000 2,000
13,400 220 55,700 2,670
15,800 246 64,800 3,220
18,300 272 74,200 3,830
Appendix 2-1-12
Station Number 12134000 12134500 12135000 12135500 12141000 12141100 12141300
Station Name North Fork Skykomish River at Index, Wash Skykomish River Near Gold Bar, Wash Wallace River at Gold Bar, Wash Olney Creek Near Gold Bar, Wash Woods Creek Near Monroe, Wash Skykomish River at Monroe, Wash Middle Fork Snoqualmie R Near Tanner, Wash Middle Fork Snoqualmie Near North Bend, Wash S F Tolt River Near Carnation, Wash N F Snoqualmie River Near Snql Falls, Wash Hancock Creek Near Snoqualmie, Wash N F Snoqualmie River Near North Bend, Wash S F Snoqualmie R Trib Near North Bend, Wash S F Snoqualmie River Near Garcia, Wash S F Snoqualmie River at Edgewick, Wash Boxley Creek Near Cedar Falls, Wash
Period of Record 1914-21 1930-38 1929-92 1947-78 1989-91 1947-68 1947-78 1958-75 1961-92
Q2 (cfs) 13,700 39,300 2,120 972 1,290 57,800 16,500
Q10 (cfs) 24,700 72,700 3,160 2,080 2,100 87,900 26,500
Q25 (cfs) 30,600 90,300 3,680 2,860 2,490 103,000 31,200
Q50 (cfs) 35,100 104,000 4,080 3,560 2,770 115,000 34,500
Q100 (cfs) 39,700 117,000 4,470 4,360 3,050 127,000 37,700
12141500
1912-26 1930-32 1983-92 1930-92 1965-79 1909-38 1961-78 1951-70
12,500
23,700
30,100
35,100
40,300
12148300 12142000 12142300 12143000
1,120 7,440 440 8,570
2,050 12,300 734 14,700
2,620 14,700 884 17,600
3,100 16,400 998 19,700
3,620 18,100 1,110 21,800
12143300
23
41
49
55
60
12143400 12143600 12143700
1961-92 1984-92 1946-92
3,900 6,180 80
7,160 10,200 158
8,810 12,200 199
10,000 13,600 230
11,300 14,900 261
Appendix 2-1-13
Station Name Boxley Creek Near Edgewick, Wash S F Snoqualmie River at North Bend, Wash
Period of Record 1982-92 1909-38 1946-50 1961-78 1985-92 1959-92
Q2 (cfs) 125 4,990
Q10 (cfs) 228 9,060
Q25 (cfs) 285 11,200
Q50 (cfs) 330 12,800
Q100 (cfs) 376 14,400
12144500
Snoqualmie River Near Snoqualmie, Wash Raging River Near Fall City, Wash Patterson Creek Near Fall City, Wash Griffin Creek Near Carnation, Wash North Fork Tolt River Near Carnation, Wash South Fork Tolt River Near Index, Wash South Fork Tolt River Near Carnation, Wash S Fork Tolt River Trib Near Carnation, Wash Tolt River Near Carnation, Wash Snoqualmie River Near Carnation, Wash Snohomish River Near Monroe, Wash Pilchuck River Near Granite Falls, Wash Little Pilchuck Creek Near Lk Stevens, Wash Snohomish River at Snohomish, Wash
31,300
56,200
68,800
78,100
87,400
12145500 12146000 12147000 12147500 12147600 12148000 12148100 12148500 12149000 12150800 12152500 12153000
1946-92 1948-50 1956-79 1946-79 1953-65 1968-92 1960-63 1968-92 1970-92 1955-74 1938-92 1930-92 1964-92 1944-80 1947-74
1,900 226 369 4,620 1,170 909 124 6,560 29,900 63,500 5,100 265
3,570 331 668 7,190 1,900 1,790 214 11,800 52,000 97,200 7,760 450
4,570 387 840 8,390 2,250 2,380 261 14,600 63,200 114,000 9,010 544
5,380 431 977 9,250 2,510 2,900 296 16,700 71,500 127,000 9,900 614
6,260 477 1,120 10,100 2,760 3,480 331 18,800 79,800 139,000 10,800 684
12155500
1942-66
56,500
86,200
101,000
113,000
124,000
Appendix 2-1-14
Station Number 12156400 12157000 12161000
Station Name Munson Creek Near Marysville, Wash Quilceda Creek Near Marysville, Wash S Fk Stillaguamish River Near Granite Falls, Wash S Fk Stillaguamish River Near Arlington, WashWash Jim Creek Near Arlington, Wash Squire Creek Near Darrington, Wash Deer Creek at Oso, Wash N Fk Stillaguamish R Near Arlington, Wash Pilchuck Creen Near Bryant, Wash Fish Creek Near Arlington, Wash Big Beaver Creek Near Newhalem, Wash Skagit River Near Newhalem, Wash Ruby C Below Panther C Near Newhalem, Wash Ruby Creek Near Newhalem, Wash Thunder Creek Near Newhalem, Wash Thunder Creek Near Marblemount, Wash
Period of Record 1949-69 1947-69 1929-80
Q2 (cfs) 25 163 16,100
Q10 (cfs) 40 235 24,200
Q25 (cfs) 47 270 27,800
Q50 (cfs) 53 295 30,300
Q100 (cfs) 58 320 32,700
12162500
1938-57
19,300
26,600
29,600
31,600
33,400
12164000 12165000 12166500 12167000 12168500 12169500 12172000 12172500 12173500
1938-69 1951-69 1918-30 1929-92 1951-79 1951-72 1941-48 1963-69 1930-39 1949-56 1963-69 1929-49 1920-92 1920-30
2,780 2,950 7,320 22,800 4,090 91 2,390 14,100 4,710
4,130 4,720 9,370 32,400 6,080 165 4,150 23,300 7,110
4,740 5,600 10,300 36,100 7,050 204 5,080 28,500 8,320
5,180 6,250 10,900 38,500 7,750 233 5,800 32,700 9,220
5,600 6,900 11,600 40,600 8,450 263 6,530 37,100 10,100
12174000 12175500 12176000
4,210 4,270 5,040
6,400 8,450 10,900
7,540 11,200 14,800
8,410 13,500 18,200
9,300 16,200 21,900
Appendix 2-1-15
Station Number 12177500 12178000 12178100 12179000 12181000 12181100 12181200 12182500 12184300 12185300 12186000 12187500 12188300 12189000 12189400
Station Name Stetattle Creek Near Newhalem, Wash Skagit River at Newhalem, Wash Newhalem Creek Near Newhalem, Wash Skagit River Near Marblemount, Wash Skagit River at Marblemount, Wash S Fk Cascade R Near Marblemount, Wash Salix Creek Near Marblemount, Wash Cascade River at Marblemount, Wash Iron Creek Near Rockport, Wash Elliot Creek Near Monte Cristo Sauk River Near Darrington, Wash Sauk River at Darrington, Wash Straight Creek Near Darrington, Wash Suiattle River Near Mansford, Wash Sauk River Tributary Near Darrington, Wash Sauk River Near Sauk, Wash Baker River Near Concrete, Wash
Period of Record 1934-83 1924-92 1961-92 1951-92 1947-57 1986-92 1961-83 1963-83 1929-79 1965-75 1983-92 1929-92 1915-32 1965-75 1939-50 1951-70 1978-88 1929-92 1910-31 1956-59
Q2 (cfs) 2,050 17,900 2,030 20,500 19,000 136 10 7,070 199 532 9,300 15,500 295 9,920 107
Q10 (cfs) 4,780 29,200 4,340 32,500 35,800 188 18 15,800 282 1,300 19,300 29,800 437 18,700 179
Q25 (cfs) 6,810 34,500 5,830 38,200 46,700 215 23 22,400 317 1,780 26,000 39,500 503 24,100 214
Q50 (cfs) 8,650 38,200 7,100 42,300 56,000 235 27 28,400 341 2,150 31,900 47,900 550 28,500 239
Q100 (cfs) 10,800 41,900 8,500 46,200 66,300 255 31 35,600 364 2,550 38,500 57,400 596 33,300 263
12189500 12191500
30,100 15,700
57,700 27,400
73,700 33,100
86,500 37,200
100,000 41,300
Appendix 2-1-16
Station Number 12191800 12193500 12194000 12196000 12196200
Station Name Sulphur Creek Near Concrete, Wash Baker River at Concrete, Wash Skagit River Near Concrete, Wash Alder Creek Near Hamilton, Wash Day Creek Below Day Lk, Near Lyman, Wash Day Creek Near Lyman, Wash Parker Creek Near Lyman, Wash East Fork Nookachamps Cr Near Big Lake, Wash Skagit River Near Mount Vernon, Wash Carpenter Cr Trib Near Mount Vernon, Wash Lake Creek Near Bellingham, Wash Samish River Near Burlington, Wash Whatcom Creek Near Bellingham, Wash Nooksack River Trib Near Glacier, Wash N Fk Nooksack River Near Glacier, Wash N Fk Nooksack River Near Deming, Wash M Fk Nooksack River Near Deming, Wash
Period of Record 1964-76 1982 1944-92 1925-92 1944-79 1964-79
Q2 (cfs) 412 17,800 73,500 315 552
Q10 (cfs) 783 32,300 121,000 577 812
Q25 (cfs) 994 38,500 146,000 715 934
Q50 (cfs) 1,160 42,600 164,000 819 1,020
Q100 (cfs) 1,330 46,300 183,000 925 1,110
12196500 12197200 12199800
1944-61 1951-70 1962-78
4,390 135 511
5,490 187 639
5,960 210 693
6,280 226 731
6,580 241 766
12200500 12200700 12200800 12201500 12203500 12204400 12205000 12207200 12208000
1941-92 1949-70 1949-68 1944-83 1940-56 1968-74 1956-88 1938-92 1965-75 1965-77
66,000 34 118 2,590 601 53 5,650 9,680 5,660
105,000 66 222 5,330 994 99 8,800 13,900 10,700
127,000 83 281 6,950 1,220 128 10,300 16,000 13,600
144,000 97 326 8,250 1,400 152 11,500 17,500 15,900
161,000 111 374 9,630 1,580 179 12,600 19,000 18,300
Appendix 2-1-17
Station Name S F Nooksack River Near Wickersham, Wash Skookum Creek Near Wickersham, Wash Nooksack River at Deming, Wash Nooksack River Near Lynden, Wash Fishtrap Creek at Lynden, Wash Tenmile Creek Tributary Near Bellingham, Wash Tenmile Creek Trib #2 Near Bellingham, Wash Nooksack River at Ferndale, Wash Columbia River at Birchbank, BC Pend Oreille River at Newport, ID Deer Creek Near Dalkena, Wash Davis Creek Near Dalkena, Wash Calispell Creek Near Dalkena, Wash Little Muddy Creek at Ione, Wash Pend Oreille River Near Ione, Wash Sullivan Creek Near Metaline Falls, Wash
Period of Record 1925-79 1989-91 1949-69 1935-92 1945-67 1949-74 1949-67
Q2 (cfs) 9,640
Q10 (cfs) 16,100
Q25 (cfs) 19,400
Q50 (cfs) 22,000
Q100 (cfs) 24,500
12209500 12210500 12211500 12212000 12212700
1,190 24,600 28,800 358 25
1,860 36,700 43,700 519 46
2,240 42,400 50,400 589 57
2,540 46,400 55,100 638 66
2,860 50,300 59,700 685 75
12212800
1956-87
23
46
59
68
78
12213100 12323000 12395500 12395800 12395900 12396000 12396450 12396500 12396900
1950-92 1969-92 1953-92 1954-73 1954-73 1951-92 1954-73 1953-92 1958-74
24,600 145,000 82,600 45 88 508 92 85,300 1,040
38,500 197,000 124,000 71 139 1,070 200 124,000 1,600
46,400 222,200 140,000 83 163 1,450 265 138,000 1,900
52,800 241,000 149,000 91 180 1,760 317 147,000 2,120
59,500 259,000 157,000 98 198 2,120 372 154,000 2,340
Appendix 2-1-18
Station Number 12397100 12398000 12398500
Station Name Outlet Creek Near Metaline Falls, Wash Sullivan Creek at Metaline Falls, Wash Pend Oreille River Near Metaline Falls, Wash Pend Oreille River at International Boundary Columbia River at International Boundary Sheep Creek Near Northport, Wash Kettle River Near Ferry, Wash Third Creek Near Curlew, Wash Kettle River Near Laurier, Wash Nancy Creek Near Kettle Falls, Wash Sheep Creek at Springdale, Wash Deer Creek Near Valley, Wash Thomason Creek Near Chewelah, Wash Chewelah Creek at Chewelah, Wash Patchen (Bighorn) Cr Near Tiger, Wash Little Pend Oreille River Near Colville, Wash
Period of Record 1959-92 1954-68 1952-64
Q2 (cfs) 467 1,300 99,100
Q10 (cfs) 723 2,410 122,000
Q25 (cfs) 852 3,000 131,000
Q50 (cfs) 919 3,450 136,000
Q100 (cfs) 1,050 3,910 142,000
12398600
1963-92
83,500
131,000
150,000
162,000
172,000
12399500
1958-92
235,000
377,000
450,000
504,000
560,000
12400500 12401500 12403700 12404500 12405400 12407500 12407520 12407600 12407700 12408200 12408300
1930-42 1929-92 1954-73 1930-92 1954-72 1953-72 1960-79 1954-73 1957-74 1954-73 1958-79
1,720 12,300 9 21,000 54 44 119 6 165 9 301
2,510 16,300 18 27,800 126 78 285 10 318 21 688
2,850 18,000 22 30,600 170 94 391 12 400 27 906
3,090 19,000 25 32,500 207 105 498 14 463 32 1,070
3,310 20,000 28 34,200 246 116 576 16 527 37 1,240
Appendix 2-1-19
Station Number 12408400 12408420 12408500 12409000 12409500 12410000 12410600 12410650 12419000 12419500 12422500 12423550 12423700 12423900
Station Name Narcisse Creek Near Colville, Wash Haller Creek Near Arden, Wash Mill Creek Near Colville, Wash Colville River at Kettle Falls, Wash Hall Creek at Inchelium, Wash Stranger Creek at Meteor, Wash S Fork Harvey Creek Near Cedonia, Wash N Fork Harvey Creek Near Cedonia, Wash Spokane River Near Post Falls, Id Spokane River Near Otis Orchard, Wash Spokane River at Spokane, Wash Hangman Creek Trib Near Latah, Wash S F Rock Cr Tributary Near Fairfield, Wash Stevens Creek Tributary Near Moran, Wash Hangman Creek at Spokane, Wash Little Spokane River at Elk, Wash Bear Creek Near Milan, Wash
Period of Record 1954-73 1960-79 1940-86 1923-92 1913-29 1972-73 1917-29 1954-73 1954-73 1913-92 1951-83 1891-1992 1961-76 1962-76 1954-73
Q2 (cfs) 29 41 298 1,130 416 56 22 6 26,000 27,100 24,900 55 25 18
Q10 (cfs) 58 118 562 2,260 1,060 226 36 11 37,000 37,100 36,600 171 37 67
Q25 (cfs) 76 172 690 2,810 1,460 358 41 13 41,100 41,800 41,300 240 42 103
Q50 (cfs) 89 221 782 3,200 1,770 476 45 14 43,800 45,100 44,400 293 45 133
Q100 (cfs) 104 276 870 3,570 2,100 608 49 16 46,200 48,400 47,200 346 48 166
12424000 12427000 12429200
1948-92 1949-79 1963-75
6,530 110 50
13,100 150 82
16,600 169 98
19,300 182 109
22,000 195 120
Appendix 2-1-20
Station Number 12429600 12429800 12430370 12431000 12431100 12433000 12433200 12433300 12433500 12433580 12433800 12434500 12435000 12436500 12437500 12437930 12437950
Station Name Deer Creek Near Chattaroy, Wash Mud Creek Near Deer Park, Wash Bigelow Gulch Near Spokane, Wash Little Spokane River at Dartford, Wash Little Creek at Dartford, Wash Spokane River at Long Lake, Wash Chamokane Creek Near Long Lk, Wash Spring Cr Tributary Near Reardan, Wash Spokane River Near Long Lk, Wash Cottonwood Creek at Davenport, Wash Granite Creek Near Republic, Wash Sanpoil River Near Keller, Wash Sanpoil River at Keller, Wash Columbia River at Grand Coulee, Wash Nespelem River at Nespelem, Wash East Fork Foster Creek at Leahy, Wash East Fork Foster C Trib Near Bridgeport, Wash
Period of Record 1962-75 1954-73 1962-75 1929-32 1947-92 1963-77 1939-92 1971-79 1988-92 1954-73 1913-41 1963-77 1954-73 1953-59 1972-79 1911-17 1953-59 1928-92 1911-29 1963-77 1957-77
Q2 (cfs) 138 12 23 1,300 39 30,900 355 48 28,200 224 12 1,510 1,470 298,000 171 73 24
Q10 (cfs) 232 23 126 2,260 226 44,000 1,160 101 39,600 1,270 24 3,160 2,570 474,000 498 260 107
Q25 (cfs) 284 28 252 2,710 422 49,100 1,830 131 44,300 2,210 32 4,210 3,180 556,000 706 398 192
Q50 (cfs) 325 32 400 3,020 629 52,500 2,480 155 47,500 3,090 38 5,090 3,660 615,000 875 519 283
Q100 (cfs) 368 36 614 3,320 898 55,600 3,270 180 50,500 4,110 44 6,060 4,160 672,000 1,050 654 404
Appendix 2-1-21
Station Name West Fork Foster Creek Near Bridgeport, Wash Columbia River at Bridgeport, Wash Okanogan River Near Oliver, BC Dry Creek Trib Near Molson, Wash Tonasket Creek at Oroville, Wash Okanogan River at Oroville, Wash Middle Fk Toats Coulee Cr Near Loomis, Wash Toats Coulee Creek Near Loomis, Wash Similkameen River Near Nighthawk, Wash Similkameen River Near Oroville, Wash Spectable Lake Trib Near Loomis, Wash Whitestone Creek Near Tonasket, Wash Siwash Creek Trib Near Tonasket, Wash Okanogan River Near Tonasket, Wash Omak Creek Trib Near Distaul, Wash Okanogan River at Okanogan, Wash
Q2 (cfs) 60
Q10 (cfs) 178
Q25 (cfs) 266
Q50 (cfs) 349
Q100 (cfs) 445
12438000 12438700 12439200 12439300 12439500 12441700
1952-92 1962-92 1958-77 1967-91 1943-92 1965-75
261,000 1,690 10 59 1,840 206
418,000 3,190 54 254 3,170 490
497,000 3,940 93 438 3,750 667
555,000 4,490 129 626 4,140 812
614,000 5,030 170 864 4,510 967
12442000 12442500
1920-26 1957-79 1911-92
523 16,300
1,240 26,200
1,750 30,700
2,210 34,000
2,730 37,100
12443500 12443700 12444100 12444400 12445000 12445800 12446000
1911-28 1961-76 1959-72 1959-77 1929-92 1955-75 1911-25
16,800 4 9 7 16,100 6 16,900
21,800 54 15 31 27,200 13 21,400
23,600 131 20 50 32,600 16 23,100
24,800 226 23 68 36,600 19 24,200
25,800 364 26 89 40,600 21 25,100
Appendix 2-1-22
Station Number 12446500 12447200 12447300 12447380 12447390 12447400 12447430 12448700 12448900 12449500 12449600
Station Name Salmon Creek Near Conconully, Wash Okanogan River at Malott, Wash Okanogan River Near Malott, Wash Pine Creek Near Mazama, Wash Andrews Creek Near Mazama, Wash Doe Creek Near Winthrop, Wash Ortell Creek Near Winthrop, Wash Williams Creek Near Twisp, Wash Little Bridge Creek Near Twisp, Wash Methow River at Twisp, Wash Beaver Creek Blw South Fork, Near Twisp, Wash Rainy Creek Near Methow, Wash Methow River Near Pateros, Wash Methow River at Pateros, Wash Columbia River Below Wells Dam, Wash Stehekin River at Stehekin, Wash Railroad Creek at Lucerne, Wash
Period of Record 1911-22 1959-92 1958-67 1966-88 1969-92 1957-75 1965-75 1965-75 1965-75 1920-29 1934-62 1960-79
Q2 (cfs) 160 16,300 16,600 158 381 24 58 59 132 11,100 133
Q10 (cfs) 350 26,300 24,000 294 702 56 90 86 232 18,800 374
Q25 (cfs) 479 31,600 27,200 371 902 75 106 99 281 22,200 533
Q50 (cfs) 592 35,600 29,400 431 1,070 89 117 108 318 24,500 665
Q100 (cfs) 720 39,700 31,500 494 1,250 104 127 118 354 26,700 808
12449790 12449950 12450500 12450700 12451000 12451500
1965-75 1959-92 1904-20 1959-74 1968-92 1927-92 1927-57
54.6 11,900 12,200 227,000 9,550 1,280
112 21,100 22,300 324,000 14,200 2,190
148 25,900 28,300 370,000 16,200 2,720
178 29,600 33,100 405,000 17,700 3,150
211 33,300 38,200 438,000 19,200 3,600
Appendix 2-1-23
Station Number 12452500 12452800 12452880 12453000 12453700 12454000 12454290
Station Name Chelan River at Chelan, Wash Entiat River Near Ardenvoir, Wash Tillicum Cr Near Ardenvoir, Wash Entiat River at Entiat, Wash Columbia R at Rocky Reach Dam, Wash White River Near Plain, Wash Little Wenatchee R Trib Near Telma, Wash Wenatchee River Below Wenatchee Lk, Wash Brush Cr Near Telma, Wash Chiwawa River Near Plain, Wash Wenatchee River at Plain, Wash Skinney Creek at Winton, Wash Chatter Creek Near Leavenworth, Wash Icicle Creek Near Leavenworth, Wash Posey Canyon Near Leavenworth, Wash Wenatchee River at Peshastin, Wash Trosen Creek Near Peshastin, Wash
Period of Record 1904-92 1958-92 1965-75 1911-25 1952-58 1961-92 1955-83 1965-75
Q2 (cfs) 8,150 2,700 32 3,360 260,000 4,740 96
Q10 (cfs) 13,600 4,460 67 5,090 412,000 7,490 132
Q25 (cfs) 15,800 5,350 87 5,980 489,000 9,110 149
Q50 (cfs) 17,100 6,020 103 6,660 548,000 10,400 162
Q100 (cfs) 183,000 6,690 120 7,340 607,000 11,800 174
12455000
1932-79
7,040
10,000
11,400
12,400
13,400
12456300 12456500 12457000 12457300 12457900 12458000 12458900 12459000 12459400
1965-75 1937-49 1991-92 1911-79 1990-92 1954-73 1966-75 1912-14 1937-79 1954-73 1929-92 1960-75
66 2,960 11,700 28 55 4,510 2 16,100 27
158 4,820 17,900 55 87 7,550 9 24,100 62
223 5,720 20,900 69 103 9,120 15 28,000 82
280 6,380 23,100 81 115 10,300 20 30,700 98
346 7,030 25,300 93 127 11,500 26 33,400 114
Appendix 2-1-24
Station Name Wenatchee River at Dryden, Wash East Branch Mission Cr Near Cashmere, Wash E Br Mission Cr Trib, Near Cashmere, Wash Mission Creek Near Cashmere, Wash Sand Creek Near Cashmere, Wash Mission Creek at Cashmere, Wash Wenatchee River at Monitor, Wash Columbia River Below Rock Island Dam, Wash Moses Creek at Waterville, Wash Moses Creek at Douglas, Wash Douglas Creek Near Alstown, Wash Rattlesnake Creek Trib Near Soap Lake, Wash McCarteney Creek Trib Near Farmer, Wash Pine Canyon Tributary Near Farmer, Wash Columbia River at Trinidad, Wash Schnebly Coulee Trib Near Vantage, Wash
Period of Record 1905-06 1910-18 1955-74
Q2 (cfs) 18,200 22
Q10 (cfs) 29,100 61
Q25 (cfs) 34,600 91
Q50 (cfs) 38,700 118
Q100 (cfs) 42,800 150
12461200 12461400 12461500 12462000 12462500 12462600
1955-88 1959-79 1954-73 1954-73 1963-92 1961-92
7 193 64 188 17,400 253,000
21 664 158 376 26,300 415,000
30 1,110 228 502 30,900 503,000
37 1,570 290 609 34,500 571,000
45 2,170 363 730 38,100 641,000
12462700 12462800 12463000 12463600 12463700
1954-73 1955-76 1950-60 1963-68 1961-77 1962-76
9 47 359 9 5
161 275 5,350 70 45
397 473 12,600 147 95
681 654 21,300 238 152
1,080 860 32,200 366 229
12463800 12464500 12464600
1962-76 1938-63 1955-74
2 381,000 7
33 539,000 44
79 604,000 82
136 648,000 122
216 688,000 173
Appendix 2-1-25
Station Number 12464650 12465000 12465100 12465300
Station Name South Fork Crab Creek Trib at Waukon, Wash Crab Creek at Irby, Wash Connawai Creek Trib Near Govan, Wash Broadax Draw Tributary Near Wilbur, Wash Wilson Creek Near Almira, Wash Wilson Creek at Wilson Creek, Wash Crab Creek at Wilson Creek, Wash Haynes Canyon Near Coulee City, Wash Park Creek Near Coulee City, Wash Iron Springs Creek Near Winchester, Wash Rocky Ford Creek Near Ephrata, Wash Paha Coulee Tributary Near Ritzville, Wash Lind Coulee Tributary Near Lind, Wash Farrier Coulee Near Schrag, Wash Weber Coulee Tributary Near Ruff, Wash Crab Creek Near Warden, Wash
Period of Record 1954-73 1943-92 1958-77 1955-74
Q2 (cfs) 18 846 5 23
Q10 (cfs) 50 4,650 28 86
Q25 (cfs) 73 7,700 52 134
Q50 (cfs) 93 10,300 77 176
Q100 (cfs) 117 13,200 110 224
12465400 12465500 12467000 12467400 12468500 12470300
1969-79 1951-79 1943-92 1959-76 1946-68 1959-76
967 883 284 6 24 17
3,460 4,450 1,660 37 37 64
5,320 7,630 3,280 68 42 100
6,940 10,700 5,140 100 46 133
8,760 14,300 7,760 140 50 170
12470500 12471100 12471200 12471270 12471300
1943-91 1962-76 1961-77 1963-76 1978-79 1959-72
97 114 3 152 2
133 245 55 1,070 36
151 317 132 2,020 96
164 371 221 2,970 144
178 427 338 4,140 290
12471500
1943-53 1956-65
118
971
2,180
3,730
6,080
Appendix 2-1-26
Station Number 12472500 12472600 12472800
Station Name Crab Creek Near Smyrna, Wash Crab Creek Near Beverly, Wash Columbia River Below Priest Rapids Dam, Wash Yakima River Near Martin, Wash Mosquito Creek Near Easton, Wash Kachess River Near Easton, Wash Yakima River at Easton, Wash CleElum River Near Rosyln, Wash Yakima River at Cle Elum, Wash Hovey Creek Near Cle Elum, Wash South Fk Manastash Cr Trib Near Ellensburg, Wash Naneum Creek Near Ellensburg, Wash Johnson Canyon Trib Near Kittitas, Wash Yakima River at Umtanum, Wash McPherson Canyon at Wymer, Wash Pine Canyon Near Naches, Wash Deep Creek Near Goose Prairie, Wash
Period of Record 1943-59 1960-92 1917-37 1938-92 1904-78 1968-77 1904-78 1910-15 1941-54 1904-78 1907-78 1988-90 1955-74 1955-74
Q2 (cfs) 134 298 331,000
Q10 (cfs) 865 506 481,000
Q25 (cfs) 1,840 599 552,000
Q50 (cfs) 3,060 664 604,000
Q100 (cfs) 4,920 725 654,000
12474500 12474700 12476000 12477000 12479000 12479500 12480700 12483300
1,480 82.5 1,290 3,150 4,390 6,820 31 32
2,850 144 1,910 6,340 7,830 12,900 51 66
3,810 177 2,230 8,380 10,100 16,800 61 88
4,680 203 2,460 10,100 12,000 19,900 67 106
5,680 230 2,700 12,000 14,200 23,400 74 125
12483800 12484200 12484500 12484600 12485900 12487400
1957-78 1956-75 1907-17 1925-72 1955-77 1961-76 1966-75
412 2 8,630 29 12 464
733 29 17,200 181 48 742
905 69 22,700 309 84 876
1,040 116 27,400 418 124 972
1,170 181 32,600 537 178 1,070
Appendix 2-1-27
Station Number 12488000 12488300 12488500 12489500 12491500
Station Name Bumping River Near Nile, Wash American River Trib Near Nile, Wash American River Near Nile, Wash Naches River Near Nile, Wash Tieton River at Tieton Dam Near Naches, Wash Hause Creek Near Rimrock, Wash Tieton River Near Naches, Wash Naches River Near Naches, Wash Naches River Near North Yakima, Wash Yakima R at Union Gap, Wash North Fork Ahtanum Cr Near Tampico, Wash S F Autanum Cr Near Tampico, Wash Ahtanum Cr Near Tampico, Wash Ahtanum Creek at Union Gap, Wash Yakima River Near Parker, Wash Toppenish Creek Near Fort Simcoe, Wash Simcoe Cr Near Fort Simcoe, Wash
Period of Record 1914-78 1955-74 1940-92 1905-17 1925-78
Q2 (cfs) 1,380 17 1,470 6,300 2,070
Q10 (cfs) 2,400 28 2,500 11,900 3,620
Q25 (cfs) 3,000 33 3,050 15,500 4,630
Q50 (cfs) 3,490 36 3,470 18,600 5,480
Q100 (cfs) 4,020 40 3,890 21,900 6,440
12491700 12492500 12494000 12499000 12500450 12500500
1955-88 1926-78 1916-79 1900-10 1987-90 1967-92 1910-21 1932-79 1915-24 1931-78 1909-13 1960-68 1960-92 1908-78 1910-24 1909-23
26 1,860 7,000 8,220 13,900 381
63 3,530 14,000 17,700 28,500 712
89 4,620 17,700 24,000 36,700 905
113 5,560 20,500 29,400 43,000 1,060
140 6,610 23,400 35,400 49,600 1,230
12501000 12502000 12502500 12505000 12506000 12506500
97 538 414 13,800 696 241
268 1,210 1,060 29,600 1,460 850
402 1,680 1,470 38,800 1,930 1,340
529 2,100 1,810 46,100 2,310 1,790
681 2,580 2,170 53,700 2,730 2,330
Appendix 2-1-28
Station Name Shinando Creek Trib Near Goldendale, Wash Satus Creek Tributary Near Toppenish, Wash Satus Creek Nearr Toppenish, Wash Yakima River at Mabton, Wash Yakima River Near Prosser, Wash Snipes Cr Tributary Near Benton City, Wash Yakima River at Kiona, Wash Providence Coulee Near Cunningham, Wash Hatton Coulee Trib No 2 Near Cunningham, Wash Hatton Coulee Tributary Near Hatton, Wash Esquatzel Coulee at Connell, Wash Snake River Near Anatone, Wash Asotin Creek Near Asotin, Wash Asotin Creek Near Asotin, Wash Critchfield Draw Near Clarkston, Wash
Q2 (cfs) 4
Q10 (cfs) 16
Q25 (cfs) 28
Q50 (cfs) 40
Q100 (cfs) 54
12507660
1963-77
153
664
1,170
1,690
2,380
12508500 12508990 12509500 12509800
1914-24 1971-92 1914-18 1920-33 1967-77
1,410 12,900 14,300 22
3,260 30,100 34,200 255
4,450 40,200 48,400 601
5,450 48,200 61,200 1,030
6,540 56,500 76,100 1,660
12510500 12512550
1934-92 1978-91
14,200 95
30,200 1,480
39,900 3,450
47,900 5,710
56,400 8,740
12512600
1961-76
70
202
393
704
12512700
1956-75
53
126
217
351
12513000 13334300 13334500 13334700 13335200
1953-92 1959-92R 1929-59 1960-82 1990-92 1959-76
46 98,500 338 421 15
2,250 156,000 715 1,460 252
8,640 182,000 952 2,380 620
18,000 200,000 1,150 3,300 1,080
33,400 218,000 1,360 4,460 1,730
Appendix 2-1-29
Station Number 13343450 13343500 13343520 13343620
Station Name Dry Creek at Mouth Near Clarkston, Wash Snake River Near Clarkston, Wash Clayton Gulch Near Alpowa, Wash S F Deadman Creek Trib Near Pataha, Wash Smith Gulch Trib Near Pataha, Wash Meadow Creek Near Central Ferry, Wash Tucannon River Near Starbuck, Wash Palouse River at Colfax, Wash South Fork Palouse River at Pullman, Wash Missouri Flat Creek Trib Near Pullman, Wash Missouri Flat Creek at Pullman, Wash Palouse River at Colfax, Wash Palouse River Trib at Colfax, Wash Palouse River Trib at Winona, Wash Hardman Draw Trib at Plaza, Wash Pine Creek at Pine City, Wash
Period of Record 1963-77 1916-22 1929-72 1961-76 1961-76
Q2 (cfs) 79 192,000 100 17
Q10 (cfs) 496 279,000 261 157
Q25 (cfs) 1,060 316,000 361 305
Q50 (cfs) 1,790 341,000 442 452
Q100 (cfs) 2,900 365,000 527 628
13343660 13343800 13344500 13346100 13348000
1955-74 1964-78 1959-90 1956-79 1934-42 1959-81 1955-74
49 676 1,490 4,610 1,050
240 1,830 4,530 8,390 2,510
409 2,550 6,670 10,400 3,520
569 3,110 8,500 11,900 4,400
760 3,710 10,500 13,400 5,410
13348400
36
110
169
225
292
13348500 13349210 13349300 13349309 13349350 13349400
1935-40 1960-79 1963-92 1955-88 1967-77 1955-74 1962-79
401 5,990 29 32 33 1,970
848 12,200 98 98 117 5,780
1,150 15,700 152 140 203 8,530
1,400 18,500 202 175 298 11,000
1,690 21,400 260 210 427 13,700
Appendix 2-1-30
Station Number 13349500 13349670 13349800 13350500 13350800 13351000 13352200 13352500 13352550 13353000 14013000 14013500 14014000 14014500 14015000 14015900
Station Name Rock Creek Near Ewan, Wash Pleasant Valley Cr Trib Near Thornton, Wash Imbler Cr Tributary Near Lamont, Wash Union Flat Creek Near Colfax, Wash Willow Cr Trib Near Lacrosse, Wash Palouse River at Hooper, Wash Cow Creek Trib Near Ritzville, Wash Cow Creek at Hooper, Wash Stewart Canyon Trib Near Riparia, Wash Snake R Below Ice Harbor Dam, Wash Mill Creek Near Walla Walla, Wash Blue Creek Near Walla Walla, Wash Yellowhawk Cr at Walla Walla, Wash Garrison Cr at Walla Walla, Wash Mill Creek at Walla Walla, Wash Spring Creek Trib Near Walla Walla, Wash Dry Creek Near Walla Walla, Wash
Period of Record 1915-17 1965-75 1967-77 1967-77 1954-79 1967-77 1901-16 1951-92 1951 1955-73 1962-79 1958-75 1910-16 1963-90 1914-17 1940-92 1940-42 1944-71 1942-52 1943-52 1942-92 1955-74
Q2 (cfs) 1,140 18 59 889 18 7,850 22 123 21 191,000 880 324 173 33 1,000 23
Q10 (cfs) 3,680 54 124 2,050 45 18,000 100 603 119 281,000 1,880 719 314 57 1,850 140
Q25 (cfs) 5,280 68 166 2,720 61 24,400 167 1,070 225 319,000 2,500 947 385 70 2,300 277
Q50 (cfs) 6,540 77 202 3,260 73 29,700 229 1,550 341 346,000 3,010 1,130 436 79 2,650 435
Q100 (cfs) 7,840 87 240 3,820 85 35,400 302 2,160 496 371,000 3,570 1,310 488 88 3,000 654
14016000
1949-67
548
1,660
2,430
3,080
3,810
Appendix 2-1-31
Station Number 14016500 14016600 14016650 14017000 14017040 14017070
Station Name East Fk Touchet R Near Dayton, Wash Hatley Creek Near Dayton, Wash Davis Hollow Near Dayton, Wash Touchet River at Bolles, Wash Thorn Hollow Near Dayton, Wash East Fork McKay Creek Near Huntsville, Wash Badger Hollow Near Clyde, Wash Touchet River Near Touchet, Wash Walla Walla River Near Touchet, Wash Glade Creek Trib Near Bickleton, Wash Alder Creek Near Bickleton, Wash Klickitat R Abv W Fork Near Glenwood, Wash Klickitat River Near Glenwood, Wash W F Little Klickitat R Near Goldendale, Wash Little Klickitat R Near Goldendale, Wash Little Klickitat R Trib Near Goldendale, Wash
Period of Record 1944-51 1956-68 1955-74 1956-75 1952-89 1962-76 1963-77
Q2 (cfs) 862 77 9 2,640 35 59
Q10 (cfs) 2,050 267 86 5,420 182 366
Q25 (cfs) 2,880 396 190 7,000 308 717
Q50 (cfs) 3,620 502 317 8,240 424 1,110
Q100 (cfs) 4,460 614 498 9,520 558 1,640
14017200 14017500 14018500 14034250 14034325 14107000 14110000 14111800
1955-74 1946-53 1955-59 1952-92 1961-76 1963-77 1945-78 1910-79 1961-75
48 3,780 6,280 7 207 1,860 3,180 105
318 8,960 14,800 25 693 3,040 5,500 302
592 12,300 20,200 38 1,110 3,670 6,820 459
868 15,100 24,600 50 1,520 4,160 7,870 605
1,210 18,100 29,400 64 2,030 4,650 8,970 781
14112000 14112200
1947-50 1958-78 1960-88
1,070 25
3,060 88
4,560 148
5,940 208
7,550 287
Appendix 2-1-32
Station Number 14112400 14112500 14113000 14121300
Station Name Mill Creek Near Blockhouse, Wash Little Klickitat R Near Wahkiacus, Wash Klikitat River Near Pitt, Wash White Salmon R Below Cascades Cr, Wash Trout Lake Creek Near Trout Lake, Wash White Salmon River Near Trout Lake, Wash White Salmon River at Husum, Wash White Salmon R Near Underwood, Wash Little White Salmon River at Willard, Wash Little White Salmon R at Willard, Wash Rock Creek Near Willard, Wash Little White Salmon River Near Cook, Wash Columbia River Trib at Home Valley, Wash Wind R Abv Trout Creek Near Carson, Wash Layout Cr Near Carson, Wash Wind River Near Carson, Wash
Period of Record 1965-78 1945-81 1929-92 1958-78
Q2 (cfs) 113 3,260 7,860 700
Q10 (cfs) 250 9,250 19,200 1,150
Q25 (cfs) 331 13,200 26,800 1,390
Q50 (cfs) 397 16,400 33,300 1,560
Q100 (cfs) 466 19,900 40,600 1,740
14121500 14122000
1960-69 1958-67
1,590 1,970
2,610 3,380
3,140 4,150
3,540 4,750
3,940 5,360
14123000 14123500 14124500 14125000 14125200 14125500
1910-18 1930-41 1916-30 1936-92 1945-61 1950-63 1949-68 1957-77
2,830 4,650 2,780 2,520 192 3,300
5,510 8,540 3,780 3,600 345 6,770
7,230 10,600 4,190 4,150 435 9,040
8,700 12,300 4,480 4,560 508 11,000
10,300 14,000 4,740 5,000 585 13,200
14126300 14127000
1950-70 1945-69
44 5,240
75 7,780
91 8,950
104 9,790
116 10,600
14127200 14128500
1966-75 1935-79
342 13,800
578 25,900
696 32,400
783 37,600
871 42,800
Appendix 2-1-33
Station Name Canyon Creek Near Washougal, Wash Little Washougal River Near Washougal, Wash Shanghai Creek Near Hockinson, Wash Groeneveld Creek Near Camas, Wash Burnt Bridge Creek at Vancouver, Wash Salmon Creek Near Battle Ground, Wash Lewis River Near Trout Lake, Wash Big Creek Near Trout Lk, Wash Rush Creek Near Trout Lk, Wash Meadow Creek Near Trout Lk, Wash Rush Creek Near Cougar, Wash Curley Creek Near Cougar, Wash Lewis River Above Muddy River, Wash Muddy River Near Cougar, Wash Pine Creek Near Cougar, Wash Lewis River Near Cougar, Wash Dog Creek at Cougar, Wash
Period of Record 1949-70 1952-68
Q2 (cfs) 128 1,250
Q10 (cfs) 220 2,020
Q25 (cfs) 274 2,420
Q50 (cfs) 317 2,720
Q100 (cfs) 364 3,010
14144550 14144600 14211900 14212000 14213200 14213500 14214000 14214500 14215000 14215500 14216000 14216500 14216800 14218000 14218300
1950-70 1958-81 1949-71 1944-79 1959-72 1956-79 1956-65 1956-65 1956-62 1964-74 1956-74 1928-34 1955-75 1955-73 1984-92 1958-70 1959-78 1958-74
76 42 77 835 5,900 398 471 278 720 582 9,310 6,420 978 15,800 311
128 68 130 1,430 11,100 759 952 447 1,390 1,450 19,500 11,500 1,590 51,800 507
154 82 159 1,750 14,200 960 1,220 539 1,810 2,040 25,200 14,400 1,900 78,100 616
174 94 182 2,000 16,700 1,120 1,430 610 2,170 2,550 29,600 16,700 2,150 101,000 702
193 106 207 2,260 19,400 1,280 1,650 684 2,560 3,130 34,200 19,000 2,390 127,000 792
Appendix 2-1-34
Station Number 14219000 14219500 14219800 14220500 14221500 14222500 14222700 14223000 14223500
Station Name Canyon Creek Near Amboy, Wash Lewis River Near Amboy, Wash Speelyai Creek Near Cougar, Wash Lewis River at Ariel, Wash Cedar Creek Near Ariel, Wash East Fork Lewis River Near Heisson, Wash East Fork Lewis R Trib Near Woodland, Wash Kalama River Near Kalama, Wash Kalama R Below Italian Cr Near Kalama, Wash Columbia River Trib at Carrolls, Wash Clear Fk Cowlitz River Near Packwood, Wash Lake Creek Near Packwood, Wash Lake Creek at Mouth, Near Packwood, Wash Cowlitz River at Packwood, Wash Skate Creek Trib Near Packwood, Wash Skate CreekTrib No 2 Near Packwood, Wash
Period of Record 1923-34 1912-31 1960-92 1931-92 1952-55 1962-69 1930-92 1950-67 1917-45 1947-79
Q2 (cfs) 5,910 33,600 1,710 30,900 1,480 9,000 36 7,790 10,400
Q10 (cfs) 10,400 62,200 3,000 62,600 2,150 14,100 77 14,600 15,100
Q25 (cfs) 12,900 77,000 3,580 80,500 2,490 16,500 105 19,200 17,500
Q50 (cfs) 14,900 88,100 4,020 94,600 2,750 18,200 130 23,200 19,300
Q100 (cfs) 16,900 99,200 4,460 109,000 3,010 20,000 159 27,700 21,100
14223800 14224500
1950-70 1908-17 1931-41 1964-80 1964-77
52 1,720
82 3,620
98 4,940
110 6,110
123 7,460
14225500 14226000
150 299
827 945
1,580 1,450
2,420 1,910
3,570 2,460
14226500 14226800 14226900
1912-20 1930-92 1959-77 1959-75 1978-88
13,800 60 109
25,400 116 220
32,100 151 298
37,400 181 367
43,000 213 446
Appendix 2-1-35
Station Number 14230000 14231100 14231700 14232000 14232500 14233200 14233400 14233500 14235000 14235300 14235500 14236200 14236500 14237000 14237500 14238000 14239000
Station Name Johnson Creek Near Packwood, Wash Miller Creek at Randle, Wash Chamber Creek Near Packwood, Wash Niggerhead Creek Near Randle, Wash Cispus River Near Randle, Wash Quartz Creek Near Kosmos, Wash Cowlitz River Near Randle, Wash Cowlitz River Near Kosmos, Wash Cowlitz River at Mossyrock, Wash Tilton River Near Mineral, Wash West Fork Tilton River Near Morton, Wash Tilton R Above Bear Canyon Creek, Wash Tilton River Near Cinebar, Wash Klickitat Creek at Mossyrock, Wash Winston Creek Near Silver Lake, Wash Cowlitz River Below Mayfield Dam, Wash Salmon Creek Near Toledo, Wash
Period of Record 1908-14 1919-24 1950-70 1966-75 1951-63 1930-92 1965-75 1949-92 1949-68 1927-35 1948-60 1950-70 1951-79 1957-92 1942-59 1949-72 1950-77 1963-92 1962-79
Q2 (cfs) 1,360 81 227 2,610 8,160 90 28,800 26,200 27,600 86 2,110 10,800 10,900 104 1,200 26,400 3,610
Q10 (cfs) 2,590 113 349 3,860 15,100 147 51,700 38,300 46,600 124 3,640 18,600 18,200 161 2,080 46,800 6,940
Q25 (cfs) 3,310 129 416 4,420 18,800 178 65,300 44,800 58,200 140 4,560 22,100 22,200 187 2,580 57,900 8,660
Q50 (cfs) 3,890 140 468 4,830 21,600 203 76,400 49,700 67,800 152 5,310 24,500 25,400 205 2,980 66,500 9,940
Q100 (cfs) 4,510 151 522 5,220 24,000 228 88,200 54,700 78,300 163 6,130 26,800 28,600 222 3,410 75,400 11,200
Appendix 2-1-36
Station Name North Fork Lacamas Creek Near Ethel, Wash Olequa Creek Tributary Near Winlock, Wash Green River Near Kid Valley, Wash N F Toutle River at Kid Valley, Wash S. F. Toutle R at Camp 12 Near Toutle, Wash South Fork Toutle River at Toutle, Wash Toutle River Near Silver Lake, Wash Toutle River at Tower Rd Near Silver Lk, Wash Toutle R Trib Nr Castle Rock, Wash Cowlitz River at Castle Rock, Wash Delameter Creek Near Castle Rock, Wash Coweman River Near Kelso, Wash Elochoman River Near Cathlamet, Wash Risk Creek Near Skamokawa, Wash Jim Crow Creek Near Grays River, Wash Grays River Above S Fk Near Grays River, Wash
Q2 (cfs) 24
Q10 (cfs) 34
Q25 (cfs) 39
Q50 (cfs) 42
Q100 (cfs) 45
14239700
1950-69
22
37
45
52
58
14240800 14241100 14241490 14241500 14242500 14242580
1981-92 1980-92 1981-92 1940-57 1920-23 1930-79 1982-92
6,270 11,300 8,140 6,280 17,100 20,200
11,100 24,000 16,000 9,610 28,200 40,600
13,800 31,200 20,300 11,400 34,700 51,500
15,800 36,800 23,600 12,900 39,900 59,800
18,000 42,600 27,000 14,400 45,500 68,200
14242600 14243000 14243500 14245000 14247500 14248100 14248200 14249000
1950-70 1963-92 1950-69 1950-84 1941-79 1949-70 1965-79 1956-79
39 55,000 1,260 4,910 4,900 78 560 5,370
76 90,500 2,120 7,600 7,400 148 918 8,320
98 107,000 2,570 9,030 8,590 186 1,110 9,720
116 118,000 2,920 10,100 9,450 214 1,250 10,700
135 128,000 3,290 11,300 10,300 243 1,400 11,700
Appendix 2-1-37
Station Name West Fork Grays River Near Grays River, Wash
Q2 (cfs) 2,420
Q10 (cfs) 3,820
Q25 (cfs) 4,590
Q50 (cfs) 5,180
Q100 (cfs) 5,800
2A:F:DP/HM
Appendix 2-1-38
Appendix 2-2
USGS Regression Equation Data and Mean Annual Runoff Data
USGS Regression Equation Regions
Appendix 2-2-1
Appendix 2-2-2
Contents
Page
Chapter 3
Culvert Design
3-1 Overview 3-1.1 Metric Units and English Units 3-2 Culvert Design Documentation 3-2.1 Common Culvert Shapes and Terminology 3-2.2 Hydraulic Reports 3-2.3 Required Field Data 3-2.4 Engineering Analysis 3-3 Hydraulic Design of Culverts 3-3.1 Culvert Design Flows 3-3.2 Allowable Headwater 3-3.3 Tailwater Conditions 3.3.4 Flow Control 3-3.5 Velocity in Culverts General 3-3.6 Culvert Hydraulic Calculations Form 3-3.8 Example 3-4 Culvert End Treatments 3-4.1 Projecting Ends 3-4.2 Beveled End Sections 3-4.3 Flared End Sections 3-4.4 Headwalls and Slope Collars 3-4.5 Wingwalls and Aprons 3-4.6 Improved Inlets 3-4.7 Energy Dissipators 3-4.8 Culvert Debris 3-5 Miscellaneous Culvert Design Considerations 3-5.1 Multiple Culvert Openings 3-5.2 Camber 3-5.3 Minimum Culvert Size 3-5.4 Alignment and Grade 3-5.5 Angle Points 3-5.6 Upstream Ponding
3-1 3-1 3-1 3-2 3-2 3-3 3-3 3-4 3-4 3-5 3-6 3-8 3-8 3-34 3-41 3-47 3-51 3-51 3-52 3-52 3-53 3-53 3-54 3-54 3-55 3-58 3-58 3-58 3-59 3-59 3-60 3-60
3A:F:DP/HM
Page 3-i
Page 3-ii
Chapter 3
3-1 Overview
Culvert Design
A culvert is a closed conduit under a roadway or embankment used to maintain flow from a natural channel or drainage ditch. A culvert should convey flow without causing damaging backwater, excessive flow constriction, or excessive outlet velocities. In addition to determining the design flows and corresponding hydraulic performance of a particular culvert, other factors can affect the ultimate design of a culvert and should be taken into consideration. These factors can include the economy of alternative pipe materials and sizes, horizontal and vertical alignment, environmental concerns, and necessary culvert end treatments. In some situations, the hydraulic capacity may not be the only consideration for determining the size of a culvert opening. Fish passage requirements often dictate a different type of crossing than would normally be used for hydraulic capacity. Wetland preservation may require upsizing a culvert or replacement of a culvert with a bridge. Excessive debris potential may also require an increase in culvert size. In these cases, the designer should seek input from the proper authorities and document this input in the Hydraulic Report in order to justify the larger design.
3-1.1 Metric Units and English Units

