STATIC EXCITATION SYSTEM & AVR

A Mini Project report submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirement for the award of the degree Of

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY IN ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

By
D.ANUSHA MAANASA M.RAMESH A.KARTEEK G.NIRANJAN (09U41A0255) (09U41A0274) (09U41A0249) (09U41A0260)

Under the Esteemed Guidance of

External Guide M.S.N MURTHI (Dy.Manager) TPP Dept; Visakhapatnam steel plant.

Internal Guide Sri. V. Avinash, Asst.Professor, EEE Dept. Dadi Inst. of Engg.&Tech.

Department of Electrical & Electronics Engineering

DADI INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

(Approved by A.I.C.T.E., New Delhi & Affiliated to JNTUK, an ISO 9001:2008 certified Institute) NH-5, Anakapalle, VISAKHAPATNAM-530021

DADI INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY (Approved by A.I.C.T.E., New Delhi & Affiliated to JNTUK, an ISO 9001:2008 certified Institute) NH-5, Anakapalle, VISAKHAPATNAM-530021

This is to certify that the Mini Project Report entitled STATIC EXCITATION SYSTEM & AVR is a bonafide record work done by the students D.Anusha Maanasa (09U41A0255), M.Ramesh (09U41A0274), A.Karteek (09U41A0249), G.Niranjan (09U41A0260), of third year engineering during the academic year 2011-12 submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Bachelor of Technology in Electrical and Electronics Engineering of JNTUK the embodies original work done by him/her under my Supervision.

INTERNAL GUIDE

HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT

Sri. V. Avinash, Asst. Professor Dept. of EEE

ii

Sri. K. Vijay Kumar, M.E., (Ph.D) Associate professor Dept. of EEE

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the project report entitled STATIC EXCITATION SYSTEM & AVR has been submitted by D.Anusha Maanasa, M.Ramesh, A.Karteek, G.Niranjan. in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award of the degree of Bachelor of Technology in ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING to the Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University, Kakinada is a record of bona fide work carried out by him under our guidance and supervision.

Under the esteemed guidance

M.S.N MURTHI (Dy.Manager) TPP Dept., Visakhapatnam steel plant

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We express our profound sense of appreciation and gratitude to our external guide Sri. M.S.N.Murthy, Deputy Manager, THERMAL POWER PLANT, Visakhapatnam Steel Plant, for his active participation and excellence guidance at every stage and his cooperation in completing this project. We express our soulful gratitude to our internal guide Sri. V. Avinash, for providing generous assistance overall guidance, precious suggestion, moral support provided by in and spending many hours of his valuable time during the courses of our project. We express our thanks to the head of the department Sri. K Vijay Kumar, M.E., (Ph.D), for his co-operation in completing this project. We are also very thankful to our principal Sri. B. Jagan Mohan Rao, for his cooperation in completing our project. We express our grateful thanks to our correspondent Sri. D. Rathnakar, for inspiring us in every aspect and for his co-operation in completing our project. We express our thanks to all the staff of EEE Department for helping us whenever we need their help. Finally, We thank our parents and friends for all their possible assistance during the course of project.

PROJECT ASSOCIATES
D.ANUSHA MAANASA M.RAMESH A.KARTEEK G.NIRANJAN
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
S.no
I. Abstract II. List of Figures III. Abbreviations IV. List of Tables CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO VSP

Title

Page no.
i ii iv vi 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 4 5 5 6 6 7
v

1.1 Introduction to Thermal Power Plant 1.2 Boilers 1.3 Turbo Generators 1.4 Turbo Blowers 1.5 Auxiliaries of TPP 1.6 Chemical Water Treatment Plant 1.7 Chilled Water Plant No-II 1.8 Coke Dry Cooling Plant (CDCP) Boilers 1.9 BPTS & Chilled Water Plant No-I 1.10 Gas Expansion Turbine System (GETS) 1.11 TPP Electrics 1.12 GSB-I 1.13 Island Operation Scheme 1.14 Power Requirement 1.15 Source of Power 1.16 Power Distribution in Power Plant 1.17 Synchronisation

