MI 572casting Upload

Advance Manufacturing Processes
Casting ??
Casting
Dr. A. K. Sharma, IIT Roorkee

CASTING: 1. One of the earliest metal-shaping methods known to human beings. 2. Generally means pouring molten metal into a refractory mould with a cavity of the shape to be made, and allowing it to solidify. 3. On solidified, the object is taken out from the mould either by breaking the mould or by taking the mould apart. 4. The solidified object is called casting. 5. Thus, in a single step, simple or complex shapes can be made from any material that can be melted. 6. It is almost impossible to design a part which can not be cast.
Casting Dr. A. K. Sharma, MIED, IIT Roorkee

Definition: A casting is a shape obtained by pouring liquid material into a mould or cavity and allowing it to freeze and thus to take the form of the mould.
Casting
Dr. A. K. Sharma, MIED, IIT Roorkee

History: 1. Casting was probably discovered around 3500 BC in Mesopotemia. 2. These moulds were essentially of single piece. 3. Bronze age (2000 BC) brought more refinement into the casting process. 4. The moulds were made of baked clay and the cire perdue or lost wax process was used for making ornaments etc. 5. The technology was greatly improved by the Chinese from around 1500 BC. 6. Indus valley civilization has the evidence of cast product.

History:
A Chinese money mould, about 2000B.C. (x 0.3).
Casting

History:
A British Sapphire jet engine (x 1/15)
Require 6000 man-hours to machine from forgings, took 1/10 time to cast.
The Casting Problem

The Casting Problem can be divided into two
(1) The Design and Production of the Mould, and (2) The Melting, refining, pouring of the liquid metal.
Casting
The Casting Problem

Design and Production of the Mould:
(1) Mechanism and rate of solidification, (2) Heat transfer during solidification (Risering), (3) The Flow of liquid metal, Stresses in metal in solidus temperature range, (4) Stresses in the elastic range, Mould materials and Production Methods,
Casting
Mechanism of Solidification
Solidification ..?
Casting
Solidification ..?
Casting
Solidification The time taken for casting solidification is relatively a very brief period in the entire production history. During this short time, the original crystal structure of the casting is formed, which is considered the backbone of the casting, on which many other properties depend. In this interval, major flaws such as shrinkage porosity, hot tears, and seams can be prevented, depending upon the care with which the solidification has been planned.
Casting
Crystal NUCLEATION ? There are TWO types of nucleation Homogeneous : Formation of a new phase without the help of special nucleation sites. Heterogenous : This is the solidification process in which the solid phase crystallizes on foreign nuclei.
Casting
HOMOGENEOUS NUCLEATION ? The temperature at which it takes place is always below the equilibrium freezing point, because it is necessary to overcome the surface tension forces which slow down nucleus growth. The energy required to produce a nucleus of solid is the difference in free energy per unit of volume between the liquid and solid phases. This energy, also called the bulk free energy change, is designated as Fv (calories/cm3) for a given temperature of supercooling. At all temperatures below the freezing point, Fv is negative, i.e., the solid phase is then more stable, and therefore has a lower free energy than the liquid phase.
Casting
HOMOGENEOUS NUCLEATION ? The bulk free-energy change associated with the formation of a spherical particle of radius r is {4/3(r3 Fv )}. The energy required to create the new surface is a function of the surface tension (ergs/cm2), or {4(r2)}. The net free-energy change, Fv , is then Fv = {4(r2)} + {4/3(r3 Fv )}.
Figure: Fv versus particle size curve.

HOMOGENEOUS NUCLEATION ? Once the critical radius r* is exceeded, further growth results in a decrease of free-energy and can proceed spontaneously at the temperature of supercooling. If a particle has a radius smaller than r*, it will redissolve because this decrease in size reduces the free-energy. The size of the critical radius may be found by differentiating the above equation w.r.t. r and setting the result equal to zero, which yields: r* = - {2 / Fv }.
Figure: Fv versus particle size curve.