The hydraulic design of culverts, as presented in Section 3-3, requires the use of several charts and graphs. Figure 3-3.6 was developed to aid in the organization of culvert hydraulic calculations. Each component of the form has a value determined either from an analysis or from the charts and graphs provided in this chapter. At the time of publication of this manual, the charts and graphs were not available in metric units. Therefore, it is recommended that the designer complete the form in English units and convert the discharges, controlling HW elevation, and velocity to metric units. All equations related to the charts and graphs are shown in English units only. Elsewhere in the chapter, dual units are provided. The metric versions of the charts and graphs will be distributed when they become available, at which time the culvert design can be completed entirely in metric units. If a computer program is used to design a culvert, metric versions of the input and output files shall be included as part of the Hydraulic Report.
Page 3-1
Culvert Design
3-2
Culvert Design Documentation
3-2.1 Common Culvert Shapes and Terminology
Figure 3-2.1
Common Culvert Shapes and Terminology
Page 3-2
Culvert Design
3-2.2 Hydraulic Reports

Culverts 1200 mm (48 inches) or less in diameter or span will be included as part of a Type B Hydraulic Report and will be reviewed by the Region Hydraulics Office/Contact as outlined in Chapter 1. The designer shall collect field data and perform an engineering anlysis as described in Sections 3-2.3 and 3-2.4. Culverts in this size range should be referred to on the contract plan sheets as Schedule ____ Culv. Pipe ____ mm (in.) Diam.. The designer is responsible for listing all acceptable pipe alternates based on site conditions. The decision regarding which type of pipe material to be installed at a location will be left to the contractor. See Chapter 8 for a discussion on schedule pipe and acceptable alternates. Culverts larger than 1200 mm (48 inches) in diameter or span will be included as part of a Type A Hydraulic Report and will be reviewed by both the Regional Hydraulics Office/Contact and the Olympia Service Center (OSC) Hydraulics Branch as outlined in Chapter 1. The designer shall collect field data and perform an engineering anlysis as described in Sections 3-2.3 and 3-2.4. If it is determined that a bottomless arch or three-sided box structure is required at a location, the OSC Hydraulics Branch is available to provide assistance in the design. The level of assistance provided by the OSC Hydraulics Branch can range from full hydraulic and structural design to review of the completed design. If a project office requests the OSC Hydraulics Branch to complete a design, the project office shall submit field data as described in Section 3-2.3. The engineering analysis and footing structural design will be completed by the OSC Hydraulics Branch, generally within four to six weeks after receiving field data. Once completed, the design will be returned to the project office and included as part of the Type A Hydraulic Report. In addition to standard culvert design, the OSC Hydraulics Branch is also available to provide assistance in the design of any unique culvert installation. The requirements for these structures will vary, and it is recommended that the OSC Hydraulics Branch be contacted early in the design phase to determine what information will be necessary to complete the engineering analysis.
3-2.3 Required Field Data

Information and field data required to complete an engineering analysis includes: 1. Topographic map showing contours and the outline of the drainage area. 2. Description of the ground cover of the drainage area. 3. Soils investigation per Section 510.03(1) of the Design Manual. 4. Proposed roadway alignment in the vicinity of the culvert. 5. Proposed roadway cross section at the culvert. 6. Corrosion zone location, pH, and resistivity of the site. 7. Fish passage requirements, if applicable. 8. Any other unique features that can affect design, such as low-lying structures that could be affected by excessive headwater or other consideration discussed in Section 3-5.
Page 3-3
Culvert Design
3-2.4 Engineering Analysis

The collected field data will be used to perform an engineering analysis. The intent of the engineering analysis is to insure that the designer considers a number of issues, including flow capacity requirements, foundation conditions, embankment construction, run-off conditions, soil characteristics, construction problems that may occur, estimated cost, environmental concerns, and any other factors that may be involved and pertinent to the design. Also, additional considerations that may affect a given culvert design are discussed in Section 3-5. Once completed, the engineering analysis will be included as part of the Hydraulic Report for the project and shall include: 1. Field data as described in Section 3-2.3. 2. Culvert hydraulic calculations as described in Section 3-3. 3. Roadway stationing of the culvert location. 4. Culvert profile. 5. Culvert length and size. 6. Culvert material (for culverts larger than 1200 mm (48 inches)). 7. Headwater depths for the design flow event (generally the 25-year event) and the 100-year flow event. 8. Roadway cross-section and roadway profile, demonstrating the maximum height of fill over the culvert. 9. Appropriate end treatment as described in Section 3-4.
3-3
Hydraulic Design of Culverts

A complete theoretical analysis of the hydraulics of a particular culvert installation is time-consuming and complex. Flow conditions vary from culvert to culvert and can also vary over time for any given culvert. The barrel of the culvert may flow full or partially full depending upon upstream and downstream conditions, barrel characteristics, and inlet geometry. However, under most conditions, a simplified procedure can be used to determine the type of flow control and corresponding headwater elevation that exist at a culvert during the chosen design flow. This section includes excerpts from the Federal Highway Administrations Hydraulic Design Series No. 5 Hydraulic Design of Highway Culverts (HDS 5). The designer should refer to this manual for detailed information on the theory of culvert flow or reference an appropriate hydraulics text book for unusual situations. The OSC Hydraulics Branch is also available to provide design guidance. The general procedure to follow when designing a culvert includes the following steps: 1. Calculate the culvert design flows (Section 3-3.1). 2. Determine the allowable headwater elevation (Section 3-3.2). 3. Determine the tailwater elevation at the design flow (Section 3-3.3). 4. Determine the type of control that exists at the design flow(s), either inlet control or outlet control (Section 3-3.4). 5. Calculate outlet velocities (Section 3-3.5).
Page 3-4
Culvert Design
3-3.1 Culvert Design Flows

The first step in designing a culvert is to determine the design flows to be used. The flow from the basin contributing to the culvert can be calculated using the methods described in Chapter 2. Generally, culverts will be designed to meet criteria for two flows: the 25-year event and the 100-year event. If fish passage is a requirement at a culvert location, an additional flow event must also be evaluated, the 10 percent exceedence flow (see Chapter 7). The designer will be required to analyze each culvert at each of the design flows, insuring that the appropriate criteria is met. For Circular Pipe, Box Culverts, and Pipe Arches If a stream has been determined to be fish bearing by either Region Q10%: Environmental staff or Department of Fish and Wildlife (DOF&W) personnel, the velocity occurring in the culvert barrel during the 10 percent exceedence flow must meet the requirements of Chapter 7. Q25: The 25-year flow event should not exceed the allowable headwater, which is generally taken as 1.25 times the culvert diameter or rise as described in Section 3-3.2.2. It is recomended that the culvert be sized such that there is no roadway overtopping during the 100-year flow event. See Section 3-3.2.2 for more discussion on this topic.
Q100:
For Concrete or Metal Bottomless Culverts If a stream has been determined to be fish bearing by either Region Q10%: Environmental staff or DOF&W personnel, the velocity through the arch must meet the requirements of Chapter 7. Q25: 0.3 meters (1 foot) of debris clearance should be provided between the water surface and the top of the arch during the 25-year flow event, as shown in Figure 3.3.1 and discussed in Section 3-3.2.3. The depth of flow during the 100-year flow event should not exceed the height of the arch as described in Section 3-3.2.3.
Q100:
Figure 3-3.1
Typical Bottomless Culvert
Page 3-5
Culvert Design
3-3.2 Allowable Headwater 3-3.2.1 General

The depth of water that exists at the culvert entrance at a given design flow is referred to as the headwater (HW). Headwater depth is measured from the invert of the culvert to the water surface, as shown in Figure 3-3.2.1.
Figure 3-3.2.1
Headwater and Tailwater Diagram
Limiting the amount headwater during a design flow can be beneficial for several reasons. The potential for debris clogging becomes less as the culvert size is increased. Maintenance is virtually impossible to perform on a culvert during a flood event if the inlet is submerged more than a few feet. Also, increasing the allowable headwater can adversely impact upstream property owners by increasing flood elevations. These factors must be taken into consideration and balanced with the cost effectiveness of providing larger or smaller culvert openings. If a culvert is to be placed in a stream that has been identified in a Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) Flood Insurance Study, the floodway and floodplain requirements for that municipality may govern the allowable amount of headwater. In this situation, it is recommended that the designer contact either the Region Hydraulics Section/Contact or the OSC Hydraulics Branch for additional guidance.
3-3.2.2
Allowable Headwater for Circular Culverts, Box Culverts, and Pipe Arches
Circular culverts, box culverts, and pipe arches should be designed such that the ratio of the headwater (HW) to diameter (D) during the 25-year flow event is less than or equal to 1.25 (HW/D < 1.25). HW/D ratios larger than 1.25 are permitted, provided that existing site conditions dictate or warrant a larger ratio. An example of this might be an area with high roadway fills, little stream debris, and no impacted upstream property owners. Generally, the maximum allowable HW/D ratios should not exceed 3 to 5. The justification for exceeding the HW/D ratio of 1.25 must be discussed with either the Region Hydraulics Section/Contact or the OSC Hydraulics Branch and, if approved, included as a narrative in the corresponding Hydraulics Report. The headwater that occurs during the 100-year flow event must also be investigated. Two sets of criteria exist for the allowable headwater during the 100-year flow event, depending on the type of roadway over the culvert:
Page 3-6
Hydraulics Manual May 1997
Culvert Design
1. If the culvert is under an interstate or major state route that must be kept open during major flood events, the culvert must be designed such that the 100-year flow event can be passed without overtopping the roadway. 2. If the culvert is under a minor state route or other roadway, it is recommended that the culvert be designed such that there is no roadway overtopping during the 100-year flow event. However, there may be situations where it is more cost effective to design the roadway embankment to withstand overtopping rather than provide a structure or group of structures capable of passing the design flow. An example of this might be a low ADT roadway with minimal vertical clearance that, if closed due to overtopping, would not significantly inconvenience the primary users. Overtopping will begin to occur when the headwater rises to the elevation of the roadway centerline. The flow over the roadway will be similar to flow over a broad-crested weir, as shown in Figure 3-3.2.2. A methodology is available in HDS 5 to calculate the simultaneous flows through the culvert and over the roadway. The designer must keep in mind that the downstream embankment slope must be protected from the erosive forces that will occur. This can generally be accomplished with riprap reinforcement, but the OSC Hydraulics Branch should be contacted for further design guidance.
Figure 3-3.2.2
Roadway Overtopping
3-3.2.3
Allowable Headwater for Bottomless Culverts

Bottomless culverts with footings should be designed such that 0.3 meters (1 foot) of debris clearance from the water surface to the crown is provided during the 25-year flow event. In many instances, bottomless culverts function very similarly to bridges. They typically span the main channel and are designed to pass relatively large flows. If a large arch becomes plugged with debris, the potential for significant damage occurring to either the roadway embankment or the culvert increases. Excessive headwater at the inlet can also increase velocities through the culvert and correspondingly increase the scour potential at the footings. Sizing a bottomless culvert to meet the 0.3 meter (1 foot) criteria will alleviate many of these potential problems. Bottomless culverts should also be designed such that the 100-year event can be passed without the headwater depth exceeding the height of the culvert. Flow depths greater than the height can cause potential scour problems near the footings.
Page 3-7
Culvert Design
3-3.3 Tailwater Conditions

The depth of water that exists in the channel downstream of a culvert is referred to as the tailwater (TW) and is shown in Figure 3-3.2.1. Tailwater is important because it can effect the depth of headwater necessary to pass a given design flow. This is especially true for culverts that are flowing in outlet control, as explained in Section 3-3.4. Generally, one of three conditions will exist downstream of the culvert and the tailwater can be determined as described below. 1. If the downstream channel is relatively undefined and depth of flow during the design event is considerably less than the culvert diameter, the tailwater can be ignored. An example of this might be a culvert discharging into a wide, flat area. In this case, the downstream channel will have little or no impact on the culvert discharge capacity or headwater. 2. If the downstream channel is reasonably uniform in cross section, slope, and roughness, the tailwater may effect the culvert discharge capacity or headwater. In this case, the tailwater can be approximated by solving for the normal depth in the channel using Mannings equation as described in Chapter 4. 3. If the tailwater in the downstream channel is established by downstream controls, other means must be used to determine the tailwater elevation. Downstream controls can include such things as natural stream constrictions, downstream obstructions, or backwater from another stream or water body. If it is determined that a downstream control exists, a method such as a backwater analysis, a study of the stage-discharge relationship of another stream into which the stream in question flows, or the securing of data on reservoir storage elevations or tidal information may be involved in determining the tailwater elevation during the design flow. If a field inspection reveals the likelihood of a downstream control, contact either the Region Hydraulics Section/Contract or the OSC Hydraulics Branch for additional guidance.
3.3.4 Flow Control

There are two basic types of flow control. A culvert flows in either inlet control or outlet control. When a culvert is in Inlet Control, the inlet is controlling the amount of flow that will pass through the culvert. Nothing downstream of the culvert entrance will influence the amount of headwater required to pass the design flow. When a culvert is in Outlet Control, the outlet is controlling the amount of flow passing through the culvert. The inlet, barrel, or tailwater characteristics, or some combination of the three, will determine the amount of headwater required to pass the design flow. There are two different methods used to determine the headwater, one for inlet control and one for outlet control. If the culvert is flowing in inlet control, the headwater depth is calculated using inlet control equations. If the culvert is flowing in outlet control, the headwater depth is calculated using outlet control equations. Often, it is not known whether a culvert is flowing in inlet control or outlet control before a design has been completed. It is therefore necessary to calculate the headwater that will be produced for both inlet and outlet control, then compare the results. The larger headwater will be the one that controls and that headwater will be the one
Page 3-8
Culvert Design
that will be used in the design of the culvert. Both inlet control and outlet control will be discussed in the following sections and methods for determining the headwater for both types of control will be given.
3-3.4.1
Culverts Flowing With Inlet Control

In inlet control, the flow capacity of a culvert is controlled at the entrance by depth of headwater and the entrance geometry. The entrance geometry includes the inlet area, shape, and type of inlet edge. Changing one of these parameters, such as increasing the diameter of the culvert or using a hydraulically more efficient opening, is the only way to increase the flow capacity through the culvert for a given headwater. Changing parameters downstream of the entrance, such as modifying the culvert slope, barrel roughness, or length will not increase the flow capacity through the culvert for a given headwater. Inlet control usually occurs when culverts are placed on slopes steeper than a 1 percent grade and when there is minimal tailwater present at the outlet end. Figure 3-3.4.1 shows a typical inlet control flow profile. In the figure, the inlet end is submerged, the outlet end flows freely, and the barrel flows partly full over its length. The flow passes through critical depth (dc) just downstream of the culvert entrance and the flow approaches normal depth (dn) at the downstream end of the culvert.
Figure 3-3.4.1
Typical Inlet Control Flow Profile
3-3.4.2
Calculating Headwater for Inlet Control

When a culvert is flowing in inlet control, two basic conditions exist. If the inlet is submerged, the inlet will operate as an orifice. If the inlet is unsubmerged, the inlet will operate as a weir. Equations have been developed for each condition and the equations demonstrate the relationship between headwater and discharge for various culvert materials, shapes, and inlet configurations. The inlet control nomographs shown Figures 3-3.4.2A-E utilize those equations and can be used to solve for the headwater. (Note:The designer should check to ensure that the appropriate nomograph is chosen, based upon the culvert material and shape used for design.)
Page 3-9
Culvert Design
To Determine Headwater (HW) Step 1. Connect with a straightedge the given culvert diameter or height Q (D) and the discharge Q, or --- for box culverts; mark intersection B HW of straightedge on --------- scale marked (1). D Step 2. HW HW If --------- scale marked (1) represents entrance type used, read --------D D on scale (1). If some other entrance type is used, extend the point of intersection found in Step 1 horizontally on scale (2) or (3) and read HW --------- . D HW Compute HW by multiplying --------- by D. D
Step 3.
To Determine Culvert Size (D) Step 1. HW Locate the allowable --------- on the scale for appropriate entrance D HW type. If scale (2) or (3) is used, extend the --------- point horizontally D to scale (1). Step 2. HW Connect the point on --------- scale (1) as found in Step 1 to the given D discharge Q and read diameter, height, or size of culvert required. If this value falls between two sizes, choose the next largest diameter.
To Determine Discharge (Q) Step 1. HW Given HW and D, locate --------- on scale for appropriate entrance D HW type. If scale (2) or (3) is used, extend --------- point horizontally to D scale (1). Step 2. HW Connect point --------- scale (1) as found in Step 1 and the size of D Q culvert on the left scale. Read Q or --- on the discharge scale. B Step 3. Q If --- is read in Step 2, multiply by B to find Q. B is the width of the B culvert.
Page 3-10
Culvert Design
Figure 3-3.4.2A
Concrete Pipe Inlet Control Nomograph
Page 3-11
Culvert Design
Figure-3-3.4.2B
Corrugated Metal and Thermoplastic Pipe Inlet Control Nomograph
Page 3-12
Culvert Design
Figure-3-3.4.2C
Corrugated Metal Pipe-Arch Inlet Control Nomograph Standard Sizes and 18-Inch Corner Radius
Page 3-13
Culvert Design
Figure-3-3.4.2D
Corrugated Metal Pipe-Arch Inlet Control Nomograph Large Sizes
Page 3-14
Culvert Design
Figure-3-3.4.2E
Box Culvert Inlet Control Nomograph
Page 3-15
Culvert Design
3-3.4.3
Culverts Flowing With Outlet Control

In outlet control, the flow capacity of a culvert is controlled by the inlet, barrel, or tailwater conditions, or some combination of the three. Changing any parameter, such as the culvert size, entrance configuration, slope, roughness, or tailwater condition can have a direct impact on the headwater required to pass the design flow. Outlet control usually occurs when a culvert is placed on a relatively flat slope, generally less than a 1 percent grade, or when the depth of tailwater is significant. Figure 3-3.4.3 demonstrates several typical outlet control flow profiles that can occur in a culvert. The method for computing the headwater for each of the profiles is the same and is described in Section 3-3.4.4. However, the method used to calculate outlet velocities for outlet control can vary as described in Section 3-3.5.2. Figure 3-3.4.3 can be useful for visually representing some of the concepts discussed in that section. Figure 3-3.4.3(A) shows a full flow condition, with both the inlet and outlet submerged. The culvert barrel is in pressure flow throughout the entire length. This condition is often assumed in calculations but seldom actually exists. Figure 3-3.4.3(B) shows the entrance submerged to such a degree that the culvert flows full throughout the entire length. However, the exit is unsubmerged by tailwater. This is a rare condition because it requires an extremely high headwater to maintain full barrel flow with no tailwater. The outlet velocities are unusually high under this condition. Figure 3-3.4.3(C) is more typical. The culvert entrance is submerged by the headwater and the outlet flows freely with a low tailwater. For this condition the barrel flows partly full over at least part of its length and the flow passes through critical depth just upstream of the outlet. Figure 3-3.4.3(D) is also typical, with neither the inlet nor the outlet end of the culvert submerged. The barrel flows partly full over its entire length. The procedure described in Section 3-3.4.4 for calculating headwater for outlet control flow does not give an exact solution in this case. However, the procedure is considered accurate when the headwater is .75D and greater, where D is the height or rise of the culvert barrel.
Page 3-16
Culvert Design
Figure 3-3.4.3
Outlet Control Flow Profiles
Page 3-17
Culvert Design
3-3.4.4
Calculating Headwater For Outlet Control

Outlet control headwater (HW) cannot be solved for directly. Rather, HW can be found by utilizing the relationship shown in Equation (1) and Figure 3-3.4.4A. HW = H + ho LSo (1)
Figure 3-3.4.4A
Outlet Control Flow Relationships
where:
HW = Headwater (ft) H = Total head loss through the culvert, including entrance, barrel, and exit losses ho = Approximation of the hydraulic grade line at the outlet of the culvert (ft) LSo = Product of the culvert length multiplied by the culvert slope (ft) EGL = Energy Grade Line. The EGL represents the total energy at any point along the culvert barrel. HGL = Hydraulic Grade Line. Outside of the culvert, the HGL is equal to the water surface elevation. Inside the culvert, the HGL is the depth to which water would rise in vertical tubes connected to the sides of the culvert barrel.
H, ho, and LSo can be calculated as described below, then used in conjunction with Equation 1 to determine HW. H: H is the total head loss through the culvert, generally expressed in units of feet. It is made up of three major parts: an entrance loss H e, a friction loss through the barrel Hf, and an exit loss at the outlet Ho. Expressed in equation form, the total head loss is: H = H e + Hf + Ho (2)
Page 3-18
Culvert Design
Each of the losses are a function of the velocity head in the barrel. The velocity head is the kinetic energy of the water in the culvert barrel. The velocity head is equal to V2/2g, where V is the mean velocity in the culvert barrel. The mean velocity is found by dividing the discharge by the cross-sectional area of the flow. The entrance loss He is found by multiplying the velocity head by an entrance loss coefficient ke and is shown by Equation (3). The coefficient ke for various types of culvert entrances can be found in Figure 3-3.4.5H. V2 He = ke -----2g (3)
The friction loss Hf is the energy required to overcome the roughness of the culvert barrel. It is found by multiplying the velocity head by an expression of Mannings equation and is given by Equation (4). 29n 2 L V 2 H f = --------------- -----R 1.33 2g where: n = Mannings roughness coefficient L = Length of culvert barrel (ft) V = Mean velocity of flow in culvert barrel (ft/s) R = Hydraulic radius (ft) (R = D/4 for full flow pipe, see Section 4-3) The exit loss at the outlet Ho occurs when flow suddenly expands after leaving the culvert. It is found by multiplying the velocity head by an exit loss coefficient, generally taken as 1.0, and is given by Equation (5). V2 Ho = 1.0 -----2g (5) (4)
Combining Equations (3), (4), and (5) and substituting back into (2), the total head loss H can be expressed as: 29n 2 L V 2 H = 1 + k e + --------------- -----R 1.33 2g (6)
The outlet control nomographs shown in Section 3-3.4.5 provide graphical solutions to Equation (6) and should be utilized to solve for H. h o: ho is an approximation of the hydraulic grade line at the outlet of the culvert and is equal to the tailwater or (dc + D)/2, whichever is greater. The term (dc + D)/2 represents an approximation of the hydraulic grade line at the outlet of the culvert, where dc is equal to
Page 3-19
Culvert Design
the critical depth at the outlet of the culvert and D is the culvert diameter or rise. When free surface flow occurs in a culvert operating in outlet control, the most accurate method for determining the HW elevation is to perform a backwater analysis through the culvert. This, however, can be a tedious and time-consuming process. Making the assumption that (dc + D)/2 represents the hydraulic grade line simplifies the design procedure. The approximate method will produce reasonably accurate results when the headwater is 0.75 D and greater, where D is the culvert diameter or rise. In situations where the headwater is less than 0.75 D, the culvert should be designed using a computer software program, as discussed in Section 3-3.7. Most programs will perform a backwater analysis through the culvert and arrive at a more accurate solution for the headwater elevation than the approximate method. As shown in Figure 3-3.4.4B, (dc + D)/2 does not represent the actual water surface elevation at the outlet of the culvert and therefore should not be used for determining the corresponding outlet velocity. The method for determining the outlet velocity is discussed in Section 3-3.5.2
Figure 3-3.4.4B
Hydraulic Grade Line Approximation
LSo: 3-3.4.5.
LSo is the culvert length (L) multiplied by the culvert slope (So), expressed in feet.
Outlet Control Nomographs The outlet control nomographs presented in this section allow the designer to calculate H, the total head loss through the culvert, as discussed in Section 3-3.4.4. The nomographs are intended to be used in conjunction with Figure 3-3.6, Culvert Hydraulic Calculations Form. Figure 3-3.4.5A shows a sample outlet control nomograph. The following set of instructions will apply to all of the outlet control nomographs in this section. To determine H for a given culvert and discharge: Step 1: Step 2: Locate the appropriate nomograph for type of culvert selected. Find the Mannings n value for the culvert from Appendix 4-1. If the Mannings n value given in the nomograph is different than the Mannings n for the culvert, adjust the culvert length using the formula:
Page 3-20
Culvert Design
n1 L1 = L ---n where: L1 = Adjusted culvert length (ft) L = Actual culvert length (ft) n1 = Actual Mannings n value of the culvert n = Mannings n value from the nomograph Step 3: Using a straightedge, connect the culvert size (point 1) with the culvert length on the appropriate ke curve (point 2). This will define a point on the turning line (point 3). If a ke curve is not shown for the selected ke, interpolate between the two bounding ke curves. Appropriate ke factors are shown in Figure 3-3.4.5H. Again using a straightedge, extend a line from the discharge (point 4) through the point on the turning line (point 3) to the head loss H scale (point 5). Read H.
Step 4:
Note: Careful alignment of the straightedge is necessary to obtain accurate results from the nomographs. Figure 3-3.4.5G is the outlet control nomograph to be used for square box culverts. The nomograph can also be used for rectangular box culverts by calculating the cross-sectional area of the rectangular box and using that area as point 1 described in Step 3 above.
Page 3-21
Culvert Design
Figure 3-3.4.5A
Sample Outlet Control Nomograph
Page 3-22
Culvert Design
Figure 3-3.4.5B
Concrete and Thermoplastic Pipe Outlet Control Nomograph
Page 3-23
Culvert Design
Figure 3-3.4.5C
Corrugated Metal Pipe Outlet Control Nomograph
Page 3-24
Culvert Design
Figure 3-3.4.5D
Structural Plate Corrugated Metal Pipe Outlet Control Nomograph
Page 3-25
Culvert Design
Figure 3-3.4.5E
Corrugated Metal Pipe-Arch Outlet Control Nomograph
Page 3-26
Culvert Design
Figure 3-3.4.5F
Corrugated Metal Pipe-Arch Outlet Control Nomograph 18 Inch Corner Radius
Page 3-27
Culvert Design
Figure 3-3.4.5G
Box Culvert Outlet Control Nomograph
Page 3-28
Culvert Design
V2 He = ke -----2g Type of Structure and Entrance Design Concrete Pipe Projecting from fill, no headwall Socket end (groove end) Square cut end Mitered to conform to fill slope (beveled end section) Mitered to conform to fill slope, with concrete headwall Flared end sections, metal or concrete Vertical headwall with wingwalls Socket end (groove end) Square cut end Rounded (radius = 1/12 D) Metal and Thermoplastic Pipe or Pipe Arch Projecting from fill, no headwall Tapered end section Mitered to conform to fill slope (beveled end section) Mitered to conform to fill slope, with concrete headwall Flared metal or thermoplastic end sections Vertical headwall with wingwalls Any headwall with beveled inlet edges Reinforced Concrete Box Mitered concrete headwall to conform to fill slope Square-edged on 3 edges Rounded or beveled edges on 3 sides Wingwalls at 30 degrees to 75 degrees to barrel Square edge at crown Rounded or beveled edge at crown Wingwalls at 10 degrees to 25 degrees to barrel Square edge at crown Wingwalls parallel to barrel Square edge at crown Side or slope tapered inlet ke Standard Plan
0.2 0.5 0.7 0.7 0.5 0.2 0.5 0.2* 0.9 0.9 0.7 0.7 0.5 0.5 0.2*
B-7a B-9 B-7 Design B B-6 Series** B-6 Series** B-6 Series**
B-9c, B9-d B-7a B-9 B-7 Design A B-6 Series**
0.5 0.2 0.4 0.2* 0.5 0.7 0.2*
*Reference Section 3-4.6 for the design of special improved inlets with very low entrance losses **Modified for round pipe. Figure 3-3.4.5H
Entrance Loss Coefficient ke Outlet Control
Page 3-29
Culvert Design
Figure 3-3.4.5I
Critical Depth for Circular Pipe
Page 3-30
Culvert Design
Figure 3-3.4.5J
Critical Depth for Rectangular Shapes
Page 3-31
Culvert Design
Figure 3-3.4.5K
Critical Depth for Standard Corrugated Metal Pipe Arch
Page 3-32
Culvert Design
Figure 3-3.4.5L
Critical Depth for Structural Plate Corrugated Metal Pipe Arch
Page 3-33
Culvert Design
3-3.5 Velocity in Culverts General

A culvert, because of its hydraulic characteristics, generally increases the velocity of flow over that in the natural channel. High velocities are most critical just downstream from the culvert outlet and the erosion potential from the energy in the water must be considered in culvert design. Culverts that produce velocities in the range of 1 to 3 m/s (3 to 10 ft/s) tend to have fewer operational problems than culverts that produce velocities outside of that range. Varying the grade of the culvert generally has the most significant effect on changing the velocity, but since many culverts are placed at the natural grade of the existing channel, it is often difficult to alter this parameter. Other measures, such as changing the roughness characteristics of the barrel, increasing or decreasing the culvert size, or changing the culvert shape should be investigated when it becomes necessary to modify the outlet velocity. If velocities are less than about 1 m/s (3 ft/s), siltation in the culvert may become a problem. In those situations, it may be necessary to increase the velocity through the culvert or provide a debris basin upstream of the inlet. A debris basin is an excavated area upstream of the culvert inlet that slows the stream velocity and allows sediments to settle out prior to entering the culvert. See Section 3-8.4 for additional information on debris basins. If the velocity in the culvert cannot be increased and if a debris basin cannot be provided at a site, another alternative is to provide oversized culverts. The oversized culverts will increase siltation in the culvert, but the larger size may prevent complete blocking and will facilitate cleaning. It is recommended that the designer consult with the Region Hydraulics Section/Contact to determine the appropriate culvert size for this application. If velocities exceed about 3 m/s (10 ft/s), abrasion due to bed load movement through the culvert and erosion downstream of the outlet can increase significantly. Abrasion is discussed in more detail in Section 8-6. Corrugated metal culverts may be designed with extra thickness to account for possible abrasion. Concrete box culverts and concrete arches may be designed with sacrificial steel inverts or extra slab thicknesses to resist abrasion. Adequate outlet channel or embankment protection must be designed to insure that scour holes or culvert undermining will not occur. Energy dissipators can also be used to protect the culvert outlet and downstream property, as discussed in Section 3-4.7. The designer is cautioned that energy dissipators can significantly increase the cost of a culvert and should only be considered when required to prevent a large scour hole or as remedial construction.
3-3.5.1
Calculating Outlet Velocity for Culverts in Inlet Control

When a culvert is flowing in inlet control, the water surface profile can be assumed to converge toward normal depth as flow approaches the outlet. The average outlet velocity for a culvert flowing with inlet control can be approximated by computing the normal depth and then the normal velocity for the culvert cross-section using Mannings equation, as shown below. The normal depth approximation is conservative for short culverts and close to actual for long culverts. When solving for velocity using computer programs, a different velocity will be obtained. This occurs because the program does not make the normal depth approximation but rather computes a standard step backwater calculation through the pipe to develop the actual depth and velocity.
Page 3-34
Culvert Design
1 V = -- R 2 3 S 1 2 n or 1.486 V = ------------ R 2 3 S 1 2 n where:
(metric units)
(English units)
V = Mean velocity in channel, m/s (ft/s) n = Mannings roughness coefficient (see Appendix 4-1) S = Channel slope, m/m (ft/ft) R = Hydraulic radius, m (ft) A = Area of the cross section of water, m2 (ft2) P = Wetted perimeter, m (ft)
Mannings equation should be used to solve for the outlet velocity in non-circular culverts. The procedure for determining the velocity is discussed in Chapter 4-3. For circular culverts, a simplified version of Mannings equation can be used to calculate the velocity in the culvert. The simplified equation is given by: 0.863S 0.366 Q 0.268 V n = ----------------------------------------D 0.048 n 0.732 where: S = Pipe slope (ft/ft) Q = Flow rate (cfs) D = Pipe diameter (ft) n = Mannings roughness coefficient Vn = Normal velocity for partial flow (ft/s) The above equation was developed from the proportional flow curves shown in Figure 3-3.5.2 and is based on a constant Mannings roughness coefficient. When compared to normal velocities, as calculated by a complete normal depth analysis, the results of this equation are accurate to within +5 percent. In some circumstances, a culvert can be flowing in inlet control but the outlet may be submerged. In that situation, the outlet velocity can be found by V out = Q/Atotal, where Atotal is the full area of the culvert. This condition is rare, and should only be assumed when the outlet is fully submerged and the velocities in the pipe have had a chance to reduce before the outlet.
3-3.5.2
Calculating Outlet Velocity for Culverts in Outlet Control

When a culvert is flowing in outlet control, the average outlet velocity can be found by dividing the discharge by the cross-sectional area of flow at the outlet. There are three general water surface conditions that can exist at the outlet and affect the cross-sectional area of flow. The designer must determine which one of the three conditions exist and calculate the outlet velocity accordingly. Condition 1: If the tailwater is greater than the diameter of the culvert, the total area of the culvert is used to calculate the outlet velocity.
Page 3-35
Culvert Design
Condition 1: If TW > D then Voutlet = Q/Atotal
Condition 2:
If the tailwater is greater than critical depth but less than the diameter of the culvert, the tailwater depth is used to calculate the area of flow in the pipe and the corresponding outlet velocity.
Condition 2: If dc < TW < D then Voutlet = Q/ATW
In culverts flowing with outlet control, the flow profile tends to converge toward critical depth as flow approaches the outlet. In Condition 2, the flow profile is converging to critical depth near the outlet, but a tailwater depth exists that is greater than the critical depth. Therefore, the tailwater depth will dictate the corresponding area of flow to be used in the velocity calculation.
Page 3-36
Culvert Design
Condition 3:
If the tailwater is equal to or less than critical depth, critical depth is used to calculate the area of flow and corresponding outlet velocity.
Condition 3: If TW > Dc then Voutlet = Q/Atotal
Condition 3 represents a situation where a culvert flowing with outlet control is allowed to freely discharge out of the end of the culvert. The tailwater in this case has no effect on the depth of flow at the outlet. Instead, critical depth is used to determine the flow area and corresponding outlet velocity. Critical depth for various shapes can be calculated from the equations shown in Section 4-4 or read from the critical depth charts shown in Figures 3-3.4.5I to L. Once it has been determined which of the three outlet conditions exist for a given design, the corresponding area of flow for the outlet depth can be determined. The geometrical relationship between the depth of flow and area of flow can range from very simple for structures such as box culverts to very complex for structures such as pipe arches and bottomless culverts. Generally, utilizing a computer program, as discussed in Section 3-3.7, is the most accurate method for completing a culvert design that includes complex shapes. For circular culverts, the area of flow for a given outlet depth can be determined using the proportional flow curves shown in Figure 3-3.5.2. The curves give the proportional area, discharge, velocity and hydraulic radius of a circular culvert when the culvert is flowing less than full. Once the area has been calculated, the corresponding outlet velocity can be determined. The following example illustrates how to use the chart: Assume that a design was completed on a 1800 mm (6 ft) diameter pipe with a flow of 4.3 cms (150 cfs). The pipe was found to be in outlet control and a tailwater of 1.5 m (5 ft) was present. Determine the flow condition that exists and calculate the outlet velocity.
Page 3-37
Culvert Design
Solution:
Step 1 From Figure 3-3.4.5I, critical depth dc was found to be 1.1 m (3.6 ft). Step 2 Determine the flow condition. D TW dc = = = 1.8 m (6 ft) 1.5 m (5 ft) 1.1 m (3.6 ft)
Since dc < TW<D, Condition 2 exists. Therefore, the area of flow caused by the tailwater depth will be used. Step 3 Find the ratio of the depth of flow (d) to the diameter of the pipe (D), or d/D. d = tailwater depth = 1.5 m (5 ft) D = pipe diameter = 1.8 m (6 ft) Step 4 d/D = 1.5/1.8 = 0.83
Go to the proportional flow curves of Figure 3-3-5.2. Locate 0.83 on the vertical axis. Extend a line horizontally across the page and intercept the point on the Proportional Area curve. From the point found on the Proportional Area curve, extend a line vertically down the page and intercept the horizontal axis. The value read from the horizontal axis is approximately 0.89. This value represents the ratio of the proportional flow area (Aprop) to the full flow area (Afull), or Aprop/Afull = 0.89. Find the proportional flow area. The equation Aprop/Afull = 0.89 can be rearranged to: Aprop = 0.89 Afull ( 1.8 ) 2 D 2 Afull = --------- = ----------------- = 2.54 m2 (27.3 ft2) 4 4 Aprop = 0.89 (2.54) = 2.26 m2 (24.3 ft2 )
Step 5
Step 6
Step 7
Aprop is equal to ATW. Use Aprop and Q to solve for the outlet velocity. Voutlet = Q/Aprop = 4.3/2.26 = 1.9 m/s (6.2 ft/s)
The previous example was solved by first determining the proportional area from Figure 3-3.5.2. The example could also have been solved by utilizing the Proportional Velocity curve from the same figure. Picking up on Step 3 from above, the ratio of d/D would remain the same, 0.83. Step 4 Go to the proportional flow curves of Figure 3-3.5.2. Locate 0.83 on the vertical axis. Extend a line horizontally across the page and intercept the point on the Proportional Velocity curve. From the point found on the Proportional Velocity curve, extend a line vertically down the page and intercept the horizontal axis. The value read from the horizontal axis is approximately 1.14. This value represents the ratio of the proportional velocity (Vprop) to the full flow velocity (Vfull), or Vprop/Vfull = 1.14.
Step 5
Page 3-38
Culvert Design
Step 6
Rearrange Vprop/Vfull = 1.14 to Vprop = 1.14 Vfull Find Vfull by solving the equation Vfull = Q/Afull Q = 4.3 m3/s ( 1.8 ) 2 D 2 Afull = --------- = ----------------- 2.54 m2 (27.3 ft2) 4 4 Vfull = 4.3/2.54 = 1.69 m/s (5.5 ft/s)
Step 7
Step 8
Solve for Vprop, which is the outlet velocity. Vprop = 1.14 Vfull = 1.14 (1.69) = 1.9 m/s (6.2 ft/s)
Page 3-39
Culvert Design
Figure 3-3-5.2
Proportional Flow Curve
Page 3-40
Culvert Design
3-3.6 Culvert Hydraulic Calculations Form

A form Culvert Hydraulic Calculations has been developed to help organize culvert hydraulic computations. The form is shown in Figure 3-3.6 and should be used in all Hydraulic Reports that involve culvert designs utilizing hand calculations. If a culvert is designed using a computer program, it is not necessary to include the form in the Hydraulic Report, provided that all design information is included in the input and output files created by the program. Included in this section is an explanation of each of the components of the form and the corresponding chapter section that provides additional information. Figure 3-3.6 has been labeled with either alpha or numeric characters to facilitate discussion for each component of the form. Included after Figure 3-3.6 is a blank copy of the culvert hydrulic calculations form. The blank copy is intended to be used by the designer and included as part of the hydraulic report.
Page 3-41
Page 3-42
Culvert Design
Project:
____________________
Designer: ________________ Date: _________ Sketch EL. ____ C C L Station: _________
SR: ______ Hydrologic and Channel Information
Q1: Q2: Q3:

Culvert Hydraulic Calculations Form
A A A
TW1: TW2: TW3:
B
D AHW: ____
B B
E EL. ____
So: _____ F G L: _____
B TW: _____ E' EL. ____
Culvert Type Q
Headwater Computations Inlet Control Outlet Control HW dc +D Size D HW ke dc ho H LSo 2
Figure 3-3.6
HW
Cont. Outlet HW Vel.
Comments
Column 1 2
10
11
12
13
14
15
Summary and Recommendations:

