Waste water treatment

Preliminary treatment The objective of preliminary treatment is the removal of coarse solids and other large materials often found in raw wastewater. Removal of these materials is necessary to enhance the operation and maintenance of subsequent treatment units. Preliminary treatment operations typically include coarse screening, grit removal and, in some cases, comminution of large objects. In grit chambers, the velocity of the water through the chamber is maintained sufficiently high, or air is used, so as to prevent the settling of most organic solids. Grit removal is not included as a preliminary treatment step in most small wastewater treatment plants. Comminutors are sometimes adopted to supplement coarse screening and serve to reduce the size of large particles so that they will be removed in the form of a sludge in subsequent treatment processes. Flow measurement devices, often standing-wave flumes, are always included at the preliminary treatment stage. 3.2.2 Primary treatment The objective of primary treatment is the removal of settleable organic and inorganic solids by sedimentation, and the removal of materials that will float (scum) by skimming. Approximately 25 to 50% of the incoming biochemical oxygen demand (BOD5), 50 to 70% of the total suspended solids (SS), and 65% of the oil and grease are removed during primary treatment. Some organic nitrogen, organic

phosphorus, and heavy metals associated with solids are also removed during primary sedimentation but colloidal and dissolved constituents are not affected. The effluent from primary sedimentation units is referred to as primary effluent. Table 12 provides information on primary effluent from three sewage treatment plants in California along with data on the raw wastewaters. Table 12: QUALITY OF RAW WASTEWATER AND PRIMARY EFFLUENT AT SELECTED TREATMENT PLANTS IN CALIFORNIA Quality parameters (mg/l, except as otherwise indicated) City of Davis San Diego Los Angeles County Joint Plant Raw Primary wastewater effluent 204

Raw Primary wastewater effluent Biochemical oxygen demand,BOD5 Total organic carbon Suspended solids Total nitrogen NH3-N NO-N Org-N Total phosphorus Ortho-P pH (unit) Cations: Ca Mg Na K 112 73

Raw Primary wastewater effluent 184 134

63.8 185 43.4 35.6 0 7.8 7.7

40.6 72 34.7 26.2 0 8.5 7.5 7.5 -

64.8 200 21.0 11.2 7.3

52.3 109 20.0 10.2

219 39.5 14.9 11.2

7.3

78.8 25.6 357 19

359 19

Anions: SO4 Cl 2.34 829 821 160 120 270 397 2.19 1404 70.3 1406

Electrical conductivity, dS/m 2.52 Total dissolved solids -

Soluble sodium percentage, % Sodium adsorption ratio Boron (B) Alkalinity (CaCO3) Hardness (CaCO3) -

8.85 1.68 322 265

6.8 1.5 332

Source: Asano and Tchobanoglous (1987) In many industrialized countries, primary treatment is the minimum level of preapplication treatment required for wastewater irrigation. It may be considered sufficient treatment if the wastewater is used to irrigate crops that are not consumed by humans or to irrigate orchards, vineyards, and some processed food crops. However, to prevent potential nuisance conditions in storage or flow-equalizing reservoirs, some form of secondary treatment is normally required in these countries, even in the case of non-food crop irrigation. It may be possible to use at least a portion of primary effluent for irrigation if off-line storage is provided. Primary sedimentation tanks or clarifiers may be round or rectangular basins, typically 3 to 5 m deep, with hydraulic retention time between 2 and 3 hours. Settled solids (primary sludge) are normally removed from the bottom of tanks by sludge rakes that scrape the sludge to a central well from which it is pumped to sludge processing units. Scum is swept across the tank surface by water jets or mechanical means from which it is also pumped to sludge processing units. In large sewage treatment plants (> 7600 m3/d in the US), primary sludge is most commonly processed biologically by anaerobic digestion. In the digestion process, anaerobic and facultative bacteria metabolize the organic material in sludge (see Example 3), thereby reducing the volume requiring ultimate disposal, making the sludge stable (nonputrescible) and improving its dewatering characteristics. Digestion is carried out in covered tanks (anaerobic digesters), typically 7 to 14 m deep. The residence time in a digester may vary from a minimum of about 10 days for high-rate digesters (well-mixed and heated) to 60 days or more in standard-rate digesters. Gas containing about 60 to 65%