HETEROGENEOUS NUCLEATION ? Most actual castings crystallize by heterogeneous nucleation. The reason being - if the new phase can find a foreign particle to grow upon, it can adopt the relatively large radius of the particle as its own. It means only a slight degree of supercooling is needed in comparison with that needed for homogeneous nucleation. Quantitatively, the relation depends upon the degree to which the new phase wets the foreign particle. If there is no attraction between the atoms of the foreign particle and those of the participating phase, then nucleation is NOT helped. The wall of a mold usually provides many heterogeneous nucleation sites.
SOLIDIFICATION OF ACTUAL CASTINGS The solidification of alloys differs in three principal ways from that of pure metals 1. Usually, the freezing of alloys occurs over a temperature range, 2. The composition of the solid which separate first is different from that of the liquid, and 3. There may be more than one solid phase crystallizing from the liquid.
Casting
Gating & Risering System

GOALS of GATING SYSTEM
Casting

HYDRAULIC PRINCIPLES in GATING SYSTEM Reynolds Number Nature of flow in the gating system can be established by calculating Reynolds number, RN = (VD )/ RN V = D = = = = Reynolds number Mean Velocity of flow diameter of tubular flow Kinematics Viscosity = Dynamic viscosity / Density Fluid density
Casting

HYDRAULIC PRINCIPLES in GATING SYSTEM
Casting

HYDRAULIC PRINCIPLES in GATING SYSTEM
Application of Continuity Theory:
Casting

DESIGN of GATING SYSTEM Turbulence can be avoided by incorporating small changes in the design of gating system. The sharp changes in the flow should be avoided to smooth changes. The gating system must be designed in such a way that the system always runs full with the liquid metal. The most important things to remember in designing runners and gates are to avoid sharp corners. Any changes in direction or cross sectional area should make use of rounded corners. To avoid the aspiration the tapered sprues are designed in the gating systems. A sprue tapered to a smaller size at its bottom will create a choke which will help keep the sprue full of molten metal.
Casting

TYPES of GATING SYSTEM The gating systems are of two types: 1. Pressurized gating system 2. Un-pressurized gating system
Casting

RISERING SYSTEM Sprue-Runner-Gate Ratio
Casting

TYPES of GATING SYSTEM Sprue-Runner-Gate Ratio
Casting

TYPES of GATING SYSTEM Slag Trap System
Casting

RISERING SYSTEM Riser is a source of extra metal which flows from riser to mold cavity to compensate for shrinkage which takes place in the casting when it starts solidifying. Without a riser heavier parts of the casting will have shrinkage defects, either on the surface or internally. Risers are known by different names as metal reservoir, feeders, or headers. Shrinkage in a mold, from the time of pouring to final casting, occurs in three stages 1. 2. 3.
Casting
during the liquid state during the transformation from liquid to solid during the solid state

RISERING SYSTEM Functions of Risers Provide extra metal to compensate for the volumetric shrinkage Allow mold gases to escape Provide extra metal pressure on the solidifying mold to reproduce mold details more exact
Casting

RISERING SYSTEM Design Requirements of Risers Riser size: For a sound casting riser must be last to freeze. The ratio of (volume / surface area)2 of the riser must be greater than that of the casting. However, when this condition does not meet the metal in the riser can be kept in liquid state by heating it externally or using exothermic materials in the risers.
Casting

RISERING SYSTEM Design Requirements of Risers Riser size: Chvorinov Relation: Solidification time, t (V/A)2
Casting

RISERING SYSTEM Design Requirements of Risers Riser size: 1. Caines equation, Freezing ratio, X = (SAcasting / Vcasting) / (SAriser / Vriser) = (SAcasting / SAriser) * (Vriser / Vcasting) X = (a/(Y-b)) c ,
where, Y = (Vriser / Vcasting)
Casting

RISERING SYSTEM Design Requirements of Risers (Caines Method)
Freezing ratio = (Ac / Vc) / (Ar/Vr)


RISERING SYSTEM 2. Modulus Method Design Requirements of Risers Modulus (M) = 1 / (Cooling characteristics) =(Volume) / (Surface Area) Empirically, MR = 1.2 MC For a cylindrical Riser, MR = 0.2 D It follows,
Casting
D = 6 MC

RISERING SYSTEM 2. Modulus Method (Modulus of some simple shapes)
Casting

RISERING SYSTEM 2. Modulus Method (Modulus of some simple shapes)
Casting

RISERING SYSTEM 2. Modulus Method (Modulus of Complex shapes) Case I: A ring on a Plate
Casting