16
Hydraulics Manual January 1997 Page 3-43
Project:
____________________
Designer: ___________________ Date: ___________ Sketch EL. ____ Station: _________
SR: ______ Hydrologic and Channel Information
Q 1:______ TW 1:______ Q 2:______ TW 2:______ Q 3:______ TW 3:______ EL. ____ AHW: ____
C L
TW: _____ So: _____ L: _____ EL. ____
Culvert Type Q
Headwater Computations Inlet Control Outlet Control HW dc +D 2 Size D HW ke dc ho H LSo
HW
Cont. Outlet HW Vel.
Comments
Summary and Recommendations:
Culvert Design
Culvert Design
From Figure 3-3.6: A, A and A: Design flow(s) Q, in cfs Section 3-3.1 B, B, and B: C: D: Depth of tailwater (TW) in feet, using the corresponding design flow values Section 3-3.3 Elevation of the centerline of the roadway. This is the elevation used to determine roadway overtopping. Allowable headwater depth (AHW), in feet, as discussed in Section 3-3.2 Any significant features upstream that are susceptible to flood damage from headwater should be identified. The elevation at which damage would occur should be identified and incorporated into the design process. Inlet and outlet invert elevations, in feet. Slope of culvert (So), in feet/feet. Approximate length (L) of culvert, in feet. Culvert Type Include barrel material, barrel cross-sectional shape, and entrance type. Column 2: Q Section 3-3.1 Indicate which design flow from A, A, or A is being evaluated. Separate calculations must be made for each design flow. Column 3: Size Pipe diameter or span and rise, generally indicated in feet. Column 4: HW/D (inlet control) The headwater to diameter ratio is found from the appropriate nomographs 3-3.4.2A to E. Column 5: HW (inlet control) Section 3-3.4.2 This value is found by multiplying Column 3 by Column 4. This is the headwater caused by inlet control. If the inlet control headwater is greater than the allowable headwater as shown in D, the pipe size should be increased. If the headwater is less than allowable, then proceed with the next step. Once the inlet control headwater has been determined, it will be compared with the outlet control headwater in Column 12. The larger of the two values will be the controlling headwater and that value will be entered in Column 13. Column 6: ke This is the entrance loss coefficient for outlet control taken from Figure 3-3.4.5H.
E and E: F: G: Column 1:
Page 3-44
Culvert Design
Column 7:
Critical Depth Critical depth can be determined for circular and rectangular shapes by using either the equations shown in Section 4-4 or read from the critical depth charts shown in Figures 3-3.4.5I to L. The critical depth for pipe arches can only be determined by the use of Figures 3-3.4.5K and L. If critical depth is found to be greater than the pipe diameter or rise, set the critical depth equal to the diameter or rise.
Column 8:
dc + D --------------- Figure 3-3.4.4B 2 The term (dc + D)/2 represents an approximation of the hydraulic grade line at the outlet of the culvert, where dc is equal to the critical depth at the outlet of the culvert and D is the culvert diameter or rise. It is used to help calculate headwater during outlet control computations. As shown in Figure 3-3.4.4B, (dc + D)/2 does not represent the actual water surface elevation at the outlet of the culvert and therefore should not be used for determining the corresponding outlet velocity. The method for determining the outlet velocity is discussed in Section 3-3.5.2
Column 9:
ho Section 3-3.4.4 ho is equal to either the tailwater or the term (dc + D)/2, whichever is greater.
Column 10:
H Section 3-3.4.4 H is the total amount of head loss in the barrel of the pipe including the minor losses at the entrance and the exit of the pipe. The head loss is determined by the equation: 29n 2 L V 2 H = 1 + K e + --------------- -----2g 1.33R or it may be determined by the outlet control nomographs shown in Figures 3-3.4.5B to G. Both the nomographs and the equation are based on the assumption that the barrel is flowing completely full or nearly full. This is usually the case with most outlet control pipes, but some exceptions do occur. When the barrel is partially full, solving for H using either the nomographs or the equation will tend to overestimate the actual headlosses through the culvert. This will result in a higher, and more conservative, headwater value. A more accurate headwater can be obtained by designing a culvert using a computer program, as described in Section 3-3.7.
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Culvert Design
Column 11:
LSo This column is the product of the culvert length (L) multiplied by culvert slope (so) or it is equal to the inlet elevation minus the outlet elevation of the culvert.
Column 12:
HW Section 3-3.4.4 This column shows the amount of headwater resulting from outlet control. It is determined by the following equation: HW = H + ho L So
Column 13:
Controlling HW This column contains the controlling headwater which is taken from Column 5 or Column 12, whichever is greater. This value is the actual headwater caused by the culvert for the particular flow rate indicated in Column 2.
Column 14:
Outlet Velocity If the culvert was determined to be in inlet control, velocity at the outlet can be determined using the method described in Section 3-3.5.1. If the culvert was determined to be in outlet control, the outlet velocity can be determined using the method described in Section 3-3.5.2.
Column 15:
Comments As appropriate.
Column 16:
Summary and Recommendations As appropriate.
3-3.7 Computer Programs Once familiar with culvert design theory as presented in this chapter, the designer is encouraged to utilize one of a number one of a number of commercially available culvert design software programs. The Federal Highway Administration has developed a culvert design program called HY-8 that utilizes the same general theory presented in this chapter. HY-8 is menu-driven and easy to use, and the output from the program can be printed out and incorporated directly into the Hydraulic Report. HY-8 is copyright protected but the copyright allows for free distribution of the software. It is available by contacting either the Region Hydraulic Office/Contact or the OSC Hydraulic Branch.
In addition to ease of use, HY-8 is advantageous in that the headwater elevations and outlet velocities calculated by the program tend to be more accurate than the values calculated using the methods presented in this chapter. HY-8 computes an actual water surface profile through a culvert using standard step-backwater calculations. The methods in this chapter approximate this approach but make several assumptions in order to simplify the design. HY-8 also analyzes an entire range of flows input by the user. For example, the program will simultaneously evaluate the headwater created by the Q10%, Q25, and Q100 flow events, displaying all of the results on one screen. This results in a significantly simplified design procedure for multiple flow applications.
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Culvert Design
3-3.8 Example
Note: The example will be presented in English units. The controlling headwater elevations and corresponding outlet velocities will be converted to metric at the conclusion of the design. A hydrological analysis was completed for a basin above a proposed roadway and culvert crossing. The analysis found that the 25-year flow event was 300 cfs and the 100-year flow event was 390 cfs. In the vicinity of the culvert, the preferable roadway profile would place the centerline at elevation 1,530 feet, about 10 feet higher than the existing channel bottom. The tailwater depth was found to be 5 feet during the 25-year flow event and 5.5 feet during the 100-year flow event. Also, there were found to be no fish passage concerns at this location. Assume that the culvert will be 100 ft long and will match the existing channel slope of 0.005 ft/ft. Determine the appropriate culvert material and size, and calculate the controlling headwater elevation and corresponding outlet velocity for both the 25and 100-year events. Solution Step 1: The designer must choose an initial type of culvert material to begin the design. Once the culvert is analyzed, the designer may go back and choose a different type of material or pipe configuration to see if the hydraulic performance of the culvert can be improved. In this case, assume that a circular concrete culvert was chosen. Use the hydraulic calculation form shown in Figure 3-3.6 and fill out the known information. This would include the design flows, tailwater, roadway and culvert elevations, length, slope, and material type. Two design flows were given, one for the 25-year flow event and one for the 100-year flow event. The designer should first analyze the 25-year flow event. The next piece of information needed is the culvert size. In some cases, the culvert diameter is already known and the size can be entered in the appropriate column. In this example, the diameter was not given. In order to determine the appropriate diameter, go to the inlet control nomograph for concrete pipe, Figure 3-3.4.2A. On the nomograph, there are three entrance types available. Assume that in this case, the culvert end will be out of the clear zone and aesthetics are not a concern. Entrance type (3 ) is an end condition where the pipe is left projecting out of the fill, with the bell or grooved end facing upstream. Choose this entrance type. Because of the relatively low embankment height in this example, it is recommended that the culvert be designed using a HW/D ratio during the 25-year event equal to or less than 1.25. On the right hand side of the nomograph, find 1.25 on the vertical HW/D scale representing entrance type (3). Using a straightedge, extend that point horizontally to the left and mark the point where it intercepts scale (1). The point marked on scale (1) should be about 1.37.
Step 2:
Step 3:
Step 4:
Step 5:
Step 6:
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Culvert Design
Step 7:
Connect the point just found on scale (1) with 300 cfs on the discharge scale and read the required culvert size on the diameter scale. The value read should be about 75 inches. Since culverts are typically fabricated only in the sizes shown on the nomograph, choose the next largest diameter available, which in this case is 84 inches (7 feet). The 7-feet diameter culvert is slightly larger than the required size. Therefore, the actual HW/D ratio will be less than the 1.25 used to begin the design. To find the new HW/D ratio, line up the 84-inch mark on the diameter scale and 300 cfs on the discharge scale, then mark the point where the straightedge intersects scale (1). This value should be about 1.05. Extend that point horizontally to the right to scale (3) and find a HW/D ratio of about 0.98. This is the actual HW/D ratio for the culvert. Find the inlet control headwater by multiplying the HW/D ratio just found by the culvert diameter. HW = 0.98 7 = 6.86. The previous steps found the headwater for inlet control. The next several steps will be used to find the headwater for outlet control.
Step 8:
Step 9:
Step 10:
Step 11:
Go to Figure 3-3.4.5H and find the entrance loss coefficient for the culvert. As discussed in Step 4, the grooved end is projecting, therefore, choose an entrance loss coefficient of 0.2. Find the critical depth using Figure 3-3.4.5I. dc = 4.6 ft Find the value for (dc + D)/2. (dc + D)/2 = (4.6 + 7)/2 = 5.8 ft The value for ho is equal to the value found for (dc + D)/2 or the tailwater, whichever is greater. In this case, the tailwater was given as 5 ft, therefore, ho is equal to 5.8 ft. The value for H can be found by using the outlet control nomograph for concrete pipe shown in Figure 3-3.4.5B. With a straightedge, connect the 84 inch point on the diameter scale with the 100-foot length on the 0.2 ke scale. This will define a point on the turning line. Mark that point. Again with a straightedge, go to the discharge scale and line up 300 cfs with the point just found on the turning line. Extend the line across the page to the head loss scale and find a value of about 1.3 ft. The value for LSo can be found by multiplying the culvert length times the slope. LSo = 100 x .005 = 0.5 ft.
Step 12: Step 13: Step 14:
Step 15:
Step 16:
Step 17:
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Culvert Design
Step 18:
The outlet control headwater can be found by solving for the equation: HW = H + ho - LSo HW = 1.3 + 5.8 - 0.5 = 6.6 ft.
The controlling headwater is found by comparing the inlet control headwater with the outlet control headwater and choosing the larger value. In this example, the inlet control headwater was found to be 6.86 feet. This value is greater than the 6.6 ft calculated for the outlet control headwater and therefore will be used as the controlling headwater. Step 19: Using the equation shown in Section 3-3.5.1, the outlet velocity was found to be 13.2 ft/s. This velocity could cause erosion problems at the outlet, so the designer may want to consider protecting the outlet with riprap, as discussed in Section 3-4.7
The 100-year event must also be checked, using the same procedure. The results of the analysis are summarized below: HW/D: I.C. HW: ke dc (dc + D)/2 ho H LSo O.C. HW Cont. HW Out. Vel. 1.18 ft 8.26 ft 0.2 5.1 ft 6.05 ft 6.05 ft 2.2 ft 0.5 ft 7.75 ft 8.26 ft 14.1 ft/s
Figure 3-3.8A shows a complete culvert hydraulic calculation form for this example. Figure 3-3.8B shows the controlling headwater elevations and outlet velocities for both flow events in English and metric units.
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Culvert Design
Flow Event
Controlling Headwater Elevation m ft 1526.96 1528.26
Outlet Velocity m/s 4.0 4.3 ft/s 13.2 14.1
25-year 100-year
465.42 465.81
Figure 3-3.8B
Example Problem
3-4
Culvert End Treatments

The type of end treatment used on a culvert depends on many interrelated and sometimes conflicting considerations. The designer must evaluate safety, aesthetics, debris capacity, hydraulic efficiency, scouring, and economics. Each end condition may serve to meet some of these purposes, but none can satisfy all these concerns. The designer must use good judgment to arrive at a compromise as to which end treatment is most appropriate for a specific site. Treatment for safety is discussed in Section 640.03(4) of the Design Manual. A number of different types of end treatments will be discussed in this section. The type of end treatment chosen for a culvert shall be specified in the contract plans for each installation.
3-4.1 Projecting Ends

A projecting end is a treatment where the culvert is simply allowed to protrude out of the embankment. The primary advantage of this type of end treatment is that it is the simplest and most economical of all treatments. Projecting ends also provide excellent strength characteristics since the pipe consists of a complete ring structure out to the culvert end. There are several disadvantages to projecting ends. They provide no flow transition into or out of the culvert, significantly increasing head losses. From an aesthetic standpoint, projecting ends may not be desirable in areas exposed to public view. They should only be used when the culvert is located in the bottom of a ravine or in rural areas. Modern safety considerations require that no projecting ends be allowed in the designated clear zone. See the Design Manual (M 22-01) for details on the clear zone and for methods which allow a projecting end to be used close to the traveled roadway. Projecting ends are also susceptible to flotation when the inlet is submerged during high flows. Flotation occurs when an air pocket forms near the projecting end, creating a buoyant force that lifts the end of the culvert out of alignment. The air pocket can form when debris plugs the culvert inlet or when significant turbulence occurs at the inlet as flow enters culvert. Flotation tends to become a problem when the diameter exceeds 1800 mm (6 ft.) for metal pipe and 600 mm (2 ft.) for thermoplastic pipe. It is recommended that pipes that exceed those diameters be installed with a beveled
Page 3-51
Culvert Design
end and a concrete headwall or slope collar as described in Sections 3-4.2 and 3-4.4. Concrete pipe will not experience buoyancy problems and can be proejcted in any diameter. However, because concrete pipe is fabricated in relatively short 2 to 4 meter (6 to 12 ft) sections, the sections are susceptible to erosion and corresponding separation at the joint.
3-4.2 Beveled End Sections

A beveled end treatment consists of cutting the end of the culvert at an angle to match the embankment slope surrounding the culvert. A schematic is shown on Standard Plan B-7a. A beveled end provides a hydraulically more efficient opening than a projecting end, is relatively cost effective, and is generally considered to be aesthetically acceptable. Beveled ends should be considered for culverts about 1800 mm (6 ft.) in diameter and less. If culverts larger than about 1800 mm (6 ft.) in diameter are beveled but not reinforced with a headwall or slope collar, the structural integrity of the culvert can be compromised and failure can occur. The standard beveled end section should not be used on culverts placed on a skew of more than 30 degrees from the perpendicular to the centerline of the highway. Cutting the ends of a corrugated metal culvert structure to an extreme skew or bevel to conform to the embankment slope destroys the ability of the end portion of the structure to act as a ring in compression. Headwalls, riprap slopes, slope paving, or stiffening of the pipe may be required to stabilize these ends. In these cases, special end treatment shall be provided if needed. The Region Hydraulics Section/Contact or the OSC Hydraulics Branch can assist in the design of special end treatments.
3-4.3 Flared End Sections

A metal flared end section is a manufactured culvert end that provides a simple transition from culvert to streambed. Flared end sections allow flow to smoothly constrict into a culvert entrance and then spread out at the culvert exit as flow is discharged into the natural stream or water course. Flared ends are generally considered aesthetically acceptable since they serve to blend the culvert end into the finished embankment slope. Flared end sections are typically used only on circular pipe or pipe arches. The acceptable size ranges for flared ends, as well as other details, are shown on Standard Plan B-7. Flared ends are generally constructed out of steel and aluminum and should match the existing culvert material if possible. However, either type of end section can be attached to concrete or thermoplastic pipe and the contractor should be given the option of furnishing either steel or aluminum flared end sections for those materials. A flared end section is usually the most feasible option in smaller pipe sizes and should be considered for use on culverts up to 1800 mm (48 in.) in diameter. For diameters larger than 1800 mm (48 in.), end treatments such as concrete headwalls tend to become more economically viable than the flared end sections. The undesirable safety properties of flared end sections generally prohibit their use in the clear zone for all but the smallest diameters. A flared end section is made of light gage metal and because of the overall width of the structure, it is not possible to modify it with safety bars. When the culvert end is within the clear zone and safety is a consideration, the designer must use a tapered end section with safety bars as shown
Page 3-52
Culvert Design
on Standard Plan B-9c and B-9d. The tapered end section is designed to match the embankment slope and allow an erant vehicle to negotiate the culvert opening in a safe manner.
3-4.4 Headwalls and Slope Collars

A headwall is a concrete frame poured around a beveled culvert end. It provides structural support to the culvert and eliminates the tendency for buoyancy. A headwall is generally considered to be an economically feasible end treatment for metal culverts that range in size from 1800 to 300 mm (6 to 10 ft.). Metal culverts smaller than 1800 mm (6 ft.) generally do not need the structural support provided by a headwall. Headwalls should be used on thermoplastic culverts larger than 600 mm (2 ft.). A typical headwall is shown on Standard Plan B-9. The headwall design may be modified by adding safety bars when the culvert end is within the clear zone. Standard Plan B-9a and B-96 provide the details for attaching safety bars. The designer is cautioned not to use safety bars on a culvert where debris may cause plugging of the culvert entrance even though the safety bars have been designed to be removed for cleaning purposes. When the stream is known to carry debris, the designer should provide an alternate solution to safety bars, such as increasing the culvert size or providing guardrail protection around the culvert end. Headwalls for culverts larger than 3000 mm (10 ft.) tend to lose cost-effectiveness due to the large volume of material and forming cost required for this type of end treatment. Instead, a slope collar is recommended for culverts larger than 3000 mm (10 ft.). A slope collar is a reinforce concrete ring surrounding the exposed culvert end. The design of the slope is generally performed by the OSC Hydraulics Branch during the structural analysis of the culvert.
3-4.5 Wingwalls and Aprons

Wingwalls and aprons are generally intended to be used on reinforced concrete box culverts. Their purpose is to retain and protect the embankment, and provide a smooth transition between the culvert and the channel. Normally, they will consist of flared vertical wingwalls, a full or partial apron, and bottom and side cutoff walls (to prevent piping and undercutting). Details are shown in Standard Plan B-6. Wingwalls may also be modified for use on circular culverts in areas of severe scour problems. The apron will provide a smooth transition for the flow as it spreads to the natural channel. When a modified wingwall is used for circular pipe the designer must address the structural details involved in the joining of the circular pipe to the square portion of the wingwall. The OSC Hydraulics Branch can assist in this design.
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Culvert Design
Figure 3-4.5A
Modified Wingwall for Circular Pipe
3-4.6 Improved Inlets

When the head losses in a culvert are critical, the designer may consider the use of a hydraulically improved inlet. These inlets provide side transitions as well as top and bottom transitions that have been carefully designed to maximize the culvert capacity with the minimum amount of headwater; however, the design and form construction costs can become quite high for hydraulically improved inlets. For this reason, their use is not encouraged in routine culvert design. It is usually less expensive to simply increase the culvert diameter by one or two sizes to achieve the same or greater benefit. Certain circumstances may justify the use of an improved inlet. When complete replacement of the culvert is too costly, an existing inlet controlled culvert may have its capacity increased by an improved inlet. Improved inlets may also be justified in new construction when the length of the new culvert is very long (over 500 feet) and the headwater is controlled by inlet conditions. Improved inlets may have some slight advantage for barrel or outlet controlled culverts, but usually not enough to justify the additional construction costs. If the designer believes that a particular site might be suitable for an improved inlet, the OSC Hydraulics Branch should be contacted. Also, HDS 5 contains a significant amount of information related to the design of improved inlets.
3-4.7 Energy Dissipators

When the outlet velocities of a culvert are excessive for the site conditions, the designer may consider the use of an energy dissipator. Energy dissipators can be quite simple or very complex, depending on the site conditions. Debris and maintenance problems should be considered when designing energy dissipators. Tyical energy dissipators include:
Page 3-54
Culvert Design
1. Riprap Protected Outlets Riprap placed at the outlet of a culvert is the simplest method of handling outlet velocities when soils are unstable. Section 4-5.1.1 presents a methodology for sizing riprap based on the shear stress of the flow, and this procedure should also be used for sizing riprap at culvert outlets. The depth of flow used in the calculations should be the depth of flow at the outlet of the culvert. 2. Special Energy Dissipating Structures Special structures include impact basins and stilling basins designed according to the FHWA Hydraulic Engineering Circular No. 14, Hydraulic Design of Energy Dissipators for Culverts and Channels. These structures may consist of baffles, posts, or other means of creating roughness to dissipate excessive velocity. It is reccomended that the OSC Hydraulics Branch be consulted to assist in the design of these type of structures. Energy dissipators have a reputation for collecting debris on the baffles, so the designer should consider this possibility when choosing a dissipator design. In areas of high debris, the dissipator should be kept open and easily accessible to maintenance crews. Provisions should be made to allow water to overtop without causing excessive damage.
3-4.8 Culvert Debris

Debris problems can cause even an adequately designed culvert to experience hydraulic capacity problems. Debris may consists of anything from limbs and sticks or orchard prunings, to logs and trees. Silt, sand, gravel, and boulders can also be classified as debris. The culvert site is a natural place for these materials to settle and accumulate. No method is available for accurately predicting debris problems. Examining the maintenance history of each site is the most reliable way of determining potential problems. Sometimes, upsizing a culvert is necessary to enable it to more effectively pass debris. Upsizing may also allow a culvert to be more easily cleaned. Other methods for protecting culverts from debris problems are discussed below. 1. Debris Deflector (see Figure 3-4.8A ) A debris deflector is V-shaped and designed to deflect heavy floating debris or boulders carried as a bed load in the moderate to high velocity streams usually found in mountains or steep terrain. It is located near the entrance of the culvert with the vortex of the V placed upstream. The horizontal spacing(s) of the vertical members should not exceed D, where D is the diameter or the smallest dimension of a non-circular culvert. The length should be 3D, the width 2D, and the height equal to D.
Page 3-55
Culvert Design
Figure 3-4.8A
Debris Deflector
2. Debris Rack The debris rack is placed across the channel of the stream. It should be constructed as shown in Figure 3-4.8 B with bars in an upright or inclined position. The bars should be spaced at one-half D, where D is the diameter or the smallest dimension of a non-circular culvert. Debris racks should be placed far enough away (approximately 4D) from the culvert entrance so that debris will not block the pipe itself. The debris will frequently become entangled in the rack making removal very difficult, so some thought must be given to placing the rack so it is accessible for necessary maintenance.
Figure 3-4.8B
Debris Rack
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Culvert Design
3. Debris Basin (see Figure 3-4.8C) A debris basin decreases the stream velocity immediately upstream of a culvert inlet, allowing transported sediments to settle out while providing a location for floating debris be collected. A debris basin is generally constructed by excavating a volume of material from below the culvert inlet, as shown in Figure 3-4.8C. The dimensions of a debris basin will vary, depending on the debris history of a site, the potential for future debris, and topographical constraints. It is recommended that the designer consult with the Region Hydraulics Section/Contact to determine the appropriate basin size for a given location. The periodic cleaning of a debris basin is made much easier by providing an access road for maintenance equipment. The cleaning interval needs to be determined from experience depending on the size of the basin provided and the frequency of storms. Debris basins can be quite effective when adequately sized, however, continual maintenance is required regardless of how large they are made.
Figure 3-4.8C
Debris Basin
4. Emergency Bypass Culvert In situations where a culvert is placed with a very high fill (over 12 m (40 ft.)) on a stream with significant debris problems, it may be necessary to install an emergency bypass culvert. A plugged culvert in a high embankment can impound
Page 3-57
Culvert Design
a large amount of water. A sudden failure of a high fill is possible, which can result in danger to the downstream property owners and the roadway users. An emergency bypass culvert will limit the level of impounded water to a reasonable amount. The diameter of the bypass culvert should be about 50 percent to 60 percent of the diameter of the main culvert. If possible, the bypass culvert should be placed out of the main flow path so that the risk of it also plugging due to debris is minimized. The invert of the bypass culvert should be placed no more than 5 to 10 feet above the crown of the main culvert, or to the elevation of an acceptable ponding level. 5. Debris Spillway Regardless of the efforts made to divert debris from entering a culvert, failures do occur and water could eventually overflow the roadway causing a complete washout of the embankment. The designer should always provide an ample primary culvert system, and in problem areas (e.g., high debris, steep side slopes), some consideration should be given to a secondary or auxiliary drainage facility. This might consist of allowing water to flow over the roadway and spilling over a more stable portion of the embankment without causing complete loss of the embankment. These spillways should be constructed on, or lined with, material capable of resisting erosion. At some sites the overflow water may have to be directed several hundred feet from its origin in order to find a safe and natural place to spill the water without harm. These secondary drainage paths should always be kept in mind as they can sometimes be utilized at little or no additional cost.
3-5
Miscellaneous Culvert Design Considerations

The use of multiple culvert openings is discouraged. It has been observed that this type of system rarely functions as designed because one or more barrels tend to plug with debris. This decreases the effective conveyance capability of the system and can result in failure. Multiple openings have generally been used in situations where very little vertical distance was available from the roadway to the culvert invert. In order to pass the design flow, several identical culverts would have to be placed side by side. New products, such as low profile arches and three-sided box structures, are now available that can provide significant horizontal span lengths while minimizing the necessary vertical rise. The OSC Hydraulics Branch recommends low profile arches or three-sided box structures be considered for use in those type of situations. See Chapter 8 for more information related to arches and three-sided box structures. It is permissible to design a culvert system such that there is a primary conveyance culvert and an emergency bypass culvert placed at a different elevation and to one side of the main channel. This type of design can be effective in situations where significant amounts of woody debris are expected.
3-5.1 Multiple Culvert Openings
3-5.2 Camber
When a culvert is installed under moderate to high fills 10 to 20 m (30 to 60 ft.) or higher, there may be greater settlement of the fill under the center of the roadway than at the sides. This occurs because at the culvert ends there is very little fill while at the centerline of the roadway, the maximum fill occurs. The difference in surcharge
Page 3-58
Culvert Design
pressure at the elevation of the culvert may cause differential settlement of the fill and can create a low point in the culvert profile. In order to correct for the differential settlement, a culvert can be constructed with a slight upward curve in the profile, or camber, as shown in Figure 3-5.2. The camber is built into the culvert during installation by laying the upstream half of the culvert on a flat grade and the downstream half on a steeper grade in order to obtain the design grade after settlement. The amount of expected camber can be determined by the OSC Materials Lab and must be shown on the appropriate profile sheet in the contract plans.
Figure 3-5.2
Camber Under High Fills
3-5.3 Minimum Culvert Size

The minimum diameter of culvert pipes under a main roadway shall be 18 inches. Culvert pipes from grate inlets or catch basins in the roadway may have a minimum diameter of 12 inches. Culvert pipe under roadway approaches shall have a minimum diameter of 12 inches.
3-5.4 Alignment and Grade

It is recommended that culverts be placed on the same alignment and grade as the natural streambed, especially on year-round streams. This tends to maintain the natural drainage system and minimize downstream impacts. In many instances, it may not be possible or feasible to match the existing grade and alignment. This is especially true in situations where culverts are conveying only hillside runoff or streams with intermittent flow. If following the natural drainage course results in skewed culverts, culverts with horizontal or vertical bends, or requires excessive and/or solid rock excavation, it may be more feasible to alter the culvert profile or change the channel alignment up or downstream of the culvert. This is best evaluated on a case-by-case basis, with potential environmental impacts being balanced with construction and functionability issues. Concrete pipe may be used on any grade up to 10 percent. Corrugated metal pipe and thermoplastic pipe may be used on up to 20 percent grades. For grades over 20 percent, consult with the Region Hydraulics Section/Contact or the OSC Hydraulics Branch for design assistance.
Page 3-59
3-5.5 Angle Points

It is recommended that the slope of a culvert remain constant throughout the entire length of the culvert. This is generally easy to accomplish in new embankments. However, in situations where existing roadways are to be widened, it may be necessary to extend an existing culvert at a different slope. The location where the slope changes is referred to as the angle point. If the new culvert is to be placed at a flatter grade than the existing culvert, it is recommended that a manhole be incorporated into the design at the angle point as shown in Figure 3-5.5A. The change in slope tends to create a location in the culvert that will catch debris and sediment. Providing access with a manhole will facilitate culvert maintenance. If the new culvert is to be placed at a steeper slope than the existing culvert, the manhole can be eliminated at the angle point if debris and sedimentation have not historically been a concern at the existing culvert.
Figure 3-5.5
Culvert Angle Point
3-5.6 Upstream Ponding

The culvert design methodology presented in Section 3-3 makes the assumption that the headwater required to pass a given flow through a culvert will be allowed to fully develop upstream of the culvert inlet. Any peak flow attenuation provided by ponding upstream of the culvert inlet is ignored. In reality, if a large enough area upstream of the inlet is available for ponding, the design headwater will not occur and the culvert will not pass the full design flow. However, by ignoring any ponding effects, the culvert design is simplified and the final results are conservative. Most culverts should be designed using these assumptions. If it is determined that the ponding characteristics of the area upstream of the inlet need to be taken into consideration, the calculation of flow becomes a flood routing problem which entails a more detailed study. Essentially, the area upstream of the inlet acts as a detention pond and the culvert acts as an outlet structure. The culvert can be designed utilizing flood routing concepts, but that methodology is beyond the
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Culvert Design
scope of this manual. Since the need for this type of culvert design is rare, the Region Hydraulics Office/Contact or OSC Hydraulics Branch should be contacted for further assistance.
1:F:DP/HM
Page 3-61
Page 3-62
Contents
Page
Chapter 4
Open Channel Flow

4-1 General 4-2 Determining Channel Velocities 4-2.1 Field Measurement 4-2.2 Mannings Equation 4-3 Critical Depth 4-4 River Backwater Analysis 4-5 River Stabilization 4-5.1 Bank Barbs 4-5.2 Drop Structures 4-5.3 Riprap Bank Protection Appendix Mannings Roughness Coefficients (n)
4-1 4-1 4-1 4-2 4-3 4-6 4-9 4-10 4-11 4-15 4-18 4-1-1
4A:F:DP/HM
Page 4-i
Page 4-ii
Chapter 4
4-1 General
Open Channel Flow
An open channel is a watercourse which allows part of the flow to be exposed to the atmosphere. This type of channel includes rivers, culverts, stormwater systems which flow by gravity, roadside ditches, and roadway gutters. Open channel flow design criteria are used in several areas of transportation design including: 1. River channel changes. 2. Streambank protection. 3. Partially full-flow culverts. 4. Roadside ditches. 5. Bridge design. 6. Pavement drainage (gutter flow). Proper design requires that open channels have sufficient hydraulic capacity to convey the flow of the design storm. In the case of earth lined channels or river channels, bank protection is also required if the velocities are high enough to cause erosion or scouring. The flow capacity of a culvert is often dependent on the channel up and downstream from that culvert. For example, the tailwater level is often controlled by the hydraulic capacity of the channel downstream of the culvert. Knowing the flow capacity of the downstream channel, open channel flow equations can be applied to a typical channel cross section to adequately determine the depth of flow in the downstream channel. This depth can then be used in the analysis of the culvert hydraulic capacity. Shallow grass lined open channels can contribute to the cleaning of stormwater runoff before it reaches a receiving body. When possible, the designer should route stormwater runoff through open, grass lined ditches, also known as biofiltration swales. When road silts are permitted to settle out, they usually take with them a significant portion of other pollutants. Design criteria for biofiltration swales can be found in the Chapter 8-3.1 of the Washington State Department of Transportation (WSDOT) Highway Runoff Manual (M31-16).
4-2
Determining Channel Velocities

In open channel flow, the volume of flow and the rate at which it travels are useful in designing the channel. For the purposes of this manual, the determination of the flow rate in the channel, also known as discharge, is based on the continuity of flow equation. This equation states that the discharge (Q) is equivalent to the product of the channel velocity (V) and the area of flow (A).
Page 4-1
Open Channel Flow
Q=VA where: Q = discharge, m3/s (cfs) V = velocity, m/s (ft/s) A = flow area, m2 (ft2 ). In some situations, the flow area of a channel is known. If it is not, the flow area must be calculated using an iterative procedure described in Section 4-2.2. Computer programs and charts from FHWA Hydraulic Design Series No. 3 are also available for determining channel geometry or velocities. Channel velocities can either be measured or calculated as described below.
4-2.1 Field Measurement

Because channel velocities are used in determining flow rates, measurements of the channel velocity taken during periods of high flow are of most interest. The designer needs to consider the high flows and ensure that the channel design can provide the required capacity. The velocity can be estimated from field measurements by using one of the following three methods. The first two methods require the use of a current meter. Current meters can measure velocities at any given depth in the channel. The first method uses surveyed cross sections of the river. At a given cross section, the section is divided into subsections (up to 10 or 20 subsections for best accuracy) as shown in Figure 4-2.1. A change in depth or a change in ground cover is the best place to end a subsection. The current meter is used at each subsection to measure the velocities at 0.2 times the channel depth and at 0.8 times the channel depth. For example, if the channel was only one meter deep in the first subsection, the current meter should be lowered into the water to 0.2 m from the channel bottom and used to read the velocity at this location. The designer would then raise the current meter to 0.8 m from the channel bottom and read the velocity at that location. The velocity of that subsection of the river is the average of these two values. The process is repeated for each of the subsections.
Figure 4-2.1
Determining Velocities by Subsections
Contour maps or surveyed cross sections of the river are also required for the second method. Similar to the first method, the cross section of the river is divided into subsections. However, in the second method, the velocity is only measured at a distance from the channel bottom equivalent to 0.4 times the channel depth. This is considered to be the average velocity for that subsection of the river. A reading is taken at each subsection. This method is slightly less accurate than Method 1 above.
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Open Channel Flow
The third method is the least accurate of the three procedures. At the point of interest, the designer should measure the velocity at the surface of the stream. If no current meter is available, this can be done by throwing a float in the water and observing the time it takes to travel a known distance. The surface velocity is the known distance divided by the time it took to travel that distance. The average velocity is generally taken to be 0.85 times this surface velocity. Once the velocity of each subsection is measured, the flow rate for each of the subsections is calculated as the product of the area of the subsection and its measured velocity. Summing the flow rates for each subsection will determine the total flow rate, or hydraulic capacity at this cross section of the river.
4-2.2 Mannings Equation

When actual stream velocity measurements are not available, the velocity can be calculated using Mannings Equation. Mannings Equation is an open channel flow equation used to find either the depth of flow or the velocity in the channel where the channel roughness, slope, depth, and shape remain constant (Steady Uniform Flow). The depth of flow using Mannings Equation is referred to as the normal depth and the velocity is referred to as the normal velocity. The geometry involved in solving Mannings Equation can be complex and consequently, a direct mathematical solution for some channel shapes is not possible. Instead, a trial and error approach may be necessary. Various design tables are available to assist in these solutions as well as several personal computer programs. Information regarding sample programs is available from the Olympia Service Center (OSC) Hydraulics Branch.
4-2.2.1
Hand Calculations The solution for flow in an open channel must conform to the following formula: 1 V = -- R2/3 n S
(Metric Units)
1.486 V = ------------ R2/3 n
(English Units)
where:
V = Mean velocity in channel, m/s (ft/s) n = Mannings roughness coefficient (see Appendix 4-1) S = Channel slope where steady and uniform flow occurs, m/m (ft/ft)
R = Hydraulic radius, m (ft)
R = A/WP WP = d + B + d A = Area of the cross section of water, m2 (ft2) WP = Wetted perimeter, m (ft)
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Open Channel Flow
The hydraulic radius is the ratio of flow area to the wetted perimeter where the wetted perimeter is the length of channel cross section that is in contact with the water. For full flow circular pipes, the hydraulic radius is one-fourth the diameter of the pipe. In relatively flat, shallow channels, where B > 10d, the wetted perimeter can be approximated by the width of the channel. As a result, the hydraulic radius can be A Bd Bd approximated as the depth of water, R d. R = -------- = --------------- = ------ = d . WP B + 2d B When the depth of flow is known, the mathematical solution is simple. The section properties area (A) and wetted perimeter (WP) can be determined and put into the equation to find velocity (V). The flow rate, or discharge can then be found by the equation: Q=VA More frequently, the discharge is known to the designer and the depth of flow in the channel must be determined. Since Mannings Equation cannot solve for the depth of a trapezoidal channel directly, a method of successive approximations must be used. The designer must estimate the depth, determine the section properties, and finally solve for the discharge. If the discharge so derived is too high, the designer must then revise the estimated depth downward and recalculate the discharge. This process is repeated until the correct discharge is found within sufficient accuracy (3 to 5 percent). This method can be time consuming. It is recommended that a programmable calculator or computer be used to aid in the computations. In the following examples, use Figure 4-2.2.1, Geometric Elements of Channel Sections. Example 1 A trapezoidal channel with 1V:1.75H side slopes and a 2 m bottom width is flowing 1.2 m deep. The channel has a bottom slope of 0.004 m/m for a distance of several hundred meters. What is the discharge of the riprap lined channel? Since this is a small channel with riprap, the roughness coefficient of 0.040 is chosen. A = (b + ZD)D = [ 2 m + 1.75 (1.2 m) ]1.2 m = 4.92 m2 P = b + 2D 1 + Z 2 = 2 m + 2(1.2 m) 1 + 1.75 2 = 6.84 m
R = A/P = 4.92 m2/6.84 m = 0.72 m 1 V = -- R2/3 n 1 S = ------------ (0.72)2/3 0.040 0.004 = 1.27 m/s
Q = VA = 1.27 m/s (4.92 m2) = 6.25 m3/s (220.7 cfs) Example 2 How deep would the channel described above flow if the discharge is 17 m3/s? The designer needs to assume various depths and solve for Q as shown above. It may be helpful to draw a graph to aid in choosing the next depth.
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Open Channel Flow
Assumed D 1.0 m 2.0 m 1.9 m 1.95 m 1.93 m
Calculated Q 4.32 m3/s 18.45 m3/s 16.49 m3/s 17.44 m3/s 17.06 m3/s
Calculations could have been stopped after the third trial as 3 percent is sufficiently accurate for an analysis of this type. Cross Section Area, A Wetted Perimeter, WP
bD Rectangle
b + 2D
(b + ZD)D Trapezoid (equal side slopes)
b + 2D 1 + Z 2
D2 ------ (Z1 + Z2) + Db 2 Trapezoid (unequal side slopes)
b + D( 1 + Z 12 +
1 + Z 22 )
ZD2 Triangle
2D 1 + Z 2
Reference: VT Chow Open Channel Hydraulics for a more complete table of geometric elements. Figure 4-2.2.1
Geometric Elements of Channel Sections
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Open Channel Flow
4-2.2.2
Mannings Equation in Sections

Some channel sections are quite variable and may require analysis by subsections. Quite frequently the flow in a rough shallow section may be quite different from the flow in a deep smooth section. Channels and flood plains are a common occurrence of this type. The following example illustrates this situation. Determine the velocity and discharge in each of the three subsections shown below. The river slope is 0.003 m/m.
Subsections Method: Top Width, T Ground Cover Mannings Roughness Flow Depth, D Area, A Hydraulic Radius, R Velocity, V Discharge, Q
Section 1 60 m trees 0.090 1.5 m 90.00 m2 1.50 m 0.80 m/s 72 m3/s
Section 2 45 m channel 0.035 4.5 m 202.50 m2 3.93 m 3.90 m/s 789.8 m3/s
Section 3 20 m rock 0.060 1m 20.00 m2 1.00 m 0.91 m/s 18.2 m3/s
The total flow rate is equal to the sum of the discharges from each subsection, 880 m3/s (3.1 104 cfs) which would be the correct value for the given information. To attempt this same calculation using a constant roughness coefficient, the designer would have to choose between several methods which take a weighted average of the n-values. Taking a weighted average with respect to the subsection widths or subsection area may appear to be reasonable, but it will not yield a correct answer. The subsection method shown above is the only technically correct way to analyze this type of channel flow. However, this application of Mannings Equation will not yield the most accurate answer. In this situation, a backwater analysis, described in Section 4-4, should be performed. Notice that the weighted average n-value is difficult to choose and that the average velocity does not give an accurate picture as the first method described in Section 4-2.1 Field Measurement.
4-3
Critical Depth
Critical depth is the depth of water at critical flow, which occurs when the specific energy for a given discharge is at a minimum. It is necessary to determine critical depth in the design of open channels because the occurrence of critical depth presents a very unstable condition. A slight change in specific energy, which is the sum of the
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Open Channel Flow
flow depth and velocity head, could cause a significant rise or fall in the depth of flow. Because of its unstable nature, the facility should be designed to a depth well above or below the critical depth. Critical flow is the dividing point between the subcritical flow regime, where normal depth is greater than critical depth, and the supercritical flow regime, where normal depth is less than critical depth. Critical flow tends to occur when passing through an excessive contraction, either vertical or horizontal, before the water is discharged into an area where the flow is not restricted. The designer should be aware of the following areas where critical flow could occur: culverts, bridges, and near the brink of an overfall. A discussion of specific energy is beyond the scope of this manual. The designer should refer to any open channel reference text for further information. Critical depth can be found by the following formulas: 1. Rectangular Channel
C1 Q D c = ---------b
2/3
Where C1 is 0.319 (metric units) or 0.176 (English units). Example: Find the critical depth in a rectangular channel 4.6 m bottom width and vertical side walls. The discharge is 17 m3/s. C1 Q D c = ---------b
2/3
0.319 ( 17 m 3 /s ) = ------------------------------------( 4.6 m )
2/3
= 1.12 m (3.67 ft)
2. Triangular Channel Q D c = C 2 ----------------Z1 + Z2

2/5
Where C2 is 0.96 (metric units) or 0.757 (English units). Example: Find the critical depth in a triangular shaped channel with 1V:1.75H side slopes for 25 m3/s. Q D c = C 2 ----------------Z1 + Z2
2/5
25 m 3 /s = 0.96 -------------------------1.75 + 1.75
2/5
= 2.11 m (6.92 ft)
3. Trapezoidal Channel A trial and error or successive approximations approach is required. D c is the depth required to satisfy this equation: gA 3 Q = --------T
1/2
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Open Channel Flow
Where g is the gravitational constant, 9.81 m/s2 (metric units) or 32.2 ft/s2 (English units). Example: Find the critical depth in a trapezoidal channel that has a 3 m bottom width and IV:2H side slopes with 34 m3/s. gA 3 Q = --------T
1/2
Assume a depth and solve for Q. Repeat process until Q is close to 34 m 3/s. A programmable calculator is strongly recommended. Assumed D (m) 1 2 1.6 1.65 A (m2) 5 14 9.29 10.4 T (m) 7 11 9.4 9.6 gA 3 --------T
1/2
13.24 49.5 31.9 33.9
The critical depth for the given channel and discharge is approximately 1.65 m (5.41 ft). 4. Circular Shaped Channel Circular channels also require successive approximations for an exact solution.
gA 3 Q = --------T
1/2
Where g is the gravitational constant, 9.81 m/s2 (metric units) or 32.2 ft/s2 (English units). An approximate solution can be found for circular shapes by: Q 0.5 Dc = C3 ----------D 0.25 where C3 is 0.562 (metric units) or 0.420 (English units).
Example: Find the critical depth for a 1 m diameter pipe flowing with 0.5 m 3/s and for 5 m3/s. ( 0.5 m 3/s ) 0.5 Q 0.5 Dc = C3 ----------- = 0.562 ----------------------------- = 0.40 m (1.31 ft) D 0.25 ( 1 m ) 0.25 For 5 m3/s: Q 0.5 ( 5 m 3/s ) 0.5 Dc = C3 ----------- = 0.562 ------------------------ = 1.26 m (4.13 ft) 0.25 D ( 1 m ) 0.25
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Open Channel Flow
Note that 1.26 m is greater than the diameter and therefore has no significance for open channel. The pipe would be submerged and would act as an orifice instead of an open channel.
4-4
River Backwater Analysis

Natural river channels tend to be highly irregular in shape so a simple analysis using Mannings Equation, while helpful for making an approximation, is not sufficiently accurate to determine a river water surface profile. OSC Hydraulics Branch is responsible for computing water surface profiles and has several computer programs to calculate the water surface profile of natural river channels. The computation of the water surface profile is called a backwater analysis. A backwater analysis is required when designing a bridge that crosses a river designated as a FEMA regulatory floodway. WSDOT is required by federal mandate to design these bridges to accommodate the 100-year storm event. The water surface elevations for the 100-year and 500-year water surface profiles should be shown on the plans. In most cases, the construction of a bridge constricts the normal flow patterns of the river. This contraction causes the river to slow and back up upstream of the bridge. Upstream properties could experience some flooding if this backwater is very significant. To minimize the flooding to upstream properties, FEMA regulations are in place to minimize the change in the 100-year water surface elevation between predevelopment and postdevelopment. FEMA regulations only allow up to one foot increase in the change of the 100-year water surface elevation. The water surface profile must be determined for the before and after developed conditions to verify that this one foot requirement is met. Some local agencies such as King County have more stringent requirements making a detailed computation of the water surface profile even more important. A backwater analysis can also be useful in the design of culverts. Computing the water surface profile can help the designer determine if the culvert is flowing under inlet, or outlet control. For additional information about backwater analyses, see FHWAs Hydraulic Design Series No. 1, Hydraulics of Bridge Waterways. The region must provide the following information to the OSC Hydraulics Branch to complete a river backwater analysis. 1. A contour map of the project site with 0.25 m (1 ft) or 0.50 m (2 ft) intervals is required. The map should extend from at least one bridge length downstream of the bridge to any point of concern upstream with a minimum distance upstream of two bridge lengths. The map should include all of the area within the 100-year flood plain. All bridge and unique attributes of the project area should be identified. 2. The Mannings roughness coefficients must be established for all parts of the river within the project area. OSC Hydraulics Branch will need photographs of the channel bed and stream bank along the reach of interest to determine the appropriate channel roughness. Photos are especially important in areas where ground cover changes. To prevent subsequent difficulties in the backwater analysis, the OSC Hydraulics Branch should be contacted to determine the necessary parameters.
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Open Channel Flow
4-5
River Stabilization
The rivers found in Washington are still very young in a geological sense and will tend to move laterally across the flood plain from time to time until equilibrium is reached. Whenever a river is adjacent to a highway, the designer should consider the possible impacts of the river on the highway or bridge. In a natural setting, a river is exposed to several channel characteristics which help to dissipate some of its energy. Such characteristics include channel roughness, meanders, vegetation, obstructions like rocks or fallen trees, drops in the channel bottom, and changes in the channel cross section. The meander provides an additional length of channel which allows the river to expend more energy for a given drop in elevation. Vegetation increases the roughness of the channel causing the flow to dissipate more of its energy in order to flow through it. The river utilizes both increased channel length from meanders and increased channel roughness from vegetation to dissipate some of its energy during high runoff periods. When a river overtops its banks, it begins to utilize its flood plains. The flow is either stored in the overbank storage provided by the flood plain or returns to the river downstream. Compared to the flow in the river, the flow returning to the river has been slowed significantly due to the increased roughness and travel length. Inevitably, roadways are found adjacent to rivers because roadway construction costs are minimized when roadways are constructed through level terrain. At times, roadways built in the flood plain confine the river to one side of the roadway, reducing its channel length. At other times, rivers are confined to their channel to minimize flooding of adjacent properties. As a result, rivers are unable to utilize overbank storage areas. These two situations produce rivers that are highly erosive because the river can no longer dissipate the same amount of energy that was dissipated when the river was not confined to a certain area. These highly erosive rivers have caused significant damages to the states highways and bridges. Many roadway embankments have been damaged and bridge piers have been undermined, leading to numerous road closures and high replacement costs. Due to the extensive flooding experienced in the 1990s, more attention has been given to stabilizing Washington rivers and minimizing damages. For highly erosive, high energy rivers, structures constructed in the rivers channel are beneficial because they help the river to dissipate some of its energy and stabilize its banks and channel bottom. There are several rock structures that can be used to dissipate energy. Two structures described in the following sections include bank barbs and drop structures. Guide banks and spurs are other examples of in-channel rock structures. Detailed descriptions of guide banks and spurs are provided in the Hydraulic Engineering Circular No. 20 Stream Stability at Highway Structures. When the use of these rock structures is not feasible, riprap bank protection should be used. See Section 4-5.1 and Section 4-5.2 for feasible applications of bank barbs and rock drop structures. The success of the rock structures or rock bank protection is dependent on the ability of the rock to withstand the forces of the river. As a result, it is of great importance to properly size the rocks used for barbs, drop structures, and bank protection. Although the procedure for sizing the rocks used for barbs and drop structures are similar, riprap sizing for bank protection is not. The methodology for sizing rocks used in each of these structures is described in the individual sections.
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Open Channel Flow
For the purposes of this manual, river stabilization techniques include in-channel hydraulic structures only. Bioengineering is the combination of these structures with vegetation, or only densely vegetated streambank projects, which provide erosion control, fish habitat, and other benefits. The designer should consult WSDOTs Design Manual Soil Bioengineering Chapter for detailed information about bioengineering.
4-5.1 Bank Barbs

Riprap lined channels are very smooth hydraulically. As a result, the river takes the path of least resistance and the deepest part of the channel, or thalweg, is found adjacent to the riprap bank protection. With the thalweg immediately adjacent to the bank protection, scour occurs and the bank protection can be undermined if a toe is not sufficiently keyed into the channel bottom. In this case, it is necessary to shift the thalweg away from the bank and dissipate some of the rivers energy to minimize the rivers erosive capacity. This can be accomplished by using a bank barb: a trapezoidal shaped rock structure which extends into the main flow of the bank. See Figure 4-5.1.1. Since barbs tend to redirect water to the center of the stream, they encourage deposition between the barbs along the bank.
Figure 4-5.1.1
River Barb Typical Plan View
As shown in Figure 4-5.1.2, the bank barb should extend upstream one-third of the way into the channel at a 50 degree angle. This orientation will capture part of the flow and redirect it perpendicular to the downstream face of the barb. Generally, one barb can protect the length of bank equivalent to about four times the length of the barb perpendicular to the bank. This length of protection is centered about the barb such that two perpendicular barb lengths of bank upstream of the barb and two perpendicular barb lengths of bank downstream of the barb are protected.
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Open Channel Flow
Figure 4-5.1.2
River Barb Schematic
The benefits of constructing bank barbs are numerous. The rock structure provides additional roughness to the channel, which slows the flow and helps to decrease its energy. This in turn will reduce the erosive capacity of the river and minimize impacts to roadway embankments and streambanks. They are cost effective since they are less expensive than the alternatives of constructing a wall or placing riprap along a long section of bank. Barbs also provide fish habitat, if habitat features such as logs and root wads are incorporated into the barbs. For more information regarding fish habitat, refer to Chapter 7. The barbs redirect flow away from the bank minimizing the potential of slope failure. Their ability to redirect the flow can also be useful in training the river to stay within its channel instead of migrating laterally. Minimizing river migration should be considered by the designer when a bridge spans the river. When a bridge is originally constructed, it is designed in such a way that the river flows through the center of the bridge opening. However, after several years, the river will more than likely migrate
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Open Channel Flow
laterally, possibly endangering bridge piers or abutments because it now flows only along the left side or right side of the opening or it flows at an angle to the bridge. Barbs are an effective tool in training the river to flow through the bridge opening while protecting the bridge abutments. As effective as barbs are at redirecting flow, there are a few situations where barbs should not be used. For rivers with large bed load (i.e., large quantities of sediments, or large size rocks), barbs may not be as effective at stabilizing the river. Barbs encourage sediments to settle out of the water because they intercept flow and slow it down. If a river has large quantities of sediments, a lot of sediment will tend to settle out upstream and downstream of the barb. The barb will lose its geometric structure and go unnoticed by the river. If the sediments carried downstream by the river are large in size, the barbs could be destroyed from the impact of large rocks or debris. Barbs may also be ineffective in rivers that flow in a direction other than parallel to the streambank. A barb would not be as effective in this situation because if the flow was at an angle to the streambank, the barb would intercept very little of the flow and thus provide very little redirection. Three considerations should be taken into account when designing a barb: the size of rock to be used, its placement, and vegetation.
4-5.1.1 Riprap Sizing