methane is produced during digestion and can be recovered as an energy source. In small sewage treatment plants, sludge is processed in a variety of ways including: aerobic digestion, storage in sludge lagoons, direct application to sludge drying beds, in-process storage (as in stabilization ponds), and land application. Example 3: Biological treatment biochemistry 3.2.3 Secondary treatment The objective of secondary treatment is the further treatment of the effluent from primary treatment to remove the residual organics and suspended solids. In most cases, secondary treatment follows primary treatment and involves the removal of biodegradable dissolved and colloidal organic matter using aerobic biological treatment processes. Aerobic biological treatment (see Box) is performed in the presence of oxygen by aerobic microorganisms (principally bacteria) that metabolize the organic matter in the wastewater, thereby producing more microorganisms and inorganic end-products (principally CO2, NH3, and H2O). Several aerobic biological processes are used for secondary treatment differing primarily in the manner in which oxygen is supplied to the microorganisms and in the rate at which organisms metabolize the organic matter. High-rate biological processes are characterized by relatively small reactor volumes and high concentrations of microorganisms compared with low rate processes. Consequently, the growth rate of new organisms is much greater in high-rate systems because of the well controlled environment. The microorganisms must be separated from the treated wastewater by sedimentation to produce clarified secondary effluent. The sedimentation tanks used in secondary treatment, often referred to as secondary clarifiers, operate in the same basic manner as the primary clarifiers described previously. The biological solids removed during secondary sedimentation, called secondary or biological sludge, are normally combined with primary sludge for sludge processing. Common high-rate processes include the activated sludge processes, trickling filters or biofilters, oxidation ditches, and rotating biological contactors (RBC). A combination of two of these processes in series (e.g., biofilter followed by activated sludge) is sometimes used to treat municipal wastewater containing a high concentration of organic material from industrial sources. i. Activated Sludge In the activated sludge process, the dispersed-growth reactor is an aeration tank or basin containing a suspension of the wastewater and microorganisms, the mixed liquor. The contents of the aeration tank are mixed vigorously by aeration devices which also supply oxygen to the biological suspension . Aeration devices commonly used include submerged diffusers that release compressed air and mechanical surface aerators that introduce air by agitating the liquid surface. Hydraulic retention time in the aeration tanks usually ranges from 3 to 8 hours but can be higher with high BOD5 wastewaters. Following the aeration step, the microorganisms are separated from the liquid by sedimentation and the clarified liquid is secondary effluent. A portion of the biological sludge is recycled to the aeration basin to maintain a high mixed-liquor suspended solids (MLSS) level. The remainder is removed from the

process and sent to sludge processing to maintain a relatively constant concentration of microorganisms in the system. Several variations of the basic activated sludge process, such as extended aeration and oxidation ditches, are in common use, but the principles are similar. ii. Trickling Filters A trickling filter or biofilter consists of a basin or tower filled with support media such as stones, plastic shapes, or wooden slats. Wastewater is applied intermittently, or sometimes continuously, over the media. Microorganisms become attached to the media and form a biological layer or fixed film. Organic matter in the wastewater diffuses into the film, where it is metabolized. Oxygen is normally supplied to the film by the natural flow of air either up or down through the media, depending on the relative temperatures of the wastewater and ambient air. Forced air can also be supplied by blowers but this is rarely necessary. The thickness of the biofilm increases as new organisms grow. Periodically, portions of the film 'slough off the media. The sloughed material is separated from the liquid in a secondary clarifier and discharged to sludge processing. Clarified liquid from the secondary clarifier is the secondary effluent and a portion is often recycled to the biofilter to improve hydraulic distribution of the wastewater over the filter. iii. Rotating Biological Contactors Rotating biological contactors (RBCs) are fixed-film reactors similar to biofilters in that organisms are attached to support media. In the case of the RBC, the support media are slowly rotating discs that are partially submerged in flowing wastewater in the reactor. Oxygen is supplied to the attached biofilm from the air when the film is out of the water and from the liquid when submerged, since oxygen is transferred to the wastewater by surface turbulence created by the discs' rotation. Sloughed pieces of biofilm are removed in the same manner described for biofilters. High-rate biological treatment processes, in combination with primary sedimentation, typically remove 85 % of the BOD5 and SS originally present in the raw wastewater and some of the heavy metals. Activated sludge generally produces an effluent of slightly higher quality, in terms of these constituents, than biofilters or RBCs. When coupled with a disinfection step, these processes can provide substantial but not complete removal of bacteria and virus. However, they remove very little phosphorus, nitrogen, non-biodegradable organics, or dissolved minerals. Data on effluent quality from selected secondary treatment plants in California are presented in Table 13. Table 13: QUALITY OF SECONDARY EFFLUENT AT SELECTED WASTEWATER TREATMENT PLANTS IN CALIFORNIA Quality parameter (mg/I except as Plant location otherwise indicated) Trickling filters Chino Basin Chino Basin

Activated sludge Santa Rosa Montecito

MWD (No. 1) Biochemical oxygen demand, BOD5 21 Chemical oxygen demand Suspended solids Total nitrogen NH3-N NO3-N Org-N Total phosphorus Ortho-P pH (unit) Cations: Ca Mg Na K Anions: HCO3 SO4 Cl Electrical conductivity dS/m Total dissolved solids 293 85 81 476 43 12 83 17 18 25 0.7 -

MWD (No. 2) 8 26 11 19 -

Laguna 27 10 8 1.7 12.5 3.4 -

Sanitary District 11 13 1.4 5 7.6

55 18 102 20

41 18 94 11

82 33 -

192 143 90 591

165 66 121 484

192 245 1.39 940

Sodium adsorption ratio Boron (B) Alkalinity (CaCO3) Total Hardness (CaCO3)