RISERING SYSTEM 2. Modulus Method (Modulus of Complex shapes)
Case II:
as,
MC = (aH) / 2 (a + H) c
Casting

RISERING SYSTEM 2. Modulus Method (Modulus of Complex shapes)
Case III:
as, n = 1 MC = (aH) / 2 (a + H c)
Casting

RISERING SYSTEM 3. Naval Research Laboratory (NRL) Method Design Requirements of Risers Riser placement: The spacing of risers in the casting must be considered by effectively calculating the feeding distance of the risers. Riser shape: Cylindrical risers are recommended for most of the castings as spherical risers, although considers as best, are difficult to cast. To increase volume/ surface area ratio the bottom of the riser can be shaped as hemisphere.
Casting

RISERING SYSTEM 3. Nval Research Laboratory (NRL) Method Shape Factor = (Length + Width) / Thickness = ( L + W ) / T
Casting

RISERING SYSTEM Design Requirements of Risers (NRL Method)
Casting

RISERING SYSTEM Design Requirements of Risers (NRL Method)
Casting

RISERING SYSTEM NOTE: Normally, the risers should be located at the heaviest section as they themselves act as the feeder for thin section. If smaller sections are connected to the thicker sections, the riser should have larger volume. For thin branches, no change in the riser volume is required.
Casting

RISERING SYSTEM Neck Design
Casting

Casting

Casting
Classification of Casting
Classification of Castings
Casting
Production of Cast Iron Castings
SPECIAL CASTING PROCESSES
Casting
Metal Mould Casting

Metal Mould Casting
1. Instead of using sand as the mold material, a metal is used as a mold. 2. Typically cast iron or Meehanite (a dense cast iron) is used as the mold material and the cores are made from metal or sand. 3. Cavity surfaces are coated with a thin layer of heat resistant material such as clay or sodium silicate. 4. The molds are pre-heated upto 200 C (392 F) before the metal is poured into the cavity. 5. The cavity design for these molds does not follow the same rules for shrinkage as in sand casting molds, due to the fact that the metal molds heat up and expand during the pour, so the cavity does not need to be expanded as much as in the sand castings.
Metal Mould Casting

Metal Mould Casting
Casting
Metal Mould Casting

Metal Mould Casting
6. However, care has to be taken to ensure proper thermal balance, by using external water cooling or appropriate radiation techniques. 7. While not as flexible as sand castings in allowing the use of different patterns (different part designs), the cost of producing a part is lower. 8. At a production run of 1000 or more parts, permanent mold castings produce a lower piece cost part. Of course, the breakeven point depends on the complexity of the part. More complex parts being favored by the use of permanent molds.
Casting
Metal Mould Casting

Metal Mould Casting
9. The usual considerations of minimum wall thicknesses (such as 3mm for lengths under 75 mm), radius (inside radius = nominal wall thickness, outside radius = 3 x nominal wall thickness), draft angles (1 to 3 on outside surfaces, 2 to 5 on inside surfaces) etc. all apply. 10.Typical tolerances are 2 % of linear dimensions. 11.Surface finish ranges from 2.5 m to 7.5 m (100 in to 250 in). 12.Typical part sizes range from 50 g to 70 kg (1.5 ounces to 150 lb). 13.Typical materials used are small and medium sized parts made from aluminum, magnesium and brass and their alloys. Typical parts include gears, splines, wheels, gear housings, pipefittings, fuel injection housings, and automotive engine pistons.
Vacuum Die Casting

Vacuum Die Casting
1. Major problem with the die casting is the air left in the cavity when the die is closed. 2. As a result, when the casting is heat treated, blisters apperars on the surface. 3. Also, the molten metal experiences back pressure while injecting. 4. This problem is solved by evacuating the air from the die after the die is closed and before the metal is injected. 5. Thus, the molten metal enters much faster into the die, thereby decreasing the fill-time. 6. The parts do not experience any porosity due to absence of air inside the cavity.
Vacuum Die Casting