The procedure for determining the size of rock needed for a barb can be based on tractive force theory, channel slope, and maximum permissible depth of flow. Tractive force theory is the shear stress exerted by the flow on the channel perimeter, where shear stress is equivalent to the product of channel slope, depth of flow, and the density of water. As any of these factors increase, shear stress increases, and the size of rock necessary to withstand the force of the water will increase. The rock used in the barb must be large enough in both size and weight to resist the force of the water. If the rock is not large enough to withstand the shear stress exerted by the flow, it will be washed downstream. Assuming that the normal density of water is 9810 N/m3 (62.4 lbf/ft3 ) and the specific gravity of rock riprap is 2.65, a relation between rock size and shear stress as related to the product of depth times slope is provided below. Once the average channel slope and average depth of flow for the 100-year event is known, the designer can determine the riprap gradation to be used. If the product of slope times flow depth falls between riprap gradations, the larger gradation should be used. Example: Determine the riprap gradation required for a river barb in a reach of river with a channel slope, S = 0.0055 m/m and flow depth, d = 5 m. S d = 0.0055 5 = 0.0275 From Figure 4-5.1.3, Heavy Loose Riprap should be used. Because the product of slope times depth, 0.0275, falls between light loose and heavy loose riprap gradations, the larger gradation should be used. The riprap sizing procedure for bank barbs is not the same procedure used for riprap bank protection. In the case of a barb, the rock is located within the river channel and fully exposed to the flow of the river. The riprap sizing is based on charts relating shear stress to sediment size from Hydraulic Engineering Circular No. 15 - Design of Roadside Channels with Flexible Linings and Hydraulic Engineering Circular No. 11
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Open Channel Flow
- Use of Riprap for Bank Protection. For riprap bank protection, the rock is located along the streambanks with the flow being parallel to the bank. The size of rock required for bank protection will be smaller since its entire surface is not exposed to the flow. Riprap sizing for bank protection is described in Section 4-5.3.1. Riprap Gradation Metric (m) Spalls Light Loose Riprap Heavy Loose Riprap 1 Meter D50 2 Meter D50 0.15 0.32 0.67 1 2 D50 English (ft) 0.5 1.1 2.2 3.3 6.6 Figure 4-5.1.3
Riprap Sizing for In-channel Structures
Slope Times Flow Depth Metric (m) 0.011 0.0233 0.0484 0.0721 0.1602 English (ft) 0.0361 0.0764 0.1587 0.2365 0.5256
4-5.1.2 Riprap Placement

When placing the rocks, the larger rocks should be used to construct the base with the rocks longest axis pointed upstream. Smaller rocks can then be used to fill in the voids. The rocks used in the barb must be well-graded to ensure interlocking between rocks. The interlocking mechanism is as important as the sizing of the rock. As long as the rocks used in the barb interlock, the barb acts as one entire unit and is better at resisting the shear stress exerted by the flow. It is essential that the rocks used to form the downstream face are the larger rocks in the riprap gradation and securely set on the channel bottom. The larger rocks along the downstream face provide a base or foundation for the barb as these rocks are subjected to both the forces of the flow and the rocks along the upstream face of the barb. It is also very important to extend a key to the top of the bank or at least two foot above the 100-year flood elevation. See Figure 4-5.1.4. If the flow of water is allowed to get behind the key, the river will take the path of least resistance and the existing streambank that the barb was tied into will erode. The barb will become an ineffective riprap island if not washed downstream.
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Open Channel Flow
Figure 4-5.1.4
River Barb Typical Cross Section
4-5.1.3
Vegetation Vegetation is also a key factor for bank protection. Any land that has been cleared and is adjacent to a river is very susceptible to erosion. Establishing vegetation provides a root system which can add to the stability of the bank. Plantings also add roughness to the channel slowing the flow. The erosive capacity of the river is reduced for a minimal cost as the energy is dissipated. The designer should be aware that although vegetation provides some benefits as mentioned above, these benefits are not immediate. There is some risk involved in losing the plantings to a flood before it has time to establish itself and take root. Under favorable conditions, plantings such as willow cuttings and cottonwoods can establish their root systems within a year. Willow cuttings are recommended because of their high survival rate and adaptability to the many conditions specific to typical highway project sites. Cottonwoods are recommended for their extensive root system which can provide some streambank stability. For detailed information regarding planting type and spacing, the designer should contact the regional landscape architecture office or OSC Roadside and Site Development Services Unit.
4-5.2 Drop Structures

Rock drop structures are very similar to bank barbs in their ability to redirect the flow of the river and decrease its energy. This rock structure redirects the flow towards the center of the channel and is in a V-shape with the V pointing upstream, see Figure 4-5.2. As the river flows over the drop structure, the flow is directed perpendicular to the downstream face of the drop structure. However, because of the V-shape of the drop structure, the flow will leave the drop structure in two directions, both aiming towards the middle of the channel. Careful consideration must be given to the angle at which the drop structure is constructed across the river. Substantial scour could be experienced in the middle of the channel if XYZ is too large. Two considerations should be taken into account when designing a drop structure: the size of rock and its placement. The procedure for determining the size of rock needed for a drop structure is the same procedure used for river barbs. As a general rule, the size of rock used in the structure should be larger than the size of rocks existing in the bed of the channel. As for the placement of the rock the longest axis of the rock should be pointed upstream. Care should be taken in the height of the drop. The height of the
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Open Channel Flow
structure should not exceed 0.5 m (1.5 ft). If the drop is too high, a scour hole will form downstream of the base of the structure causing the structure to be undermined and fail. It is also very important to bury a portion of the drop structure to provide a key into the bank and channel bottom. Similar to barbs, the existing streambank that the drop structure was tied into will erode, if the flow of water is allowed to get behind the key. Specific dimensions of the rock drop structure will be dependent on the river reach of interest. The designer should contact the regional hydraulic staff or OSC Hydraulics Branch for design guidance. Rock drop structures provide similar benefits as river barbs. In addition to decreasing the energy in the flow and redirecting flow, drop structures like barbs provide some protection for bridge abutments since it is a very effective river training technique.
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Open Channel Flow
Figure 4-5.2
Drop Structure Plan and Cross Section Views
Drop structures should be considered when there is a meander propagating toward a bridge. In this case, the river could get behind the bridge abutments and take out the approach fills to the bridge. Unfortunately, meander traits such as location and sinuosity are unpredictable, so unless the bridge spans the entire flood plain, there is no guarantee that the bridge abutment will not be impacted by the meandering river. A drop structure is suitable for this situation because it spans the entire channel and can provide redirection of flow regardless of the direction the intercepted flow is heading.
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Open Channel Flow
A barb would not be as effective in this situation because if the flow was at an angle to the streambank, the barb would intercept very little of the flow and thus provide very little redirection. In most cases, the use of drop structures should be limited to smaller, narrow rivers and overflow channels for constructability and permitting reasons. Permitting agencies may not allow construction equipment within the floodway. If the river is too wide, it would be extremely difficult, if not impossible, to set the rocks in the center of the channel with equipment stationed along the bank. The use of drop structures is also discouraged in rivers with large bed load. This structure spans the entire channel and can be damaged when struck by large rocks or woody debris.
4-5.3
Riprap Bank Protection

Similar to barb and drop structures, the tractive force theory can also be applied to bank protection. Tractive force is the shear stress exerted by the flow on the channel perimeter. When the particle size of the native material is too small to resist these tractive forces, erosion will occur and it may be necessary to provide bank protection. The bank protection provided should be flexible. Riprap bank protection is a good example of a flexible channel lining because the riprap can shift as the bank changes. The rocks are loose and free to move. Rigid channel linings are not recommended for the same reasons that flexible linings are recommended. If rigid linings are undermined, the entire rigid lining as a whole will be displaced increasing the chances of failure and leaving the bank unprotected. Riprap rock encased in grout is an example of a rigid channel lining. Flexible linings are generally less expensive to install than rigid linings and have self-healing qualities which reduce maintenance costs. They also permit infiltration and exfiltration and have a natural appearance, especially after vegetation is established. Riprap bank protection is primarily used on the outside of curved channels or along straight channels when the streambank serves as the roadway embankment. Riprap on the inside of the curve is only recommended when overbank flow reentering the channel may cause scour. On a straight channel, bank protection should begin and end at a stable feature in the bank if possible. Such features might be bedrock outcroppings or erosion resistant materials, trees, vegetation, or other evidence of stability.
4-5.3.1 Riprap Sizing

A design procedure for rock riprap channel linings was developed by the University of Minnesota as a part of a National Cooperative Highway Research Program (NCHRP) study under the sponsorship of the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO). The design procedure presented in this section is based on this study and has been modified to incorporate riprap as defined in the WSDOT Standard Specifications: Spalls, Light Loose Riprap, and Heavy Loose Riprap. The hydraulic capacity of a riprap lined channel is computed by Mannings Formula or computer programs as previously discussed. The appropriate n-values are shown in Figure 4-5.3.1.
Page 4-18
Open Channel Flow
Type of Rock Lining** Spalls D50 = 0.15 m (0.5 ft) Light Loose Riprap D50 = 0.32 m (1.1 ft) Heavy Loose Riprap D50 = 0.67 m (2.2 ft)
n (Small Channels*) 0.035 0.040 0.045
n (Large Channels) 0.030 0.035 0.040
*Small channels can be loosely defined as less than 45 m3/s (1,500 cfs). **See the WSDOT Standard Specifications for Road and Bridge Construction Sections 8-15 and 9-13. Figure 4-5.3.1
Mannings Roughness Coefficients for Riprap (n)
Using Mannings Equation, the designer can determine the slope of the channel, the depth of flow, and the side slopes of the channel required to carry the design flow. The designer, using this information, can then determine the required minimum D 50 stone size by the following equation: D50 = CR d So where: D50 = Particle size of gradation, m (ft), of which 50 percent by weight of the mixture is finer CR = Riprap coefficient. See Figure 4-5.3.2 d = Depth of flow in channel, m (ft) So = Longitudinal slope of channel, m/m (ft/ft) B = Bottom width of trapezoidal channel, m (ft). See Figure 4-5.3.2
Page 4-19
Open Channel Flow
Channel Side Slopes 1:1.5 1:1.75 1:2 1:2.5 1:3 1:4 Flat Bottom
Angular Rock 42 of Repose (0.25 D50 3) 0.08 m D50 0.91 m B/d=1 21 17 16 15 15 15 12.5 B/d=2 19 16 14 13 13 13 12.5 B/d=4 18 15 13 12 12 12.5 12.5
Rounded Rock 38 of Repose (0.25 D50 0.75) 0.08 m D50 0.23 m B/d=1 28 20 17 15 15 15 12.5 B/d=2 26 18 15 14 13 13 12.5 B/d=4 24 17 14 13 12 12.5 12.5
Note: Angular rock should be used for bank protection because it is better at interlocking and providing a stable slope. Rounded rock coefficients are provided to verify if native material is of sufficient size to resist erosion. Rounded rock usage should be limited to the channel bed region and not used for bank protection purposes because it is not stable. Rounded rock may be used to provide stream bed characteristics in a bottomless arch culvert. Figure 4-5.3.2
Riprap Coefficients
Example: A channel has a trapezoidal shape with side slopes of 1:2 and a bottom width of 3 m. It must carry a Q25 = 34 m3/s and has a longitudinal slope of 0.004 m/m. Determine the normal depth and the type of riprap, if any, that is needed. n by Manning Formula: d v 3m B/d = ---------------- = 1.40 2.19 m D50 = CR (d) So D50 = 15 (2.19 m) (0.004) = 0.13 m. (0.43 ft) = = = 0.035 2.19 m (7.18 ft) 2.11 m/s (6.93 ft/s)
CR = 15
Spalls which has a D50 of 0.15 m would give adequate protection to this channel. If the present stream bed has rock which closely matches the calculated D 50, then no manmade protection is needed. Doing the same problem with a 1 percent slope, the designer finds: n = 0.035 d = 1.76 m (5.77 ft) V = 2.96 m/s (9.7 ft/s)
Page 4-20
Open Channel Flow
B/d = 1.70 CR = 14 D50 = 0.25 m (0.81 ft) In this case, light loose riprap would be appropriate. The designer may recalculate based on n = 0.040 to get a more exact answer but this would only change the normal depth slightly and would not effect the choice of bank protection. In some cases, on very high velocity rivers or rivers that transport large rocks downstream, even heavy loose riprap may not be adequate to control erosion. Specially sized riprap should be specified in the contract to serve this purpose. OSC Hydraulics Branch and the Materials Lab are available for assistance in writing a complete specification for special riprap. Once the size of riprap is determined, there are several methods in which riprap bank protection can be constructed. Three types of riprap placement including dumped rock riprap, hand-placed riprap and gabions are discussed below.
4-5.3.2
Rock Riprap
Rock riprap is either spalls, light loose, or heavy loose riprap. The riprap should be placed on a 0.3 m (1 ft) thick filter material graded from sand to 150-mm (6-in) gravel to protect the original bank material from scour or sloughing. The filter should be placed in layers from fine to coarse, out to the riprap. Filter fabrics or geotextiles described in Section 9-33 of the Standard Specifications may also be used. A filter layer regardless of type is not needed if the existing banks are similar to this filter material of sand and gravels. Riprap thickness is 0.6 m (2 ft) for light loose riprap, 0.9 m (3 ft) for heavy loose riprap, and 0.3 m (1 ft) for quarry spalls. Riprap is usually placed 0.30 m (1 ft) above the design depth of the water. This can be made higher if severe wave action is anticipated. The designer and construction inspectors must recognize the importance of a proper toe or key at the bottom of any riprap bank protection. The toe of the riprap is placed below the channel bed to a depth equaling the anticipated scour depth. If the estimated scour is minimal, the toe is placed at a depth equivalent to the thickness of the riprap and helps to prevent undermining. Without this key, the riprap has no foundation and the installation is certain to fail. Where a toe trench cannot be dug, the riprap should terminate in a stone toe at the level of the streambed. The toe provides material which will fall into a scour hole and prevent the riprap from being undermined. Added care should be taken on the outside of curves or sharp bends where scour is particularly severe. The toe of the bank protection may need to be placed deeper than in straight reaches. When a site evaluation or historical evidence indicates that riprap will be needed around a new bridge, the region should indicate this on the Bridge Site Data Sheet (Form 235-001) and refer the riprap design to OSC Hydraulics Branch. See Section 4-5.3.5.
Page 4-21
Open Channel Flow
Figure 4-5.3.3
Typical Rock Riprap
4-5.3.3
Hand Placed Riprap

Hand placed riprap is frequently placed around the outlet end of culverts to protect against the erosive action of the water. The limits of this protection would typically cover an area that would normally be vulnerable to scour holes. See Section 3-4.5 for details.
4-5.3.4
Gabions
Gabions are heavy steel wire mesh containers, rectangular in shape. They vary in size from cubes to mattresses and are filled with clean stone larger than the mesh opening. Gabions can be used in place of other types of riprap due to their flexibility which allows them to yield to earth movement and still remain efficient and structurally sound. Scour tests have shown that a 0.30 m (1 ft) deep gabion is equal to approximately 0.91 m (3 ft) of riprap. Gabions are generally used when a source of large riprap rock is unavailable, when stream velocities are extremely high, or when space is extremely limited due to steep, narrow streambanks. It is also used in confined spaces such as an existing low bridge, where it is difficult to get the proper size equipment required to place riprap below the bridge. Gabions can be constructed by hand and placed accordingly. Although gabions are an attractive alternative to using riprap bank protection in the situations mentioned above, the designer should be aware of their drawbacks. Gabions are very labor intensive and require a lot of maintenance if there is a structural breakdown in the steel mesh from the abrasive forces of moving rocks, or from corrosive soils. There may also be some resistance from permitting agencies in the use of gabions because of aesthetic and habitat reasons. Gabions coated with polyvinyl chloride for the prevention of corrosion are available for salt water use. Reference Standard Plan D-6 for further details.
Page 4-22
Open Channel Flow
Figure 4-5.3.4
Gabions
4-5.3.5
Riprap at Bridge Abutments and Piers

Another application of riprap bank protection occurs at bridge abutments and piers. In most cases, bridges over waterways constrict the normal patterns of the river. As a result, bridge abutments and piers are highly susceptible to scour when velocities in the river are high. FHWAs Hydraulic Circular No. 18, Evaluating Scour at Bridges, Third Edition is useful when determining anticipated scour depths and adequate protection. If the abutments and piers are to be adequately protected with riprap, the size, gradation, and amount of riprap to be used must be carefully considered. OSC Hydraulics Branch is responsible for calculating the anticipated scour at a bridge and the appropriate riprap protection.
4:F:DP/HM
Page 4-23
Page 4-24
Appendix 4-1
I. Closed Conduits A. Concrete pipe 0.011-0.013
Mannings Roughness Coefficients (n)
B. Corrugated steel or Aluminum circular pipe or pipe-arch: 1. 2 2/3 1/2 in. Annular Corrugations, treated or untreated 0.024 2. 2 2/3 1/2 in. Helical Corrugations a. Plain or Protective Treatments 1 or 3 (1) 18 inch diameter and below 0.013 (2) 24 inch diameter 0.015 (3) 36 inch diameter 0.018 (4) 48 inch diameter 0.021 (5) 60 inch diameter 0.022 (6) 72 inch diameter and above 0.024 b. Protective Treatments 2 or 4 (1) 18 inch diameter and below 0.012 (2) 24 inch diameter 0.014 (3) 36 inch diameter 0.017 (4) 48 inch diameter 0.020 (5) 60 inch diameter 0.021 (6) 72 inch diameter and above 0.023 c. Protective Treatments 5 or 6 (1) All diameters 0.012 3. 3 1 in. Annular Corrugations, treated or untreated 0.027 4. 3 1 in. Helical Corrugations a. Plain or Protective Treatments 1 or 3 (1) 54 inch diameters and below 0.023 (2) 60 inch diameter 0.024 (3) 72 inch diameter 0.026 (4) 78 inch diameter and above 0.027 b. Protective Treatments 2 or 4 (1) 54 inch diameters and below 0.020 (2) 60 inch diameter 0.021 (3) 72 inch diameter 0.023
Page 4-1-1
(4) 78 inch diameter and above 0.024 c. Protective Treatments 5 or 6 (1) All diameters 0.012 5. 5 1 in. Annular Corrugations, treated or untreated 0.025 6. 5 1 in. Helical Corrugations a. Plain or Protective Treatments 1 or 3 (1) 54 inch diameters and below 0.022 (2) 60 inch diameter 0.023 (3) 66 inch diameter 0.024 (4) 72 inch diameter and above 0.025 b. Protective Treatments 2 or 4 (1) 54 inch diameters and below 0.019 (2) 60 inch diameter 0.020 (3) 66 inch diameter 0.021 (4) 72 inch diameter and above 0.022 c. Protective Treatments 5 or 6 (1) All diameters 0.012 C. Steel or Aluminum Spiral Rib Pipe 0.012 D. Structural Plate Pipe and Plate Pipe Arches 0.035 E. Thermoplastic Pipe 0.012 1. Corrugated Polyethylene, HDPE 0.012 2. Profile wall polyvinyl chloride, PVC 0.009-0.012 3. Solid wall polyvinyl chloride, PVC 0.009-0.012 F. Cast-iron pipe, uncoated 0.013 G. Steel pipe 0.009-0.011 H. Vitrified clay pipe 0.012-0.014 I. Brick 0.014-0.017 J. Monolithic concrete: 1. Wood forms, rough 0.015-0.017 2. Wood forms, smooth 0.012-0.014 3. Steel forms 0.012-0.013 K. Cemented rubble masonry walls: 1. Concrete floor and top 0.017-0.022 2. Natural floor 0.019-0.025 L. Laminated treated wood 0.015-0.017
Page 4-1-2
M. Vitrified clay liner plates 0.015 II. Open Channels, Lined (Straight Alinement) A. Concrete, with surfaces as indicated: 1. Formed, no finish 0.013-0.017 2. Trowel finish 0.012-0.014 3. Float finish 0.013-0.015 4. Float finish, some gravel on bottom 0.015-0.017 5. Gunite, good section 0.016-0.019 6. Gunite, wavy section 0.018-0.022 B. Concrete, bottom float finished, sides as indicated: 1. Dressed stone in mortar 0.015-0.017 2. Random stone in mortar 0.017-0.020 3. Cement rubble masonry 0.020-0.025 4. Cement rubble masonry, plastered 0.016-0.020 5. Dry rubble (riprap) 0.020-0.030 C. Gravel bottom, sides as indicated: 1. Formed concrete 0.017-0.020 2. Random stone in mortar 0.020-0.023 3. Dry rubble (riprap) 0.023-0.033 D. Brick 0.014-0.017 E. Asphalt: 1. Smooth 0.013 2. Rough 0.016 F. Wood, planed, clean 0.011-0.013 G. Concrete-lined excavated rock: 1. Good section 0.017-0.020 2. Irregular section 0.022-0.027 III. Open Channels, Excavated (Straight Alinement, Natural Lining) A. Earth, uniform section: 1. Clean, recently completed 0.016-0.018 2. Clean, after weathering 0.018-0.020 3. With short grass, few weeds 0.022-0.027 4. In gravelly soil, uniform section, clean 0.022-0.025 B. Earth, fairly uniform section: 1. No vegetation 0.022-0.025
Page 4-1-3
2. Grass, some weeds 0.025-0.030 3. Dense weeds or aquatic plants in deep channels 0.030-0.035 4. Sides clean, gravel bottom 0.025-0.030 5. Sides clean, cobble bottom 0.030-0.040 C. Dragline excavated or dredged: 1. No vegetation 0.028-0.033 2. Light brush on banks 0.035-0.050 D. Rock: 1. Based on design section (riprap) (see 4-6) 0.035 2. Based on actual mean section: a. Smooth and uniform 0.035-0.040 b. Jagged and irregular 0.040-0.045 E. Channels not maintained, weeds and brush uncut: 1. Dense weeds, high as flow depth 0.08-0.12 2. Clean bottom, brush on sides 0.05-0.08 3. Clean bottom, brush on sides, highest stage of flow 0.07-0.11 4. Dense brush, high stage 0.10-0.14 IV. Highway Channels and Swales With Maintained Vegetation (values shown are for velocities of 2 and 6 fps) A. Depth of flow up to 0.7 foot: 1. Bermudagrass, Kentucky bluegrass, buffalograss: a. Mowed to 2 inches 0.07-0.045 b. Length 4 to 6 inches 0.09-0.05 2. Good stand, any grass: a. Length about 12 inches 0.18-0.09 b. Length about 24 inches 0.30-0.15 3. Fair stand, any grass: a. Length about 12 inches 0.14-0.08 b. Length about 24 inches 0.25-0.13 B. Depth of flow 0.7-1.5 feet: 1. Bermudagrass, Kentucky bluegrass, buffalograss: a. Mowed to 2 inches 0.05-0.035 b. Length 4 to 6 inches 0.06-0.04 2. Good stand, any grass: a. Length about 12 inches 0.12-0.07 b. Length about 24 inches 0.20-0.10
Page 4-1-4
3. Fair stand, any grass: a. Length about 12 inches 0.10-0.06 b. Length about 24 inches 0.17-0.09 V. Street and Expressway Gutters A. Concrete gutter, troweled finish 0.012 B. Asphalt pavement: 1. Smooth texture 0.013 2. Rough texture 0.016 C. Concrete gutter with asphalt pavement: 1. Smooth 0.013 2. Rough 0.015 D. Concrete pavement: 1. Float finish 0.014 2. Broom finish 0.016 3. Street gutters 0.015 E. For gutters with small slope, where sediment may accumulate, increase above values of n by 0.002 VI. Natural Stream Channels A. Minor streams (surface width at flood stage less than 100 ft): 1. Fairly regular section: a. Some grass and weeds, little or no brush 0.030-0.035 b. Dense growth of weeds, depth of flow materially greater than weed height 0.035-0.05 c. Some weeds, light brush on banks 0.035-0.05 d. Some weeds, heavy brush on banks 0.05-0.07 e. Some weeds, dense willows on banks 0.06-0.08 f. For trees within channel, with branches submerged at high stage, increase all above values by 0.01-0.02 2. Irregular sections, with pools, slight channel meander; increase values given in 1a-e above 0.01-0.02 3. Mountain streams, no vegetation in channel, banks usually steep, trees and brush along banks submerged at high stage: a. Bottom of gravel, cobbles, and few boulders 0.04-0.05 b. Bottom of cobbles, with large boulders 0.05-0.07 B. Flood plains (adjacent to natural streams): 1. Pasture, no brush: a. Short grass 0.030-0.035 b. High grass 0.035-0.05
Page 4-1-5
2. Cultivated areas: a. No crop 0.03-0.04 b. Mature row crops 0.035-0.045 c. Mature field crops 0.04-0.05 3. Heavy weeds, scattered brush 0.05-0.07 4. Light brush and trees: a. Winter 0.05-0.06 b. Summer 0.06-0.08 5. Medium to dense brush: a. Winter 0.07-0.11 b. Summer 0.10-0.16 6. Dense willows, summer, not bent over by current 0.15-0.20 7. Cleared land with tree stumps, 100 to 150 per acre: a. No sprouts 0.04-0.05 b. With heavy growth of sprouts 0.06-0.08 8. Heavy stand of timber, a few down trees, little under-growth: a. Flood depth below branches 0.10-0.12 b. Flood depth reaches branches 0.12-0.16 C. Major streams (surface width at flood stage more than 100 ft): Roughness coefficient is usually less than for minor streams of similar description on account of less effective resistance offered by irregular banks or vegetation on banks. Values of n may be somewhat reduced. Follow recommendation in publication cited if possible. The value of n for larger streams of most regular section, with no boulders or brush, may be in the range of 0.028-0.033 Reference: UT Chow Open Channel Hydraulics for complete tables and photographs
4A:F:DP/HM
Page 4-1-6
Contents
Page
Chapter 5

5-1 Roadway and Structure Geometrics and Drainage 5-2 Computing Runoff for Highway Pavements 5-3 Rural Highway Drainage 5-3.1 Slotted Drains and Trench Systems 5-3.2 Drop Inlets 5-4 Gutter Flow 5-5 Grate Inlets 5-5.1 Capacity of Inlets on a Continuous Grade 5-5.2 Capacity of Inlets in Sag Locations
5-1 5-1 5-2 5-2 5-3 5-4 5-4 5-6 5-7 5-10
5A:F:DP/HM
Page 5-i
Page 5-ii
Chapter 5
5-1
Roadway and Structure Geometrics and Drainage

Roadway and structure pavement drainage should be considered early in the design stage while the roadway geometry is still being developed. The hydraulic capacity of gutters is determined by the longitudinal slope and superelevation of the pavement and minor changes to roadway or structure geometrics are more easily accomplished early in the design phase. A roadway with a gutter section should normally be placed at a minimum longitudinal slope of 0.3 percent to 0.5 percent to allow for reasonable drainage. The flatter slopes may be used with wider shoulders and the 0.5 percent should be used as a minimum for narrow shoulders. Superelevation and/or widening transitions can create a gutter profile far different from the centerline profile. The designer must carefully examine the geometric profile of the gutter to eliminate the formation of sumps or ponds created by these transitions. The areas should be identified and eliminated. This generally requires geometric changes stressing the need for early consideration of drainage. Improperly placed superelevation transitions can cause serious problems especially on bridges. As discussed in Section 5-4, gutter flow must be picked up by inlets or other means before the flow crosses over to the other side of the pavement. The collection of crossover flow on bridges is very complex as effective drain inlets are difficult to place within structure reinforcement. Bridges over waterways and wetlands pose water quality issues as well and drop drains may not be allowed. Also, bridge drain downspouts have a history of plugging problems and an objectionable aesthetic impact on the structure. Eliminating inlets on bridges can usually be accomplished by considering drainage early in the design phase. Superelevation transitions, zero gradients, and sag vertical curves should be avoided on bridges. Modern bridges generally use water tight expansion joints so that all surface water can be run off of the structure and collected in inlets placed at the bridge ends. Drainage design at bridge ends requires a great deal of coordination between the Region designer, Bridge designer, and the Olympia Service Center (OSC) Hydraulics Branch. In many areas, the drainage plan may include the bridge. In the past, region responsibility has not included the bridge drainage. The region responsibility ended and began again at the bridge pavement seat. This often results in doubling up of inlets at bridges ends. A more efficient way of handling the drainage is to coordinate efforts. If the roadway drainage is contained by curb and gutter, and the bridge does not require any drainage, the entire section should be analyzed as a whole. Multi-lane highways create unique drainage situations. The number of lanes draining in one direction should be considered during the design phase. OSC Hydraulics recommends draining no more than three lanes in one direction. Problems arise when flow is channelized in a lane, ponding occurs, or rutting in a lane intercepts and concentrates sheetflow. Proper design will mitigate most of these problems. The
Page 5-1
Geometric Cross Section chapter in the WSDOT Design Manual is a good reference when designing drainage for multi-lane highways. The OSC Hydraulics Branch is also available to provide design guidance.
5-2
Computing Runoff for Highway Pavements

The runoff for highway pavements is computed by the rational method (see Chapter 2). This method is easy to use for pavement drainage design because the time of concentration is generally taken as 5 minutes. The recurrence interval for typical pavement drainage design is the 10-year rainfall event. When roadways are placed in a sump, the recurrence interval shall change to the 50-year rainfall event.
5-3
Rural Highway Drainage

When rural highways are built on a fill, roadway drainage is usually allowed to flow, uncollected, to the sides of the roadway and over the side of the fill slope. Usually, this sheet flow of highway drainage does not present any problem to adjacent property owners nor is it a threat to the highway fill. This type of drainage is allowed for fills up to 7.5 m (25 ft). A curb should be used in highly erosive soils when the fill is high enough to justify the use of a guardrail. Fill heights greater than 7.5 m (25 ft) may present an erosion threat to the embankment especially where the roadway forms a sag vertical curve. This problem is usually present immediately after construction and before vegetation is established. In these situations, it may be prudent to construct a curb and gutter to collect the sheet flow from the pavement and discharge this flow through a water quality or water quantity Best Management Practice (BMP). The treated runoff can then be discharged into an established stream or a low spot in the surrounding terrain. Selection of an appropriate BMP is dependent on the characteristics of the project site. Designers should reference the Highway Runoff Manual for selection and design criteria of BMP usage. Rural highways in a cut section are generally drained by a ditch running parallel to the roadway. These ditches are designed and sized in accordance with the criteria shown in Chapters 4 and 7. If the ditch slopes are very steep, they may be fitted with a series of check dams made of rock spalls. These check dams will reduce flow velocities, prevent erosion of the soil, and may also help to trap sediment from upstream sources. Check dams as well as other erosion and sediment control BMPs are covered in the Highway Runoff Manual. Some designers prefer to use channels flowing down an embankment to carry away concentrated stormwater. If these channels are lined with rock spalls, they will provide good service for many years. Paved channels, on the other hand, are very vulnerable to damage. The edges of the pavement have been found to break off easily, especially if the capacity of the channel is frequently exceeded or seepage is able to get under the pavement. The OSC Hydraulics Branch does not recommend paved channels unless they have a very short length and have adequate soils supporting the sides of the channel. An area to be given special attention is at the downstream end of bridges which generate less flow than necessary to require an inlet and drain pipe. If a storm inlet system is not provided, a channel should be provided at the end of any significant barrier which collects and concentrates stormwater. Bridges with approach slabs
Page 5-2
generally have an extruded curb beginning at the bridge end and terminating just past the approach slab. The concentrated flow shall be directed into a rock lined ditch by creating a small depression and shaping an asphalt chute in the edge of the shoulder apron. Bridges without approach slabs and curbing pose yet another set of problems. The concentrated flow runs off the bridge slab and flows off the fill slope, or drains behind the wing walls. Care must be taken to assure the flow is directed into the ditch, and not allowed to erode material away from the bridge end.
5-3.1 Slotted Drains and Trench Systems

Historically, slotted drains have been used with varying degrees of success. In fact, the situations which warrant the use of slotted drain inlets can actually hinder their performance. Slotted drain inlets are usually placed in areas of minimal horizontal slope and superelevation. Since the invert of the drain is parallel to the pavement, siltation can occur due to low flow velocities. A relatively new type of drain system has been introduced, see Figure 5-3.1. It is a modular slotted drain system with a sloping invert and removable grates. The systems evaluated by the OSC Hydraulics Branch are composed of modular sets of channels, each one meter (3 ft) long engineered to include a 0.06 m/m slope. The interior of the system is a radiused smooth finish to improve flow and minimize siltation. These systems with their continuous grates are best suited for intercepting sheet flow on very flat surfaces with little or no longitudinal grade. A limiting factor of trench drains is they are incapable of handling flows over 0.14 m3/s (5 cfs) over a 90-meter (300-ft) length because drain depths graduate from about 125 mm (5 in) to 300 mm (12 in). The majority of other consideration such as constructibility and maintenance are similar between the trench drain system and the traditional catch basin system. Where trench drains may be a little more expensive than concrete pipe, large equipment is not needed to install them so the costs balance out. The systems are constructed of light weight polymer concrete although other types of materials may be available. The grates are constructed of various materials depending on their application, including fiberglass, stainless and galvanized steel, brass, resin composite, and ductile iron. The manufacturers offer different widths and depths as well as maximum load ratings. The OSC Hydraulics Branch encourages the use of these products and is available to assist in the design of trench drain systems.
Page 5-3
Figure 5-3.1
5-3.2 Drop Inlets

The use of the drop inlet (Standard Plans B-4f thru B-4h) is intended for mountainous areas or portions of highways that have very long continuous grades. They have a high hydraulic capacity. The outlet pipe usually controls the discharge rather than the grate itself. They are also quite effective in passing debris that would normally plug a standard grate. The drop inlet is most often used in medians where safety is a concern. Normal wheel loads can safely pass over the grate and it is not classified as an obstruction. When the inlet is located in the clear zone, the designer should place the inlet as close to parallel to the direction of traffic as possible. Placing the inlet at an angle may cause an errant vehicle to overturn.
5-4
Gutter Flow
On non-interstate roadways where stormwater is collected and carried in a roadside gutter, the top width of the flow prism (Zd) shall be limited to the shoulder width plus one-half of the traveled lane. On interstate highways with wide shoulders, it is desirable to limit Zd to the width of the shoulder. In areas where a superelevation transition causes a crossover of gutter flow, the amount of flow calculated at the point of zero superelevation shall be limited to 0.003 m3/s (0.10 cfs). The designer will find, by the time the roadway approaches the zero point, the Zd will become very wide. The flow width criteria will be exceeded at the crossover point even when the flow is less than 0.003 m3/s (0.10 cfs). The depth of flow should not exceed 35 mm (0.12 ft) at the edge of a traveled lane. In no case should the quantity or velocity of gutter flow be so large as to cause excessive erosion or present a hazard to traffic or pedestrians.
Page 5-4
The equation for calculating the gutter flow capacity is a modified version of Mannings equation. It is based on a roughness value of 0.015. Generally, the discharge, longitudinal slope, and superelevation are known and the designer needs to determine the depth of flow and the top width. Using the relationships shown in Figure 5-4, the equations are as follows:
Figure 5-4
Typical Gutter Section
Using metric units, QS t d = ---------------------25 ( S L ) 0.5 d Z d = --St where: d = The depth of flow at face of curb (mm) Q = The gutter discharge (m3/s) SL = The longitudinal slope of the gutter (m/m) St = The transverse slope or superelevation (m/m) Zd = The top width of the flow prism (m) Using English units, QS t d = ---------------------37 ( S L ) 0.5 d Z d = --St where: d = The depth of flow at face of curb (ft) Q = The gutter discharge (cfs)
3/8 3/8
Page 5-5
SL = The longitudinal slope of the gutter (ft/ft) St = The transverse slope or superelevation (ft/ft) Zd = The top width of the flow prism (ft)
5-5
Grate Inlets
There are many variables involved in determining the hydraulic capacity of an inlet. The depth of flow next to the curb is the major factor in the interception capacity of an inlet. Slight variations in slope or superelevation can have a large effect on flow patterns. The placement of an inlet can also result in dramatic changes in its hydraulic capacity. Care should be taken to place the inlets next to the face of curb and at the proper elevation relative to the pavement. Debris floating in the gutter has a tendency to collect at the inlets where it can partially or entirely plug up the openings in the grate. Inlets placed on a continuous grade are calculated using the full width of the grate with no allowance needed for debris. Inlets placed in a sump are calculated using one-half of the open perimeter. This is further explained below. Areas with deciduous trees and large pedestrian populations are more prone to debris plugging. Bark from logging operations and agricultural areas are also known to cause debris problems with grate inlets. To compensate for debris problems, inlets with larger openings are sometimes needed (Standard Plan B-4b Grate B). This inlet/grate combination may only be used in areas where pedestrian and vehicular traffic are not permitted. The inlet itself is constructed of non-reinforced concrete and cannot support traffic wheel loading. In areas of pedestrian/bicycle traffic with debris problems a combination inlet shall be used. Inlets or manholes should never be placed directly in the wheel path. Rocking noises and the depressions are objectionable and add unnecessary stress to the grate. The main bars of a grate are usually placed parallel to the direction of flow. This results in greater hydraulic capacity. Placing the main bars of fabricated steel grates (Standard Plan B-4c) perpendicular to traffic has been known to cause structural failures of those bars. The longitudinal forces caused by the acceleration of a truck wheel has been known to collapse these main bars. This type of use requires the standard plan to be modified with end stiffening plates.
Page 5-6
Continuous Grade*
Sump Condition** Perimeter Flows as Weir
Standard Plan
Description
Grate Width GW
Width
Length
B-2a***
Metal Frame and Grate for Catch Basin and Inlet (Herringbone Pattern) Vaned Grate for Catch Basin and Inlet Grate Inlet Type 1 (Grate A or B****) Grate Inlet Type 2
0.50 m (1.67 ft) 0.50 m (1.67 ft) 0.62 m (2.05 ft) 0.62 m (2.05 ft) Figure 5-5
0.21 m (0.69 ft) 0.40 m (1.31 ft) 0.50 m (1.67 ft) 0.50 m (1.67 ft)
0.24 m (0.78 ft) 0.38 m (1.25 ft) 1.07 m (3.52 ft) 1.07 m (3.52 ft)
B-2b B-4b B-4c
Properties of Grate Inlets
*Inlet widths on a continuous grade are not reduced for bar area or for debris accumulation. **The perimeters and areas in this portion of the table have already been reduced for bar area. These values should be cut in half when used in a sag location as described in Section 5-5.2. ***Shown for informational purposes only. See Section 5-5.1. ****Type B grate is not to be used in areas of pedestrian or vehicular traffic.
5-5.1 Capacity of Inlets on a Continuous Grade

The capacity of an inlet on a continuous grade can be found by determining the portion of the gutter discharge directly over the width of the inlet. Research and experience has found that this is a very reasonable estimate of the capacity of the inlet in normal highway applications. This method of calculation is slightly conservative for very flat longitudinal slopes, as side flow interception is ignored, and non-conservative for very steep longitudinal slopes where splash over often occurs. It is most accurate when velocities are in the range of 1.0 to 1.5 m/s (3 to 5 ft/s) at a 2 or 3 percent longitudinal slope. The OSC Hydraulics Branch or FHWA Hydraulic Engineering Circular No. 12 are available to assist in the calculation of side flow interception. The flow bypassing the first grate inlet shall be calculated and added to the flow intercepted by the second grate located downstream. This carry-over process must continue to the bottom of the grade or the end of the inlet system. The last inlet on a system is permitted to bypass 0.003 m3/s (0.10 cfs) for the 10 year MRI storm without making any further provisions. The OSC Hydraulics Branch no longer recommends using herringbone grates. Historically, use of the vaned grate was limited due to cost considerations. The cost difference now is minimal, the vaned grate is bicycle safe, and as described below is hydraulically superior under most conditions. Installation of the vaned grate is critical
Page 5-7
as the grate is directional. If installed backwards the interception capacity is severely limited. Figure 5-5 includes the herringbone information for existing conditions only. The herringbone grate shall not be used for new construction. At low velocities the vaned grate and herringbone grate are equally efficient. At higher velocities, greater than 1.5 m/s (5 ft/s), a portion of the flow tends to skip over the herringbone whereas the vaned grate will capture a greater portion of this flow. The vaned grate also has a higher capacity for passing debris and should be used for high debris areas. The amount of flow bypassing the inlet on a continuous grade is computed as follows: ( Z d ) ( GW ) QBP = Q ------------------------------( Zd ) where:
8/3
QBP = The portion of flow in m3/s (cfs) outside the width of the grate Q = The total flow of gutter m3/s (cfs) approaching the inlet Zd = The top width of the flow prism in meters (feet)
GW = The gross width of the grate inlet in meters (feet) perpendicular to the direction of flow The velocity of the flow directly over the inlet is of interest to the designer. It may differ significantly from the average velocity. For an accurate analysis, this velocity should be between 1.0 and 1.8 m/s (3 to 5 ft/s). When under 1.0 m/s (3 ft/s), the results of the analysis may be conservative (if side flow interception is ignored). The velocity is calculated as follows: Q Q BP V 1 = ------------------------------------------------------------( GW ) [ d 0.5 ( GW ) ( S t ) ] where: St = The transverse slope or superelevation in m/m (ft/ft) V1 = The velocity over the inlet in m/s (ft/s) d = The depth of flow at face of curb in mm (ft)
Page 5-8
Figure 5-5.1
Section at Inlet
5-5.1.1
Example
The project is located in Seattle on a non-interstate roadway. The high point of a vertical curve is at Station 4+100. The width of pavement is 11.5 m (38 ft.). A proposed drainage system consists of grate inlets placed at the following stations:
SL Longitudinal Station Grade St Superelevation
4+330 4+420 4+510 4+600 4+650
0.011 0.024 0.028 0.028 0.028
0.035 0.022 0.02 0.02 0.02
Complete a pavement and drain inlet analysis for this situation using the formulas below: Solution: Assume Tc = 5 min for all inlets Use 10-year MRI design rainfall m 143 I = ------------- = ------------ = 61 mm/hr n ( Tc ) 5 0.530 CIA ( 0.9 ) ( 61 ) ( 0.2645 ) Q = ---------- = -------------------------------------------- = Kc 360 Q = 0.040 m3/s From this equation the initial flow collected from Station 4+100 to Station 4+330 is 0.040 m3/s. The inlet at Station 4+330 is analyzed next. The depth of flow (d) and width of flow (Zd) are calculated using the equations from Section 5-4.
Page 5-9
QS t d = ---------------------25 ( S L ) 0.5 d Z d = --St
3/8
( 0.04 ) ( 0.035 ) d = --------------------------------25 ( 0.011 ) 0.5 Zd = 1.69 m
3/8
d = 0.059m
0.059 Z d = -----------0.035
QBP and V1 are then calculated utilizing equations from Section 5-5.1. ( Z d ) ( GW ) QBP = Q ------------------------------( Zd ) QBP = 0.011 m3/s The amount of flow intercepted by the grate is 0.029 m 3/s (Q - QBP). A portion of the water, 0.011 m3/s, is flowing past the inlet and this flow must be added to the flow for the next inlet. The velocity V1 is checked to make sure it is acceptable. Q Q BP V1 = ------------------------------------------------------------( GW ) [ d 0.5 ( GW ) ( S t ) ] V1 = 0.97 m/s From Station 4+330 to Station 4+420, the amount of additional rainfall intercepted by the pavement is equal to 0.016 m3/s. This flow is added to the 0.011 m3/s to obtain a total flow of 0.027 m3/s approaching the inlet at Station 4+420. The width of flow (Zd = 1.69 m) is checked to make sure it does not become critical (shoulder width + 1 2 traveled lane). If Zd is found to be quite small, a zero may be placed in the grate width column which would indicate that no inlet is needed at this location. This may be checked repeatedly until Zd becomes critical at which point an inlet may be located. The process is repeated as often as necessary until the last inlet is checked. The last inlet may require an adjustment of spacing (usually a smaller spacing) in order to comply with criteria to limit the last QBP to 0.003 m3/s. Inlets should always have a minimum spacing of 7 m (20 ft) to enable the bypass water to reestablish its flow against the face of curb. Keep in mind that the deeper a gutter flows, the more efficient the inlet will perform. The 90 meter (300 ft) spacing for inlets shown in Example 5-5.1.1 is not a requirement. This distance is a maintenance guideline for situations where catch basins dump directly into a trunk line. 0.040 0.011 V1 = --------------------------------------------------------------------------------( 0.62 ) [ 0.059 0.5 ( 0.62 ) ( 0.035 ) ]
8/3
( 1.69 ) ( 0.62 ) QBP = 0.04 ----------------------------------( 1.69 )
8/3
5-5.2 Capacity of Inlets in Sag Locations