2.9 0.7 156

3.1 0.6 200

3.9 0.6 175

3.7 0.7 226 265

Source: Asano and Tchobanoglous (1987) 3.2.4 Tertiary and/or advanced treatment Tertiary and/or advanced wastewater treatment is employed when specific wastewater constituents which cannot be removed by secondary treatment must be removed. As shown in Figure 3, individual treatment processes are necessary to remove nitrogen, phosphorus, additional suspended solids, refractory organics, heavy metals and dissolved solids. Because advanced treatment usually follows high-rate secondary treatment, it is sometimes referred to as tertiary treatment. However, advanced treatment processes are sometimes combined with primary or secondary treatment (e.g., chemical addition to primary clarifiers or aeration basins to remove phosphorus) or used in place of secondary treatment (e.g., overland flow treatment of primary effluent). An adaptation of the activated sludge process is often used to remove nitrogen and phosphorus and an example of this approach is the 23 Ml/d treatment plant commissioned in 1982 in British Columbia, Canada (World Water 1987). The Bardenpho Process adopted is shown in simplified form in Figure 6. Effluent from primary clarifiers flows to the biological reactor, which is physically divided into five zones by baffles and weirs. In sequence these zones are: (i) anaerobic fermentation zone (characterized by very low dissolved oxygen levels and the absence of nitrates); (ii) anoxic zone (low dissolved oxygen levels but nitrates present); (iii) aerobic zone (aerated); (iv) secondary anoxic zone; and (v) final aeration zone. The function of the first zone is to condition the group of bacteria responsible for phosphorus removal by stressing them under low oxidation-reduction conditions, which results in a release of phosphorus equilibrium in the cells of the bacteria. On subsequent exposure to an adequate supply of oxygen and phosphorus in the aerated zones, these cells rapidly accumulate phosphorus considerably in excess of their normal metabolic requirements. Phosphorus is removed from the system with the waste activated sludge. Figure 6: Simplified flow diagram of Bardenpho-plant (World Water 1987) Most of the nitrogen in the influent is in the ammonia form, and this passes through the first two zones virtually unaltered. In the third aerobic zone, the sludge age is such that almost complete nitrification takes place, and the ammonia nitrogen is converted to nitrites and then to nitrates. The nitrate-rich mixed liquor is then recycled from the aerobic zone back to the first anoxic zone. Here denitrification occurs, where the recycled nitrates, in the absence of dissolved oxygen, are reduced by facultative bacteria to nitrogen gas, using the influent organic carbon compounds as hydrogen donors. The nitrogen gas merely escapes to atmosphere. In the second anoxic zone, those nitrates which were not recycled

are reduced by the endogenous respiration of bacteria. In the final re-aeration zone, dissolved oxygen levels are again raised to prevent further denitrification, which would impair settling in the secondary clarifiers to which the mixed liquor then flows. An experimentation programme on this plant demonstrated the importance of the addition of volatile fatty acids to the anaerobic fermentation zone to achieve good phosphorus removal. These essential short-chain organics (mainly acetates) are produced by the controlled fermentation of primary sludge in a gravity thickener and are released into the thickener supernatent, which can be fed to the head of the biological reactor. Without this supernatent return flow, overall phosphorus removal quickly dropped to levels found in conventional activated sludge plants. Performance data over three years have proved that, with thickener supernatent recycle, effluent quality median values of 0.5-1.38 mg/l Ortho-P, 1.41.6 mg/l Total nitrogen and 1.4-2.0 mg/l nitrate-N are achievable. This advanced biological wastewater treatment plant cost only marginally more than a conventional activated sludge plant but nevertheless involved considerable investment. Furthermore, the complexity of the process and the skilled operation required to achieve consistent results make this approach unsuitable for developing countries. In many situations, where the risk of public exposure to the reclaimed water or residual constituents is high, the intent of the treatment is to minimize the probability of human exposure to enteric viruses and other pathogens. Effective disinfection of viruses is believed to be inhibited by suspended and colloidal solids in the water, therefore these solids must be removed by advanced treatment before the disinfection step. The sequence of treatment often specified in the United States is: secondary treatment followed by chemical coagulation, sedimentation, filtration, and disinfection. This level of treatment is assumed to produce an effluent free from detectable viruses. Effluent quality data from selected advanced wastewater treatment plants in California are reported in Table 14. In Near East countries adopting tertiary treatment, the tendency has been to introduce pre-chlorination before rapid-gravity sand filtration and post-chlorination afterwards. A final ozonation treatment after this sequence has been considered in at least one country. 3.2.5 Disinfection Disinfection normally involves the injection of a chlorine solution at the head end of a chlorine contact basin. The chlorine dosage depends upon the strength of the wastewater and other factors, but dosages of 5 to 15 mg/l are common. Ozone and ultra violet (uv) irradiation can also be used for disinfection but these methods of disinfection are not in common use. Chlorine contact basins are usually rectangular channels, with baffles to prevent short-circuiting, designed to provide a contact time of about 30 minutes. However, to meet advanced wastewater treatment requirements, a chlorine contact time of as long as 120 minutes is sometimes required for specific irrigation uses of reclaimed wastewater. The bactericidal effects of chlorine and other disinfectants are dependent upon pH, contact time, organic content, and effluent temperature.