CHAPTER 2 2.1 Introduction

STATIC EXCITATION SYSTEM

10 10 10 12 13 13 15 16 17 17 19 19 19 19 19 20 21 24 32 34 34 35 36 37

2.2 Major Components 2.2.1 Excitation Transformer 2.2.2 Power Section 2.2.3 Thyristor Rectifier and Triggering 2.2.4 Over Voltage Protection Unit 2.2.5 De-excitation Circuit 2.2.6 Field Flashing Device 2.2.7 Actual Value Detection CHAPTER 3 AVR & ECR

3.1 Generator Voltage Set Point 3.2 Field Current Set Point 3.3 Internal Failure Detection 3.4 Excitation Current Regulator (ECR) 3.5 Automatic Voltage Regulator (AVR) 3.5.1 Automatic Voltage Control System 3.5.2 Requirements For AVR 3.5.3 Modes Of Operation CHAPTER 4 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Under-excitation Limiter 4.3 Over excitation Limiter, Field Forcing Limiter 4.4 Rotor Angle Limiter LIMITERS

vi

4.5 Stator Current Limiter 4.6 V/f Limiter CHAPTER 5 MONITORING AND DIAGNOSIS

37 38 40

5.1 Fault Messages 5.2 Automatic Restart 5.3 Status Indications CHAPTER 6 POWER SYSTEM STABILISERS 40 41 42

CONCLUSION BIBILIOGRAPHY

45 47

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ABSTRACT

This project essentially focuses on the STATIC EXCITATION SYSTEM (SEE) for Turbo Generators employed in THERMAL POWER PLANTS. The review also describes the voltage regulation of these Generators using the AUTOMATIC VOLTAGE REGULATOR (AVR). This static excitation equipment provides significant improvements in generator performance including improved transient and dynamic stability. The system also provide all functions required to control and regulate the generator output voltage and also incorporates a range of features and functions that make it possible to achieve a higher level of control of the generator system. This static excitation system improves generator performance, reduce maintenance cost, raise operator efficiency and streamline operator interface. Provisions of excitation limiting improve available reactive power capability. It is recommended to incorporate static excitation equipment due to replacement of Carbon brushes for regular maintenance of the DC exciter require shutdown of Turbo Generator which leads to loss of generator for considerable amount of time, occurrence of revenue loss due to auxiliary power consumption, loss of generator due to maintenance.

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure no.
Fig. 1.1 Fig. 1.2 Fig. 2.1 Fig. 2.2 Fig. 2.3 Fig. 2.4 Fig. 2.5 Fig. 2.6 Fig. 3.1 Fig. 3.2

Description
Thermal Power Plant Flow Chart of Thermal Power Plant SEE System Overview Excitation Transformer Thyristor Characteristics DC Voltage at Ceiling Voltage Operation in Converter Mode (during excitation)

Page no.
8 9 11 13 14 14 15 15 21 22

Operation in Inverter Mode (during de-excitation) Conventional Excitation System DC exciter Commutator and Brushes, Rotor Slip Rings And Brushes

Fig. 3.3 Fig. 3.4 Fig. 3.5 Fig. 3.6 Fig. 3.7 Fig. 3.8 Fig. 3.9 Fig. 3.10 Fig. 3.11

Rotor Excited Brush Type Generator Static/Slip ring Generator High Initial Response Utility Electrical System Sensing 1 or 3 phase Sensing 2 or 3 phase, open delta Sensing 3 phase (Y-Y) Voltage Regulator Connected to the Generator Field Voltage Regulator Connected to the Exciter Field

22 22 23 23 24 25 25 26 27

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Fig. 3.12 Fig. 3.13 Fig. 3.14 Fig. 3.15 Fig. 3.16 Fig. 3.17 Fig. 3.18 Fig. 3.19 Fig. 3.20 Fig. 4.1 Fig. 4.2 Fig. 4.3 Fig. 4.4 Fig. 4.5

Power Source For Excitation Shunt Powered Excitation System Basic Field Flashing Automatic Field Flashing Bus Powered Excitation System PMG power for Excitation Station Service Powered Excitation System Compound Excitation System Excitation Mode Of Operation Generator Power Characteristics Under Excitation Limiter Over Excitation Limiter Stator Current Limiter V/f Limiter