Inlets in sag locations perform differently than inlets on a continuous grade and therefore require a different design criteria. By definition, a sag is any portion of the roadway where the profile changes from a negative grade to a positive grade. A sag location is of primary concern when water ponds more than half way into the nearest traveled lane due to all of the inlets being plugged with debris. This ponded area is generally contained by a curb, traffic barrier, retaining wall, or other obstruction which prevents the runoff from flowing off of the traveled roadway.
Page 5-10
A sag vertical curve is of less concern if the runoff is capable of overtopping the curb and flowing away from the roadway without ponding water over more than half of the nearest traveled lane. With this situation there is a low potential for danger to the drivers of the roadway if the inlets do not function as designed. Theoretically, inlets that are placed in sag locations may operate in one of two ways. At low ponding depths, the inlet will operate as a weir; while at higher depths, the inlet will operate as an orifice. It is very rare that ponding on a roadway will be allowed to the become deep enough to force the inlet to operate as an orifice. As a result, the inlet can be safely assumed to always operate as a weir with flow spilling in from the three sides of the inlet that are exposed to the ponding. The capacity of an inlet operating as a weir is: Q = Cw P d3 / 2 where: Q = The flow into the inlet in cubic meters per second, (cfs in English units) Cw = The weir coefficient, 1.66 for metric (3.0 for English units) P = The effective perimeter of the grate, in meters (feet), see Figure 5-5 d = The depth of ponded water at the inlet in meters (feet) To find the depth when Q is known, use the following equation: Q d = ---------Cw P
2/3
Any section of roadway which is located in a sag as discussed in the first paragraph of this section should be designed according to the following criteria: 1. One inlet should be placed at the lowest elevation in the sag. A combination inlet should be used at this location to provide continued inlet flow if the grate becomes plugged with debris. Use the gutter profile to determine this location instead of the centerline profile. The depth of water over this inlet is d B. 2. Two additional flanking inlets should be placed on each side of the inlet described in the first criteria. These inlets can be regular grate inlets. The flanking inlets should be located so that the ponded water is 0.5d B deep above the flanking inlets when half of the traveled lane is covered with ponded water. 3. The rainfall intensity for a 50-year MRI should be used for these three inlets. 4. The three inlets should be assumed to be 50 percent plugged. This means that the total available perimeter should be reduced by half. This adjustment is in addition to reducing the perimeter to account for the obstruction caused by the bars in the grate. Figure 5-5 lists perimeters for various grates with reductions already made for bars.
Page 5-11
5-5.2.1
Example
For this example, assume that there is a roadway with a sag in its profile and drainage must be designed for this section of roadway. Inlet spacing has already been calculated using the 10-year MRI for the continuous grade sections on either side of the sag. The next step of the design is to determine how much runoff will bypass the final inlet on either side of the sag using the 50-year MRI. This may create a higher than allowable width of flow at some locations on the continuous grade section of the roadway for the inlet spacing previously calculated; however, this is ignored since the flows are calculated only to determine how much flow will bypass the final inlet on the continuous grade and enter the sag during the 50-year MRI. For this example, use 0.006 m3/s for a bypass flow from the down stationing side and 0.008 m 3/s for a bypass flow from the up stationing side. The next step is to calculate the runoff other than bypass flow that is contributing to the ponding in the sag. This is the runoff that is generated from the pavement that is between the last inlet on either side of the continuous grades. It is calculated by determining the total pavement area downstream of the continuous grade inlets that is contributing runoff to the sag and applying the rational method using this area. The rational method is used in the same manner as when runoff is calculated for a continuous grade (see the example in Section 5-5.1). For this example, use 0.030 m 3/s as the runoff from the pavement in the sag. Once this flow value is calculated, it is added to the two bypass flows to determine the total flow contributing to the sag. QTOTAL = QBP1 + QBP2 + QSAG QTOTAL = 0.006 + 0.008 + 0.030 = 0.044 m3/s At the lowest point of the sag, in this example, the transverse slope or superelevation at the pavement edge is 0.02 m/m. Since the shoulder is 3 meters wide and the traveled lane is 3.6 meters wide, the allowable width of ponding (Zd) is 4.8 meters (the shoulder width plus half of the traveled lane). The allowable depth of ponding at the sag is: dB allowable = ST Zd = 0.02 4.8 = 0.096 m The three inlets must convey the total flow without causing more that 0.096 meters of ponding at the deepest point. The inlets will act as a weir with flow entering from three sides (the side against the curb neglected). If vaned grates are used for the inlets, the effective perimeter for each of the inlets is: 0.5 (0.40 + 0.38 + 0.40) = 0.59 m The 0.5 factor accounts for 50 percent of the inlet being plugged. The flow into the lowest inlet is calculated using the weir equation with the depth d B. The flow into the two flanking inlets can be calculated using the weir equation with the depth 0.5dB. The weir equation can be set up to analyze all three inlets at once. The total flow into all three inlets when maximum ponding occurs in a sag is: Q = CW P 2 ( 0.5d B ) 3 / 2 + ( d B ) 3 / 2
Page 5-12
For this example: Q =

3 1.66 0.59 2 ( 0.048 ) 3 / 2 + ( 0.096 ) 3 / 2 = 0.050 m /s
Since 0.050 > 0.044, the flow into the inlets at maximum allowable ponding is greater than the peak runoff contributing to the sag so the maximum allowable ponding will never be exceeded and the design is good. One inlet is placed at the lowest point of the sag and one flanking inlet is placed on each side of the lowest inlet at the station where the gutter elevation is 0.5dB higher than the gutter elevation at the lowest point in the sag. If the flow into the inlets at maximum allowable ponding had been less than the peak runoff contributing, then the design would not be acceptable. The design would have to be performed again with additional flanking inlets included or with the three original inlets replaced with inlets that have larger openings. If additional flanking inlets are used, they should be placed close to the inlet at the lowest point in the sag to increase the flow into them. Also, if additional flanking inlets are used, the equation shown above will have to be modified to include the flow into the additional inlets. The actual depth of ponding (dBa) can be determined by the following equation if the three inlet configuration is used: Q TOTAL dBa = -----------------------------------C w P 1.707
2/3
0.044 = ---------------------------------------------1.66 0.59 1.707
2/3
= 0.088 m
5:F:DP/HM
Page 5-13
Page 5-14
Contents
Page
Chapter 6
Storm Drains
6-1 6-2 6-3 6-4 Introduction Design Features Data for Hydraulics Report Storm Drain Design Handheld Calculator Method 6-4.1 General 6-4.2 Location 6-4.3 Discharge 6-4.4 Drain Design Section 6-4.5 Drain Profile 6-4.6 Remarks Storm Drain Design Computer Analysis Hydraulic Grade Line 6-6.1 Friction Losses in Pipes 6-6.2 Junction Entrance and Exit Losses 6-6.3 Losses from Changes in Direction of Flow 6-6.4 Losses from Multiple Entering Flows Drywells Construction Materials and Practices for Drains 6-8.1 Structural Design 6-8.2 Pipe Materials for Storm Drains 6-8.3 Pipe Joints for Storm Drains 6-8.4 Testing Storm Drains Subsurface Drainage
6-1 6-1 6-1 6-3 6-4 6-4 6-4 6-4 6-7 6-8 6-8 6-8 6-9 6-10 6-11 6-11 6-12 6-13 6-14 6-14 6-14 6-15 6-15 6-15
6-5 6-6
6-7 6-8
6-9
6A:F:DP/HM
Page 6-i
Page 6-ii
Chapter 6
6-1 Introduction
Storm Drains
A storm drain is a network of pipes that convey surface drainage from catch basins or other surface inlets, through manholes, to an outfall. The network must have at least three pipes in any combination of laterals and trunks (see Figure 6-1) to be classified as a storm drain. All storm drain designs will be based on an engineering analysis which takes into consideration runoff rates, pipe flow capacity, hydraulic grade line, soil characteristics, pipe strength, potential construction problems, and potential water quality issues. A majority of time spent on a storm drain design is used calculating runoff from an area and designing a pipe to carry the flow. A storm drain design may be performed by hand calculations or by one of several available computer programs and spreadsheets. Runoff is calculated using either the rational method or Santa Barbara Urban Hydrograph (SBUH) method which are discussed in Chapter 2. Pipe capacity is calculated using Mannings Equation which relates the pipe capacity to the pipe diameter, slope, and roughness. The design is reviewed by the Region's Hydraulics Office or contact person and by the Olympia Service Center (OSC) Hydraulics Branch as part of the hydraulics report review.
6-2
Design Features
Along with determining the required pipe sizes for flow conveyance, storm drain system design incorporates the following features: 1. Soil Conditions Soil with adequate bearing capacity must be present to interact with the pipes and support the load imparted by them. Surface and subsurface drainage must be provided to assure stable soil conditions. Soil resistivity and pH must also be known so the proper pipe material will be used. 2. Inlet Spacing and Capacity Design guidelines are detailed in Chapter 5, Drainage of Highway Pavements. 3. Junction Spacing Junctions (catch basins and manholes) should be placed at all breaks in grade and horizontal alignment. Pipe runs between junctions should not exceed 100 meters (300 feet) for pipes smaller than 1,200 millimeters (48 inches) in diameter and 150 meters (500 feet) for pipes 1,200 millimeters (48 inches) or larger in diameter. 4. Future Expansion If it is anticipated that a storm drain system may be expanded in the future, provision for the expansion shall be incorporated into the current design. 5. Velocity Velocity of flow should be 1.0 meter per second (3.0 feet per second) or greater to prevent the pipes from clogging due to siltation. Velocity of flow should not be excessively high since high flow velocities (approaching and above 3 meters per second) produce very large energy losses in the storm drain system
Page 6-1
Storm Drains
and also cause abrasion of the pipes. The velocity should be calculated under full flow condition even if the pipe is only flowing partially full with the design storm.
A B A B A
A B B
= Lateral = Trunk
Outfall
Figure 6-1
Storm Drain Structure
6. Grades at Junctions Pipe crowns of branch or trunk lines entering and exiting junctions should be at the same elevation. If a lateral is placed so its flow is directed against the main flow through the manhole or catch basin, the lateral invert must be raised to match the crown of the inlet pipe. 7. Minimum Pipe Diameter The minimum pipe diameter shall be 300 millimeters (12 inches), except that single laterals less than 15 meters (50 feet) long may be 200 millimeters (8 inches) in diameter (some manufacturers are unable to add protective treatment for 200 mm storm drain pipe). 8. Energy Losses Often energy losses do not need to be calculated (energy losses are calculated to determine the hydraulic grade line). However, in certain cases the losses occurring may not be negligible and will need to be calculated. Possible situations of concern include the following: High flow velocities through the system. The pipes are on flat slopes. Inlet and outlet pipes forming a sharp angle at junctions. Multiple flows entering a junction. The pipes entering and leaving the junction are very shallow. Section 6-6 describes how to calculate energy losses.
Page 6-2
Storm Drains
9. Increase in Profile Grade In cases where the roadway or ground profile grades increase downstream along a storm drain, a smaller diameter pipe may sometimes be sufficient to carry the flow at the steeper grade. However, due to maintenance concerns, the Washington State Department of Transportation (WSDOT) design practices do not allow pipe diameters to decrease in downstream runs. Consideration should be given in such cases to running the entire length of pipe at a grade steep enough to allow use of the smaller diameter pipe. Although this will necessitate deeper trenches, the trenches will be narrower for the smaller pipe and therefore the excavation may not substantially increase. A cost analysis is required to determine whether the savings in pipe costs will offset the cost of any extra structure excavation. 10. Outfalls Outfalls must conform to the requirements of all federal, state, and local regulations. Storm runoff may need to receive water quality and quantity treatment before discharging from a storm drain system (see the WSDOT Highway Runoff Manual). Erosion is common and must be prevented at the storm drain outfall. Installation of tide gates may be necessary when the outfall is in a tidal area. 11. Location Medians usually offer the most desirable storm drain location. In the absence of medians, a location beyond the edge of pavement on state right of way or on easements is preferable. It is generally recommended when a storm drain is placed beyond the edge of the pavement that a one trunk system, with connecting laterals, be used instead of running one trunk down each side of the road.
6-3
Data for Hydraulics Report

The design of a storm drain system requires that data be collected and documented in an organized fashion. A Hydraulics Report should be submitted which contains the following items and related calculations (whether performed by hand or computer): A plan which shows the location of the project and topographic contours at sufficient intervals to allow the drainage areas to be defined (usually 0.5 meters or 2 feet). Drainage areas should be outlined or shaded. Drainage areas must be extended to the outermost limits regardless of how far from the roadway this may be. The proposed drainage system, points of flow interception, location of manholes, and location of outlets should be shown on this map and drainage patterns indicated by directional arrows. All calculations necessary for the design of the storm drain. These include calculations for runoff amount, gutter flow, inlet spacing, pipe sizes, and minor losses. Roadway profiles, cross-sections, and superelevations should be included to allow for the checking of flow patterns. A profile of the storm drain system showing invert elevations, manhole top and bottom elevations, existing utilities, and existing and finished ground line elevations.
Page 6-3
Storm Drains
6-4
6-4.1
Storm Drain Design Handheld Calculator Method

General
Storm drain design can be accomplished with a handheld calculator using the rational method. Figure 6-4.1 may be used to show calculations that were performed using this method of analysis. Figure 6-4.1 has five divisions: location, discharge, drain design, drain profile, and remarks. These divisions are further expanded in the subsections below.
6-4.2 Location
The Location section gives all the layout information of the drain. Column 1 gives a general location reference for the individual drain lines, normally by the name of a street or a survey line. Columns 2 and 3 show the stationing and offset of the inlets, catch basins, or manholes either along a roadway survey line or along a drain line.
6-4.3 Discharge
The Discharge section presents the runoff information and total flow into the drain. Column 4 is used to designate the drainage areas that contribute to particular point in the drain system. The drainage areas should be numbered or lettered according to some reference system on the drainage area maps. The type of ground cover (pavement, median, etc.) may be indicated. Since drainage areas must be subdivided according to soil and ground cover types, a drainage area may have several different parts. Column 5 shows the area of the individual drainage areas listed in Column 4 in hectares (acres for English units). Column 6 shows the rational method runoff coefficient (see Chapter 2). Each individual drainage area must have a corresponding runoff coefficient. Column 7 is the product of Columns 5 and 6. Column 7 is also the effective impervious area for the subsection. Column 8, the summation of CA, is the accumulation of all the effective impervious area contributing runoff to the point in the system designated in Column 2. All the individual areas in Column 7 contributing to a point in Column 2 are summed. Column 9 shows the time of concentration to the structure indicated in Column 2. Section 2-4.3 of this manual details how to calculate the time of concentration. Generally the time chosen here would be the longest time required for water to travel from the most hydraulically remote part of the storm drain system to this point. This would include flow over the drainage basin and flow through the storm drain pipes. The time of concentration should be expressed to the nearest minute and never be less than 5 minutes.
Page 6-4
Storm Drains
Figure 6-4.1
Storm Drain Design Calculations
Page 6-5
Storm Drains
When the runoff from a drainage area enters a storm drain and the time of concentration (Tc) of the new area is shorter than the accumulated Tc of the flow in the drain line, the added runoff should be calculated using both values for T c. First the runoff from the new area is calculated for the shorter Tc. Next the combined flow is determined by calculating the runoff from the new area using the longer T c and adding it to the flow already in the pipe. The Tc which produces the larger of the two flows is the one that should be used for downstream calculations for the storm drain line. The easiest method for determining the Tc of the flow already in the system (upstream of the structure in Column 2) is to add the Tc from Column 9 of the previous run of pipe (this value should be on the row above the row that is currently being filled in) to the time it took the flow to travel through the previous run of pipe. To determine the time of flow (or more correctly, the travel time) in a pipe, the velocity of flow in the pipe and the length of the pipe must be calculated. Velocity is computed using Mannings Equation and is found in Column 14 of the previous run of pipe. The length used is the value entered in Column 18 for the previous run of pipe. Obviously, this calculation is not performed for the very first (most upstream) run of pipe in a storm drain system. L T 1 = --------60V where: Tt = Time of concentration of flow in pipe in minutes L = Length of pipe in meters (feet) V = Velocity in m/s (ft/s for English units) The designer should note that this calculation assumes that the pipe is flowing full. It is accurate for pipes flowing slightly less than half full up to completely full. It will be slightly conservative for Tc calculations when the pipe is flowing significantly less than half full. Column 10 shows the rainfall intensity corresponding to the time indicated in Column 9 and the location of the project. The intensity is in millimeters per hour to the nearest tenth (inches per hour to the nearest hundredth for English units). The rainfall intensity used is a 10 year recurrence interval for laterals and a 25-year recurrence interval for trunk lines. See Chapter 2 for a complete description of how this intensity can be determined. Column 11 shows the amount of runoff to the nearest hundredth of a cubic meter per second (nearest tenth of a cubic foot per second) up to the point indicated in Column 2. It is computed as the product of Columns 8 and 10. This is simply applying the rational method to compute runoff from all the drainage area upstream of the pipe being analyzed. Column 12 shows any flow, other than the runoff calculated in Column 11, to the nearest hundredth of a cubic meter per second (nearest tenth of a cubic foot per second) that is entering the system up to the point indicated in Column 2. It is rare to have flow entering a system other than runoff from the drainage basin but this does occur. For instance, when an underdrain which is draining ground water is connected to the
Page 6-6
Storm Drains
storm drain. The label for this column indicates that these flows are considered constant for the duration of the storm so they are independent of the time of concentration. This column is also used when the junction is a drywell and a constant rate of flow is leaving the system through infiltration. When this occurs the value listed in Column 12 is negative. See Section 6-7 for a complete discussion of drywells. Column 13 is the sum of columns 11 and 12 and shows the total flow in cubic meters per second to the nearest hundredth (cubic feet per second to the nearest tenth) to which the pipe must be designed.
6-4.4 Drain Design Section

This section presents the hydraulic parameters and calculations required to design storm drain pipes. Column 14 shows the pipe diameter in millimeters (inches). This should be a minimum of 200 millimeters (8 inches) for any pipe with a length of 15 meters (50 feet) or less. Pipes longer than 15 meters (50 feet) must have a minimum diameter of 300 millimeters (12 inches). Pipe sizes should never decrease in the downstream direction. The correct pipe size is determined through a trial and error process. The engineer selects a logical pipe size that meets the minimum diameter requirements and a slope that fits the general slope of the ground above the storm drain. The calculations in Column 17 are performed and checked against the value in Column 13. If Column 17 is greater than or equal to Column 13, the pipe size is adequate. If Column 17 is less than Column 13 the pipe does not have enough capacity and must have its diameter or slope increased after which Column 17 must be recalculated and checked against Column 13. Column 15, the pipe slope, is expressed in meters per meter (feet per foot). This slope is normally determined by the general ground slope but does not have to match the surface ground slope. The designer should be aware of buried utilities and obstructions which may conflict with the placement of the storm drain. Column 16 shows the full flow velocity. It is determined by Mannings Equation which is shown below. The velocity is calculated for full flow conditions even though the pipe is typically flowing only partially full. Partial flows will be very close to the full flow velocity for depths of flow between 30 percent and 100 percent of the pipe diameter. 1 D 1 - V = -- R 2 / 3 S = -- --n 4 n or 1.486 1.486 D - V = ------------ R 2 / 3 S = ------------ --n n 4 where:
2/3 2/3
(metric units)
(English units)
V = Velocity in m/s (ft/s) D = Pipe diameter in meters (feet) S = Pipe slope in meters/meter (feet/foot)
Page 6-7
Storm Drains
n = Mannings roughness coefficient (see Appendix 4-1) Extremely high velocities should be avoided because of excessive abrasion in the pipe and erosion at the outlet of the system. Drop manholes should be considered for pipe velocities over 3.0 meters per second (10 feet per second). The engineer should also keep in mind that energy losses at junctions become significant above 2 meters per second (6 feet per second). The minimum velocity as determined by this equation is 1 meter per second (3 feet per second). Column 17, the pipe capacity, shows the amount of flow in cubic meters per second (cubic feet per second) which can be taken by the pipe when flowing full. It is computed using the following formula: D 2 Q = VA = V --------4 where: Q = Full flow capacity in m3/s (cfs for English units) V = Velocity as determined in Column 16 in m/s (ft/s) A = Cross sectional area of pipe in meters squared (feet squared) D = Diameter of pipe in meters (feet)
6-4.5 Drain Profile

The drain profile section, Columns 18 through 23, includes a description of the profile information for each pipe in the storm drain system. It describes the pipe profile and the ground profile. The ground elevations should be finished elevations. The items in this section are generally self-explanatory. The only exception is Column 18, the length shown is the horizontal projection of the pipe, in meters (feet), from centers of appurtenances. Generally, profiles should be set to provide a minimum of 0.6 meters (2 feet) of cover over the top of the pipe.
6-4.6 Remarks
Column 24, Remarks, is for any information which might be helpful in reviewing the calculations. This space should note unique features such as drop manholes, long times of concentration, changes in the type of pipe, or changes in design frequency.
6-5
Storm Drain Design Computer Analysis

In recent years, with the addition of personal computers to most engineering work stations, storm drain design by handheld calculator has become less prevalent. Storm drain design by computer analysis offers some distinct advantages over calculations performed by hand. Chief among these advantages is the decreased amount of time required to perform the pipe sizing and hydraulic grade line calculations and the reduced chance for calculation errors. Some computer programs will use the rational method for storm drain design while others will use a hydrograph method such as the SBUH method. Both of these methods are valid for WSDOT storm drain design; however, they will yield different peak runoff values. This is most distinct for drainage basins that have very short times of concentration. As a basin's time of concentration extends beyond 15 minutes the two
Page 6-8
Storm Drains
methods yield more similar answers. This difference in peak runoff values ends up having little effect on storm drain design since runoff from basins with short times of concentration tends to be small and the required pipe size is determined by the minimum allowable pipe size. As flows entering the system increase to the point that minimum pipe sizes are no longer the governing factor, the associated time of concentration becomes greater and the two methods produce similar peak flow rates. There are several commercially available computer programs for storm drain design. Each of these programs have certain features that make them unique from other programs but the primary calculations are performed the same way. Because of this, nearly any commercially available computer program that performs storm drain design is acceptable for designing WSDOT storm drains. Site licenses for the computer program WaterWorksTM have been purchased by each WSDOT region and by the Washington State Ferries Division so this program and associated manual are available to all WSDOT designers. The OSC Hydraulics Branch encourages the use of WaterWorksTM whenever designing a storm drain by computer. The OSC Hydraulics Branch is available to lend technical assistance on using WaterWorksTM for storm drain designs. There is also a spreadsheet available for performing storm drain design. It is available on the OSC Hydraulics Branch Internet home page. Microsoft Excel is required to run this spreadsheet. The spreadsheet has the same basic layout as Figure 6-4.1. The spreadsheet lacks the advanced features found in commercially available computer programs but does offer a simple and effective way to design storm drains.
6-6
Hydraulic Grade Line

The hydraulic grade line (HGL) represents the water surface elevation of the flow traveling through the storm drain system. If the HGL becomes higher at a manhole or catch basin than the rim elevation of that structure, flow will leave the storm drain. This can cause severe traffic safety problems and must always be avoided. Fortunately, if the storm drain pipes were designed as discussed in the previous sections, then the HGL will only become higher than the catch basin or manhole rims when energy losses become significant or if the storm drain is on a very flat gradient. As a result, the HGL only needs to be calculated when energy losses become significant or when the pipes are installed at very flat gradients. Typically when flow velocities in storm drains are moderate (less than 2 m/s), energy losses are insignificant and can be ignored. When flow velocities become higher then energy losses need to be calculated. Once energy losses are calculated, the HGL can be calculated to determine if the storm drain will function properly. The HGL can only be calculated after the storm drain system has been designed. The HGL is calculated beginning at the most downstream point of the storm drain and ending at the most upstream point, which is exactly the opposite direction that was used to design the pipe sizes. The water surface elevation at the storm drain outfall must be known or calculated since it acts as the starting elevation of the HGL. Refer to Chapter 3 for an explanation on calculating water surface elevations at the downstream end of a pipe (the tailwater is calculated the same for storm drain outfalls and culverts). Once the tailwater elevation is know, the energy loss (usually called head loss) from friction is calculated for the most downstream run of pipe and the applicable minor losses are calculated for
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Storm Drains
the first junction upstream of the outfall. All of these head losses are added to the water surface elevation at the outfall to obtain the water surface elevation at the first upstream junction (also the HGL at that junction). The head losses are then calculated for the next upstream run of pipe and junction and they are added to the water surface elevation of the first junction to obtain the water surface elevation of the second upstream junction. This process is repeated until the HGL has been computed for each junction. The flow in most storm drain pipes is subcritical; however, if any pipe is flowing supercritical (see Chapter 3 for an explanation of subcritical and supercritical flow) the HGL calculations are restarted at the junction on the upstream end of the pipe flowing supercritical. The HGL calculation process is represented in equation form below: WSELJ1 = WSELOUTFALL + Hf1 + Hel + Hex1 + Hbl + Hml WSELJ2 = WSELJ2 + Hf2 + He2 + Hex2 + Hb2 + Hm2 WSELJn + 1 = WSElJn + Hfn + Hen + Hexn + Hbn + Hmn where: WSEL = Water surface elevation at junction noted Hf = Friction loss in pipe noted (see Section 6-6.1) He = Entrance head loss at junction noted (see Section 6-6.2) Hex = Exit head loss at junction noted (see Section 6-6.2) Hb = Bend head loss at junction noted (see Section 6-6.3) Hm = Multiple flow head loss at junction noted (see Section 6-6.4) As long as the HGL is lower than the rim elevation of the manhole or catch basin, the design is good. If the HGL is higher than the rim elevation the design is not acceptable since this indicates that flow will be exiting the storm drain system at that particular junction. The most common way to lower the HGL below the rim elevation is to lower the pipe inverts for one or more runs of the storm drain.
6-6.1 Friction Losses in Pipes

Head loss due to friction is a result of the kinetic energy lost as the flow passes through the pipe. The rougher the pipe surface is, the greater the head loss is going to be. Head loss from friction can be calculated with the following equation. 3.19Qn Hf = L ----------------D 2.667 2.15Qn Hf = L ----------------D 2.667 where:
2
(metric units)
2
(English units) Hf = Head loss due to friction in meters (feet for English units) L = Length of pipe run in meters (feet) Q = Flow in pipe in m3/s (cfs)
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Storm Drains
n = Mannings roughness coefficient (see Appendix 4-1) D = Diameter of pipe in meters (feet)
6-6.2 Junction Entrance and Exit Losses

When flow enters a junction, it loses all of its velocity. As a result, there is an associated head loss equal to one velocity head. Then when the flow exits the junction and accelerates into the next pipe, there is another head loss equal to approximately half of one velocity head. These two head losses can be represented with the following equations (metric and English units use the same equations). V2 He = -----2g V2 V2 Hex = 0.5 ------ = -----2g 4g where: He = head loss from junction entrance in meters (feet in English units) Hex = head loss from junction exit in meters (feet) V = flow velocity in pipe in meters per second (feet per second) g = gravitational acceleration constant
6-6.3 Losses From Changes in Direction of Flow

When flow changes direction inside of a junction, there is an associated head loss. The amount of head loss that will occur is dependent on how great the change is. As the angle between the inflow and outflow pipes increase, the amount of head loss increases. This head loss can be calculated with the following equation (metric and English units use the same equation). V2 Hb = Kb -----2g where: Hb = Head loss from change in direction in meters (feet in English units) Kb = Head loss coefficient for change in direction, see below:
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Storm Drains
Kb 0.00 0.19 0.35 0.47 0.56 0.64 0.70
Angle of Change in Degrees 0 15 30 45 60 75 90 and greater
Figure 6-6.3
Changes in Direction of Flow
6-6.4 Losses From Multiple Entering Flows

When flow enters a junction from more than one pipe there is an associated head loss. The head loss is dependent on the amount of flow in each pipe and direction that each pipe enters the junction. This head loss can be calculated with the following equation (metric and English units use the same equation).
2 2 2 2 2 Q2 V2 Q3 V3 Q1 V1 + Kb Q3 V3 Hm = --------------------------------------------------------------------------------2gQ 2
where:
Hm = Head loss from multiple flows in meters (feet in English units) Kb = Head loss coefficient for change in direction, see Section 6-6.3
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Storm Drains
Figure 6-6.4
Multiple Flows Entering a Junction
6-7
Drywells
A drywell is a manhole or catch basin that is perforated to allow flow in the storm drain to exit the system. Standard Plan B-27 of the WSDOT Standard Plans for Road, Bridge, and Municipal Construction depicts a typical drywell. When soil conditions are appropriate, the use of drywells in a storm drain system can be beneficial. The primary advantage of drywells is that they reduce the flow in a storm drain system and thus reduce the sizes of the pipes in the system. Some highly effective drywells can completely eliminate the need for storm drain pipes. A secondary advantage of drywells is that they reduce flooding by discharging flow into ground water instead of discharging it to surface waters such as rivers and creeks. For installation of a drywell to be practical, the surrounding soil should have an infiltration rate greater than or equal to 500 millimeters per hour (20 inches per hour). If the soil infiltration rate is less than this amount, the flow leaving the storm drain system will not be significant enough to justify the extra cost of installing a drywell. Soil infiltration rates should always be determined by either an insitu test or by a laboratory soil analysis. Designing with incorrect soil infiltration rates is a primary cause of failure for storm drain systems with drywells. Drywells can be designed with inlet and outlets pipes or without pipes. In either case, the designer must first determine the maximum amount of flow that will leave the system through the drywell. To accomplish this, the designer must determine the area of soil that will be wetted and allowing infiltration when the drywell is filled to its maximum allowable design elevation. This area is then multiplied by the infiltration rate of the soil, and usually also by a units conversion factor, to determine the flow rate out of the drywell in cubic meters per second (cubic feet per second). The flow rate is then used in one of two ways. If the drywells are part of a storm drain system which is connected by pipes, the calculated rate of infiltration flow leaving the drywell is subtracted from the flow entering the junction represented by the drywell. When using Figure 6-4.1 to perform
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Storm Drains
the calculations, the flow infiltrating out of the drywell should be shown in Column 14 as a negative value to indicate that there is a constant flow leaving the system at this point. The designer should note that normally pipe sizes are not allowed to decrease in the downstream direction; however, if the flow value in Column 15 becomes less than zero, there may be no need for an outlet pipe since all flow will leave the system through drywell infiltration. If the drywells are standing alone, that is there are no pipes connecting them and the only flow into them is through a grate on top of each drywell, the design is performed by simply calculating the amount of flow that enters the drywell through the grate and comparing it with the peak rate of flow that will infiltrate from the drywell. The designer must limit the amount of area draining to each drywell such that the flow out of the drywell through infiltration always exceeds the amount of flow entering the drywell. Designers should be aware of potential impacts drywell infiltration may have on ground water. Removing pollutants from runoff, also referred to as water quality treatment, before discharging to ground water is always advisable. In many areas of Western Washington and some areas of Eastern Washington, water quality treatment is required prior to infiltrating runoff. In the other areas of the state, water quality treatment is left to the designer's discretion. See WSDOT's Highway Runoff Manual for a complete discussion on water quality treatment.
6-8
Construction Materials and Practices for Drains

Construction shall be performed in accordance with Section 7-04 of the WSDOT Standard Specifications for Road, Bridge, and Municipal Construction (Standard Specifications).
6-8.1 Structural Design

Most storm drains are placed at fairly moderate trench depths so the strength of the pipe is generally not a problem. Standard fill height tables are listed in Chapter 8 and will show the correct pipe for most designs. If the depth of cover is shallow (less than 0.6 meters) and truck wheel loads are present, it will be necessary to perform a special design to prevent structural damage to the pipe. Extreme fill heights may also cause structural damage to pipes and will thus require a special design. The OSC Hydraulics Branch shall be consulted whenever storm drain pipes are installed outside of the limits listed in the fill height tables. The strength of the pipe depends upon its bed design, backfilling methods, and the quality of the backfill soil. In material incapable of developing adequate support, excavation and backfilling with granular material must be performed to a width sufficient to provide the necessary support.
6-8.2 Pipe Materials for Storm Drains

There are various pipe materials that are acceptable to WSDOT for storm drains. Chapter 8 in this manual and Section 7-04.2 and Section 9-05 of the Standard Specifications, describe the acceptable alternates. WSDOTs policy is to allow and encourage all possible alternates that will ensure a properly functioning storm drain at a reasonable cost. If at any specific location one or more of the alternates are not
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Storm Drains
satisfactory, the unacceptable alternate or alternates shall be so stated on the plans usually in the structure note sheet. Storm drain pipe is subject to some use restrictions which are detailed in Chapter 8. Pipe flow capacity depends on the roughness coefficient, which is a function of pipe material and manufacturing method. Fortunately, most storm drain pipes are 600 millimeters (24 inches) in diameter or less. Studies have shown that all the common pipe materials have a similar roughness coefficient in these sizes. For calculations, the designer should use a roughness coefficient of 0.013 for all pipes 600 millimeters (24 inches) or smaller. For larger diameter pipes, the designer should calculate the required pipe size twice. Once for smooth wall pipe and again for corrugated pipe. If there is a difference in size, it should be indicated on the structure note sheet. In estimating the quantity of structure excavation for design purposes at any location where alternate pipes are involved, estimate the quantity of structure excavation on the basis of concrete pipe since it has the largest outside diameter.
6-8.3 Pipe Joints for Storm Drains

Rubber gasketed joints are required for all drain pipe installations as per Section 7-04.3(2)E and Section 9-05 of the Standard Specifications.
6-8.4 Testing Storm Drains

Storm drains are required to be tested by one of the methods described in Section 7-04.3(4) of the Standard Specifications.
6-9
Subsurface Drainage
Subsurface drainage is provided for control of ground water encountered at highway locations. Ground water, as distinguished from capillary water, is free water occurring in a zone of saturation below the ground surface. The subsurface discharge depends on the effective hydraulic head and on the permeability, depth, slope, thickness, and extent of the aquifer. The solution of subsurface drainage problems often calls for specialized knowledge of geology and the application of soil mechanics. The designer should work directly with the Region Materials Engineer as subsurface conditions are determined and recommendations are made for design in the Soils Report. Typical subdrain installations would be those provided for control of seepage in cuts or side hills or the lowering of the ground water table for proper subgrade drainage. Subsurface drainage pipe size is determined by the same method used to design regular storm drain pipes. The only difference is that the flow used for the calculations is the predicted infiltration from groundwater into the system instead of flow entering the system from roadway drainage. When subsurface drainage is connected to a storm drain system, the invert of the underdrain pipe shall be placed above the operating water level in the storm drain. This is to prevent flooding of the underdrain system and defeating its purpose.
6:F:DP/HM
Page 6-15
Page 6-16
Contents
Page
Chapter 7
Fish Passage
7-1 Introduction 7-2 Types of Structures 7-2.1 General 7-2.2 Bridges 7-2.3 Open Bottom Culverts 7-2.4 Full Culverts 7-3 Design Flows 7-4 Existing Culverts 7-5 Grade Control Structures
7-1 7-1 7-2 7-2 7-2 7-3 7-4 7-5 7-7 7-8
7A:F:DP/HM
Page 7-i
Page 7-ii
Chapter 7
7-1 Introduction
Fish Passage
Most rivers and creeks in Washington State contain one or more species of fish during all or part of the year. These fish must be allowed to freely migrate up and down the stream they occupy. If roadways are constructed across the stream without thought given to fish passage, the roadway can create a migration barrier. However, a correctly designed stream crossing will not hinder migration of fish. Chapter 220-110-070 of the Washington Administrative Code (WAC) specifies the conditions that the Washington State Department of Fish and Wildlife (WDFW) requires for any roadway structure at a stream crossing. The conditions in the WAC conform with criteria established in a 1990 Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) between the Washington State Department of Transporation (WSDOT) and the departments of Fisheries and Wildlife, now WDFW. The Fish Passage chapter in this manual uses the WAC and the MOU as the basis for the information provided. Users of this manual that regularly design roadway structures at stream crossings are encouraged to also read the WAC and the MOU. The basic concept used to ensure continued fish passage is to design the stream crossing to match the natural river or creek channel as much as practical. The idea being that if fish migration occurs in the stream before construction of the crossing, then migration should continue to occur after construction if the crossing creates flow conditions that are similar to the natural flow conditions. For some types of crossing structures, it is easy to create flow conditions that are exactly like the natural flow conditions, but for other types of crossing structures, a detailed analysis is necessary to accomplish an acceptable design. Designers should keep in mind that designing for biological systems has less predictability than physical systems. For this reason, some of the governing design principles for fish passage are estimates based on limited research and field observations. Like all the information presented in this manual, the material in this chapter is the best known methodology at this time. Unlike the other chapters though, this chapter contains information that is relatively new and thus more likely to change in the near future as additional research is completed. The first step in designing for fish passage is to determine which, if any, species of fish are in the stream that is being crossed by the road. WSDOT regional environmental staff is the primary contact for this information. They will contact the WDFW when necessary. Knowing the species of fish that will need to be designed for is important because the swimming and leaping ability of fish varies from species to species, so the design criteria will also vary. Knowing the species of fish present in the stream is also important because different species migrate through the stream during different times of the year, and as a result, the design flow that is used for the analysis must correlate with the time of year that the fish are migrating.
Page 7-1
Fish Passage
7-2
7-2.1
Types of Structures
General
For fish passage purposes, there are three basic types of stream crossing structures: 1. Bridges Structures that have piers or abutments supporting some type of girder system. 2. Open Bottom Culverts Metal and concrete arches or three sided concrete frame structures that have no floor and are supported by footings. 3. Full Culverts Metal, concrete, and plastic round, pipe arch, elliptical, and box-shaped culverts that are completely enclosed self supporting structures.
7-2.2
Bridges
Bridges are the preferred stream crossing structure for fish passage because they create the least amount of change to the river or creek channel and they are the most consistent structure at maintaining unimpeded fish passage. Bridges are also the easiest structure to design for fish passage since once they are designed to meet WSDOT hydraulic conveyance criteria, they will always meet fish passage criteria, therefore creating no hindrance to fish migration. In general, bridges are designed such that their total span is greater than the normal flow channel, they have minimal intrusion into the floodplain, and they have some clearance between the water surface elevation of the 100 year flood and bottom of the bridge girders. The hydraulic design of bridge openings is performed by the Olympia Service Center (OSC) Bridge and Structures Office and the OSC Hydraulics Branch. The disadvantages of using a bridge for a stream crossing are that the cost to construct a bridge tends to be higher than the cost to construct a culvert, more design time is required for a bridge than a culvert, and bridges take longer to construct than culverts. Typically a bridge is used when the necessary span is greater than 7.5 meters (25 feet) but this can vary from 6 meters to 12 meters (20 to 40 feet) depending on site conditions. Designers should contact the OSC Bridge and Structures Office or the OSC Hydraulics Branch for assistance on determining if a bridge is the best structure for the stream crossing being designed. Some debate exists regarding intermediate bridge piers located in the main channel of a river. There has been speculation that intermediate piers might negatively impact fish passage; however, there is no research data available to support or dismiss this assumption. Logically, intermediate piers should have no impact on fish migration since the piers affect such a minor part of the entire river channel. In fact, intermediate piers may provide a resting place for migrating fish, in the dead water on the downstream side of the pier, and thus actually provide a benefit for fish. To meet required fish passage criteria, piers cannot produce more than 0.2 foot of backwater during the 100-year flood. This requirement is easily met with the typical bridge span length and types of piers used by WSDOT. When the designed bridge meets the 0.2 foot backwater requirement, the placement of intermediate piers should not be changed due to fish passage concerns unless evidence can be given that shows a significant impact will result if the pier is placed in the location that is best suited for the structural design of the bridge.
Page 7-2
Fish Passage
7-2.3
Open Bottom Culverts

Open bottom culverts are very similar to bridges in that they span the channel, leaving the natural streambed in place, and are supported by footings on either end of the span. By AASHTO definition, they are classified as a culvert because they have soil over the top of the structure, between the structure, and the roadway pavement. There are two basic types of open bottom culverts, corrugated metal arches that usually resemble the top half of a pipe but might have a multiple radius shape, and concrete three-sided frame structures which may have a flat or an arched top. True concrete arches and metal box structures are available but are used much less often. Open bottom culverts should be designed to meet fish passage needs by matching the natural channel conditions as close as practical while not allowing the average velocity in the culvert to exceed the appropriate value shown in Figure 7-2.3. Chapter 3 details the specific hydraulic design criteria for sizing an open bottom culvert. The hydraulic capacity design can be performed before or after the culvert is designed for fish passage, just as long as both sets of criteria are met with the final design. Often it is easier to design to the fish passage criteria first since it is typically the more conservative criteria. Chinook Salmon Coho Salmon Sockeye Salmon Steelhead Trout 1.8 m/s 1.5 m/s 1.2 m/s 0.9 m/s (6.0 ft/s) (5.0 ft/s) (4.0 ft/s) (3.0 ft/s)
Culvert Length in meters (feet) < 20 (< 60) 20 to 30 (60 to 100) 30 to 60 (100 to 200) > 60 (> 200)
Resident Trout 1.2 m/s 1.2 m/s 0.9 m/s 0.6 m/s (4.0 ft/s) (4.0 ft/s) (3.0 ft/s) (2.0 ft/s)
Pink Salmon Chum Salmon 1.5 m/s 1.2 m/s 0.9 m/s 0.6 m/s (5.0 ft/s) (4.0 ft/s) (3.0 ft/s) (2.0 ft/s)
Figure 7-2.4
Maximum Culvert Velocity For Fish Passage
In designing to match the natural channel conditions, the two main items to consider are the width of the channel during the fish passage design flow (see Section 7-3) and the slope of the channel. Almost all fish migration occurs when flows in the stream are equal to or less than the fish passage design flow. If the culvert spans the channel at this flow, the culvert will not affect fish migration during a majority of the time that migration is occurring. If spanning the entire channel during the fish passage design flow is not practical, then a culvert size should be selected that spans the channel during normal winter and spring flows. The other item that must be considered is the slope of the channel. The slope of the open bottom culvert, as measured along the length of the footings, should match the slope of the stream channel. This will keep the stream flowing in the same manner that it did before the culvert was installed. Attempting to change the streambed from its natural slope may cause aggradation or degredation to occur inside the culvert which can adversely affect the hydraulic capacity or structural integrity of the culvert.
Page 7-3
Fish Passage
When a size and slope for the culvert has been selected, the average velocity in the culvert during the fish passage design flow must be calculated. The velocity calculated must not exceed the appropriate velocity listed in Figure 7-2.3. If the allowable velocity is exceeded, then an alternate design is required. Typically, the velocity can be lowered to an acceptable value by increasing the size of the culvert. The designer should never lower the velocity in the culvert by adjusting the slope of the culvert to be significantly less than the slope of the natural channel. Doing so would most likely lead to excessive aggredation in the culvert which will reduce the hydraulic capacity of the culvert and could lead to failure of the roadway. If none of the culvert sizes available yield an average velocity less than or equal to the allowable value, then a bridge may be necessary at the site. The designer should note that in mountainous streams the average velocity in the channel may be higher than the allowable velocities shown in Figure 7-2.3. In these cases, even if the stream is small, there will be no open bottom culvert that could be installed which would meet the allowable velocities that have been established by WDFW; however, it may be possible to work closely with WDFW to develop an acceptable full culvert for the site. When this occurs, the culvert will typically have to span the entire high flow channel and will have to include some method to keep the streambed material in the culvert in place during high flows.
7-2.4
Full Culverts
Full culverts are the most common type of culvert used for stream crossings. They are the simplest and usually the least expensive crossing structure that can be installed. Unfortunately, they are the most difficult to design for fish passage and have the largest potential for blocking fish migration if not designed correctly. A majority of fish passage barriers associated with roadways are full culverts that were not designed to accommodate fish migration. Even when designed correctly, full culverts have the potential to become fish passage barriers if severe channel degredation occurs. The preferred way to design a full culvert for fish passage is to have the culvert span the channel during the fish passage design flow, be at the same slope as the stream, and have the invert of the culvert buried below the natural streambed to a depth at least 20 percent of the height of the culvert. This will encourage natural streambed material to fill in the bottom of the culvert which will simulate natural flow conditions to the migrating fish and will help accommodate minor channel degredation. This will also keep the velocities through the culvert similar to the velocities in the stream near the culvert which will prevent aggredation or degredation of streambed material from occurring in the culvert. Of the several shapes of full culverts available, pipe arches and box culverts work best with this approach because they provide the full span at or near the invert of the culvert which helps to mimic natural conditions during low flows. When a size and slope for the culvert has been selected, the average velocity in the culvert during the fish passage design flow must be calculated. The velocity calculated must not exceed the appropriate velocity listed in Figure 7-2.3. If the allowable velocity is exceeded, then an alternate design is required.
Page 7-4
Fish Passage
Typically, the velocity can be lowered to an acceptable value by increasing the size of the culvert. The designer should never lower the velocity in the culvert by adjusting the slope of the culvert to be significantly less than the slope of the natural channel. Doing so would most likely lead to excessive aggredation in the culvert which will reduce the hydraulic capacity of the culvert and could lead to failure of the roadway. If none of the culvert sizes available yield an average velocity less than or equal to the allowable value, then a bridge or an open bottom culvert may be necessary at the site. The designer should note that in mountainous streams the average velocity in the channel may be higher than the allowable velocities shown in Figure 7-2.3. In these cases, even if the stream is small, there will be no full culvert that could be installed which would meet the allowable velocities that have been established by WDFW. Insufficient water depth is not an issue for culverts that are partially buried below the channel bottom such that the invert is filled with a natural streambed. However, full culverts that are not buried to provide natural streambed material along the invert must also provide a minimum depth of 0.3 meters (1.0 foot) during the lowest flows. For streams that have very low summer flows the minimum depth may have to be artificially maintained with a downstream grade control structure (see Section 7-5). The best pipe material to use for full culvert installations is still being investigated. For several years, the commonly held belief was that corrugated pipe materials (usually metals) offered an advantage since the corrugated surface causes turbulence along the culvert wall which in turn lowers the velocity along the wall. New research indicates that smooth wall pipe materials (concrete and plastics) sometimes create better flow conditions for migration of juvenile fish. Until a definite conclusion is reached, the best way to select a pipe material is to do so based on the information presented in Chapter 3 and Chapter 8. Designing a culvert based on the criteria in this chapter will allow fish migration regardless of the pipe material selected.
7-3
Design Flows
Typically, fish do not migrate during extreme high flows, so designing for fish passage during these flows is not reasonable. The design for fish passage focuses on the flow that is on the high end of when most fish are still migrating. When using bridges that completely span the normal high flow channel, there is no need to calculate a fish passage design flow. In these cases, the design flow requirements are met by spanning the entire channel during times of fish migration. For cases when culverts are used a fish passage, design flow must be calculated. The design flow will be much lower than the flow used to calculate the hydraulic capacity of the culvert. This is because for hydraulic capacity the culvert must be able to pass, without impacting travel on the roadway, some of the highest flows that will ever occur on the stream. The flow that is used for fish passage design is the flow that is exceeded 10 percent of the time that fish migration is taking place on a specific stream. If, for instance, the migration period of the fish species that was being designed for lasted 90 days during November through January, then the culvert would be designed such that the maximum velocities would not be exceeded more than nine of those days. The best way to determine this flow is to use average daily flow records from a USGS streamflow gage on the stream where the culvert is being designed. Regional environmental staff can determine when the critical fish migration period occurs. Within that
Page 7-5
Fish Passage
time window the flow which is exceeded 10 percent of the time will be the flow to use for fish passage design. Often there are no streamflow gage records for the stream where the culvert will be installed. When this occurs the appropriate equation from the following figure should be used to approximate the fish passage design flow: Region 1 Elevation < 1000 < 1000 < 1000 < 1000 2 > 1000 > 1000 < 1000 < 1000 < 1000 3 < 1000 > 1000 > 1000 4-9 All Land Use Rural Rural Rural Rural Rural Rural Urban Urban Rural Rural Rural Rural Both Season Winter Spring Winter Spring Winter Spring Winter Spring Winter Spring Winter Spring Both Figure 7-3
Fish Passage Design Flow Equations
Equation Qfp = 6.99 A0.95 I1.01 Qfp = 0.21 A0.88 P0.80 Qfp = 0.12 A0.93 P1.16 Qfp = 0.001 A1.11 P1.97 Qfp = 32.8 A0.70 Qfp = 1.94 A0.78 P0.59 Qfp = 0.05 A0.96 P1.28 Qfp = 0.003 A1.10 P1.60 Qfp = 0.67 A0.95 P0.82 Qfp = 0.014 A0.87 P1.42 Qfp = 0.28 A1.41 P0.56 Qfp = 3.48 A0.85 P0.38 Qfp = 0.18 Q2 + 36
where:
Region = Location of the stream, these are the same hydrologic regions used by the USGS Regression Equations (see Appendix 2-2) Elevation = Mean elevation of the stream Land Use = Most common land use in the streams drainage basin Season = Critical season for fish migration in the stream Qfp = Fish passage flow to use for design, in cfs A = Contributing basin area, in square miles I = 2-year, 24-hour precipitation amount, in inches P = Mean annual precipitation for the basin, in inches Q2 = 2-year peak high flow, in cfs
All of these equations have only been developed for English units. For projects that are using metric units, the designer will first have to calculated the fish passage design flow in English units and then convert the flow to metric units. Precipitation data for these equations can be found in Appendix 2-2.
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Fish Passage
There will be a few instances when streams in Regions 1, 2, or 3 will not fit into any of the categories presented. When this occurs, the designer should use the equation for Regions 4 through 9. The equation for Regions 4 through 9 is only valid if the 2-year high flow is greater than 1.25 cms (44 cfs). If the culvert is being designed for a stream with a 2-year high flow that is less than 1.25 cms, then fish passage velocities should be calculated using the 2-year high flow. Currently all fish passage design is performed with adult migration as the primary focus. An assumption is made that the migration of juvenile fish is protected by the adult passage criteria. In the near future, this could change such that the culvert would have to be designed for both age classes of fish. Adult migration would be designed for using flows from the winter months and juvenile migration would be designed for using flows from the spring months. Bridges that span the normal high flow channel would still be designed the same way as described earlier in this section since that method of design already accounts for both juvenile and adult fish passage.
7-4
Existing Culverts
There are times when it may be necessary to determine if an existing culvert is a hindrance to fish migration or if extending an existing culvert to accommodate a new project will create a fish migration barrier. To determine if the culvert is allowing adequate fish passage or if the extended culvert will allow adequate fish passage, the culvert should be analyzed in the same way that a new culvert is designed (see Sections 7-2 and 7-3). Since many existing culverts were designed without consideration to fish migration, the designer will often find that while the culvert is functioning properly for hydraulic conveyance, it is not allowing adequate fish passage. There are a few ways to improve fish passage through an existing culvert. The most effective solution would be to replace the existing culvert with a new structure that is designed to accommodate fish migration. The cost of replacing a culvert varies greatly depending on the site conditions so the designer will need to determine on project by project basis whether or not replacement is the most cost effective alternative. When selecting a method for retrofitting a culvert to allow fish migration, the first step is to determine why the culvert is a fish passage barrier. If the low flows are too shallow in the culvert, then baffles may need to be installed in the culvert and a tailwater control structure may need to be installed at the downstream end of the culvert to increase the depth of flow through the culvert. If the flow velocities are too high through the culvert, then baffles may need to be installed in the culvert which will create roughness through the culvert that will reduce the average flow velocity. If the downstream end of the culvert is elevated above the water surface of the stream, then grade control structures (log or rock weirs) may need to be installed downstream of the culvert to raise the tailwater elevation. When the downstream end of the culvert is elevated several feet above the water surface of the stream, a fish ladder may need to be constructed at the downstream end of the culvert to allow fish to enter the culvert. There are several types of baffles available for improving culvert fish passage performance. Each tends to serve one or two specific functions well but none will solve all problems. For instance, one style is good at retaining streambed material but provides only a minor increase in roughness to the culvert, whereas another type of baffle is designed not to retain any streambed material but creates significant
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Fish Passage
roughness and thus reduces the velocity in the culvert. Designers should consult with the regional hydraulics contact or with the OSC Hydraulics Branch when determining which type of baffles will function best for a particular location. Baffles should not be necessary for new culvert installations. Fish ladders may be necessary when the invert of the culvert at the downstream end is significantly higher in elevation than the water surface of the stream at normal flow. Fish ladders are effective at providing fish passage through large changes in elevation over a short distance; however, they are expensive, require continued maintenance, and are aesthetically unpleasant in the natural stream environment. The use of log or rock weirs and the possibility of culvert replacement are two options that should be considered before determining that a fish ladder is the best solution for a site. If a fish ladder is necessary at a site, the regional hydraulics contact or OSC Hydraulics Branch will perform the design in consultation with WDFW.
7-5
Grade Control Structures