Wastewater Clarification

Clarification, aided by effective coagulants such as iron and aluminum salts, enhances plant production in primary, secondary and tertiary treatment. The positively charged metal hydroxide flocs that form in wastewater at a pH range of 4 to 9 collect the negatively charged suspended particles. Proper coagulation leads to the formation of larger, stronger, heavier floes, resulting in quicker settling rates and a denser sludge blanket. General Chemical manufactures and supplies historically proven aluminum and iron based coagulants. The most commonly used coagulants in wastewater treatment are Aluminum Sulfate (alum), Ferric Sulfate, Aluminum Chloride, Ferric Chloride and Aluminum Chlorohydrate. Primary Treatment Chemically Enhanced Primary Treatment (C.E.P.T.) and new emerging technologies for high rate primary treatment can utilize aluminum and iron salt coagulants to enhance flocculation. Anticipated dosages will likely be in the 50-150 mg/L range, depending on existing water conditions. Suspended Solids Removal Proper coagulant selection and dosage rate plus an optimized injection point promote effective suspended solids removal. In addition to enhancing plant throughput, coagulants provide consistent and stable operation. Depending on certain wastewater characteristics such as pH and alkalinity, the appropriate coagulant will remove greater than 99.5% of the settleable material. Turbidity and Color Reduction Turbidity, an optical measurement defined by light scattering, can be used to measure clarifier effluent clarity. Regularly used in the clarification of drinking water, coagulants reduce effluent turbidity, suspended solids and color. BOD Reduction In secondary clarification, where the bacteria population from a conventional activated process is controlled, coagulants remove BOD by settling biomass. Contaminant Reduction By treating the wastewater at the optimum location, several dissolved contaminants such as phosphorus or sulfide can be precipitated by coagulation with aluminum or ferric salts. (Please refer to other General Chemical publications for a detailed description of phosphorus reduction and hydrogen sulfide reduction.) These precipitated materials then settle as suspended solids for removal during clarification. Aluminum and ferric salts also reduce levels of fats, oils, and grease. Stormwater Treatment

Many stormwater treatment facilities rely on coagulants to cope with peak loading conditions. The higher throughputs experienced during stormwater treatment require fast settling times and effective clarification or solids removal. Even under these high rate conditions, coagulants must continue to control site dependent contaminants such as phosphorus. Inorganic coagulants are proven to be effective in wastewater clarification. Typical dosage rates vary depending on the coagulant and the specific composition of the wastewater. Experienced General Chemical technical personnel are available to assist in selecting the proper coagulant and dosage rate, as well as choosing the optimum feed point, to meet your wastewater clarification needs.

Coagulation and Flocculation

Coagulant Chemicals Types of Coagulants

Coagulant chemicals come in two main types - primary coagulants and coagulant aids. Primary coagulantsneutralize the electrical charges of particles in the water which causes the particles to clump together. Coagulant aids add density to slow-settling flocs and add toughness to the flocs so that they will not break up during the mixing and settling processes. Primary coagulants are always used in the coagulation/flocculation process. Coagulant aids, in contrast, are not always required and are generally used to reduce flocculation time. Chemically, coagulant chemicals are either metallic salts (such as alum) or polymers. Polymers are man-made organic compounds made up of a long chain of smaller molecules. Polymers can be either cationic(positively charged), anionic (negatively charged), or nonionic (neutrally charged.) The table below shows many of the common coagulant chemicals and lists whether they are used as primary coagulants or as coagulant aids. Different sources of water need different coagulants, but the most commonly used are alum and ferric sulfate.

Chemical Name Aluminum sulfate (Alum) Ferrous sulfate Ferric sulfate Ferric chloride Cationic polymer

Chemical Formula Primary Coagulant Coagulant Aid Al2(SO4)3 14 H2O FeSO4 7 H2O Fe2(SO4)3 9 H2O FeCl3 6 H2O Various X X X X X X* X* X* X X X X X X X X X

Calcium hydroxide (Lime) Ca(OH)2 Calcium oxide (Quicklime) CaO Sodium aluminate Bentonite Calcium carbonate Sodium silicate Anionic polymer Nonionic polymer Na2Al2O4 Clay CaCO3 Na2SiO3 Various Various

*Used as a primary coagulant only in water softening processes.

Alum
There are a variety of primary coagulants which can be used in a water treatment plant. One of the earliest, and still the most extensively used, is aluminum sulfate, also known as alum. Alum can be bought in liquid form with a concentration of 8.3%, or in dry form with a concentration of 17%. When alum is added to water, it reacts with the water and results in positively charged ions.