28 28 29 30 30 31 31 32 33 34 35 36 38 39

ABBREVIATIONS
APSEB BHEL TG HSD LBSS TPP CDCP DM SMS CWP - Andhra Pradesh State Electricity Board - Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited - Turbo Generator - High Speed Diesel - Load Block Substation - Thermal Power Plant - Coke Dry Cooling Plant - Demineralised Water - Steel Melting Shop - Chilled Water Plant

CO & CCP - Coke Ovens And Coal Chemical Plant BPTS GETS BF MRS WRM MMSM MOCB RMHP LMMM CRMP ASP OLBT - Back Pressure Turbines - Gas Expansion Turbine Station - Blast Furnace - Main Receiving Station - Wire Rod Mill - Medium Merchant and Structural Mill - Minimum Oil Circuit Breaker - Raw Material Handling Plant - Light & Medium Merchant Mill - Calcining and Refractory Material Plant - Alloy Steels Plant - On Load Bus Transfer
xi

AVR ECR IEEE PT CT PMG BIL FCR MVC GSB CWTP ONAN ONAF

- Automatic Voltage Regulator - Excitation Current Regulator - Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers - Potential Transformer - Current Transformer - Permanent Magnet Generator - Basic Impulse Level - Field Current Regulation - Manual Voltage Control - Generator Switch Board - Chemical Water Treatment Plant - Oil Natural Air Natural - Oil Natural Air Force

xii

LIST OF TABLES
Table no.
Table 1 Table 2 Table 3

Description
Estimated Energy Consumption in VSP Exciter & Generator field BIL minimum

Page no.
5 27 29

xiii

Chapter-I

INTRODUCTION TO VSP
Steel comprises one of the most important inputs in all sectors of economy. Steel industry is both a basic and a core industry. The economy of any nation depends on a strong base of iron and steel industry in that country. History has shown that countries having a strong potentiality of Iron and Steel Production have played a prominent role in the advancement of civilisation in the world. Steel is such a versatile commodity that every object we see in our day to day life has used steel either directly or indirectly. To mention few it is used for such a small item as nails, pins, needles etc, through surgical instruments, agricultural implements, boilers, ships, railway materials, automobile part etc., to heavy machines, structures etc. The great investment that has gone into fundamental research in Iron and Steel technology has helped both directly and indirectly many modern fields of todays science and technology. It would seen very painful to image the fate todays civilisation had steel not been there. The per capital consumption of steel in India during 1970s was around 10kg compared to about 700kg obtaining in many advanced countries, over 800kg in Japan. This was very low. Viewing in the backdrop of Indian population which was standing at about 800 Million, even a 10kg of increase in steel consumption would need the setting up of a 8 Million ton of steel per year production capacity. Keeping this end in view the Government of India had cleared the decision of setting up of a shore based integrated steel plant at Visakhapatnam.

1.1 INTRODUCTION TO THERMAL POWER PLANT:

Power requirement of VSP is met through captive generation as well as supply from APSEB grid. The captive capacity of 270MW is sufficient to meet all the plant needs in normal operation time we have 3 units of each 60MW and one unit of 67.5MW capacity.

1.2 BOILERS:
Thermal Power Plant has 5 Boilers each of 330 T/hr. Steam capacity at 101KSCA and 540C. The boilers are of BHEL make, capable of firing combination of fuels namely, Coal, Coke Oven Gas, Blast Furnace Gas and Oil. Normally 4 Boilers are kept in full load operation to produce 247.5MW of power, supply steam to 2 Turbo Blowers and process
1

needs. Boilers outlet flue gas is passed through Electro Static Precipitators to control air pollution.

1.3 TURBO GENERATORS:

Thermal Power Plant has 4 Turbo Generators, three of 60MW capacity each and the fourth 67.5MW. Special features of the turbo sets are: i) ii) iii) Electro Hydraulic Turbine Governing System Central admission of steam to reduce axial thrust Forced air cooled generators.

Power is generated and distributed at 11kV for essential category loads. Excess power from TG-1, 2 and 3 is transferred to 220kV Plant Grid through step up/down transformers. All the Power Generated from TG-4 at 11kV is stepped up through a 220kV transformer and transferred to plant grid.