Grade control structures are sometimes required downstream of existing culverts to increase the depth of flow through the culvert or to raise the channel up to the level of the culvert. The two most common types of grade control structures are log weirs and rock weirs. Each structure will only be allowed to cause between 0.15 meters and 0.30 meters (0.5 and 1.0 feet) of an elevation change to provide fish passage. Regional environmental staff will determine how much of an elevation change is acceptable based on the species of fish in the stream. As a result, several grade control structures will be necessary to create a total elevation change of even a meter. Figure 7-5 depicts a typical log weir. Log weirs generally have a spacing of approximately 150 percent of the channel width for small streams with a minimum spacing of 5 meters (15 feet). For larger streams, log weirs are generally placed with a spacing of 7 to 10 meters (20 to 30 feet). Log weirs are anchored to precast concrete blocks (often called ecology blocks) to ballast the structure, and riprap is placed on the banks in the vicinity of the weir to prevent the channel from migrating around the structure. The logs are stacked angled downstream to promote the formation of a pool immediately downstream of the weir. The width of the notch in the top log is determined by the flow in the stream; the flow should completely fill the notch during low flow conditions. Geotextile is placed on the upstream face of the weir to seal the spaces between the logs and under the logs, thus forcing all flow over the weir. Complete design specifications for log weirs are available from the regional hydraulics contact or OSC Hydraulics Branch. Rock weirs are discussed in Chapter 4. The same type of rock weir that is used for stabilizing river channels can be used for aiding fish passage. Rock weirs generally are better for larger streams which are too wide to use log weirs. Rock weirs use the same spacing guidelines as log weirs.
7:F:DP/HM
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Fish Passage
Figure 7-5
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Page 7-10
Contents
Page
Chapter 8
Pipe Materials
8-1 Classification of Pipe 8-1.1 Drain Pipe 8-1.2 Underdrain Pipe 8-1.3 Culvert Pipe 8-1.4 Storm Sewer Pipe 8-1.5 Sanitary Sewer Pipe 8-2 Pipe Materials 8-2.1 Concrete Pipe 8-2.2 Metal Pipe General 8-2.3 Thermoplastic Pipe General 8-2.4 Ductile Iron Pipe 8-3 Pipe Alternates 8-4 Pipe Corrosion Zones and Pipe Alternate Selection 8-4.1 Corrosion Zone I 8-4.2 Corrosion Zone II 8-4.3 Corrosion Zone III 8-5 Corrosion 8-5.1 pH 8-5.2 Resistivity 8-5.3 Methods For Controlling Corrosion 8-6 Abrasion 8-7 Pipe Joints 8-8 Pipe Anchors 8-9 Pipe Rehabilitation 8-10 Pipe Design 8-10.1 Categories of Structural Materials 8-10.2 Structural Behavior of Flexible Pipes 8-10.3 Structural Behavior of Rigid Pipes 8-10.4 Foundation, Bedding, and Backfill 8-10.5 Structural Analysis and Fill Height Tables 8-10.6 Pipe Cover 8-10.7 Shallow Cover Installation 8-11 Fill Height Tables
8-1 8-1 8-1 8-1 8-2 8-6 8-6 8-7 8-7 8-8 8-11 8-14 8-14 8-15 8-15 8-16 8-18 8-24 8-25 8-25 8-25 8-27 8-30 8-30 8-31 8-31 8-31 8-31 8-32 8-33 8-34 8-34 8-34 8-35
8A:F:DP/HM
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8-1 Classification of Pipe
Pipe Materials
A number of different types of pipe are utilized by the Washington State Department of Transportation (WSDOT) for highway construction activities. In order to simplify contract plan and specification preparation, pipes have been grouped into categories, and each category is intended to serve specific purposes.
8-1.1 Drain Pipe

Drain pipe is small diameter pipe (usually less than 600 mm (24 in.)) used to convey roadway runoff or groundwater away from the roadway profile. Drain pipe is not allowed to cross under the roadway profile, and the minimum design life expectancy is 25 years. No protective treatment is required. Drain pipe is intended to be used in locations that can be accessed easily should it become necessary to maintain or replace the pipe. Typical drain pipe applications include simple slope drains and small diameter tight lines used to connect underdrain pipe to storm sewers. Slope drains generally consist of one or two inlets with a pipe conveying roadway runoff down a fill slope. These drain pipes are relatively easy to install and are often replaced when roadway widening or embankment slope re-grading occurs. Slope drains are generally most critical during the first few years after installation, until the slope embankment and vegetation have had a chance to stabilize. Drain pipe smaller than 300 mm (12 in.) can withstand fill heights of 10 meters (30 ft) or more without experiencing structural failure. All of the materials listed in Division 7-01 of WSDOTs Standard Specifications for Road, Bridge, and Municipal Construction (Standard Specifications) are adequate under these conditions. For drain pipe applications utilizing pipe diameters 300 mm (12 in.) or larger, or with fill heights greater than 10 meters (30 ft), the designer should specify only those materials that are listed in both Division 7-01 of the Standard Specifications and the fill height tables of Section 8-11. The ends of thermoplastic drain pipe have a tendency to become buoyant and float. A length of metal or concrete pipe should be specified for the outlet when the drain pipe discharges to daylight. A detail for this design can be obtained from the Regional Hydraulic Section/Contact or the Olympia Service Center (OSC) Hydraulics Branch
8-1.2 Underdrain Pipe

Underdrain pipe is small diameter perforated pipe intended to intercept groundwater and convey it away from areas such as roadbeds or from behind retaining walls. Typical underdrain applications utilize 150 to 200 mm (6 to 8 in.) diameter pipe, but larger diameters can be specified. The minimum design life expectancy is 25 years, and no protective treatment is required. Underdrain pipe is generally used in conjunction with well-draining backfill material and a construction geotextile. Details regarding the various applications of underdrain pipe are described in WSDOT Design Manual Chapter 530 and WSDOT CADD Detail Library.
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Pipe Materials
8-1.3 Culvert Pipe

A culvert is a conduit under a roadway or embankment used to maintain flow from a natural channel or drainage ditch. Culverts are generally more difficult to replace than drain pipe, especially when located under high fills or major highways. Because of this, a minimum design life expectancy of 50 years is required for all culverts. Metal culvert pipes require a protective asphalt coating at some locations. Details are described in Section 8-5.3.1. In order to determine the maximum and minimum amounts of cover that can be placed over a pipe, a structural analysis has been performed on the most commonly used pipe materials accepted by WSDOT for culvert applications. The results of these analyses are shown in the fill height tables of Section 8-11. For materials or sizes not shown in the tables of Section 8-11, contact the OSC Hydraulics Branch. The design of culverts is discussed in Chapter 3. In addition to the hydraulic constraints of a location, the final decision regarding the appropriate culvert size to be used may be governed by fish passage requirements as discussed in Chapter 7. Culvert shapes, sizes, and applications can vary substantially from one location to another. Listed below is a discussion of the various types of culverts that may appear on a typical contract.
8-1.3.1
Circular and Schedule Culvert Pipe

Circular culvert pipe from 300 mm (12 in.) to 1200 mm (48 in.) in diameter is designated as schedule pipe. The pipe schedule table is listed in Division 7-02 of the Standard Specifications. The pipe schedule table lists all of the structurally suitable pipe alternates available for a given culvert diameter and fill height. Schedule A culvert pipe is for fill depths from 0.6 m to 4 m (2 ft to 15 ft). Schedules B, C, and D pipe are for progressively higher fills. The contractor has the option of furnishing any of the pipe alternates that are listed on the schedule table. All schedule pipe shall be installed in accordance with Standard Plan B-11. Schedule culvert pipe should be specified as Schedule _____ Culv. Pipe ____ mm (in.) Diam. on the contract plan sheets. Schedule pipe must be treated with the same protective coatings as other culvert pipe. The designer must insure that all of the alternates listed in the schedule table are appropriate for use at a given site and that the proper protective treatment is specified on the structure note sheets. If a particular type of schedule pipe is not appropriate for use, a structure note must be included that removes that culvert type from the schedule table. The type of material for circular culvert pipe from 1350 mm (54 in.) to 3000 mm (120 in.) shall be designated on the plan sheets. The structure notes sheet should include any acceptable alternate material for that particular installation. A schedule table for these large sizes has not been developed due to their limited use. Also, structural, hydraulic, or aesthetic issues may control the type of material to be used at a site, and a specific design for each type of material available is generally necessary.
8-1.3.2
Pipe Arches
Pipe arches, sometimes referred to as squash pipe, are circular culverts that have been reshaped into a structure that has a circular top and a relatively flat, wide bottom. For a given vertical dimension, pipe arches provide a larger hydraulic opening than a circular pipe. This can be useful in situations with minimal vertical clearances. Pipe
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arches also tend to be more effective than circular pipe in low flow conditions (such as fish passage flows) because pipe arches provide a majority of their hydraulic opening near the bottom of the structure, resulting in lower velocities and more of the main channel being spanned. The primary disadvantage to using pipe arches is that the fill height range is somewhat limited. Due to the shape of the structure, significant corner pressures are developed in the haunch area as shown in Figure 8-1.3.2. The ability of the backfill to withstand the corner pressure near the haunches tends to be the limiting factor in pipe arch design and is demonstrated in the fill height tables shown in Section 8-11.
Figure 8-1-3.2
Typical Soil Pressure Surrounding a Pipe Arch
8-1.3.3
Structural Plate Culverts

Structural plate culverts are steel or aluminum structures that are delivered to the project site as unassembled plates of material and are then bolted together. Structural plate culverts are typically large diameter (from 3 meters (10 ft) to 12 meters (40 ft) or more) and are available in a number of different shapes including circular, pipe-arch, elliptical, and bottomless arch with footings. These structures are generally designed to span the main channel of a stream and are a viable option when fish passage is a concern. The material requirements for structural plate culverts are described in Division 7-03 of the Standard Specifications. Aluminum structural plate culverts can be used anywhere in the state, regardless of the corrosion zone. Steel structure plate culverts are not permitted in salt water or Corrosion Zone III, as described in Section 8-4. The protective coatings described in Section 8-5.3.1 should not be specified for use on these types of culverts because the asphalt coatings interfere with the bolted seam process. In order to compensate for the lack of protective treatment, structural plate furnished in galvanized steel shall be specified with 460 g/m2 (1.5 oz/ft2) of galvanized coating on each surface of the plate (typical galvanized culvert pipe is manufactured with 305 g/m2 (1 oz/ft2) of galvanized coating on each surface of the pipe). The designer of structural plate culverts may also add extra plate thickness to the bottom plates to compensate for corrosion and abrasion in high risk areas. Increasing the gauge thickness in this manner can provide a service life of 50 years or more for a very small increase in cost.
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Pipe Materials
To prevent excessive deflection due to dead and/or live loads on larger structural plate culverts, longitudinal or circumferential stiffeners are sometimes added. Circumferential stiffeners are usually metal ribs bolted to the outside of the culvert. Longitudinal stiffeners may be metal or reinforced concrete thrust beams, as shown in Figure 8-1.3.3. The thrust beams are added to the structure prior to backfill. Concrete thrust beams provide some circumferential stiffening as well as longitudinal stiffening. They also provide a solid vertical surface for soil pressures to act on and a surface which is easier to backfill against.
Figure 8-1.3.3
Concrete Thrust Beams Used as Longitudinal Stiffeners
Another method that can be used to diminish the loads placed on large span culverts is to construct a reinforced concrete distribution slab over the top of the backfill above the culvert. The distribution slab is generally used in low-cover applications and serves to distribute live loads out into the soil column adjacent to the culvert. The OSC Hydraulics Branch should be consulted to assist in the design of this type of structure.
8-1.3.4
Private Road Approach and Driveway Culverts

The requirements for culverts placed under private road approaches and driveways are less stringent than the requirements for culverts placed under roadways. Private road approach and driveway culverts are off of the main line of the highway, so very little hazard is presented to the traveling public if a failure occurs. Also, in many instances it is difficult to provide a minimum of 0.6 m (2 ft) of cover over the top of these culverts. Therefore, private road approach and driveway culverts can be specified without the protective treatments described in Section 8-5.3.1, and the minimum fill heights listed in Section 8-11 can be reduced to 0.3 m (1 ft). If fill heights less than 0.3 m (1 ft) are expected, concrete pipe of the class described in Fill Height Table 8-11.2 should be specified. The designer is cautioned that structural failure may occur on some private road approaches or driveways if the right combination of fill height, live load, soil conditions, and pipe material are present. If live loads approaching an AASHTO
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HS-25 loading will consistently be traveling over the culvert and if the fill height is less than 0.6 m (2 ft), it is highly recommended that only concrete pipe of the class described in Fill Height table 8-11.2 be specified.
8-1.3.5
Concrete Box Culverts

Concrete box culverts are either cast-in-place or precast. All box culverts shall be installed in accordance with Standard Plan B-11, or in accordance with the manufacturers recommendations if they vary from the standard plan. The dimensions and reinforcement requirements for cast-in-place box culverts are described in Standard Plan B-5, with fill heights ranging from 1 to 12 meters (3 to 40 ft). Contact the OSC Hydraulics Branch for the design of cast-in-place box culverts outside of that range. The dimensions and reinforcement requirements for precast box culverts are described in one of two specifications produced by the Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO). AASHTO M259-92 describes precast box culverts with fill heights ranging from 0.6 to 6 meters (2 to 20 ft). AASHTO M259-94 describes precast box culverts with fill heights less than 0.6 m (2 ft). See Section 8-10.7 for additional guidance on the use of concrete structures in shallow cover applications. If a precast box culvert is specified on a contract, the appropriate AASHTO specification should be referenced, along with a statement requiring the contractor to submit engineering calculations demonstrating that the box culvert meets the particular requirements of the AASHTO specification.
8-1.3.6
Concrete Three-sided Box Culverts

Concrete three-sided structures refer to either rectangular or arch shaped structures that are precast with reinforced concrete. The structures are generally supported by concrete footings, but can be fabricated with a full floor section if necessary. The structures are well-suited for low cover applications where a relatively wide hydraulic opening must be provided. They can be specified with as little as zero cover and span lengths up to 6 meters (20 ft). It is possible to utilize structures with greater span lengths, but the design for those structures must be coordinated with the Bridge and Structures Office. The structures can be installed very quickly, often within one to two days, which can significantly decrease road closures or traffic delays. In addition to the required hydraulic opening required, a location must be evaluated for suitability of the foundation material, footing type and size, and scour potential. The OSC Hydraulics Branch should be contacted to perform the necessary analysis and to provide cost estimates for PS&E purposes.
8-1.3.7
Steel Nestable Pipe

Steel nestable pipe is an annularly corrugated metal pipe fabricated in half-circle sections. Two sections are bolted together in the field to produce a circular pipe barrel. Nestable pipe occasionally has application where existing utilities require protection from new or extended roadway embankments. It is not necessary to specify nestable pipe as an alternate for typical highway drainage facilities. Contact the Regional Hydraulic Section/Contact or the OSC Hydraulics Branch for additional information on allowable fill heights and corrosion protection for nestable pipe.
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8-1.4 Storm Sewer Pipe

A storm sewer is defined as three or more pipes connected by inlets, catch basins, or manholes for the purpose of collecting pavement drainage. Storm sewers are usually placed under pavement in urbanized areas and for this reason are very costly to replace. The minimum design life of a storm sewer pipe is 50 years. All storm sewer pipes, unless indicated otherwise on the plans, must be pressure tested. Pressure testing is required primarily to indicate the presence of leaking seams or joints or other structural failures that may have occurred during the manufacturing or installation of the pipe. Division 7-04 of the Standard Specifications describes three types of pressure tests that are available. The contractor generally has the option of choosing which pressure test to perform. The tests include: Exfiltration: The section of pipe to be tested is filled with water, and apparatus is connected to the upper end of the pipe so that an additional 2 m (6 ft) of water column is placed on the test section. The leakage out of the pipe is measured, and must be less than the allowable leakage described in the Standard Specifications. Infiltration: This test is intended to be used in situations where the groundwater table is above the crown of the upper end of the pipe test section. Once the pipe has been installed, the amount of water leaking into the pipe is collected and measured, and must be less than the allowable leakage rate described in the Standard Specifications. Low Pressure Air: The section of pipe to be tested is plugged on both ends and compressed air is added until the pipe reaches a certain pressure. The test consists of measuring the time required for the pressure in the test section to drop approximately 7 kilopascals (1 psi). The measured time must be equal to or greater than the required time described in the Standard Specifications. Metal storm sewer pipe will require the same protective coating to resist corrosion as required for culvert pipe. In addition, asphalt coatings may also be required for some metal pipes to enable them to pass one of the pressure tests described above. For example, Treatment 5 or 6 as described in Section 8-5.3.1 is needed to satisfy the pressure test for an ungasketed helical lock seam pipe. Gasketed helical lock seams and welded seams are tight enough to pass the pressure test without an asphalt coating, but may still require a coating for corrosion purposes in some areas of the state. Pipe used for storm sewers must be compatible with the structural fill height tables for maximum and minimum amounts of cover shown in Section 8-11.
8-1.5 Sanitary Sewer Pipe

Sanitary sewers consist of pipes and manholes intended to carry either domestic or industrial sanitary waste water. Any sanitary sewer work on WSDOT projects will usually be replacement or relocation of existing sanitary sewers for a municipal sewer system. Pipe materials will be in accordance with the requirements of the local sewer district. Sanitary waste water is fairly corrosive regardless of location and pipe materials should be chosen accordingly. Pressure testing is always required on sanitary sewers to minimize groundwater infiltration or sewer water exfiltration. The testing is performed in accordance with Division 7-17 of the Standard Specifications. As with storm sewers, the contractor has the option of conducting an exfiltration, infiltration, or low pressure air test. The
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Pipe Materials
primary difference between the tests for storm sewers versus the tests for sanitary sewers is that the allowable leakage rate for sanitary sewers is less than the allowable leakage rate for storm sewers.
8-2
Pipe Materials
Various types of pipe material are available for each of the applications described in Section 8-1. Each type of material has unique properties for structural design, corrosion/abrasion resistance, and hydraulic characteristics and will be discussed in detail in this section.
8-2.1 Concrete Pipe 8-2.1.1 Concrete Drain Pipe

Concrete drain pipe is non-reinforced and meets the requirements of ASTM C 118. The strength requirements for concrete drain pipe are less than the strength requirements for other types of concrete pipe. Also, concrete drain pipe can be installed without the use of o-ring gaskets or mortar, which tends to permit water movement into and out of the joints.
8-2.1.2
Concrete Underdrain Pipe

Concrete underdrain pipe is perforated, non-reinforced, and meets the requirements of AASHTO M 175. The strength requirements for concrete underdrain pipe are the same as the strength requirements for plain concrete culvert pipe.
8-2.1.3
Concrete Culvert, Storm and Sanitary Sewer Pipe

Concrete culvert, storm, and sanitary sewer pipe can be either plain or reinforced. Plain concrete pipe does not include steel reinforcing and meets the requirements of AASHTO M 86, Class 2 only. Reinforced concrete pipe meets the requirements of AASHTO M 170, Classes I through V. The amount of reinforcement in the pipe increases as the class designation increases. Correspondingly, the structural capacity of the pipe also increases. Due to its lack of strength, Class I reinforced concrete pipe is rarely used and is not listed in the fill height tables of Section 8-11. The reinforcement placed in concrete pipe can be either circular or elliptical in shape. Elliptically designed reinforcing steel is positioned for tensile loading near the inside of the barrel at the crown and invert, and at the outside of the barrel at the springline. As shown in Figure 8-10.3, a vertical line drawn through the crown and invert is referred to as the minor axis of reinforcement. The minor axis of reinforcement will be clearly marked by the manufacturer, and it is extremely important that the pipe be handled and installed with the axis placed in the vertical position. Concrete joints utilize rubber o-ring gaskets, allowing the pipe to meet the pressure testing requirements for storm sewer applications. The joints, however, do not have any tensile strength and in some cases can pull apart, as discussed in Section 8-7. For this reason, concrete pipe is not recommended for use on grades over 10 percent without the use of pipe anchors, as discussed in Section 8-8. Concrete pipe is permitted anywhere in the state, regardless of corrosion zone, pH, or resistivity. It has a smooth interior surface, which gives it a relatively low Mannings roughness coefficient of 0.012. The maximum fill height for concrete pipe is limited to about 10 m (30 ft) or less. However, concrete pipe is structurally superior for
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carrying wheel loads with very shallow cover. For installations with less than 0.6 m (2 ft) of cover, the only acceptable alternate is concrete pipe. Fill Height Table 8-11.2 lists the appropriate class of pipe that should be specified under these conditions. Concrete is classified as a rigid pipe, which means that applied loads are resisted primarily by the strength of the pipe material, with some additional support given by the strength of the surrounding bedding and backfill. Additional information regarding the structural behavior of rigid pipes is discussed in Section 8-10.3. It is important during the installation process to insure that the pipe is uniformly supported, in order to prevent point load concentrations from occurring along the barrel or at the joints. The weight of concrete pipe sometimes makes it difficult to handle during installation and this should be considered on certain sites. Also, in sanitary sewer applications, the build up of hydrogen sulfide could be a concern. The designer should follow the recommendations of the local sewer district or municipality when deciding if concrete pipe is an acceptable alternate at a given location.
8-2.2 Metal Pipe General

Metal pipe is available in galvanized steel, aluminized steel, or aluminum alloy. All three types of material can be produced with helical corrugations, annular corrugations or as spiral rib pipe. Galvanized and aluminized steel pipe conform the requirements of AASHTO M 36, while aluminum alloy pipe conforms to the requirements of AASHTO M 196. Metal pipe is classified as a flexible pipe, which means that applied loads are resisted primarily by the strength of the bedding and backfill surrounding the pipe, with some additional support given by the pipe material itself. Because of the dependence upon the strength of the bedding and backfill material, it is critical that metal pipe be installed in accordance with the requirements of Standard Plan B-11 and Division 7-08 of the Standard Specifications to ensure proper performance. Metal pipe is available in a wide range of sizes and shapes and, depending on the type of material and corrugation configuration, can be used with fill heights up to 30 m (100 ft) or more. Metal pipe is susceptible to both corrosion and abrasion and may need one of the protective treatments described in Section 8-5.3.1.
8-2.2.1
Helical Corrugations
Most metal pipe produced today is helically wound, where the corrugations are spiraled along the flow line. The seam for this type of pipe is continuous, and also runs helically along the pipe. The seam can be either an ungasketed lock seam (not pressure testable) or it could be one of the following pressure testable seams: gasketed lock seam or welded remetalized. Welded remetalized seam is not possible for aluminum alloy pipe. If ungasketed lock seam pipe is used in storm sewer applications, it is generally necessary to coat the pipe with Treatment 5 or 6 (Section 8-5.3.1) in order for the pipe to pass the pressure testing requirements. Helically wound corrugations are available in several standard sizes, including 68 mm pitch by 12 mm depth (2 2 3 in. by 1 2 in.), 75 mm by 25 mm (3 in. by 1 in.), and 125 mm by 25 mm (5 in. by 1 in.). The corrugation sizes are available in several different gauge thicknesses, depending on the pipe diameter and the height of fill. The larger corrugation sizes tend to be utilized as the pipe diameter exceeds about 1500 mm (60 in.). A typical corrugation section is shown in Figure 8-2.2.1.
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Figure 8-2.2.1
Typical Corrugation Section
As a result of the helical manufacturing process, the Mannings roughness coefficient for smaller diameter (less than 600 mm (24 in.)) metal pipe approaches the Mannings roughness coefficient for smooth wall pipe materials such as concrete and thermoplastic pipe. This similarity will generally allow metal pipe to be specified as an alternative to smooth wall pipe without the need to increase the diameter. However, in situations where small changes in the headwater or head loss through a system are critical, or where the pipe diameter is greater than 600 mm (24 in.), the designer should use the Mannings roughness coefficient specified in Appendix 4-1 to determine if a larger diameter metal pipe alternate is required.
8-2.2.2
Annular Corrugations
Metal pipe can be produced with annular corrugations, where the corrugations are perpendicular to the flow line of the pipe. The seams for this type of pipe are both circumferential and longitudinal, and are joined by either rivets or resistance spot welding. The Mannings roughness coefficient for all annularly corrugated metal pipe is 0.024. The fill heights shown in Section 8-11 apply to both helical and annular corrugated metal pipe. The typical corrugation section shown in Figure 8-2.2.1 is the same for annular corrugations, except that annular corrugations are available only in 68 mm by 12 mm (2 2 3 in. by 1 2 in.) and 75 mm by 25 mm (3 in. by 1 in.) sizes. Annularly corrugated metal pipe is rarely used for typical culvert and storm sewer applications in Corrosion Zones I and II. However, it may be used in Corrosion Zone III when galvanized steel fiber bonded pipe is required, as described in Section 8-5.3.1.
8-2.2.3
Spiral Rib
Spiral rib pipe utilizes the same manufacturing process as helically wound pipe, but instead of using a standard corrugation pitch and depth, spiral rib pipe is comprised of rectangular ribs between flat wall areas. A typical spiral rib section is shown in Figure 8-2.2.3. Two profile configurations are available: 19 mm width by 19 mm depth by 190 mm pitch ( 3 4 in. by 3 4 in. by 7 1 2 in.) or 19 mm by 25 mm by 292 mm ( 3 4 in. by 1 in. by 11 1 2 in.). The seams for spiral rib pipe are either ungasketed lock seams for non-pressure testable applications or gasketed lock seam for pressure testable applications. If ungasketed lock seam pipe is used in storm sewer applications, it is generally necessary to coat the pipe with protective Treatment 5 or 6 (Section 8-5.3.1) in order for the pipe to pass the pressure testing requirements.
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The primary advantage of spiral rib pipe is that the rectangular rib configuration provides a hydraulically smooth pipe surface for all diameters, with a Mannings roughness coefficient of 0.012.
Figure 8-2.2.3
Typical Spiral Rib Section
8-2.2.4
Galvanized Steel
Galvanized steel consists of corrugated or spiral rib steel pipe with 305 g/m 2 (1 oz/ft2) of galvanized coating on each surface of the pipe. Plain galvanized steel pipe is the least durable pipe from a corrosion standpoint and is not permitted when the pH is less than 5 or greater than 8.5. It is also not permitted if the soil resistivity is less than 1,000 ohm-cm. It will, however, meet the required 50-year life expectancy for culvert and storm sewers installed in Corrosion Zone I, as described in Section 8-4. In more corrosive environments, such as Corrosion Zone II or III described in Section 8-4, galvanized steel pipe must be treated with a protective asphalt coating in order for the pipe to attain the required 50-year service life.
8-2.2.5
Aluminized Steel
Aluminized steel consists of corrugated or spiral rib steel pipe with an aluminum protective coating applied both inside and out. The aluminized coating is more resistant to corrosion than galvanized steel pipe and is considered to meet the 50 year life expectancy in both Corrosion Zone I and II without the use of protective asphalt coatings. Aluminized steel is not permitted when the pH is less than 5 or greater than 8.5. It is also not permitted if the soil resistivity is less than 1,000 ohm-cm.
8-2.2.6
Aluminum Alloy
Aluminum alloy (aluminum) consists of corrugated or spiral rib pipe and has been shown to be more resistant to corrosion than either galvanized or aluminized steel. When aluminum is exposed to water and air, an oxide layer forms on the metal surface, creating a barrier between the corrosive environment and the pipe surface. As long as this barrier is allowed to form, and is not disturbed once it forms, aluminum pipe will function well. Aluminum is considered to meet the 50-year life expectancy for both Corrosion Zone I and II. It can also be used in Corrosion Zone III, provided that the pH is between 4 and 9, the resistivity is 500 ohm-cm or greater, and the pipe is backfilled with clean, well-draining, granular material. The backfill specified in Standard Plan B-11 will meet this requirement.
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Aluminum is not recommended when backfill material has a very high clay content, because the backfill material can prevent oxygen from getting to the pipe surface and consequently, the protective oxide layer will not form. For the same reason, it is generally not recommended that aluminum pipe be coated with the asphalt protective treatments discussed in Section 8-5.3.1
8-2.3 Thermoplastic Pipe General

Thermoplastic pipe is a term used to describe a number of different types of polyethylene (PE) and polyvinyl chloride (PVC) pipes that are allowed for use in drain, underdrain, culvert, storm sewer, and sanitary sewer applications. Not all types of thermoplastic pipe are allowed for use in all applications. The designer must reference the appropriate section of Division 9-05 of the Standard Specifications to determine the allowable thermoplastic pipe for a given application. Thermoplastic pipe is classified as a flexible pipe, which means that applied loads are resisted primarily by the strength of the bedding and backfill surrounding the pipe, with some additional support given by the pipe material itself. Because of the dependence upon the strength of the bedding and backfill material, it is critical that thermoplastic pipe be installed in accordance with the requirements of Standard Plan B-11 and Division 7-08 of the Standard Specifications to ensure proper performance. The physical properties of thermoplastic pipe are such that the pipe is very resistant to both pH and resistivity. As a result, thermoplastic pipe is an acceptable alternate in all three corrosion zones statewide and no protective treatment is required. Laboratory testing indicates that the resistance of thermoplastic pipe to abrasive bed loads is equal to or greater than that of other types of pipe material. However, because thermoplastic pipe cannot be structurally reinforced, it is not recommended for severely abrasive conditions as described in Figure 8.6. The weight of thermoplastic pipe is relatively light when compared to other pipe alternatives. This can simplify handling of the pipe because large equipment may not be necessary during installation. However, the light weight of the pipe can also lead to soil or water floatation problems in the trench, requiring additional effort to secure the line and grade of the pipe. The allowable fill height and diameter range for thermoplastic pipe is somewhat limited. This may preclude thermoplastic pipe being specified for use in some situations. Any exposed end of thermoplastic pipe used for culvert or storm sewer applications should be beveled to match the surrounding embankment or ditch slope. The ends should be beveled no flatter than 4:1, as a loss of structural integrity tends to occur after that point. It also becomes difficult to adequately secure the end of the pipe to the ground. The minimum length of a section of beveled pipe shall be at least 6 times the diameter of the pipe, measured from the toe of the bevel to the first joint under the fill slope (see Figure 8-2.3). This distance into the fill slope will provide enough cover over the top of the pipe to counteract typical hydraulic uplift forces that may occur. For thermoplastic pipe 900 mm (30 in.) in diameter and larger, it is recommended that a Standard Plan B-9 headwall be used in conjunction with a beveled end.
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Pipe Materials
Figure 8-2.3
Minimum Length for Thermoplastic Pipe Beveled Ends
8-2.3.1
Corrugated PE Tubing for Drains and Underdrains

Corrugated PE tubing used for drains and underdrains is a single wall, corrugated interior pipe conforming to the requirements of AASHTO M 252. It is available in diameters up to 250 mm (10 in.). This type of pipe is extremely flexible and be manipulated easily on the job site should it become necessary to bypass obstructions during installation. See Section 8-1.1 for treating the exposed end for floatation.
8-2.3.2
PVC Drain and Underdrain Pipe

PVC drain and underdrain pipe is a solid wall, smooth interior pipe conforming to the requirements of AASHTO M 278. It is available in diameters up to 200 mm (8 in.). This type of pipe is typically delivered to the job site in 6 m (20 ft) lengths and has a significant amount of longitudinal beam strength. This characteristic is useful when placing the pipe at a continuous grade but can also make it more difficult to bypass obstructions during installation. See Section 8-1.1 for treating the exposed end for floatation.
8-2.3.3
Corrugated PE Culvert and Storm Sewer Pipe

Corrugated PE used for culverts and storm sewers is a double-wall, smooth interior pipe conforming to the requirements of AASHTO M 294 Type S. This type of pipe can be used under all state highways, subject to the fill height and diameter limits described in Section 8-11 of this manual and Division 7-02.2 of the Standard Specifications. The primary difference between PE used for culvert applications and PE used for storm sewer applications is the type of joint specified. In culvert applications, the joint is not completely watertight and may allow an insignificant amount of infiltration to occur. The culvert joint will prevent soils from migrating out of the pipe zone, and is intended to be similar in performance to the coupling band and gasket required for metal pipe. If a culvert is to be installed in situations where a combination of a high water table and fine-grained soils near the trench are expected, it is recommended that the joint used for storm sewer applications be specified. The storm sewer joint will eliminate the possibility of soil migration out of the pipe zone and will provide an improved connection between sections of pipe.
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Pipe Materials
In storm sewer applications, all joints must be capable of passing WSDOTs pressure test requirements. Because of this requirement, it may be possible that the allowable pipe diameter for storm sewer applications may be less than the allowable diameter for culvert applications. The designer should consult WSDOTs Qualified Products List for the current maximum allowable pipe diameter for both applications. Corrugated PE is a petroleum-based product, and it is possible under certain conditions that it will ignite. If maintenance practices such as ditch or field burning is anticipated near the inlet or outlet of a pipe, it is recommended that PE not be allowed as a pipe alternate.
8-2.3.4
Solid Wall PVC Culvert, Storm, and Sanitary Sewer Pipe

Solid wall PVC culvert, storm, and sanitary sewer pipe is a solid wall, smooth interior pipe conforming to the requirements of ASTM D 3034 SDR 35 for pipes up to 375 mm (15 in.) in diameter and ASTM F 679, Type 1 only, for pipe sizes 450 to 625 mm (18 to 27 in.). This type of pipe can be used under all state highways, subject to the fill height and diameter limits described in Section 8-11 of this manual and Divisions 7-02.2 of the Standard Specifications. This type of pipe is used primarily in water line and sanitary sewer applications, but may occasionally be used for culverts or storm sewers. The only joint available for this type of PVC pipe is a watertight joint conforming to the requirements of Division 9-05.12(1) of the Standard Specifications.
8-2.3.5
Profile Wall PVC Culvert and Storm Sewer Pipe

Profile wall PVC culvert and storm sewer pipe consists of pipe with an essentially smooth waterway wall braced circumferentially or spirally with projections or ribs, as shown in Figure 8-2.3.5. The pipe may have an open profile, where the ribs are exposed, or the pipe may have a closed profile, where the ribs are enclosed in an outer wall. Profile wall PVC culvert and storm sewer pipe must conform to the requirements of AASHTO M 304 or ASTM F794, Series 46. This pipe can be used under all state highways, subject to the fill height and diameter limits described in Section 8-11 of this manual and Divisions 7-02.2 of the Standard Specifications. The only joint available for profile wall PVC culvert and storm sewer pipe is a watertight joint conforming to the requirements of Division 9-05.12(2) of the Standard Specifications.
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Pipe Materials
Figure 8-2.3.5
Typical Profile Wall PVC Cross Sections
8-2.4 Ductile Iron Pipe

Ductile iron pipe is an extremely strong, durable pipe primarily designed to be used in high-pressure water distribution and sanitary sewer systems. It is acceptable to use ductile iron for culvert and storm sewers, but it is generally not a cost-effective option. Fill heights for ductile iron can be obtained from various manufacturers or by contacting the OSC Hydraulics Branch.
8-3
Pipe Alternates
The plans and special provisions for each project shall be developed to provide the contractor the option of all the alternates that are feasible and in conformance with this manual, the Standard Specifications, and WSDOTs Standard Plans for Road, Bridge, and Municipal Construction. The appropriate alternatives for a given site should be determined after the designer has investigated a number issues, including but not limited to the required size and strength of the pipe, corrosion and abrasion potential, fish passage, debris passage, and necessary end treatments. A methodology for determining the acceptable pipe alternates based on the corrosion potential for a location is presented in Section 8-4. Justification for not providing a pipe alternate, as limited by the allowable fill heights, corrosion zones, soil resistivity, and the limitations of pH for steel and aluminum pipe shall be submitted on a project by project basis in the Hydraulic Report or with the PS&E. When drain, culvert, or sewer pipe is being constructed for the benefit of cities or counties as part of the reconstruction of their facilities and they request a certain type of pipe, the designer may specify a particular type without alternates; however, the city or county must submit a letter stating their justification. Existing culverts should be extended with the same pipe material and no alternates are required. Justification for a specific material is required if no alternates are provided. Justification according to cost will not normally be sufficient except in large structures such as box culverts or structural plate pipes. Frequently, structural requirements may have more control over acceptable alternates than will hydraulic requirements.
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The hydraulic design for pipe alternates will normally be based on providing equivalent headwater, headloss, or velocity through the pipe. If the design utilized a smooth wall pipe, the use of corrugated pipe may require that the diameter be increased to compensate for the increased surface roughness. The increased pipe diameter for the corrugated pipe alternative shall be listed on the plan sheets. All pipe used for culverts, storm sewers, and sanitary sewers shall be installed in accordance with Standard Plan B-11. As shown on the plan, the volume and type of bedding material required varies, depending on the type of pipe material used. In order to simplify measurement and payment during construction, all costs associated with furnishing and installing the bedding and backfill material within the pipe zone are included in the unit contract price of the pipe.
8-4
Pipe Corrosion Zones and Pipe Alternate Selection

In addition to designing a pipe system to meet both structural and hydraulic requirements, pipe durability must also be investigated to ensure that the pipe design life will be reached. Pipe durability can be evaluated by determining the corrosion and abrasion potential of a given site and then choosing the appropriate pipe material and protective treatment for that location. In order to simplify this process, the state of Washington has been divided into three corrosion zones, based upon the general corrosive characteristics of that particular zone. A map delineating the three zones is shown in Figure 8-4. A flow chart and corresponding acceptable pipe alternate list have been developed for each of the corrosion zones and are shown in Figures 8-4.1 to 8-4.3. The flow chart and pipe alternate list summarize the information discussed in Section 8-5 related to corrosion, pH, resistivity, and protective treatments and can be used to easily develop all of the acceptable pipe alternates for a given location. The flow charts and pipe alternate lists do not account for abrasion, as bed loads moving through pipes can quickly remove asphalt coatings applied for corrosion protection. If abrasion is expected to be significant at a given site, the guidelines discussed in Figure 8-6 should be followed. The designer should always keep in mind the degree of difficulty that will be encountered in replacing a pipe at a future date. Drain pipes are placed relatively shallow and are easy to replace. Culverts tend to have a deeper amount of cover and also pass under the highway alignment making them more difficult to replace. Storm sewers are generally utilized in congested urban areas with significant pavement cover, high traffic use, and a multitude of other buried utilities in the same vicinity. For these reasons, storm sewers are generally considered to be the most expensive and most difficult to replace. These are generalities which will serve as guidelines to the designer. When special circumstances exist (i.e., extremely high fills or extremely expensive structure excavation) the designer should use good engineering judgment to justify the cost effectiveness of higher standard of protective treatment.
8-4.1 Corrosion Zone I

With the exceptions noted below, Corrosion Zone 1 encompasses most of Eastern Washington and is considered the least corrosive part of the state. Plain galvanized steel, untreated aluminized steel, aluminum alloy, thermoplastic, and concrete pipe may all be used in Corrosion Zone I. See Figures 8.4.1A and B for a complete listing
Page 8-15
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of all acceptable pipe alternates for culvert and storm sewer applications. Treatment 5 is required for all storm sewers if the seams are not pressure testable (ungasketed lock seam). Parts of Eastern Washington which are not in Corrosion Zone I are placed into Corrosion Zone II. They include: Okanogan Valley Pend Oreille Valley Disautel Nespelem Vicinity
8-4.2
Corrosion Zone II
Most of Western Washington, with the exceptions noted below, along with the three areas of Eastern Washington identified above make up Corrosion Zone II. This is an area of moderate corrosion activity. Generally, Treatment 2 is needed to provide corrosion protection for galvanized steel culverts and storm sewers. Treatment 5 is needed for storm sewers if the pipe seams are not pressure testable (ungasketed lock seam). Untreated aluminized steel, aluminum alloy, thermoplastic, and concrete pipe may be used in Corrosion Zone II. See Figures 8.4.2A and B for a complete listing of all acceptable pipe alternates for culvert and storm sewer applications. Parts of western Washington which are not located in Corrosion Zone II are placed into Corrosion Zone III. They include: 1. Whatcom County Lowlands, described by the following: a. SR 542 from its origin in Bellingham to the junction of SR 9; b. SR 9 from the junction of SR 542 to the International boundary; and c. All other roads and areas lying northerly and westerly of the above described routes. 2. Lower Nisqually Valley.
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Figure 8-4
Pipe Corrosion Zones
Page 8-17
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3. Low-lying roadways in the Puget Sound basin and coastal areas subjected to the influence of saltwater bays, marshes, and tide flats. As a general guideline, this should include areas with elevations less than 6 meters (20 ft) above the average high tide elevation. Along the Pacific coast and the Straights of Juan de Fuca, areas within 100 to 200 meters (300 to 600 ft) of the edge of the average high tide can be influenced by salt spray and should be classified as Corrosion Zone III. However, this influence can vary significantly from location to location, depending on the roadway elevation and the presence of protective bluffs or vegetation. In these situations, the designer is encouraged to evaluate existing pipes in the vicinity of the project to determine the most appropriate corrosion zone designation.
8-4.3 Corrosion Zone III