Coagulant Aids
Nearly all coagulant aids are very expensive, so care must be taken to use the proper amount of these chemicals. In many cases, coagulant aids are not required during the normal operation of the treatment plant, but are used during emergency treatment of water which has not been adequately treated in the flocculation and sedimentation basin. A couple of coagulant aids will be considered below. Lime is a coagulant aid used to increase the alkalinity of the water. The increase in alkalinity results in an increase in ions (electrically charged particles) in the water, some of which are

positively charged. These positively charged particles attract the colloidal particles in the water, forming floc. Bentonite is a type of clay used as a weighting agent in water high in color and low in turbidity and mineral content. This type of water usually would not form floc large enough to settle out of the water. The bentonite joins with the small floc, making the floc heavier and thus making it settle more quickly.

Factors Influencing Coagulation Introduction

In a well-run water treatment plant, adjustments are often necessary in order to maximize the coagulation/flocculation process. These adjustments are a reaction to changes in the raw water entering the plant. Coagulation will be affected by changes in the water's pH, alkalinity, temperature, time, velocity and zeta potential. The effectiveness of a coagulant is generally pH dependent. Water with a color will coagulate better at low pH (4.4-6) with alum. Alkalinity is needed to provide anions, such as (OH) for forming insoluble compounds to precipitate them out. It could be naturally present in the water or needed to be added as hydroxides, carbonates, or bicarbonates. Generally 1 part alum uses 0.5 parts alkalinity for proper coagulation. The higher the temperature, the faster the reaction, and the more effective is the coagulation. Winter temperature will slow down the reaction rate, which can be helped by an extended detention time. Mostly, it is naturally provided due to lower water demand in winter. Time is an important factor as well. Proper mixing and detention times are very important to coagulation. The higher velocity causes the shearing or breaking of floc particles, and lower velocity will let them settle in the flocculation basins. Velocity around 1 ft/sec in the flocculation basins should be maintained. Zeta potential is the charge at the boundary of the colloidal turbidity particle and the surrounding water. The higher the charge the more is the repulsion between the turbidity particles, less the coagulation, and vice versa. Higher zeta potential requires the higher coagulant dose. An effective coagulation is aimed at reducing zeta potential charge to almost 0.

Coagulant
The proper type and concentration of coagulant are essential to the coagulation process. The coagulant choice will depend on the conditions at the plant. The concentration of coagulant also depends on the water conditions, and a jar test can be used to determine the correct concentration to use at any given time. Coagulants are usually fed into the water using a gravimetric feeder or a metering pump. A gravimetric feeder feeds dry chemicals into the water by weight. A metering pump feeds a wet solution (a liquid) into the water by pumping a volume of solution with each stroke or rotation. Improper coagulation related to coagulant may result from:

Using old chemicals Using the wrong coagulant Using the wrong concentration of coagulant. This may result from setting the wrong feed rate on the gravimetric feeder or metering pump or from a malfunction of the equipment.

Common Coagulation and Flocculation Problems

Review
Coagulation/flocculation is a process used to remove turbidity, color, and some bacteria from water. In the flash mix chamber, chemicals are added to the water and mixed violently for less than a minute. These coagulants consist of primary coagulants and/or coagulant aids. Then, in the flocculation basin, the water is gently stirred for 30 to 45 minutes to give the chemicals time to act and to promote floc formation. The floc then settles out in the sedimentation basin. Coagulation removes colloids and suspended solids from the water. These particles have a negative charge, so the positively charged coagulant chemicals neutralize them during coagulation. Then, during flocculation, the particles are drawn together by van der Waal's forces, forming floc. The coagulation/flocculation process is affected by pH, salts, alkalinity, turbidity, temperature, mixing, and coagulant chemicals.
Water Disinfection Methods