Vacuum Die Casting
7. The part is exposed to atmospheric air only after solidification, therefore oxidation is also avoided. 8. Parts with very thin walls (1 12 mm), tight tolerances and fine microstructures (due to rapid solidification) are possible to cast.
Casting
Continuous Casting
Continuous Casting
1. In this process, the parts are directly cast, the time consuming and costly rolling process is avoided. Hence, the process is fast and economical. 2. liquid metal (steel) is poured into a double walled, bottomless water-cooled mould where a solid skin is quickly formed and a semi-finished skin emerges from the open mould bottom. 3. The skin formed in the mould is about 10 12 mm in thickness and is further solidified by intensive cooling with water sprays as the casting moves downwards. 4. The solidified shell supports the liquid steel as it moves downwards. The shell is mechanically supported by rollers as it moves through the secondary cooling zone where water is sprayed to complete the solidification.
Continuous Casting
Continuous Casting
Casting
Squeeze Casting
Squeeze Casting
1. In this process, the product quality is greatly improved as the solidification takes place under heavy pressure (50 140 MPa) to prevent the formation of shrinkage defects and retain dissolved gases in solution until the solidification is complete. 2. This is a combination of casting and forging. 3. Heat transfer is faster owing to the metallic die. 4. The process has very low gas entrapment, lower shrinkage cavities, lower die costs, and very high quality surface with fine details. 5. It produces fine grain size which results in better mechanical properties. 6. Al, Mg, Cu-alloy components are manufactured by this process.
Squeeze Casting
Squeeze Casting
Casting
Casting
Relative Gas Content in Various Casting Processes
Casting
Thank you
Casting

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Advance Manufacturing Processes

Dr. A. K. Sharma, IIT Roorkee

Advance Manufacturing Processes

Advance Manufacturing Processes

Dr. A. K. Sharma, MIED, IIT Roorkee

Advance Manufacturing Processes

Advance Manufacturing Processes

A Chinese money mould, about 2000B.C. (x 0.3).

Dr. A. K. Sharma, MIED, IIT Roorkee

Advance Manufacturing Processes

A British Sapphire jet engine (x 1/15)

The Casting Problem

Dr. A. K. Sharma, MIED, IIT Roorkee

The Casting Problem

Dr. A. K. Sharma, MIED, IIT Roorkee

Dr. A. K. Sharma, MIED, IIT Roorkee

Dr. A. K. Sharma, MIED, IIT Roorkee

Dr. A. K. Sharma, MIED, IIT Roorkee

Dr. A. K. Sharma, MIED, IIT Roorkee

Dr. A. K. Sharma, MIED, IIT Roorkee

Figure: Fv versus particle size curve.

Figure: Fv versus particle size curve.

Dr. A. K. Sharma, MIED, IIT Roorkee

Gating & Risering System

Dr. A. K. Sharma, MIED, IIT Roorkee

Gating & Risering System

Dr. A. K. Sharma, MIED, IIT Roorkee

Gating & Risering System

Dr. A. K. Sharma, MIED, IIT Roorkee

Gating & Risering System

Application of Continuity Theory:

Dr. A. K. Sharma, MIED, IIT Roorkee

Gating & Risering System

Gating & Risering System

Dr. A. K. Sharma, MIED, IIT Roorkee

Gating & Risering System

Dr. A. K. Sharma, MIED, IIT Roorkee

Gating & Risering System

Dr. A. K. Sharma, MIED, IIT Roorkee

Gating & Risering System

Dr. A. K. Sharma, MIED, IIT Roorkee

Gating & Risering System

Gating & Risering System

Dr. A. K. Sharma, MIED, IIT Roorkee

Gating & Risering System

Dr. A. K. Sharma, MIED, IIT Roorkee

Gating & Risering System

Dr. A. K. Sharma, MIED, IIT Roorkee

Gating & Risering System

Dr. A. K. Sharma, MIED, IIT Roorkee

Gating & Risering System

Freezing ratio = (Ac / Vc) / (Ar/Vr)

Gating & Risering System

Gating & Risering System

Dr. A. K. Sharma, MIED, IIT Roorkee

Gating & Risering System

Dr. A. K. Sharma, MIED, IIT Roorkee

Gating & Risering System

Dr. A. K. Sharma, MIED, IIT Roorkee

Gating & Risering System

Dr. A. K. Sharma, MIED, IIT Roorkee

Gating & Risering System