The severely corrosive areas identified above make up Corrosion Zone III. Concrete and thermoplastic pipe are allowed for use in this zone without protective treatments. Galvanized steel pipe used in this zone requires fiber bonded asphalt linings to enhance the asphalt bond under these harsh conditions. Treatment 4 is needed for corrosion protection of culvert pipe. Treatment 6 is required for storm sewers if the pipe seams are not pressure testable (ungasketed lock seam). Aluminized steel is not permitted in this zone, and aluminum alloy is permitted only as described in Section 8-2.2.6. See Figures 8.4.3A and B for a complete listing of all acceptable pipe alternates for culvert and storm sewer applications.
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Figure 8-4.1A
Corrosion Zone I Culvert/Storm Sewer Pipe Alternate Selection Chart
Page 8-19
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Culverts Schedule Pipe: Schedule____ Culv. Pipe
Storm Sewers Concrete: Plain Conc. Storm Sewer Pipe Cl.____Reinf. Conc. Storm Sewer Pipe PVC: Solid Wall PVC Storm Sewer Pipe Profile Wall PVC Storm Sewer Pipe Polyethylene: Corrugated Polyethylene Storm Sewer Pipe Steel: Tr. 5 Galvanized Steel Storm Sewer Pipe Plain Galvanized Steel Storm Sewer Pipe with gasketed or welded and remetalized seams Tr. 5 Aluminized Steel Storm Sewer Pipe Plain Aluminized Steel Storm Sewer Pipe with gasketed or welded and remetalized seams Aluminum: Tr. 5 Aluminum Storm Sewer Pipe Plain Aluminum Storm Sewer Pipe with gasketed seams Steel Spiral Rib: Tr. 5 Galvanized Steel Spiral Rib Storm Sewer Pipe Plain Galvanized Steel Spiral Rib Storm Sewer Pipe with gasketed or welded and remetalized seams Tr. 5 Aluminized Steel Spiral Rib Storm Sewer Pipe Plain Aluminized Steel Spiral Rib Storm Sewer Pipe with gasketed or welded and remetalized seams Aluminum Spiral Rib: Tr. 5 Aluminum Spiral Rib Storm Sewer Pipe Plain Aluminum Spiral Rib Storm Sewer Pipe with gasketed seams Figure 8-4.1B
If schedule pipe not selected, then: Concrete: Plain Concrete Culvert Pipe Cl.____Reinf. Concrete Culvert Pipe PVC: Solid Wall PVC Culv. Pipe Profile Wall PVC Culv. Pipe Polyethylene: Corrugated Polyethylene Culv. Pipe Steel: Plain Galvanized Steel Culv. Pipe Plain Aluminized Steel Culv. Pipe Aluminum: Plain Aluminum Culv. Pipe
Corrosion Zone I Acceptable Pipe Alternates and Protective Treatments
Page 8-20
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Figure 8-4.2A
Corrosion Zone II Culvert/Storm Sewer Pipe Alternate Selection Chart Figure
Page 8-21
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Culverts Schedule Pipe: Schedule____ Culv. Pipe Galvanized Steel alternate shall have Tr. 2
Storm Sewers Concrete: Plain Conc. Storm Sewer Pipe Cl.____Reinf. Conc. Storm Sewer Pipe PVC: Solid Wall PVC Storm Sewer Pipe Profile Wall PVC Storm Sewer Pipe Polyethylene: Corrugated Polyethylene Storm Sewer Pipe Steel: Tr. 5 Galvanized Steel Storm Sewer Pipe Tr. 2 Galvanized Steel Storm Sewer Pipe with gasketed or welded and remetalized seams Tr. 5 Aluminized Steel Storm Sewer Pipe Plain Aluminized Steel Storm Sewer Pipe with gasketed or welded and remetalized seams Aluminum: Tr. 5 Aluminum Storm Sewer Pipe Plain Aluminum Storm Sewer Pipe with gasketed seams Steel Spiral Rib: Tr. 5 Galvanized Steel Spiral Rib Storm Sewer Pipe Tr. 2 Galvanized Steel Spiral Rib Storm Sewer Pipe with gasketed or welded and remetalized seams Tr. 5 Aluminized Steel Spiral Rib Storm Sewer Pipe Plain Aluminized Steel Spiral Rib Storm Sewer Pipe with gasketed or welded and remetalized seams Aluminum Spiral Rib: Tr. 5 Aluminum Spiral Rib Storm Sewer Pipe Plain Aluminum Spiral Rib Storm Sewer Pipe with gasketed seams Figure 8-4.2B
If schedule pipe not selected: Concrete: Plain Conc. Culv. Pipe Cl.____Reinf. Conc. Culv. Pipe PVC: Solid Wall PVC Culv. Pipe Profile Wall PVC Culv. Pipe Polyethylene: Corrugated Polyethylene Culv. Pipe Steel: Tr. 2 Galvanized Steel Culv. Pipe Plain Aluminized Steel Culv. Pipe Aluminum: Plain Aluminum Culv. Pipe
Corrosion Zone II Acceptable Pipe Alternates and Protective Treatments
Page 8-22
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Figure 8-4.3A
Corrosion Zone III Culvert/Storm Sewer Pipe Alternate Selection Chart
Page 8-23
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Culverts Schedule Pipe: Schedule____ Culv. Pipe____ In. Diam. Galvanized Steel alternate shall have Tr. 4 Aluminum alternate shall have Tr. 2
Storm Sewers Concrete: Plain Conc. Storm Sewer Cl.____Reinf. Conc. Storm Sewer Pipe PVC: Solid Wall PVC Storm Sewer Pipe Profile Wall PVC Storm Sewer Pipe Polyethylene: Corrugated Polyethylene Storm Sewer Pipe Steel: Tr. 6 Galvanized Steel Storm Sewer Pipe Tr. 4 Galvanized Steel Storm Sewer Pipe with gasketed or welded and remetalized seams Aluminum: Tr. 5 Aluminum Storm Sewer Pipe Plain Aluminum Storm Sewer Pipe with gasketed seams* Steel Spiral Rib: Tr. 6 Galvanized Steel Spiral Rib Storm Sewer Pipe Tr. 4 Galvanized Steel Spiral Rib Storm Sewer Pipe with gasketed or welded and remetalized seams Aluminum Spiral Rib: Tr. 5 Aluminum Spiral Rib Storm Sewer Pipe Plain Aluminum Spiral Rib Storm Sewer Pipe with gasketed seams* * Can be used if the requirements of Section 8-2.2.6 are met Figure 8-4.3B
If schedule pipe not selected: Concrete: Plain Conc. Culv. Pipe Cl.____Reinf. Conc. Culv. Pipe PVC: Solid Wall PVC Culv. Pipe Profile Wall PVC Culv. Pipe Polyethylene: Corrugated Polyethylene Culv. Pipe Steel: Tr. 3, Tr. 4, or Tr. 6 Galvanized Steel Culv. Pipe Aluminum: Plain Aluminum Culv. Pipe*
Corrosion Zone III Acceptable Pipe Alternates and Protective Treatments
8-5
Corrosion
Corrosion is the destructive attack on a material by a chemical or electrochemical reaction with the surrounding environment. Corrosion is generally limited to metal pipes, and the parameters that tend to have the most significant influence on the corrosion potential for a site is the soil or water pH and the soil resistivity.
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8-5.1 pH
The pH is a measurement of the relative acidity of a given substance. The pH scale ranges from 1 to 14, with 1 being extremely acidic, 7 being neutral, and 14 being extremely basic. The closer that a pH value is to 7, the less potential that substance has for corroding a pipe. When the pH is less than 5 or greater than 8.5, the site will be considered unsuitable and only Corrosion Zone III pipes as discussed in Section 8-4.3 are acceptable. The total number of pH tests required for a project will vary, depending on a number of different parameters, including the type of structures to be placed, the corrosion history of the site, and the project length and location. The designer must be satisfied that enough tests are taken to accurately establish the pH values for a project, but at the same time, the total number of tests should reflect the overall importance of the roadway and drainage structures. The general criteria listed below serve as minimum guidelines, and should be used to determine the appropriate number of tests for a project. 1. Size and importance of the drainage structure. A project comprised of large culverts or storm sewers under an interstate or other major arterial warrant testing at each culvert or storm sewer location, while a project comprised of small culverts under a secondary highway may only need a few tests for the entire length of project. 2. Corrosion history of the project location. A site in an area of the state with a high corrosion potential would warrant more tests than a site in an area of the state with a low corrosion potential. 3. Distance of the project. Longer projects tend to pass through several different soil types and geologic conditions, increasing the likelihood of variable pH readings. Tests should be taken at each major change in soil type or topography, or in some cases, at each proposed culvert location. 4. Initial testing results. If initial pH tests indicate that the values are close to or outside of the acceptable range of 5 to 8.5, or if the values vary considerably from location to location, additional testing may be appropriate.
8-5.2 Resistivity
Resistivity is the measure of the ability of soil or water to pass electric current. The lower the resistivity value, the easier it is for the soil or water to pass current, resulting in increased corrosion potential. If the resistivity is less than 1,000 Ohm-cm for a location, then Corrosion Region III pipe materials are the only acceptable alternates. Resistivity test are usually performed in conjunction with pH tests, and the criteria for frequency of pH testing shall apply to resistivity testing as well.
8-5.3 Methods for Controlling Corrosion 8-5.3.1 Protective Treatments

Metal pipe, depending on the material and the geographical location, may require a protective asphalt coating to insure corrosion resistance throughout the pipe design life. As a general guideline, research has shown that asphalt coatings can typically add 15 to 35 years of life to metal pipes. Listed below are six different protective asphalt treatments available for use. The requirements for applying protective treatments are described in Division 9-05.4(3) and (4) of the Standard Specifications.
Page 8-25
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Treatment 1:
Coated uniformly inside and out with asphalt This treatment will protect the soil side of the pipe from corrosion but will only protect the water side of the pipe from corrosion in environments that have little or no bed load moving through the pipe. Most culverts and storm sewers experience some degree of bed load, whether it is native upstream material or roadway sanding debris. The abrasive characteristics of the bed load can remove the asphalt coating relatively quickly, eliminating any corrosion resistance benefit. Consequently, this treatment is rarely specified.
Treatment 2:
Coated uniformly inside and out with asphalt and with an asphalt paved invert. This treatment differs from Treatment 1 in that the invert of the pipe is paved with asphalt. Normal water levels within a pipe generally encompass about 40 percent of the circumference of the pipe, and this is where most of the corrosion takes place. The inside coating of the pipe above the normal water mark is not usually attacked by corrosion. Below the normal water mark, the protective coating suffers from wet and dry cycles and is also exposed to abrasion. For these reasons, the bottom 40 percent of the pipe is most critical and, therefore, paved with asphalt.
Treatment 3:
Coated uniformly inside and out with fibers embedded in the galvanized coating, then coated on both sides with asphalt. This treatment is available for galvanized steel pipe only. During the manufacturing process, fibers are embedded in the zinc galvanizing (sometimes referred to as the spelter). The fibers improve the bond between the asphalt coating and the galvanized coating and increase the long term durability of the pipe. Fiber embedded treatments are required only in highly corrosive environments, such as Corrosion Zone III described in Section 8-4.3. The manufacturing process used to embed the fibers can be utilized for both helical and annular galvanized steel pipe. The fill height tables of Section 8-11 reflect either corrugation type.
Treatment 4:
Coated uniformly inside and out with fibers embedded in the galvanized coating, coated on both sides with asphalt, and with an asphalt paved invert. This treatment is available for galvanized steel pipe only. In addition to the fiber bonded asphalt coat described with Treatment 3, the pipe invert is paved to provide additional corrosion and abrasion protection.
Treatment 5:
Coated uniformly inside and out with asphalt and a 100 percent periphery inside spun asphalt lining This treatment coats the entire inside circumference of the pipe with a thick layer of asphalt, covering the inside corrugations and creating a hydraulically smooth (Mannings n = 0.012) interior. The coating also provides invert protection similar to Treatment 2.
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Treatment 5 can be used on ungasketed lock seam pipe to seal the seam and allow the pipe to pass a pressure test in storm sewer applications. Treatment 6: Coated uniformly inside and out with fibers embedded in the galvanized coating, coated on both sides with asphalt, and with a 100 percent periphery inside spun asphalt lining. This treatment is available for galvanized steel pipe only. It is the same as Treatment 5 except that it includes fibers embedded in the zinc galvanizing. The protective treatments, when required, shall be placed on circular pipe as well as pipe arch culverts. Structural plate pipes do not require protective treatment as described in Section 8-1.3.3. Protective treatments are not allowed to be used for culverts placed in fish bearing streams. This may preclude the use of metal culverts in some applications. The treatments specified in this section are the standard minimum applications which are adequate for a large majority of installations. If it is determined that local conditions exist such that the protective coatings listed above are not sufficient, the designer should specify an adequate protective coating. When unusual abrasive or corrosive conditions are anticipated and it is difficult to determine which treatment would be adequate, it is recommended that either the OSC Materials Laboratory or OSC Hydraulics Branch be consulted.
8-5.3.2
Increased Gauge Thickness

As an alternative to asphalt protective treatments, the thickness of corrugated steel pipes can be increased to compensate for loss of metal due to corrosion. A methodology has been developed by California Transportation Department (Caltrans) to estimate the expected service life of untreated corrugated steel pipes. The method utilizes pH, resistivity, and pipe thickness and is based on data taken from hundreds of culverts throughout California. Copies of the design charts for this method can be obtained from the Regional Hydraulics Section/Contact or from the OSC Hydraulics Branch.
8-6
Abrasion
Abrasion is the wearing away of pipe material by water carrying sands, gravels, and rocks. All types of pipe material are subject to abrasion and can experience structural failure around the pipe invert if not adequately protected. Four abrasion levels have been developed to assist the designer in quantifying the abrasion potential of a site. The abrasion levels are identified in Figure 8-6. The descriptions of abrasion levels are intended to serve as general guidance only, and not all of the criteria listed for a particular abrasion level need to be present to justify placing a site at that level. Included with each abrasion level description are guidelines for providing additional invert protection. The designer is encouraged to use those guidelines in conjunction with the abrasion history of a site to achieve the desired design life of a pipe. Sampling of the streambed materials is generally not necessary, but visual examination and documentation of the size of the materials in the stream bed and the average stream slopes will give the designer guidance on the expected level of abrasion. Where existing culverts are in place in the same drainage, the condition of the
Page 8-27
Pipe Materials
inverts should also be used as guidance. The stream velocity should be based on typical flows, such as a 6-month event, and not a 10- or 50-year event. This is because most of the abrasion will occur during those smaller events. In streams with significant bed loads, placing culverts on flat grades can encourage bed load deposition within the culvert. This can substantially decrease the hydraulic capacity of a culvert, ultimately leading to plugging or potential roadway overtopping on the upstream side of the culvert. As a standard practice, culvert diameters should be increased two or more standard sizes over the required hydraulic opening in situations where abrasion and bed load concerns have been identified.
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Abrasion Level Non Abrasive:
General Site Characteristics Little or no bed load Slopes less than 1% Velocities less than 1 m/s (3 ft/sec) Minor bed loads of sands, silts, and clays Slopes 1% to 2% Velocities less than 2 m/s (6 ft/sec)
Recommended Invert Protection Generally, the asphalt protective treatments required for corrosion and specified in Section 8-5.3.1 will provide adequate abrasion protection under these conditions. Generally, the asphalt protective treatments required for corrosion specified in Section 8-5.3.1 will provide adequate abrasion protection under these conditions. An additional gauge thickness of metal pipe may be specified if existing pipes in the same vicinity have demonstrated susceptibility to abrasion.
Low Abrasive:
Moderate Abrasive:
Moderate bed loads of sands and Metal pipe should be specified with asphalt paved inverts or fiber bonded asphalt. The pipe thickness gravels, with stone sizes up to should be increased one to two standard gages, and about 75 mm (3 in.) the designer should consider concrete-lined metal Slopes 2% to 4% pipe alternatives. Velocities from 2 to 4.5 m/s Box culverts should be specified with an increased (6-15 ft/sec) wall thickness. Asphalt protective treatments will have extremely short life expectancies, sometimes lasting only a few months to a few years. Metal pipe thickness should be increased at least two standard gages, or the pipe invert should be lined with concrete. Box culverts should be specified with an increased Heavy bed loads of sands, gravel wall thickness or an increased concrete and rocks, with stone sizes up to compressive strength. 300 mm (12 in.) or larger Sacrificial metal plates, channels, or rails may need Slopes steeper than 4% to be installed in the pipe invert to increase the ser Velocities greater than 4.5 m/s vice life. It is recommended that either the Region (15 ft/sec) Hydraulics Section/Contact or the OSC Hydraulics Branch be contacted for additional guidance when designing this type of invert protection. Thermoplastic pipe exhibits better abrasion characteristics than metal or concrete. However, it generally cannot be reinforced to provide additional invert protection and is not recommended in this condition. Figure 8.6
Pipe Abrasion Levels
Severe Abrasive
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8-7
Pipe Joints
Culverts, storm sewers, and sanitary sewers require the use of gasketed joints to restrict the amount of leakage into or out of the pipe. The type of gasket material varies, depending on the pipe application and the type of pipe material being used. The Standard Plans and Specifications should be consulted for specific descriptions of the types of joints, coupling bands, and gaskets for the various types of pipe material. Corrugated metal pipe joints incorporate the use of a metal coupling band and neoprene gasket that strap on around the outside of the two sections of pipe to be joined. This joint provides a positive connection between the pipe sections and is capable of withstanding significant tensile forces. Because of this, corrugated metal pipes can be placed on slopes up to 20 percent without the use of pipe anchors. For slopes greater than 20 percent, the designer should consider the use of pipe anchors as discussed in Section 8-8. Metal pipe joints work well in culvert applications, but usually do not meet the pressure test requirements for storm sewer applications. Concrete pipe joints incorporate the use of a rubber o-ring gasket and are held together by friction and the weight of the pipe. Precautions must be taken when concrete pipe is placed on grades greater than 10 percent or in fills where significant settlement is expected, because it is possible for the joints to pull apart. Outlets to concrete pipe must be properly protected from erosion because a small amount of undermining could cause the end section of pipe to disjoin, ultimately leading to failure of the entire pipe system. Concrete joints, because of the o-ring gasket, function well in culvert applications and also consistently pass the pressure testing requirements for storm sewers. Thermoplastic pipe joints vary from manufacturer to manufacturer, but are generally similar in performance to either the corrugated metal pipe joint or the concrete pipe joint described above. There are currently three types of joints available for thermoplastic pipe. They include: Integral bell ends with cleats that positively connect to the spigot end. Slip-on bell ends connected with o-ring gaskets on the spigot end. Strap-on corrugated coupling bands. All three types of joints have demonstrated adequate pull-apart resistance, and can generally be used on most highway or embankment slopes without the use of pipe anchors. However, anytime the slope exceeds 20 percent, the designer should consider the use of pipe anchors.
8-8
Pipe Anchors
Pipes anchors are typically needed when pipe is to be placed above ground. This type of installation is rare, but can occur when pipes must be placed on very steep or highly erosive slopes. In these cases, if the necessary pipe diameter is relatively small (250 mm (10 in.)), continuous corrugated polyethylene tubing can be used without the need for pipe anchors since there are no joints in the pipe. If larger diameter pipe is required, corrugated metal or thermoplastic pipe should be used in conjunction with galvanized steel pipe anchors. Plan D133 of the Plans Preparation Manual includes a pipe anchor detail that can be used for metal or thermoplastic pipe.
Page 8-30
Pipe Materials
8-9
Pipe Rehabilitation
Pipes that have deteriorated over time due to either corrosion or abrasion can significantly affect the structural integrity of the roadway embankment. Once identified, these pipes should be repaired in a timely manner, as failure of the pipe could ultimately result in failure of the roadway. The most common repair method is to remove the existing culvert and replace it with a new one. This method generally requires that all or part of the roadway be closed down for a given amount of time. This may or may not be feasible, depending on the location and importance of the roadway and the size of the pipe structure involved. A number of rehabilitation methods are available which can restore structural integrity to the pipe system while not affecting roadway traffic. Various types of synthetic liners can retrofit the pipe interior, providing structural support. Sliplining is another possibility, where a smaller diameter pipe is inserted into the existing pipe and then backfilled with grout. Tunneling and pipe jacking are also possible, and while typically much more expensive that the other methods, may be the only feasible option for placing pipes under interstates or major arterials. If it is determined that one of these methods may be necessary for a project, the Regional Hydraulics Section/ Contact or the OSC Hydraulics Branch should be consulted for additional information.
8-10
Pipe Design
Based upon material type, pipes can be divided into two broad structural categories: flexible and rigid. Flexible pipes have little structural bending strength on their own. The material from which they are made, such as corrugated metal or thermoplastic, can be flexed or distorted significantly without cracking. Consequently, flexible pipes depend on support from the backfill to resist bending. Rigid pipes, however, are stiff and do not deflect appreciably. The material from which they are made, such as concrete, provides the primary resistance to bending.
8-10.1 Categories of Structural Materials
8-10.2 Structural Behavior of Flexible Pipes

A flexible pipe is a composite structure made up of the pipe barrel and the surrounding soil. The barrel and the soil are both vital elements to the structural performance of the pipe. Flexible pipe has relatively little bending stiffness or bedding strength on its own. As loads are applied to the pipe, the pipe attempts to deflect. In the case of round pipe, the vertical diameter decreases and the horizontal diameter increases, as shown in Figure 8-10.2. When good backfill material is well compacted around the pipe, the increase in the horizontal diameter of the pipe is resisted by the lateral soil pressure. The result is a relatively uniform radial pressure around the pipe which creates a compressive force in the pipe walls, called thrust. The thrust can be calculated, based on the diameter of the pipe and the load placed on the top of the pipe, and is then used as a parameter in the structural design of the pipe.
Page 8-31
Pipe Materials
Figure 8-10.2
Deflection of Flexible Pipes
A flexible pipe will be stable as long as adequate soil support is achieved around the pipe. Standard Plan B-11 and Division 7-08 of the Standard Specifications describe the backfill material requirements and installation procedures required for placing the various types of pipe materials. Following those guidelines will ensure that a stable soil envelope around the pipe is attained during construction.
8-10.3 Structural Behavior of Rigid Pipes

The load carrying capability of rigid pipes is essentially provided by the structural strength of the pipe itself, with some additional support given by the surrounding bedding and backfill. When vertical loads are applied to a rigid pipe, zones of compression and tension are created as illustrated in Figure 8-10.3. Reinforcing steel can be added to the tension zones to increase the tensile strength of concrete pipe. The minor axis for elliptical reinforcement is discussed in Section 8-2.1.
Page 8-32
Pipe Materials
Figure 8-10.3
Zones of Tension and Compression in Rigid Pipes
Rigid pipe is stiffer than the surrounding soil and it carries a substantial portion of the applied load. Shear stress in the haunch area can be critical for heavily loaded rigid pipe on hard foundations, especially if the haunch support is inadequate. Standard Plan B-11 and Division 7-08 of the Standard Specifications describe the backfill material requirements and installation procedures required for placing the various types of pipe materials. The fill height tables for concrete pipe shown in Section 8-11 were developed assuming that those requirements were followed during installation.
8-10.4
Foundation, Bedding, and Backfill

A foundation capable of providing uniform and stable support is important for both flexible and rigid pipes. The foundation must be able to uniformly support the pipe at the proposed grade and elevation without concentrating the load along the pipe. Establishing a suitable foundation requires removal and replacement of any hard spots or soft spots that would result in load concentration along the pipe. Bedding is needed to level out any irregularities in the foundation and to insure adequate compaction of the backfill material. When using flexible pipes, the bedding should be shaped to provide support under the haunches of the pipe. When using rigid pipe, the bedding should be shaped to provide uniform support under the haunches and also shaped to provide clearance for the bell ends on bell and spigot type pipe. The importance of proper backfill for flexible and rigid pipe is discussed in Section 8-10.2 and 8-10.3 respectively. In addition to providing structural support for a pipe, the bedding and backfill must be installed properly to prevent piping from occurring. Piping is a term used to describe the movement of water around and along the outside of a pipe, washing away backfill material that supports the pipe. Piping is primarily a concern in culvert applications, where water at the culvert inlet can saturate the
Page 8-33
Pipe Materials
embankment and move into the pipe zone. Piping can be prevented through the use of headwalls, dikes, or plugs. Headwalls are described in Section 3-4-4 and dikes and plugs are discussed in Division 7-02.3(1) of the Standard Specifications.
8-10.5 Structural Analysis and Fill Height Tables

A structural analysis for the various types of pipe materials available has been performed by the OSC Hydraulics Branch, using currently accepted design methodologies. The results are shown in the fill height tables of Section 8-11. The fill height tables demonstrate the maximum and minimum amounts of cover that can be placed over a pipe, assuming that the pipe is installed in accordance with WSDOT specifications. All culverts, storm sewers, and sanitary sewers shall be installed within the limitations shown in the fill height tables. The designer shall specify the same wall thickness or class of material for the entire length of a given pipe, and that will be based on the most critical load configuration experienced by any part of the pipe. This will negate the necessity of removing structurally inadequate pipe sections at some point in the future should roadway widening occur. For fill heights in excess of 30 m (100 ft), special designs by the OSC Hydraulics Branch will be required.
8-10.6 Pipe Cover

The amount of cover over the top of a pipe is defined as the distance from the top of the crown of the pipe to the bottom of the pavement. It does not include any asphalt or concrete paving above the top course. The minimum amount to cover for most pipe material is typically 0.6 m (2 ft), but can be less for concrete pipe as described in Section 8-10.7. During construction, more restrictive fill heights are required, and are specified in Division 1-07.7 of the Standard Specifications. The restrictive fill heights are intended to protect pipe from construction loads that can exceed typical highway design loads.
8-10.7 Shallow Cover Installation

Pipe systems should be designed to provide at least 0.6 m (2 ft) of cover over the top of the pipe. This tends to provide adequate structural distribution of the live load and also allows a significant number of pipe alternatives to be specified on a contract. However, in some cases, it is not possible to lower a pipe profile to obtain the necessary minimum cover. In those cases, only concrete pipe of the class shown in Fill Height Table 8-11.2 should be specified. Included in that table are typical pipe wall thicknesses for a given diameter. The pipe thickness must be taken into consideration in low cover applications. Justification must also be included in the hydraulic report describing why it was not possible to lower the pipe profile to obtain the preferred 0.6 m (2 ft) of cover. In addition to circular pipe, concrete box culverts and concrete arches are also available for use in shallow cover installations. The designer should consult with either the Regional Hydraulics Section/Contract or the OSC Hydraulics Branch for additional guidance on the use of these structures in this application.
Page 8-34
Pipe Materials
8-11
Pipe
Fill Height Tables

Maximum Cover in Meters Plain AASHTO M 86M 5.5 5.5 5.0 Class II AASHTO M 170M 3.0 3.4 3.4 3.4 3.4 3.7 3.7 3.7 3.7 Class III AASHTO M 170M 4.3 4.3 4.6 4.6 4.6 4.6 4.9 4.9 4.9 Class IV AASHTO M 170M 6.5 6.5 6.5 7.0 7.0 7.0 7.5 7.5 7.5 Class V AASHTO M 170M 7.9 8.5 8.5 9.0 9.0 9.0 9.0 9.0 9.0
Diameter mm 300 450 600 750 900 1200 1500 1800 2100
Minimum Cover: 0.6 meters Fill Height Table 8-11.1 (Metric)

Concrete Pipe
Pipe Diameter in. 12 18 24 30 36 48 60 72 84 Minimum Cover: 2 feet Plain 18 18 16 Class II 10 11 11 11 11 12 12 12 12
Maximum Cover in Feet Class III 14 14 15 15 15 15 16 16 16 Class IV 21 22 22 23 23 23 24 24 24 Class V 26 28 28 29 29 29 30 30 30
AASHTO M 86 AASHTO M 170 AASHTO M 170 AASHTO M 170 AASHTO M 170
Fill Height Table 8-11.1 (English)

Concrete Pipe
Page 8-35
Pipe Materials
Minimum Cover in Meters Pipe Diameter mm 300 450 600 750 900 1200 1500 1800 2100 Pipe Wall Thick. mm 50 63 75 88 100 125 150 175 200 Plain AASHTO M 86M 0.45 0.45 0.45 0.45 0.45 Class III AASHTO M 170M 0.45 0.45 0.45 0.45 0.45 0.45 0.45 0.45 0.45 Fill Height Table 8-11.2 (Metric)
Concrete Pipe for Shallow Cover Installations
Class IV AASHTO M 170M 0.30 0.30 0.30 0.30 0.30 0.30 0.30 0.30 0.30
Class V AASHTO M 170M 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15
Pipe Diameter in. 12 18 24 30 36 48 60 72 84
Pipe Wall Thick. in. 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 5 6 7 8 Plain AASHTO M 86 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5
Minimum Cover in Feet Class III 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 Fill Height Table 8-11.2 (English)
Concrete Pipe for Shallow Cover Installations
Class IV 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
Class V 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5
AASHTO M 170 AASHTO M 170 AASHTO M 170
Page 8-36
Pipe Materials
Pipe Diameter mm 300 450 600 750 900 1050 1200 1350 1500 1650 1800 1950 2100 Minimum Cover: 0.6 meters 1.6 mm 16 ga 30.5 30.5 30 24 20 17 15
Maximum Cover in Meters 2.0 mm 14 ga 30.5 30.5 30.5 30 24.5 21.5 18.5 16.5 2.8 mm 12 ga 30.5 30.5 30.5 30.5 30.5 30 26 23 21 3.5 mm 10 ga 30.5 30.5 30.5 30.5 30.5 30.5 30.5 30 27 24.5 22.5 30.5 30.5 30.5 30.5 30.5 30.5 30.5 30 27.5 24.5 21 4.2 mm 8 ga
Fill Height Table 8-11.3 (Metric)

Corrugated Steel Pipe 68 mm 13 mm Corrugations
AASHTO M 36M
Page 8-37
Pipe Materials
Pipe Diameter in. 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60 66 72 78

84
Maximum Cover in Feet 0.064 in. 16 ga 100 100 98 78 65 56 49 0.079 in. 14 ga 100 100 100 98 81 70 61 54 0.109 in. 12 ga 100 100 100 100 100 98 86 76 68 0.138 in. 10 ga 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 98 88 80 73 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 98 90 80
69
0.168 in. 8 ga
Minimum Cover: 2 feet Fill Height Table 8-11.3 (English)

Corrugated Steel Pipe 2 2 3 in. 12 in. Corrugations
AASHTO M 36
Page 8-38
Pipe Materials
Pipe Diameter mm 900 1050 1200 1350 1500 1650 1800 1950 2100 2250 2400 2550 2700 2850 3000 Minimum Cover: 0.6 meters 1.6 mm 16 ga 23 19.5 17 15 13.5 12.5 11.5 10.5 10 9 2.0 mm 14 ga 28.5 24.5 21.5 19 17 15.5 14.5 13 12 11.5 10.5 10
Maximum Cover in Meters 2.8 mm 12 ga 30.5 30.5 30 27 24 22 20 18.5 17 16 15 14 13.5 12.5 12 3.5 mm 10 ga 30.5 30.5 30.5 30.5 30.5 28 25.5 24 22 20.5 19 18 17 16 15 4.3 mm 8 ga 30.5 30.5 30.5 30.5 30.5 30.5 30.5 29 27 25.5 23.5 22.5 21 20 19

AASHTO M 36M
Page 8-39
Pipe Materials
Pipe Diameter in. 36 42 48 54 60 66 72 78 84 90 96 102 108 114 120 Minimum Cover: 2 feet 0.064 in. 16 ga 75 64 56 50 45 41 37 34 32 30 0.079 in. 14 ga 94 80 70 62 56 51 47 43 40 37 35 33
Maximum Cover in Feet 0.109 in. 12 ga 100 100 99 88 79 72 66 60 56 52 49 46 44 41 39 0.138 in. 10 ga 100 100 100 100 100 92 84 78 72 67 63 59 56 53 50 0.168 in. 8 ga 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 95 89 83 77 73 69 65 62

Corrugated Steel Pipe 3 in. 1 in. Corrugations
AASHTO M 36
Page 8-40
Pipe Materials
Pipe Diameter mm 750 900 1050 1200 1350 1500 1650 1800 1950 2100 2250 2400 Minimum Cover: 0.6 meters 1.6 mm 16 ga 24.5 20.5 17.5 15 13.5 12 11 10 9.5 8.5 8 2.0 mm 14 ga 30.5 25.5 21.5 19 17 15 13.5 12.5 11.5 10.5 10 9.5
Maximum Cover in Meters 2.8 mm 12 ga 30.5 30.5 30.5 27 24 21.5 19.5 17.5 16.5 15 14.5 13.5 3.5 mm 10 ga 30.5 30.5 30.5 30.5 30.5 27.5 25 23 21 19.5 18.5 17 4.3 mm 8 ga 30.5 30.5 30.5 30.5 30.5 30.5 30.5 28 26 24 22.5 21

AASHTO M 36M
Page 8-41
Pipe Materials
Pipe Diameter in. 30 36 42 48 54 60 66 72 78 84 90 96 Minimum Cover: 2 feet 0.064 in. 16 ga 80 67 57 50 44 40 36 33 31 28 26 0.079 in. 14 ga 100 83 71 62 55 50 45 41 38 35 33 31
Maximum Cover in Feet 0.109 in. 12 ga 100 100 100 88 78 70 64 58 54 50 47 44 0.138 in. 10 ga 100 100 100 100 100 90 82 75 69 64 60 56 0.168 in. 8 ga 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 92 85 79 73 69

Corrugated Steel Pipe 5 in. 1 in. Corrugations
AASHTO M 36
Page 8-42
Pipe Materials
Pipe Diameter mm 1500 1800 2100 2400 2700 3000 3300 3600 3900 4200 4500 4800 5100 5400 5700 6000
Minimum Cover m 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 2.8 mm 12 ga 13 10.5 9 8 7 6.5 6 5.5 5 4.5 4.3 3.5 mm 10 ga 19 16 13.5 12 10.5 9.5 9 8 7 6.5 6 6 5.5
Maximum Cover in Meters 4.5 mm 8 ga 25.5 21 18 16 14 13 11.5 11.5 9.5 9 8.5 8 7 7 4.8 mm 7 ga 28 24 20.5 18 16 14.5 13 12 11 10 9.5 9 8.5 8 7.5 7 Fill Height Table 8-11.6 (Metric)
Corrugated Steel Structural Plate Circular Pipe 152 mm 51 mm Corrugations
5.5 mm 5 ga 30.5 28.5 24.5 21.5 19.5 17.8 16 14.5 13 12.5 11.5 10.5 10 9.5 9 9
6.5 mm 3 ga 30.5 30.5 29 22.5 23 20.5 18.5 17 16 14.5 13.5 13 12 11.5 10.5 10
7.0 mm 1 ga 30.5 30.5 30.5 28 24.5 22.5 20 18.5 17 16 15 14 13 12.5 12 11.5
Page 8-43
Pipe Materials
Pipe Diameter in. 60 72 84 96 108 120 132 144 156 168 180 192 204 216 228 240
Minimum Cover ft. 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 0.111 in. 12 ga 42 35 30 27 23 21 19 18 16 15 14 0.140 in. 10 ga 63 53 45 40 35 31 29 26 24 22 20 19 18
Maximum Cover in Feet 0.170 in. 8 ga 83 69 59 52 46 42 37 37 31 30 28 26 24 23 0.188 in. 7 ga 92 79 67 59 53 47 42 40 36 33 31 30 28 26 25 23 Fill Height Table 8-11.6 (English)
Corrugated Steel Structural Plate Circular Pipe 6 in. 2 in. Corrugations
0.218 in. 5 ga 100 94 81 71 64 57 52 47 43 41 38 35 33 31 30 29
0.249 in. 3 ga 100 100 95 84 75 67 61 56 52 48 44 42 40 37 35 33
0.280 in. 1 ga 100 100 100 92 81 74 66 61 56 53 49 46 43 41 39 37
Page 8-44
Pipe Materials
Min. Corner Span Rise mm x mm 430 x 330 530 x 380 610 x 460 710 x 510 885 x 610 1060 x 740 1240 x 840 1440 x 970 1620 x 1100 1800 x 1200 1950 x 1320 2100 x 1450 NS = Not Suitable Radius mm 75 75 75 75 75 88 100 125 150 175 200 225 mm 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.6 2.0 2.8 2.8 3.5 4.3 4.3 Thickness Gage 16 ga 16 ga 16 ga 16 ga 16 ga 16 ga 14 ga 12 ga 12 ga 10 ga 8 ga 8 ga
Maximum Cover in Meters Min. Cover for Soil Bearing Capacity of: m 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.6 0.6 0.6 191 kPa 3.7 3 2.1 1.5 NS NS NS NS NS NS 1.5 1.5 290 kPa 5.5 4.3 4.0 3.4 2.1 2.1 1.8 2.4 2.7 3 3 3

Corrugated Steel Pipe Arch 68 mm 13 mm Corrugations
AASHTO M 36M
Page 8-45
Pipe Materials
Min. Corner Span Rise in. in. 17 13 21 15 24 18 28 20 35 24 42 29 49 33 57 38 64 43 71 47 77 52 83 57 NS = Not Suitable Radius in. 3 3 3 3 3 3.5 4 5 6 7 8 9 in.
Thickness Gage 16 ga 16 ga 16 ga 16 ga 16 ga 16 ga 14 ga 12 ga 12 ga 10 ga 8 ga 8 ga
Minimum Cover Feet 2 2 2 2 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2 2 2
Maximum Cover in Feet for Soil Bearing Capacity of: 2 tons/ft2 12 10 7 5 NS NS NS NS NS NS 5 5 3 tons/ft2 18 14 13 11 7 7 6 8 9 10 10 10
0.064 0.064 0.064 0.064 0.064 0.064 0.079 0.109 0.109 0.138 0.168 0.168

Corrugated Steel Pipe Arch 2 2 3 in. 12 in. Corrugations
AASHTO M 36
Page 8-46
Pipe Materials
Corner Span Rise mm mm 1010 790 1160 920 1340 1050 1520 1170 1670 1300 1850 1400 2050 1500 2200 1620 2400 1720 2600 1820 2840 1920 2970 2020 3240 2120 3470 2220 3600 2320 Radius mm 125 150 175 200 225 300 350 350 400 400 450 450 450 450 450 mm 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.8 2.8 2.8 3.5 3.5 4.3 Thickness Gage 14 ga 14 ga 14 ga 14 ga 14 ga 14 ga 14 ga 14 ga 14 ga 12 ga 12 ga 12 ga 10 ga 10 ga 8 ga
Min. Cover mm 0.8 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6
Maximum Cover in Feet for Soil Bearing Capacity of: 190 kPa 2.4 2.4 2.4 2.4 2.7 3.4 3.4 3 3.4 3 3 3 2.7 2.4 2.1 290 kPa 3.7 4 4 4 4 4.9 5.2 4.9 5.2 4.5 4.9 4.5 4.3 4 3.7

Corrugated Steel Pipe Arch 75 mm 25 mm Corrugations
AASHTO M-36M
Page 8-47
Pipe Materials
Corner Span Rise in. in. 40 31 46 36 53 41 60 46 66 51 73 55 81 59 87 63 95 67 103 71 112 75 117 79 128 83 137 87 142 91 Radius in. 5 6 7 8 9 12 14 14 16 16 18 18 18 18 18 in. 0.079 0.079 0.079 0.079 0.079 0.079 0.079 0.079 0.079 0.109 0.109 0.109 0.138 0.138 0.168 Thickness Gage 14 ga 14 ga 14 ga 14 ga 14 ga 14 ga 14 ga 14 ga 14 ga 12 ga 12 ga 12 ga 10 ga 10 ga 8 ga
Min. Cover Feet 2.5 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
Maximum Cover in Feet for Soil Bearing Capacity of: 2 tons/ft2 8 8 8 8 9 11 11 10 11 10 10 10 9 8 7 3 tons/ft2 12 13 13 13 13 16 17 16 17 15 16 15 14 13 12

Corrugated Steel Pipe Arch 3 in. 1 in. Corrugations
AASHTO M36
Page 8-48
Pipe Materials
Thickness Span Rise mm mm 1850 1400 2130 1550 2410 1700 2690 1850 2970 2010 3330 2160 3610 2310 3910 2540 4040 2840 4320 3000 4670 3150 4950 3300 5230 3450 5510 3610 5870 3760 6070 3910 6270 4010 Corner Radius mm 457 457 457 457 457 457 457 457 787 787 787 787 787 787 787 787 787
190 kPa Soil Bearing Capacity Min. Cover m 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.8 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.9 Max. Cover m 5 4.3 4 3.4 3 2.7 2.1 1.8 4 3.7 3.4 3.4 3 3 2.7 2.7 2.1
290 kPa Soil Bearing Capacity Min. Cover m 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.9 Max. Cover m 7 6.5 6 5 4.5 4.3 4 3.7 5 5 4.5 4.3 4 3.7 4 4 4
mm 2.8 2.8 2.8 2.8 2.8 2.8 2.8 2.8 2.8 2.8 3.5 3.5 3.5 4.5 4.5 4.8 4.8
Gage 12 ga 12 ga 12 ga 12 ga 12 ga 12 ga 12 ga 12 ga 12 ga 12 ga 10 ga 10 ga 10 ga 8 ga 8 ga 6 ga 6 ga
* Fill limited by the seam strength of the bolts. Additional sizes are available. Contact the OSC Hydraulics Branch for more information. Fill Height Table 8-11.9 (Metric)
Corrugated Steel Structural Plate Pipe Arch 152 mm 51 mm Corrugations
Page 8-49
Pipe Materials
Thickness Span Rise ft.-in. ft.-in. 614-7 705-1 7 11 5 - 7 8 10 6 - 1 996-7 10 11 7 - 1 11 10 7 - 7 12 10 8 - 4 13 3 9 - 4 14 2 9 - 10 15 4 10 - 4 16 3 10 - 10 17 2 11 - 4 18 1 11 - 10 19 3 12 - 4 19 11 12 - 10 20 7 13 - 2 Corner Radius in. 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 31 31 31 31 31 31 31 31 31
2 TSF Soil Bearing Capacity Min. Cover ft. 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2.5 2 2 2 2 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 3 Max. Cover ft. 16 14 13 11 10 9 7 6 13 12 11 11 10 10 9 9 7
3 TSF Soil Bearing Capacity Min. Cover ft. 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 3 Max. Cover ft. 24 21 19 17 15 14 13 12 17* 16* 15* 14* 13* 12* 13 13 13
in. 0.111 0.111 0.111 0.111 0.111 0.111 0.111 0.111 0.111 0.111 0.140 0.140 0.140 0.168 0.168 0.188 0.188
Gage 12 ga 12 ga 12 ga 12 ga 12 ga 12 ga 12 ga 12 ga 12 ga 12 ga 10 ga 10 ga 10 ga 8 ga 8 ga 6 ga 6 ga
* Fill limited by the seam strength of the bolts.
TSF: tons per square foot
Additional sizes are available. Contact the OSC Hydraulics Branch for more information. Fill Height Table 8-11.9 (English)
Corrugated Steel Structural Plate Pipe Arch 6 in. 2 in. Corrugations
Page 8-50
Pipe Materials
Pipe Diameter mm 300 450 600 750 900 1050 1200 1350 1500 1650 1800 Minimum Cover: 0.6 meters 1.5 mm (16 ga) 30.5 23 17 1.9 mm (14 ga) 30.5 28.5 21.5 56 14.5
Maximum Cover in Meters 2.7 mm (12 ga) 30.5 30 24 20 17 15 13 26 22 19 17 15 24 21 19 17 13.5 3.4 mm (10 ga) 4.2 mm (8 ga)

Aluminum Pipe 68 mm 13 mm Corrugations
AASHTO M 196M
Page 8-51
Pipe Materials
Pipe Diameter in. 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60 66 72 Minimum Cover: 2 Feet 0.060 in. (16 ga) 100 75 56 0.075 in. (14 ga) 100 94 71 56 47
Maximum Cover in Feet 0.105 in. (12 ga) 100 99 79 66 56 49 43 85 73 63 56 50 78 69 62 56 45 0.135 in (10 ga) 0.164 in. (8 ga)

Aluminum Pipe 2 2 3 in. 12 in. Corrugations
AASHTO M 196
Page 8-52
Pipe Materials
Pipe Diameter mm 900 1050 1200 1350 1500 1650 1800 1950 2100 2250 2400 2550 2700 2850 3000 Minimum Cover: 0.6 meters 1.5 mm (16 ga) 13 11 9.5 8.5 1.9 mm (14 ga) 20 14 12 10.5 9.5 8.5 8.0 7.5
Maximum Cover in Meters 2.7 mm (12 ga) 23 20 17.5 15 13.5 12.5 11.5 10.5 9.5 9.0 8.0 3.4 mm (10 ga) 30 25.5 22 20 17.5 16 14.5 13.5 12.5 11.5 11 10 9.5 27.5 24.5 22 20 18 17 15.5 14.5 13.5 12.5 12 11.5 10.5 4.2 mm (8 ga)
Fill Height Table 8-11.11 (metric)

Aluminum Pipe 75 mm 25 mm Corrugations
AASHTO M 196M
Page 8-53
Pipe Materials
Pipe Diameter in. 36 42 48 54 60 66 72 78 84 90 96 102 108 114 120 Minimum Cover: 2 Feet 0.060 in. (16 ga) 43 36 32 28 0.075 in. (14 ga) 65 46 40 35 32 28 26 24
Maximum Cover in Feet 0.105 in. (12 ga) 76 65 57 50 45 41 37 34 31 29 27 0.135 in. (10 ga) 98 84 73 65 58 53 48 44 41 38 36 33 31 90 80 72 65 59 55 51 47 44 41 39 37 35 0.164 in. (8 ga)

Aluminum Pipe 3 in. 1 in. Corrugations
AASHTO M 196
Page 8-54
Pipe Materials
Pipe Dia. mm. 1500 1800 2100 2400 2700 3000 3300 3600 3900 4200 4500 Minimum Cover: 0.6 meters 2.5 mm 9.5 7.5 6.5 6 5 4.5 4.3 3.7 3.2 mm 13.5 11.5 10 8.5 7.5 6.5 6 5.5 5
Maximum Cover in Meters 3.8 mm 18.5 15 13 11.5 10 9 8 7.5 7 6.5 4.4 mm 21.5 17.5 15 13.5 12 10.5 10 9 8 7.5 7 5.1 mm 24.5 20.5 17.5 15 13.5 12 11.5 10 9.5 9 8 5.7 mm 28 23.5 20 17.5 15.5 14 13 11.5 10.5 10 9 6.4 mm 30.5 26 22.5 19.5 17.5 15.5 14.5 13 12 11 10.5

Aluminum Structural Plate 230 mm 64 mm Corrugations With Galvanized Steel Bolts
Pipe Dia. in. 60 72 84 96 108 120 132 144 156 168 180 Minimum Cover: 2 feet 0.100 in. 31 25 22 19 17 15 14 12 0.125 in. 45 37 32 28 25 22 20 18 17 60 50 42 37 33 30 27 25 23 31
Maximum Cover in Feet 0.150 in. 0.175 in. 70 58 50 44 39 35 32 29 27 25 23 0.200 in. 81 67 58 50 45 40 37 33 31 29 27 0.225 in. 92 77 66 57 51 46 42 38 35 33 30 0.250 in. 100 86 73 64 57 51 47 43 39 36 34

Aluminum Structural Plate 9 in. 2 12 in. Corrugations With Galvanized Steel Bolts
Page 8-55
Pipe Materials
Corner Span Rise mm mm 430 330 530 380 610 460 710 510 885 610 1060 740 1240 840 1440 970 1620 1100 1800 1200 NS = Not Suitable Fill Height Table 8-11.13 (Metric)
Aluminum Pipe Arch 68 mm 13 mm Corrugations
AASHTO M 196M
Radius mm 75 75 75 75 75 89 102 127 152 178 mm 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.9 1.9 2.7 2.7 3.4 3.4 4.2
Thickness Gage 16 ga 16 ga 16 ga 14 ga 14 ga 12 ga 12 ga 10 ga 10 ga 8 ga
Min. Cover m 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.6
Maximum Cover in Meters for Soil Bearing Capacity of: 190 kPa 3.7 3 2.1 1.5 NS NS NS NS NS NS 290 kPa 5.5 4.3 4 3.4 2.1 2.1 1.8 2.4 2.7 3.0
Corner Span Rise in. in. 17 13 21 15 24 18 28 20 35 24 42 29 49 33 57 38 64 43 71 47 NS = Not Suitable Fill Height Table 8-11.13 (English)
Aluminum Pipe Arch 2 2 3 12 Corrugations
Radius in. 3 3 3 3 3 3.5 4 5 6 7 in.
Thickness Gage 16 ga 16 ga 16 ga 14 ga 14 ga 12 ga 12 ga 10 ga 10 ga 8 ga
Min. Cover Feet 2 2 2 2 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2
Maximum Cover in Feet for Soil Bearing Capacity of: 2 tons/ft2 12 10 7 5 NS NS NS NS NS NS 3 tons/ft2 18 14 13 11 7 7 6 8 9 10
0.060 0.060 0.060 0.075 0.075 0.105 0.105 0.135 0.135 0.164
Page 8-56
Pipe Materials
Corner Span Rise mm mm 1010 790 1160 920 1340 1050 1520 1170 1670 1300 1850 1400 2050 1500 2200 1620 2400 1720 2600 1820 2840 1920 Radius mm 127 152 178 203 229 305 356 356 406 406 457 mm 1.9 1.9 1.9 1.9 1.9 1.9 1.7 2.7 2.7 3.4 4.2 Thickness Gage 14 ga 14 ga 14 ga 14 ga 14 ga 14 ga 12 ga 12 ga 12 ga 10 ga 8 ga Min. Cover m 0.8 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6
Maximum Cover in Feet for Soil Bearing Capacity of: 190 kPa 2.4 2.4 2.4 2.4 2.7 3.4 3.4 3 3.4 3 3 290 kPa 3.7 4 4 4 4 5 5 5 5 4.5 5

Aluminum Pipe Arch 75 mm 25 mm Corrugations
AASHTO M 196M
Corner Span Rise in. in. 40 31 46 36 53 41 60 46 66 51 73 55 81 59 87 63 95 67 103 71 112 75 Radius in. 5 6 7 8 9 12 14 14 16 16 18 in. 0.075 0.075 0.075 0.075 0.060 0.075 0.105 0.105 0.105 0.135 0.164 Thickness Gage 14 ga 14 ga 14 ga 14 ga 14 ga 14 ga 12 ga 12 ga 12 ga 10 ga 8 ga Min. Cover Feet 2.5 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
Maximum Cover in Feet for Soil Bearing Capacity of: 2 tons/ft2 8 8 8 8 9 11 11 10 11 10 10 3 tons/ft2 12 13 13 13 13 16 17 16 17 15 16

Aluminum Pipe Arch 3 1 Corrugations
AASHTO M 196
Page 8-57
Pipe Materials
Corner Span Rise mm mm a 1800 1650 b 2100 1750 c 2210 1800 d 2360 1830 e 2570 1910 f 2820 1960 g 3120 2060 h 3280 2080 i 3480 2160 j 3840 2260 k 3940 2290 l 3990 2490 m 4240 2570 n 4470 2950 o 4670 3050 p 4900 3150 q 5110 3250 r 5260 3350 s 5490 3450 t 5690 3560 Radius mm 808 808 808 808 808 808 808 808 808 808 808 808 808 808 808 808 808 808 808 808
Minimum Gage Thickness mm 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 3.2 3.8 3.8 3.8 4.4 4.4 5.1 5.1 5.7 6.4 6.4
Min. Cover m 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.67 0.69 0.69 0.71
Maximum Cover (1) in Feet for Soil Bearing Capacity of: 190 kPa 7* 6.5* 6* 5.5* 5* 4.5* 4.3* 4* 3.7* 4.3 4 4 3.7 3.7 3.4 3 3 3 2.7 2.7 290 kPa 7* 6.5* 6* 5.5* 5* 4.5* 4.3* 4* 3.7* 5* 4.3* 5.5* 5* 5.5 5 5 4.5 4.5 4.3 4.3
*Fill limited by the seam strength of the bolts.