Many people in most developing countries suffer from the inadequacy or hazardous condition of public water supplies (WHO 1985). A wide variety of known waterborne diseases, including those associated with children's diarrhea, are rampant (Tartakow and Vorperian 1980; Feachem et al. 1983; WHO 1984, 1987). This prompted the establishment of the International Drinking Water Supply and Sanitation Decade. It aims at providing about 90% of the human population with an adequate, safe community water supply by 1990 (WHO 1985). In Lebanon, the shortage of community water supplies, their actual or potential pollution from anthropogenic sources, inadequate treatment, and the resultant spread of associated diseases are still unresolved problems (Acra et al. 1985). To curb these issues would require implementing feasible measures for prevention and treatment. These should include sanitation and disinfection of drinking water. Physical methods Formation of mutagenic and carcinogenic agents in water and wastewater effluent treated with chlorine has prompted research to seek alternative disinfecting methods that would minimize environmental and public health impacts. The technology, based on nonchemical methods, is undergoing rapid development. Some techniques are already available commercially. This category is represented by techniques employing such physical principles for disinfection as W radiation, ultrasound, ultrafiltration, reverse osmosis, heating, freezing, and ionizing radiation (Cheremissinoff et al. 1981). Disinfecting small quantities of water by pasteurizing with heat or solar energy is a technology with some potential, but requires further development (Cheremissinoff et al. 1981; Ciochetti and Metcalf 1984). The recently developed method for water disinfection by direct exposure to solar radiation (Acra et al. 1980, 1984) is further described in the following sections. Chemical methods Chemical methods depend mostly on selected chemicals with oxidizing and biocidal properties. Their practical applications range from removing undesirable constituents to disinfecting water supplies, wastewater treatment effluent, or industrial waters. The most commonly used chemicals include ozone, chlorine and some of its compounds, potassium permanganate, and hydrogen peroxide. Ozone has been used for water disinfection for about 80 years in France, Germany, and other European countries. It is now undergoing a critical evaluation as a possible alternative to chlorine when used alone or in conjunction with other disinfection systems (Foster et al. 1980; Kott et al. 1980; Dolora et al. 1981; Venosa 1983; Rakness et al. 1984; Wickramanayake et al. 1984; Den-Blanken 1985). There is some evidence that it forms smaller amounts of hazardous trihalomethanes (THM) when employed to treat polluted waters or wastewater effluent than either chlorine or chlorine dioxide. However, its potential for producing other equally toxic substances is still not clearly defined (Glaze 1987). Ozonation has become popular in North America partly because of its superiority over chlorination. It enhances the coagulation process despite its inherent weakness in leaving practically no residual in the distribution system.

Interhalogen compounds, formed from two different halogens, resemble their parent substances in properties and germicidal characteristics. The interhalogens BrCl, ICl, and IBr have recently been investigated as possible alternative disinfectants for water and wastewater effluent (Groninger and Mills 1980; Cheremissinoff et al. 1981). Added to water, they rapidly hydrolyze to the corresponding hypohalous acids, which are stronger oxidants and disinfectants than hypochlorous acid. For instance, BrCl is hydrolyzed to HCl and HOBr. However, their improved germicidal activity is counterbalanced by the formation of haloforms. They react with humates in water or wastewater effluent by the haloform reaction (HOBr, for example, reacts with humates yielding bromoform). In this context, hypobromite would be formed in seawater by reaction of the natural bromides with hypochlorites in chlorinated wastewater effluent or cooling waters from power plants (Sugam and Helz 1980; Wong 1982; Bousher et al. 1986). This also applies to natural waters rich in bromides with subsequent formation of bromoform and other trihalomethanes (Amy et al. 1984; Rav-Acha, Choshen et al. 1985; Rav-Acha, Serri et al. 1985; Ishikawa et al. 1986; Guttman-Bass et al. 1987). Consequently, coastal groundwater affected by seawater infiltration should create some concern if used for drinking. Using hydrogen peroxide for water disinfection began in the 1950s in Eastern Europe (Laubusch 1971). Although it has been well known for its high oxidative and germicidal activity, its application as a water disinfectant has not gained wide acceptance. Its increasing use, however, has been noted (Gaudy and Gaudy 1980). The degradation of organic matter in water treated sequentially with up to 0.5% by weight of hydrogen peroxide and W radiation (>200 nm) has been reported (Malaiyandi et al. 1982). In another form of application, hydrogen peroxide produced no significant oxidation of soluble manganese in water containing organic matter in the pH range of 5.0-8.0 (Knocke et al. 1987). A newly marketed product (Sanosil, Sanosil AG, Feldmeilen, Switzerland) is claimed to be applicable to large-scale water disinfection; its effective bacteriostatic and fungicidal activity has been demonstrated at concentrations of 10-35 mg/L on Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Streptococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aeroginosa, Proteus mirabilis, Micobacter spp., Clamidia sporogenes, and Candida albicans. The two active biocidal constituents of this product are hydrogen peroxide and colloidal silver. Chlorination and dechlorination The use of chlorine and some of its derivatives will continue as an integral part of the disinfection process in water and wastewater treatment. This also applies to developing countries, where this mode of disinfection is fairly well established (Mara 1978; Droste and McJunkin 1982; Smethurst 1983). Apart from almost a century of chlorination practices (Laubusch 1962a, b; Cheremissinoff et al. 1981), two other favourable determinants are the technical expertise already acquired and the relatively low costs involved. In the wake of the recent discovery of the formation of THM in chlorinated natural waters (Rook 1974), and their potential health hazards (Glaze et al. 1980; Williamson 1981; Carpenter and Beresford 1986), its credibility is diminishing. Alternative disinfecting agents such as chlorine dioxide (Rav-Acha et al. 1985b), UV light (Severin et al. 1984; Scheible 1987), and UV light in conjunction with hydrogen peroxide (Crandall 1986) are being considered. However, the formation of mutagens and carcinogens in chlorinated waters and wastewaters can be abolished or minimized by modifying the unit processes (Stelter et al. 1984;