(1)Additional sizes and varying cover heights are available, depending on gage thickness and reinforcement
spacing. Contact the OSC Hydraulics Branch for more information. Fill Height Table 8-11.15 (Metric)
Aluminum Structural Plate Arch 230 mm 64 mm Corrugations, 19 mm Steel Bolts, 4 Bolts/Corrugation
Page 8-58
Pipe Materials
Corner Span Rise ft - in ft - in a 5 - 11 x 5 - 5 b 6 - 11 x 5 -9 c 7 - 3 x 5 - 11 d e f 7-9x6-0 8-5x6-3 9-3x6-5 Radius in. 31.8 31.8 31.8 31.8 31.8 31.8 31.8 31.8 31.8 31.8 31.8 31.8 31.8 31.8 31.8 31.8 31.8 31.8 31.8 31.8
Minimum Gage Thickness in. 0.100 0.100 0.100 0.100 0.100 0.100 0.100 0.100 0.100 0.125 0.150 0.150 0.150 0.175 0.175 0.200 0.200 0.225 0.255 0.250
Min. Cover ft. 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2.17 2.25 2.25 2.33
Maximum Cover (1) in Feet For Soil Bearing Capacity of: 2 tons/ft2 24* 22* 20* 28* 17* 15* 14* 13* 12* 14 13 13 12 12 11 10 10 10 9 9 3 tons/ft2 24* 22* 20* 18* 17* 15* 14* 13* 12* 16* 14* 18* 17* 18 17 16 15 15 14 14
g 10 - 3 x 6 - 9 h 10 - 9 x 6 - 10 i 11 - 5 x 7 -1 j 12 - 7 x 7 - 5 k 12 - 11 x 7 - 6 l 13 - 1 x 8 -2 m 13 - 11 x 8 - 5 n 14 - 8 x 9 - 8 o 15 - 4 x 10 - 0 p 16 - 1 x 10 - 4 q 16 - 9 x 10 - 8 r 17 - 3 x 11 - 0 s 18 - 0 x 11 - 4 t 18 - 8 x 11 - 8
*Fill limited by the seam strength of the bolts.

(1)Additional sizes and varying cover heights are available, depending on gage thickness and reinforcement
spacing. Contact the OSC Hydraulics Branch for more information. Fill Height Table 8-11.15 (English)
Aluminum Structural Plate Pipe Arch 9 in. 2 in. Corrugations, 3 4 in. Steel Bolts, 4 Bolts/Corrugation
1 2
Page 8-59
Pipe Materials
Maximum Cover in Meters Diameter mm 450 600 750 900 1050 1200 1350 1500 1.6 mm 16 ga 15 15 12.5 10.5 9 8 7 6 2.0 mm 14 ga 22 22 17.5 14.5 12.5 11 10 9 30.5 29.5 24.5 21 18.5 16.5 15 2.8 mm 12 ga
Minimum Cover: 0.6 meters Fill Height Table 8-11.16 (Metric)

Steel and Aluminized Steel Spiral Rib Pipe 19 25 292 mm or 19 19 191 mm Corrugations
AASHTO M 36M
Maximum Cover in Feet Diameter in. 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60 Minimum Cover: 2 feet Fill Height Table 8-11.16 (English)
Steel and Aluminized Steel Spiral Rib Pipe 3 1 11 1 in. or 3 3 7 1 in. Corrugations 4 2 4 4 2
AASHTO M 36
0.064 in. 16 ga 50 50 41 34 29 26 21 19
0.079 in. 14 ga 72 72 58 48 41 36 32 29
0.109 in. 12 ga 100 97 81 69 61 54 49
Page 8-60
Pipe Materials
Maximum Cover in Meters Diameter mm 300 450 600 750 900 1050 1200 1350 1500 Minimum Cover: 0.6 meters Fill Height Table 8-11.17 (Metric)
Aluminum Alloy Spiral Rib Pipe 19 25 292 mm or 19 19 190 mm Corrugations
AASHTO M 196M
1.5 mm 16 ga 11 10.5 7.5 6 4.5
1.9 mm 14 ga 15 14.5 11 8.5 7.5 6 5 4.3 3.7
2.7 mm 12 ga
3.4 mm 10 ga
19 15 12.5 10.5 9 8 7.5
25 20 16.5 14 12 10.5 9
Maximum Cover in Feet Diameter in. 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60 Minimum Cover: 2 feet Fill Height Table 8-11.17 (English)
3 4
0.060 in. 16 ga 35 34 25 19 15
0.075 in. 14 ga 50 49 36 28 24 19 17 14 12
0.105 in. 12 ga
0.135 10 ga
63 50 41 35 30 27 24
82 65 54 46 40 35 30
Aluminum Alloy Spiral Rib Pipe 1 11 12 in. or 3 4 3 4 7 12 in. Corrugations

AASHTO M 196
Page 8-61
Pipe Materials
Solid Wall PVC
Profile Wall PVC
Corrugated Polyethylene
ASTM D 3034 SDR 35 75 mm to 375 mm dia.
AASHTO M 304 or ASTM F 794 Series 46
AASHTO M 294 Type S 300 mm to 900 mm dia.
ASTM F 679 Type 1 450 mm to 675 mm dia. 8 meters All diameters Minimum Cover: 0.6 meters
100 mm to 1200 mm dia. 8 meters All diameters 4 meters All diameters
Fill Height Table 8-11.18

Thermoplastic Pipe (Metric)
Solid Wall PVC
Profile Wall PVC
Corrugated Polyethylene
ASTM D 3034 SDR 35 3 in. to 15 in. dia.
AASHTO M 304 or ASTM F 794 Series 46
AASHTO M 294 Type S 12 in. to 36 in. dia.
ASTM F 679 Type 1 18 in. to 27 in. dia. 25 feet All diameters Minimum Cover: 2 feet
4 in. to 48 in. dia. 25 feet All diameters 15 feet All diameters
Fill Height Table 8-11.18

Thermoplastic Pipe (English)
8:F:DP.HM
Page 8-62
Contents
Page
Chapter 9
Highway Rest Areas

9-1 General 9-2 Submittal 9-2.1 Water Supply System Data Requirements 9-2.2 Sewage Disposal System Data Requirements 9-3 Water Supply 9-3.1 Test Well 9-3.2 Water Demands at Rest Areas 9-3.3 Reservoirs 9-4 Sewage Disposal 9-4.1 Municipal Sewer Systems 9-4.2 Long Distance Pressure Sewers 9-4.3 Septic Tank and Drainfield 9-4.4 Sewage Lagoons
9-1 9-1 9-1 9-1 9-2 9-2 9-2 9-3 9-5 9-6 9-6 9-7 9-8 9-13
9A:F:DP/HM
Page 9-i
Page 9-ii
Chapter 9
9-1 General
Highway Rest Areas
Each region is responsible for the design of the water and sewage disposal systems for rest areas, maintenance buildings, and other capital improvements. Upon request from the region, Olympia Service Center (OSC) Hydraulics Branch can complete the design in its entirety if given the appropriate information. In any case, OSC Hydraulics Branch will be available for design guidance. The hydraulic report for this type of project is a Type A report. Because the designs of an adequate potable water supply and an adequate sewage disposal system are required for determination of the full right of way needs, they must be reviewed and approved by the OSC Hydraulics Branch in advance of the finalization of the ultimate right of way plans. Adequate planning and design of water supply and sewage disposal systems require consultation and coordination with OSC Field Operations Support Service Center Roadside Maintenance Branch and the appropriate federal, state, and local agencies during the earliest stages of planning. Consult with the Central Operations Division of the Department of Ecology (DOE) regarding the need of a water right permit, and with the local health agency or the Department of Health (DOH), for a source site inspection when developing the water supply. When the proposed facilities for rest areas include an on-site sewage disposal system, consult with the local health authority, the DOH or DOE, depending on the design flow: see Section 9-4.3.
9-2
Submittal
The regions shall submit site plans and the data outlined in Sections 9-2.1 and 9-2.2 in a bound report to the OSC Hydraulics Branch prior to finalization of the right of way plans. Water supply and wastewater disposal facilities must obtain the approval of the appropriate regulatory agencies: Department of Ecology; Department of Health, Environmental Health Programs; and/or the local health department. The Rules and Regulations of the Department of Health for public water supplies has specific design requirements and recommended guidelines: see WAC 246-290.
9-2.1 Water Supply System Data Requirements

1. Source, location, and type of electrical power. (Single or three phase and voltages available.) 2. Geologist report to include: a. Depth of water-bearing strata determined by test drilling. b. Requirement of gravel-pack. c. Size of well screen required. d. Pump test for quantity. DOH requires a minimum 4-hour test. e. Health Department test for quality.
Page 9-1
Highway Rest Areas
3. Engineering calculations for proposed design. 4. Results of consultation with DOE for water rights permit, and with DOH concerning source location. 5. Recommendations concerning restroom capacity. 6. Irrigation requirements in terms of highest anticipated flow rate and approximate area to be irrigated.
9-2.2 Sewage Disposal System Data Requirements

1. Site plan of sewage disposal system. 2. Engineering report to include: a. Recommended type of disposal system, such as septic tank and drainfield, leaching bed, sewage lagoon, septic tank effluent pressure line, etc. b. Soil types in area of drainfield, lagoon, etc. c. Depth of groundwater. d. Results of soil investigation conducted in the method(s) prescribed by the State and County Health Departments. Detail the data to include pit site locations, soil logs and the date completed. e. Design criteria. 3. Engineering calculations for proposed design.
9-3
Water Supply
Most highway rest areas are located in rural areas and therefore require an on-site well to provide the water supply. In cases where the rest area is in the service area of a private or public water system, the designer must investigate the costs of water service from the water district in lieu of a well. Consideration should be given to the on-going maintenance costs involved in operating a well.
9-3.1 Test Well

If an on-site well is required to provide the water supply, a test well must be drilled to ensure an adequate supply of potable water. The test well may be drilled under a well drilling contract or a fully operated equipment agreement as described in RCW 47.28.030. The right of way for the test well may be purchased in accordance with RCW 47.12.011. The agreement should include permission to enter the land in order to drill a well and conduct the necessary tests. After an adequate water supply has been obtained, the right of way may be acquired. The final determination of each pump capacity should be made after the capacity of the well has been determined, so that the pump capacity will not greatly exceed the well capacity. Wells drilled for highway rest areas shall have a minimum diameter of 8 inches. Details for well design can be found in Minimum Standards for Construction and Maintenance of Wells - Chapter 173-160 WAC, prepared by DOE.
Page 9-2
Highway Rest Areas
9-3.2 Water Demands at Rest Areas

The design criteria used by the Washington State Department of Transportation (WSDOT) for major rest areas are specific to the rest area. Through traffic counts, OSC Transportation Data Office (TDO) can calculate the size of the rest area facility. TDO will determine the percent of the average daily traffic entering the rest area on an average day and a peak day, the percent of vehicles entering during the peak hour, the average number of occupants per vehicle, the percentage of occupants using the rest room and the annual growth rate for the area. From this information, TDO calculates the number of parking stalls and restroom units required. Their analysis will include current and design year criteria. Only in the absence of any historical demand information should the values given in Figure 9-3.2 be used. Average Daily Traffic (ADT) projected for 20 years hence. Rest area on interstate; percent of ADT entering on an average day Rest area on interstate; percent of ADT entering on a peak day Rest area near parks, resorts, or towns; percent of ADT entering on an average day Percent of people stopping using rest-rooms Average number of people per vehicle Average water use per person, m3 (gallons) 12%
24% 5%
77% 2.2 0.013 (3.5) Conventional toilet 0.013 (3.5) Conventional urinal 0.002 (0.5) Compressed air toilet
Peak hour factor; as a percent of ADT entering the rest area
12%
Figure 9-3.2
Rest Area Design Criteria
Most existing rest areas have historical water use records to aid the designer in developing the proper usage rates. The designer should be aware of the hourly distribution and water demand throughout the design day or design weekend. Summer holiday weekends nearly always control the size of the water systems and shall be used for the design of water storage tanks and pump capacities, septic tanks, and drain field sizes for rest areas. Some systems may be sensitive to the monthly variations in rest area usage. Septic tank and drainfields and sewage lagoons may require the designer to consider these monthly variations in demand along with climatic variations. Another consideration that should be included in the design of a rest area is the potential for a recreational vehicle (RV) dump site. A breakdown of the number and type of RVs using the rest area should be requested from the TDO. The type of RV
Page 9-3
Highway Rest Areas
is of importance because the volume of wastewater generated from an RV varies from 0.095 m3 to 0.378 m3 (25 gallons to 100 gallons) dependent on whether the RV is a camper, trailer, or motor home. If an RV type classification is not provided, the designer should assume for sewage disposal purposes that each RV will dispose of 0.3 m3 (80 gallons) of wastewater. When estimating the amount of water required by an RV at the dump site, 0.15 m3 (40 gallons) per RV should be used.
9-3.2.1
User Analysis
Once the design criteria is known, the supply of water necessary to meet rest area demands can be determined from the number of users. Dependent on the detail of user information available, there are several ways in which the required water supply can be determined. From general to detailed, the water supply can be determined in terms of the average daily traffic, the number of vehicles using the rest area, or the number of people using the rest rooms. In most cases, detailed information is not available and the analysis is based on the average daily traffic. For discussion purposes, the three approaches are discussed below. Using the data provided by TDO or Figure 9-3.2, the equation for calculating the daily water usage from average daily traffic counts is as follows: Volume in m3 used on an average day = A B C D E where A = Average Daily Traffic (ADT) B = Percent vehicles entering rest area C = Number of persons per vehicle D = Percent people using rest rooms E = Water use per person, m3 (gallons) Using the numerical values in Figure 9-3.2, as an example, the equation becomes: Volume in m3 used on an average day = (ADT) (0.12) (2.2) (0.77) (0.013) Volume in m3 used on an average day = (ADT) (0.003) (Gallons used on an average day = ADT 0.712) In general, the peak hour usage should be checked to ensure that this demand can be met. This can be done by including a peak hour factor multiplier, (F) This factor is a percent of the ADT entering the rest area. The formula is then revised to read: Volume in m3 used during peak hour = A B C D E F Once again, using the numerical values in Figure 9-3.2, as an example, the equation becomes: Volume in m3 used during peak hour = (ADT) (0.12) (2.2) (0.77) (0.013) (0.12) Volume in m3 used during peak hour = (ADT) (3.2 10-4) (Gallons used during peak hour = ADT 0.085) The second method in determining the supply of water required is based on the number of vehicles using the rest area. This method assigns the number of gallons required per vehicle. For example, on average, one person using the rest room uses
Page 9-4
Highway Rest Areas
0.013 m3 (3.5 gallons) of water. This amount may be less if low flow toilets or sinks are used. If 80 percent of the people in the vehicles use the rest room and there is an average of 3 people per vehicle, one could say that the occupants of one vehicle use 3.0 x 0.80 x 0.013 = 0.031 m3 (8.4 gallons). If the number of vehicles using the rest area is known, the total amount of water needed can be determined. Similarly, for RV dumps, the water supply required would be equivalent to the number of RVs using the dump times the average amount of water required per RV, 0.15 m3 (40 gallons). For example, if 67 RVs used the dump site in a day, the daily total water supply required would be 10 m3 (2,680 gallons). The third method is based on the number of times the facilities are used. At times, the number of people using the rest rooms may be known. The total water supply required to meet rest room demands is the number of users per day times 0.013 m 3 (3.5 gallons) per user. For example, a rest area that has 9,300 users/day will need 123.2 m 3 (32,550 gallons) of water to meet rest room demands. When using this method in estimating the required water supply, it is important to include all possible uses of the facilities, such as rest rooms, RV dumps, and irrigation. Similar to the first method, the daily water supply determined from the second and third method can be expressed in terms of peak and future use. In general the design should be based on a 20-year design. The volumes needed in the design year can be calculated by applying an annual growth rate to the amount estimated under existing conditions. Peak hour usage can also be figured by applying a peak hour factor. Regardless of which time frame is being used, the designer should assume that the amount of water consumed by rest room usage equals the sewage generated. In the case of sewage from RV dumps, the designer should assume the sewage generated is 0.3 m3 (80 gallons) per RV or twice the water consumed.
9-3.3 Reservoirs
The supply of water from on-site wells alone may not be sufficient to meet peak demands. Storage facilities such as reservoirs and pressure tanks are useful in satisfying these demands. An elevated storage reservoir in lieu of a pressure tank should always be considered in the design of the water supply, especially where the reservoir could be conveniently located on a nearby hill. Elevated storage reservoirs are preferred because these reservoirs can operate on a gravity system, reducing maintenance and operation costs. An underground reservoir should be considered when a low producing well is being utilized. This will allow for storage which will meet the maximum demand without exceeding the capacity of the well. When an underground reservoir is used, two pumps can be specified, one for supplying the irrigation water and the other for supplying the domestic water. If a separate source of water supply is used for irrigation, it must be plainly identified as such and not be interconnected with the potable supply system. All pressure tanks shall be designed using the Sizing Guidelines for Public Water Supplies, September 1983, from the Department of Health. All hydropneumatic tanks larger than 0.14 m3 (37.4 gallons) in volume must be of ASME approved construction and have the ASME identifying plate and data sheets for proper registration.
Page 9-5
Highway Rest Areas
9-4
Sewage Disposal
The first consideration in the selection of a rest area site should be the suitability of the area to provide an adequate means for sewage disposal. Since the cost for performing the required tests for a drainfield are much less than those required for a well, it seems only reasonable that the sewage disposal system should be given first consideration. A bound report should be submitted to the Regional or OSC Hydraulics Branch for review and approval. This report should include the information described in Section 9-2.2 along with any other information required for the type of sewage disposal system chosen. The report shall be written in collaboration with the appropriate local or state health agencies.
9-4.1 Municipal Sewer Systems

Whenever a rest area is located near a large populated area served by a municipal sewer system, the designer should give serious consideration to connecting the rest area directly to the sewer by a gravity line. Metering the sewage is best accomplished by metering the incoming water supply and assuming this to be equal to the sewage flows. All sanitary sewers shall be designed according to the criteria furnished by the local sewer district. In the absence of such criteria or when building on highway right of way, sanitary sewers shall be designed and constructed to give mean velocities, when flowing full, of not less than 0.6 m/s (2.0 ft/s). The following minimum slopes should be provided. Sewer Size (mm) 100 150 200 250 300 380 460 530 610 690 760 920 Sewer Size (inches) 4 6 8 10 12 15 18 21 24 27 30 36 Figure 9-4.1
Minimum Slope by Sewer Diameter
Minimum Slope (%) 2.0 0.6 0.40 0.28 0.22 0.15 0.12 0.10 0.08 0.07 0.06 0.05
Page 9-6
Highway Rest Areas
When a gravity line is not possible, the second best choice is connecting into a municipal system via a packaged sewage lift station and a short pressure line. Metering of a lift station can usually be accomplished by placing a counter on the pumps and calibrating the volume of sewage discharged by each cycle of the pump.
9-4.2 Long Distance Pressure Sewers

When a pressure sewer line is longer than a few thousand feet, the designer needs to be aware of special problems that can occur. Long runs of pipe can significantly increase the detention time of the effluent in the pipe, which can cause the effluent to turn septic. This septic sewage will generate hydrogen sulfide which is noted for its toxicity and for its ability to cause corrosion of many materials used in sewer construction. The hydrogen sulfide gas has also been known to cause an odor nuisance at the point where it is released to the atmosphere. Long pressure sewers must be constructed of PVC plastic pipe in order to resist the corrosive effects of hydrogen sulfide gas. The ventilation points should be remotely located to avoid becoming an odor nuisance. The designer should strive to discharge into a sewer with a fairly significant base flow. This will allow the septic sewage to dilute with fresh sewage and thereby cause less damage to the receiving sewer system. When connecting to a local sewer system, two to three manholes downstream of the connection should be covered with hydrogen sulfide resistant coating. Discharging into the remote end of a concrete sewer should be avoided. Mechanical aeration should be considered as a treatment to the hydrogen sulfide problem. Several references, such as the Department of Ecologys Criteria for Sewage Works Design, are available to aid the designer in sizing aeration equipment for the pressure line as well as the wet wells. Other methods of treatment, such as chemical additives, are not recommended due to the costs and operational problems. Sediment build-up is also a great concern with long distance pressure sewers. For this reason, it is recommended that the sewage be passed through a septic tank prior to entering the pressure line. This will greatly increase the reliability of the pumps and will also minimize the sedimentation problems. The fact that the sewage is septic is not a major concern since it will turn septic anyway when placed in a pressure main that has over a 24-hour detention period. The designer should keep in mind that detention times will be even longer with normal flow rates than they would be with the peak design days. The designer should consider the effects of air-binding or air-locking in a pressure line especially when the line has an excessively undulating profile. Air release valves are effective in handling air pockets and should be installed in a section of pipe that slopes up toward the hydraulic grade line or runs parallel to it. For long parallel runs, the designer should consider installing the air release valves every 450 meters (1,500 feet). For maintenance purposes, sewer cleanouts should be installed at a maximum spacing of 100 meters (300 feet). When considering a long distance pressure sewer, it is recommended that the designer work closely with the OSC Hydraulics Branch from the earliest stages of design.
Page 9-7
Highway Rest Areas
9-4.3 Septic Tank and Drainfield

In addition to the items listed in Section 9-2.2, the design report for a septic tank and drainfield shall also include the following items: 1. Sieve Analysis and Hydrometer Test: Tests to be performed on soil samples taken in the immediate area of and at the depth of the proposed drainfield. Results to be used to determine soil type. 2. Very Descriptive Soil Profile: The profile description must include at least 1.2 m (4 feet) of the soil strata below the bottom of the proposed trench. 3. Area Drainage: Drainfield shall be located in such a manner as to prevent interference with surface drainage and contamination of subsurface drainage. (See Section 9-4.3.2 for setback requirements.) 4. Water Table During Seasonal Wet Periods: The water table during seasonal wet periods shall not be higher than 1.2 m (4 feet) below the bottom of the trench. 5. Special Provisions: They shall be written in such a manner as to limit the equipment size for work within the drainfield area so as to not unduly disturb the existing soil characteristics. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Design Manual On-site Wastewater Treatment and Disposal Systems outlines the basic principles which should be followed for the design, construction, and maintenance of a septic tank and drainfield. In addition, the designer should work closely with the appropriate governmental regulatory agency which will review and has the authority to approve the design. The appropriate health authority would be one of the following: Design Flow (m3/d)* Metric 0 - 13.25 Design Flow (gpd)* English 0 - 3,500
Review Agency Local County Health Department Washington State Dept. of Health or Local Health Department, if approved by the Washington State Dept. of Health to represent them. Department of Ecology
13.25 - 54.9
3,500 - 14,500
Over 54.9
Over 14,500
*Design Flow is based on highest future peak day usage.
9-4.3.1
Septic Tank Sizing

The size of the septic tank shall be determined from the projected peak daily use. The septic tank shall have a volume equal to 1.5 times the volume of sewage generated during the peak design day. This will allow storage volume for solids as well as provide a minimum detention time of 24 hours. Where RV dumps are present, care should be taken to keep the RV dump sewage separate from the rest room sewage. There is an uncertainty of what is actually deposited at these dump sites since these sites are not monitored. Because RV owners use
Page 9-8
Highway Rest Areas
several chemical preservatives for odor control and disinfection, these preservatives are known to be present in RV dump sewage. These preservatives cause an imbalance in the organic breakdown of the sewage resulting in high waste strengths. Due to the uncertainty and the high waste strengths, separate septic tanks for the RV dump waste should be used. The septic tank for RV sewage shall have a volume equal to three times the volume of sewage generated during the peak design day. This will allow storage volume for solids as well as provide a minimum detention time of 72 hours. Shorter detention times may be used if approved by the appropriate governmental regulatory agency. Septic tanks shall be constructed with two compartments. The first shall consist of two-thirds of the total required volume and the secondary compartment shall be one-third. When upgrading an existing rest area, the designer may use more than two compartments and the 2 3 to 1 3 ratio may be modified, however, the largest compartment should be placed first when possible. Standard Plan I-1 shall be used for the construction of all septic tanks at highway rest areas. If precast or fiberglass septic tanks are used, the designer should make sure the proposed tanks are approved for use by the local or state health department. The designer should include an effluent screen at the outlet of the septic tank to prevent any large particles from being transported to the drainfield.
9-4.3.2
Drainfields
A drainfield consists of a distribution pipe and gravel installed in original undisturbed soil for the purpose of transmitting effluent into the soil. The drainfield must be placed in a suitable soil which has a minimum depth of 1.2 m (4 feet) below the bottom of trench. There should be a minimum of 1.2 m (4 feet) between the bottom of the trench and the water table. If minimum vertical separation can not be met, above ground pretreatment devices such as sand filters may be required prior to discharging effluent to the drainfield. The designer should consult with the appropriate health authority to determine what is acceptable.
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Highway Rest Areas
Soils should be classified by normal laboratory and field procedures according to the following figure: Application Rate (m3/day/m2 (metric) Application Rate (gal/day/ft2) (English) Approximate Percolation Rate (min./mm) (metric) Approximate Percolation Rate (min./in) (English)
USDA Soil Type
Soil Textural Classification Very gravelly coarse to very fine sands, very gravelly loamy sands
1A & 1B
Unsuitable
Unsuitable
2A 2B 3
0.049 0.049 0.033
1.2 1.2 0.80
0.039 0.039 - 0.157 0.197 - 0.354
1 1-4 5-9
Coarse sands or gravels Medium sand Fine sand, loamy coarse & medium sand Very fine sands, loamy fine & very fine sands, Sandy loam, Loam Porous, well developed structure in silt and silt loams Other silt loams, silty clay loams, and clay loams
0.024
0.60
0.394 - 0.748
10 - 19
0.018
0.45
0.787 - 1.14
20 - 29
Unsuitable
Unsuitable
1.18
30
Figure 9-4.3.2A
Soil Texture Classifications
Soil Types 1A, 1B, and 6 are classified as unsuitable soils. Soil Types 1A and 1B are very gravelly and have very high percolation rates. These soil types are considered unsuitable because it is possible that the effluent will infiltrate through the soil at a rate that will not provide proper treatment. Drainfields can be constructed in areas with these types of soils if precautions are taken to provide proper treatment of the effluent. The designer should consult with the appropriate health authority to determine what is acceptable. Type 6 soils are considered unsuitable because of the very low percolation rates. Effluent is unable to effectively infiltrate through this type of soil. The area of drainfield required to adequately dispose of the sewage generated from the rest area is calculated by dividing the volume of sewage generated daily by the application rate. Drainfields usually consist of 0.9 m (3 feet) wide trenches on 2.3 m
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Highway Rest Areas
(7.5 feet) centers. However, in soils with a texture of Type 1A, 1B, 2A, or 2B, absorption beds, which are trenches that are greater than 0.9 m (3 feet) wide, are allowed. The maximum width of an absorption bed is 3 m (10 feet). The minimum spacing between beds is 6.1 m (20 feet). The plumbing details for a system like this are very site specific and must be worked out with the responsible health agency. The general layout would include gravity flow from septic tanks to dosing tank or pump chamber. Pressure flow from the dosing tank or pump chamber is carried to the drainfield by a transport line from which a manifold conveys the flow to laterals. The effluent is discharged into the ground through orifices in each lateral.
Figure 9-4.3.2B
General Drainfield With Septic Tank Layout
If 0.9 m (3 feet) wide trenches are used, the designer should attempt to minimize excavation. This can be accomplished by designing the trenches parallel to the contours of the land where the drainfield is to be built. These trenches can also be designed in a terraced fashion with each trench or group of trenches designed at a particular elevation. The discharge rates through each orifice and the friction losses through each pipe segment must be calculated to ensure even distribution of the effluent throughout the drainfield. EPA requirements include: orifice discharge rates from one end of the lateral to the other can not vary by more than 10 percent and total head loss due to friction in the manifold can not exceed 10 percentof the head loss at the far end of the manifold (the farthest point from the transport line). Thus, the orifice discharge controls the maximum lateral length, while the head loss between laterals limits the maximum manifold length. See the EPA Design Manual for criteria in calculating orifice discharges and head losses. Minimum setback distances must be maintained from natural and man-made features. The following figure can be used as a guide for determining the general location of a drainfield. Because the setback distances could vary from area to area, the designer should check with the governing health authority. When the amount of trench exceeds 150 m (500 feet) a dosing tank with a siphon should be used in conjunction with the septic tank. This will allow for proper distribution of the sewage throughout the drainfield and also allows the drainfield to rest or dry out between doses. Allowable dosing frequencies are dependent on soil type and provided in the EPA Design Manual. When the amount of trench exceeds 300 m
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Highway Rest Areas
(1,000 feet), a dosing tank with alternating siphons discharging into separate drainfields should be used. A pump should also be considered for these larger systems when the hydraulic gradient is insufficient for a dosing siphon. From Edge of Drainfield (m) Well Water Supply Line Surface Water Building Right of Way Line Drainage Ditch (Upslope) Drainage Ditch (Downslope) Cuts or Banks 5 min. suitable soil depth less than 5 soil depth 30 3 30 3 1.5 3 10 8 15 (ft) 100 10 100 10 5 10 30 25 50 From Septic Tank and D-Box (m) 15 3 15 1.5 1.5 N/A 1.5 N/A N/A (ft) 50 10 50 5 5 N/A 5 N/A N/A From Building Sewer (m) 15 3 3 0.5 1.5 N/A N/A N/A N/A (ft) 50 10 10 2 5 N/A N/A N/A N/A
Item
Figure 9-4.3.2C
Minimum Horizontal Setbacks
Septic Tank and Drainfield Example: The following example will serve only as a guide to those involved in the design of a septic tank and drainfield. Many special problems may occur during the design which must be solved by the engineers own judgment or by the judgment of the appropriate health officials. Septic Tank Design: m3 persons m3 Volume From Rest Rooms = 1,850 ----------------- 0.013 ----------------- = 24 ------persons day day Required Septic Tank Volume = 24 x 1.5 = 36 m3 Use one 38 m3 (10,000 gallon) septic tank for restroom wastewater. RVs m3 m3 Volume From RV Dump = 50 --------- 0.3 ------- = 15 ------day RV day Required Septic Tank Volume = 15 3.0 = 45 m3 Use one 45 m3 (12,000 gallon) septic tank for RV dump wastewater. Drainfield Design The engineer and the Health Department have agreed that the native soil is a type 3 soil and has a suitable depth of at least 1.2 m (4 feet) below the bottom of the drainfield. The application rate for a type 3 soil is 0.033 m 3/day/m2 (0.80 gpd/ft2).
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Highway Rest Areas
The size of drainfield required is: 24 + 15 m 3 /day ------------------------------------------- = 1,182 m2 (12,723 ft2 ) 0.033 m 3 /day/ m 2 If a 0.6-m (2-foot) wide trench is used, this would result in 1970 m (6,360 LF) of drained trench. If a 0.9-m (3-foot) wide trench is used, this would result in 1314 m (4,241 LF). If an absorption bed is used, the designer should provide 1182 m 2 (12,723 ft2 ) of bottom area. This would be 10 rectangular beds of 40-m long by 3-m wide (131-feet long by 10-feet wide), or any other combination of rectangular shape having the same area and not exceeding the 10-feet maximum width. Six meter (20-feet) spacing between beds is required. The following is a list of details which must be addressed in the hydraulic report: Gravity vs. siphon vs. pump Dose volume Volume inside piping system Minimum orifice size and spacing Pipe diameters and length Number of doses per day Achieving equal distribution Manifold sizing Transport line sizing Maximum and minimum cover Setback distances The EPA manual referenced in Section 9-4.3 along with Washington State Department of Health Design Standards for Large On-Site Sewage Systems and Guidelines for the Use of Pressure Distribution System are essential when deciding on these details.
9-4.3.3
Other On-site Disposal Systems

Septic tank and drainfield has been the traditional manner in which to treat wastewater when public sewers were not available. Unfortunately, there are soil and site conditions that are unsuitable for these conventional systems such as poor infiltrative soils, or close proximity to groundwater. As a result, alternative systems are used in conjunction with or in lieu of the conventional systems. Examples of alternative systems include sand filters and mounds. The designer should refer to DOHs Guidelines for Sand Filters, May 1995 and Guidelines for Mound Systems, September 1993 for detailed information regarding the use and design of these alternative systems. The designer should work very closely with the regulating health authority to ensure that the system chosen is an acceptable and approved alternative.
9-4.4 Sewage Lagoons

Due to the excellent climatic conditions in Eastern Washington, the use of sewage lagoons is considered to be the best method of sewage disposal. The high evaporation rates and low precipitation rates are very conducive to the successful operation of a lagoon.
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Highway Rest Areas
Normally, a nondischarging sewage lagoon is designed for its BOD loading (Biochemical Oxygen Demand). The designer must size the lagoon such that there is a balance between BOD loading, nitrogen loading, and hydraulic loading. The hydraulic loading is the rest area effluent and precipitation. The Department of Ecologys Criteria for Sewage Works Design should be consulted when designing a sewage lagoon. Even though RV sewage is known to have high waste strengths, the BOD strength of the effluent from WSDOT rest areas is usually low since rest room usage exceeds RV Dump usage. Under these circumstances, the lagoons for a rest area can be designed on an inflow-outflow principle with a final check on BOD loading. Basically, the amount of precipitation plus the amount of effluent must be equal to the amount of evaporation. The amount of effluent is based on the number of persons using the rest area on an average day in each month. The precipitation and evaporation rates must be determined from climatological records which have been assembled by various U.S. Weather Bureau stations. This information is available at the OSC Hydraulics Branch. The BOD loading is then checked. Lagoons that hold more than 12,335 m3 (10 acre-ft) of effluent are considered dams. The designer must complete the dam safety analysis procedure dictated by DOE. The time required to complete the analysis and obtain DOE approval is four months. OSC Hydraulics Branch should be contacted to assist in the design. An example problem is included which gives the allowable loading rates and the procedures to be followed in the design of a lagoon. The allowable loading rates developed from various studies range from 1.68 to 5.59 grams/m 2/day (15 to 50 lbs/acre/day). Based on WSDOTs use of sewage lagoons at rest areas, the designer should use a pond loading of 4.47 grams/m2/day (40 lbs/acre/day).
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Highway Rest Areas
9-4.4.1
Design Example
Design Year 2017 Flow 0.013 m3/person (3.5 gallons/person) BOD Loading 3.17 grams/person/day (0.007 lbs/person/day) Pond Loading 4.47 grams/m2/day (40 lbs/acre/day) Persons Using Rest RVs Using RV Rooms on Average Dump on Average Day by Month Day by Month 450 600 1,000 1,550 1,700 2,250 2,350 2,450 1,900 1,350 1,050 600 8 11 18 38 51 68 85 89 69 41 19 11
Month January February March April May June July August September October November December Climatological Data: Month January February March April May June July August September October November December
Precipitation (mm.) 23.11 26.16 23.62 21.34 14.99 8.89 4.83 3.56 10.92 18.80 24.38 24.13
Evaporation (mm.) Negligible Negligible Negligible 150.62 202.95 236.98 304.55 255.78 159.26 75.18 Negligible Negligible
Effluent from Rest rooms and RV Dump: m3 days m3 Qs = [30 ---------- 0.013 --------------- N ] + [0.3 ------- RV ] = 0.4 N + 0.3 RV person RV mo.
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Highway Rest Areas
where N = persons using rest rooms daily and RV = RVs using RV dump on an average day. Precipitation and Evaporation: m m2 Q = 10,000 ---------------- ----------------- R (mm) hectare 1000 m m3 = 10 R ---------------- where R = precipitation and evaporation rate. hectare Lagoon Calculations: # of Persons Using the Rest Rooms 450 600 1,000 1,550 1,700 2,250 2,350 2,450 1,900 1,350 1,050 600 # of RVs Using the Rest Area 8 11 18 38 51 68 85 89 69 41 19 11 Effluent (m3/Mo.) Qs 182.4 243.3 405.4 631.4 695.3 920.4 965.5 1006.7 780.7 552.3 425.7 243.3 7052.4 Precip. Rate (mm) 23.11 26.16 23.62 21.34 14.99 8.89 4.83 3.56 10.92 18.8 24.38 24.13 Precip. (m3/hectare) QP 231.1 261.6 236.2 213.4 149.9 88.9 48.3 35.6 109.2 188.0 243.8 241.3 2,047.3 Evap. Rate (mm) Neg. Neg. Neg. 150.62 202.95 236.98 304.55 255.78 159.26 75.18 Neg. Neg. Evap. (m3/hectare) QE 0 0 0 1506.2 2029.5 2369.8 3045.5 2557.8 1592.6 751.8 0 0 13,853.2
Month JAN. FEB. MAR. APR. MAY JUNE JULY AUG. SEPT. OCT. NOV. DEC. TOTAL
Note: Precipitation and evaporation is measured in volume per unit area. The effluent from the rest rooms and the RV dump is a direct measurement of volume. Therefore, precipitation and evaporation measurements must be multiplied by an area to be comparable to the rest room and RV dump volumes. Inflow-Outflow Principle: Inflow = Outflow Inflow = Rest Room Volume + RV Dump Volume + Precipitation Lagoon size (area) Outflow = Evaporation Lagoon size (area) Substituting equations (2) and (3) into equation (1), Rest Room Volume + RV Dump Volume = Lagoon size (Evaporation Precipitation) Rest Room Volume + RV Dump Volume Lagoon size = --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Evaporation Precipitation (4) (1) (2) (3)
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Highway Rest Areas
Substituting the values calculated in the figure into equation (4): 7 ,052.4 Lagoon size = -------------------------------------------- = 0.6 hectares (1.48 acres) 13 ,853.2 2 ,047.3 Use a 0.6 hectare (1.5 acres) lagoon. Check BOD Loading: Check for peak day usage of rest area Restroom cars ADT = 9,000 -------- 0.198 (% cars entering rest area on day persons a peak day) 2.36 ----------------- 0.7 (% persons using the car restroom) = 2,950 persons/day persons BOD = 3.17 grams/person/day 2,950 ----------------- = day 9,351.5 grams/day grams Area required = 9,351.5 ------------- 4.47 grams/m2/day day = 2,092 m2 RV Dump cars ADT = 9,000 -------- 0.198 (% cars entering rest area on day a peak day) 0.05 (% cars entering rest area that are m3 m3 RVs) 0.303 ------- 0.013 --------------- = 2,077 persons/day RV person persons BOD = 3.17 grams/person/day 2,077 ----------------- = day 6,584 grams/day grams Area required = 6,584 ------------- grams/m2/day = day 1,473 m2 Total acreage needed for BOD treatment = 2,092 + 1,473 = 3,565 m 2 = 0.36 hectare < 0.6 hectare OK
9-4.4.2
Construction of Sewage Lagoons

It is recommended that a cellular type of lagoon, with a minimum of two cells and with provisions for future expansion be constructed in rest areas. In most lagoon designs, the size of the lagoon is based on the 20-year volumes. The designer should design the first and maybe second cells (if more than two cells are designed) to meet current usage. This type of lagoon allows for a better regulation in the operating depth of sewage, meets future needs, and ensures that sufficient volumes are available for proper treatment.
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Highway Rest Areas
An overflow weir should be constructed in the dike separating the cells, at a water depth of 1.5 m (5 feet) which is the maximum allowable operating depth. In order to control the operating levels of the cells, a 150-mm (6-inch) pipe with a gate valve should be installed at a water depth of 0.9 m (3 feet). Once the depth of sewage reaches 0.9 m, the sewage will flow through the pipe to the next cell. This gate valve will only allow one way flow from the first cell to the second cell through the 150-mm pipe. If the second cell exceeds the 0.9-m depth, the gate valve will block the flow from going back to the first cell. The inlet pipe from the rest area should discharge at the bottom of the lagoon, preferably near the middle of the cell. A concrete apron or splash block should be constructed to minimize erosion at the point of discharge. The embankments or dikes should be constructed of a relatively impervious material and be sealed with a PVC lining, with welded joints, to prevent seepage of the sewage into the ground. The lining should be laid on a 300-mm (12-inch) sand blanket and then covered with another 150 mm (6-inch) sand blanket as shown in Figure 9-4.4.2. It is recommended that the embankments have a minimum top width of 2.5 m (8 feet) to permit access for maintenance vehicles. The inner slopes should be constructed on a slope 1(V) to 3(H) and be provided with a freeboard depth of 0.9 m (3 feet). The slopes should be protected with a fractured rock to guard against possible erosion due to wave action. The sewage lagoon should be protected from the public by the use of a 1.5-m or 1.8-m (5-foot or 6-foot) high fence, preferably the chain link type.
Figure 9-4.4.2
Typical Embankment Section
9-4.4.3
Maintenance of Sewage Lagoons

The maintenance on a sewage lagoon is very minimal, however, it is very important in order to ensure continued operation of the system. The principal consideration of maintenance is ensuring the operating depths are within the recommended operating range. All vegetation must be controlled around the lagoon because the roots of many
Page 9-18
Highway Rest Areas
plants will damage the liner. The control of weeds is also necessary so that breeding places for mosquitoes can be eliminated. The embankments should be checked periodically and any repairs due to erosion or burrowing rodents should be made. The control of odors should not be a problem except possibly a small amount of odor may be detected in the spring after the lagoon has thawed. If it is too objectionable, sodium nitrate can be added to reduce the odors.
9:F:DP.HM
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Washington State Department of Transportation

Washington State Department of Transportation

Hydraulics Manual January 1997

Open Channel Flow

Drainage of Highway Pavements

Hydraulics Manual January 1997

Hydraulics Manual January 1997

Highway Rest Areas

Hydraulics Manual January 1997

1-1 1-1 1-1 1-2 1-4 1-1-1

Hydraulics Manual January 1997

Hydraulics Manual January 1997

Hydraulics Manual January 1997

Hydraulics Manual January 1997

Hydraulics Manual January 1997

Storm Frequency Policy

Hydraulics Manual January 1997

Hydraulics Manual January 1997

MRI (Years) 10 10 50 10 25 10 25 100 25 and 100 100 500

Hydraulics Manual January 1997

Flowing Water Rates

Hydraulics Manual January 1997

Hydraulics Manual January 1997

Hydraulics Manual January 1997

Hydraulics Manual January 1997

Hydraulics Manual January 1997

Hydraulics Manual January 1997

The Rational Method

Hydraulics Manual January 1997

2-4.2 Runoff Coefficients

Hydraulics Manual January 1997

Runoff Coefficients for the Rational Method 10-Year Return Frequency

2-4.3 Time of Concentration

Hydraulics Manual January 1997

Hydraulics Manual January 1997

Ground Cover Coefficients

2-4.4 Rainfall Intensity

Hydraulics Manual January 1997

Hydraulics Manual January 1997

Index to Rainfall Coefficients (Metric Units)

Hydraulics Manual January 1997

Hydraulics Manual January 1997

Index to Rainfall Coefficients (English Units)

2-4.5 Rational Formula Example

Hydraulics Manual January 1997

Santa Barbara Urban Hydrograph Method

Hydraulics Manual January 1997

Published Flow Records

USGS Regression Equations

Hydraulics Manual January 1997

Hydraulics Manual January 1997

Mean Annual Runoff

Hydraulics Manual January 1997

Washington State Hydrology USGS Regression Equations Region 1

13.9 A 0.925 16.1 A 0.926 17.7 A 0.926 19.3 A 0.926 Legend

Hydraulics Manual January 1997

Washington State Hydrology USGS Regression Equations Region 2

(MAP)1.62 (MAP)1.63 (MAP)1.64 (MAP)1.64

Hydraulics Manual January 1997

Washington State Hydrology USGS Regression Equations Region 3

(MAP)1.15 (MAP)1.17 (MAP)1.23 (MAP)1.26

Hydraulics Manual January 1997