Fiessinger et al. 1985; Finger et al. 1985; Huang et al. 1985; Kool et al. 1985; Moyers and Wu 1985; Suh and Abdel-Rahman 1985; Means et al. 1986; Rogers and Lauer 1986; Guttman-Bass et al. 1987; Knocke et al. 1987). The potential health impacts that are yet to be clearly discerned and the toxicity to aquatic life resulting from discharged chlorinated effluent (Brungs 1973; Jolley et al. 1980) do not seem to outweigh the public health benefits derived from chlorination practices (Cortruvo 1985). However, as the controversy continues, epidemiological studies (Craun 1985) and the pertinent drinking water standards and legislation (Toft 1985) are being revised. Reactions of chlorine in water that form the basis for its application as a disinfectant and oxidant are as follows: Cl2 + H20 --> HCl + HOCl HOCl --> H+ + OClThese reactions in water devoid of other inorganic or organic matter that could react with chlorine are pH and temperature dependent. The products, hypochlorous acid (HOCl) and hypochlorite ions (OCl-, are referred to as free available chlorine (FAC). The biocidal activity is attributed chiefly to HOCl, as it is more effective than the OCl-. In the presence of natural or added ammonium ions, HOCl reacts to form chloramines, known as combined available chlorine (CAC). As a disinfectant, FAC is more effective. It is essential to chlorinate beyond the subsequent attainment of FAC at the desired level for optimal biocidal effectiveness ("free residual" chlorination). The influencing factors to be considered in chlorination practices are the following:

chlorine concentration, contact time, pH, temperature, and interfering substances.

The relationship between chlorine concentration (C, milligrams per litre) and contact time (T, minutes) required for a specific percentage destruction of microorganisms is expressed as a constant (CT = K) (Gaudy and Gaudy 1980). The proper use of thisCT relationship to determine adequate water chlorination requirements has been emphasized as an approach to prevent and control waterborne diseases. Minimum CT values of 15-30 for systems using groundwater as a source and 100-150 for those using surface supplies have been recommended (Lippy 1986). Based on these values, the required FAC concentration can be determined mathematically for a given contact time. Once the chlorine demand (D) for a water supply is determined by testing, then the optimal chlorine dose to attain the desired free chlorine residual (C) can be calculated by addition: chlorine dose = D + C.

One of the factors in the many waterborne disease outbreaks in the United States in the past decades was failure to comply with the CT relationship in chlorination practices (Lippy and Waltrip 1984; Bitton et al. 1986; Lippy 1986; Williams and Akin 1986). In addition, the need for the disinfection of wastewater discharged into streams has been emphasized and justified by the 23 different kinds of pathogenic organisms present in wastewater from US communities (Shertzer 1986). Excess chlorine residuals can be controlled by a dechlorination procedure. Of the various chemicals used for the partial or complete removal of the residual chlorine in water or wastewater, sulfur dioxide gas (SO2) is the most common (Laubusch 1971; Cheremissinoff et al. 1981; Finger et al. 1985; Huang et al. 1985). Dechlorination is often applied to heavily dosed water supplies as they are aesthetically objectionable to consumers or undesirable for industrial water uses. Chlorinated cooling waters and wastewaters need to be dechlorinated before discharging into water bodies in view of their toxicity to aquatic life. They have also potentially harmful effects because of the formed THM. Household methods There are many situations where individuals or families would need to resort to simple and effective methods for drinking-water disinfection. These include the following:

catastrophic conditions leading to displacement (earthquakes, floods, hurricanes, wars, or civil disturbances); emergencies arising from flourishing waterborne diseases; and resident populations and foreigners at risk in endemic areas with unsafe water supplies.

Physical methods (boiling or the use of ceramic filters), chemical methods (chlorine compounds in solution or tablet form, e.g., sodium hypochlorite solutions, calcium hypochlorite tablets, organic chlorine compounds, iodine solution, and organic iodine compounds) and others have been recommended for such cases (Morris et al. 1953; Gershenfeld 1957; Hadfield 1957; Cox 1969; O'Connor and Cooper 1970; WHO 1972, 1973; Rajagopalan and Shiffman 1974; UNHCR 1982). None of these methods is entirely free from practical problems that could induce users to revert to untreated water. Fuelwood, for instance, for boiling is no longer a tenable practice, particularly in areas where it is absent or being depleted. Besides, the flat taste of boiled water discourages some consumers. The diverse types of ceramic filters have a wide range of pore sizes and present difficulties in selection. They suffer frequent clogging of the ceramic candles and often leak through disguised fine cracks. Proprietary halogen preparations frequently lead to consumer complaints and rejection because of the undesirable tastes and odours imparted to the water. It is especially so if high doses are applied inadvertently or as required in cases of heavily polluted waters. Relief agencies are often trapped in a dilemma by the requirements for importing and distributing, in addition to shortages, cost acceptability, and expiry dates. These issues encourage attempts to resolve them through the development of practical and effective techniques, simple enough to be applied by individuals or households. Photoinactivation

The concept of photodynamic inactivation (PDI) of microorganisms evolved from experiments made in the early l9th century. It was firmly established, however, after the discovery of the inactivation of Paramecium spp. by visible light in the presence of an exogenous photosensitizing dye (acridine) (Raab 1900). Two types of photosensitizing compounds are known (Harrison 1967; Chamberlin and Mitchell 1978; Senger 1980):

exogenous: fluorescent substances or dyes such as eosin, methylene blue, and benzopyrene; and endogenous: porphyrins, cytochromes, cytochrome oxidase, aromatic amino acids, flavins, tryptophan, and chlorophylls.

Several microorganisms and aquatic ecosystems have shown sensitivity to solar UVR, including viruses, algae, and fungi (Perdrau and Todd 1933; Hiatt et al. 1960; Crowther and Melnick 1961; Jagger 1967, 1981; Billen and Green 1975; Berry and Noton 1976; Propst and Lubin 1978; Acher and Elgavish 1980; Calkins and Thordardottir 1980; Kapuscinski and Mitchell 1981; Worrest et al. 1981; Jabara 1984; Wei et al. 1985). The rapid destruction of saprophytic strains of Mycoplasma by artificial visible light in the presence of toluidine blue and air has been reported (Cooney and Krinsky 1972). Coliforms in water and sewage have been completely inactivated by exposure to sunlight for about 1 h in the presence of methylene blue or rose bengal; the added dye is removed by absorption on bentonite (Acher and Juven 1977). A new technique for the photodynamic disinfection of municipal and industrial wastewaters, which also results in the photodegradation of pesticides and anionic surfactants therein, has been suggested. The technique is based on the use of exogenous dye sensitizers, aeration, and sunlight, with the possibility of reusing the treated effluent for crop irrigation (Acher 1985). Aquatic photochemistry Photochemical reactions induced by natural or artificial light have been known for some time, but much of this field remains obscure. Of particular interest is the photochemistry of the hydrosphere, which is continuously experiencing light-induced chemical reactions in the surface layer (photic zone). Inorganic and organic chemical pollutants in natural surface waters capable of absorbing solar energy with consequent chemical changes, referred to as photoreactive chromophores, can lead to direct photolysis reactions. Some of the better known chromophores include inorganic substances such as nitrites, nitrates, iodates, hydrogen peroxide, and ferrous compounds (Zafiriou et al. 1984). The fate of disinfectants added to wastewater effluent and cooling waters used in industries that are discharged to surface waters is of importance in aquatic biology. Sunlight plays a prime role in their photodecomposition, as was demonstrated with experiments in which hypochlorite and hypobromite (formed by interaction of chlorine and natural bromides in seawater) were found to be photosensitive, the latter being easier to decompose (Wong 1982). In addition, volatilization into the atmosphere has been proposed as a possible pathway for the dissipation of the haloforms formed in water, with subsequent enhanced dilution and further photochemical degradation (Groninger and Mills 1980). Decay and dissipation models for chlorine residuals in natural waters have been developed. These models predict that the nocturnal discharge of chlorinated effluent would have a much greater impact

on aquatic life, given the absence of light-induced decomposition (Lin et al. 1983; Yamomoto et al. 1985). The photochemical reactions of the hypohalites formed in aqueous solutions of chlorine, bromine, and iodine are somewhat similar, except for the absorption spectra and reaction rates (Allmand et al. 1927; Allmand and Webb 1928; Farkas and Klein 1948). Their photodecomposition is wavelength-dependent, with increased decay rates in the shorter wavebands within the spectral region of 200-440 nm and the possible liberation of the highly reactive singlet oxygen, as has been noted for the surface of fresh and coastal waters (Zafiriou et al. 1984). It can be postulated, then, that aqueous halogen solutions are subject to photodecomposition by the effective radiation in the UV-B, UV-A, and blue light bands of the solar spectrum, and that these reactions could be of practical importance. Water softening here are many commercial ways of treating hard water including water filters, water softeners, electromagnetic water conditioners and reverse osmosis. In this section we will look at the pros and cons of several of the available methods to treat hard water. Method Chemical Water Softeners Water Filters Mechanical Water Softeners Permenantly installed in plumbing system to replace calcium and magnesium with sodium Magnetic Water Conditioners Permenantly installed in plumbing system to alter calcium ions so they cannot cause limescale Output water is fit for drinking Prevents Limescale Removes Calcium and Magnesium and lengthens lifespan of clothes Output water is fit for drinking. Chlorine removed. Prevents Limescale Increases heating efficiency Increases heating efficiency Lengthens lifespan of clothes Calcium retained, good for diet Low running cost

Description

Chemicals added in laundering process

Drinking water from the tap is filtered with a portable unit

Advantages

Lengthens lifespan of Water Softened. clothes

Disadvantages

Output water is not fit for drinking

Does not prevent limescale deposits in pipes and heating system

Output water may not be suitable for drinking Expensive