1.4 TURBO BLOWERS:

VSP has 2 Blast Furnaces. To meet the blast air requirement, 3 Turbo Blowers, each of 6067NM3 /min capacity, are installed in India. These blowers are of axial type and are the largest blowers installed in India. The blowers are provided with suction filters, pre-coolers and inter coolers.

1.5 AUXILIARIES OF TPP:

These include coal conveyors, cooling towers & pump house No-4 for cooling water system , pump house for ash water, ash slurry , fire water and fuel oil & HSD air compressor station , emergency Diesel Generators , electric switch gear for power distribution , ventilation and air conditioning equipment etc. The entire power generated at Back Pressure Turbine Station and Gas Expansion Turbine Station is transmitted over 11kV cables to power plant, stepped up through a 220kV transformer at LBSS5 and transferred to plant grid.

1.6 CHEMICAL WATER TREATMENT PLANT:

Chemical Water Treatment Plant located in TPP zone produces high purity De-mineralised Water and Soft Water. There are six streams of De-mineralising units each capable of producing 125 cubic meters per hour each. Two softening units of 125 cubic meter

per hour each. DM water is supplied to TPP, Steel Melt Shop, CDCP Boilers at Coke Ovens, and Rolling Mills. Soft water is supplied to Chilled water plant-I, II and SMS mould cooling.

1.7 CHILLED WATER PLANT NO-2:

Chilled Water Plant No-2 located in TPP zone is having nine chillers, each having a chilling capacity of 337 M3 /hr. The chilled water is supplied to TPP, Blast Furnace and Sinter Plant for air conditioning purpose at 7C. The return water temperature is 16C.

1.8 COKE DRY COOLING PLANT (CDCP) BOILERS:

In VSP, hot coke produced in the Coke Oven Batteries is cooled by circulating Nitrogen in Coke Dry Cooling Plant. The hot circulating gas is passed through Waste Heat Boilers in which steam is produced at 40KSCA pressure and 440C temperature. There are three Coke Dry Cooling Plants, four Waste Heat Boilers. Boiler is of 25T/Hr capacity.

1.9 BPTS & CHILLED WATER PLANT NO-1:

The 40 KSCA steam generated in CDCP Boilers is utilised for driving 2Nos of 7.5MW Back Pressure Turbines for generation of Power. The 2.5 Ata exhaust steam is utilised for production of Chilled water in CWP-1. The 7 Ata extraction steam is used for process requirements of CO & CCP zone. The CWP-1 has 5 Chillers installed, each capable of cooling 337 M3/hour BPTS and CWP-1 are housed in a single located near Battery No-3 of CO & CCP zone.

1.10 GAS EXPANSION TURBINE STATION (GETS)

Both the Blast Furnace of VSP are designed to operate at a high top pressure of 2.5 Kg/cm2. The high pressure BF Gas is cleaned in Gas cleaning plant and expanded in Gas Expansion Turbines driving electric generators. The BF Gas after passing through the Turbine is fed to gas distribution network and is used as heating fuel in TPP & other units of VSP. Each Blast Furnace is connected to a Gas Expansion Turbine of 12MW capacity 7.5MW of power is generated by each of the turbine at full production level. GETS is located in BF zone, between the two furnaces.

1.11 TPP ELECTRICS:

There are 3 generators present in the TPP. The capacity of each generator is 60MW, Generator of the voltage level 11kV, total generation is 180MW out of this 303

40MW are consumed by the Blast Furnace, Steel Melting Shop, Coke Oven, Rolling mills and 30-32MW is consumed by the TPP auxiliaries. Remaining 110MW is connected to LBSS5. In addition to this there is one generator (TG-4) rated at 67.5MW, 11kV, 90MVA. There are two Gas Expansion Turbines (GETS) and two Back Pressure Turbines (BPTS) rated 12MW & 7.5MW respectively. From this 20MW is supplied to LBSS5. LBSS1 consumes a load of 40MW. The remaining 157.5MW is supplied to Main Receiving Station (MRS). At this station LBSS2 consumes a load of 50MW for Blast Furnace and Air Separation Plant. LBSS3 consumes a load of 5MW for LBSS3 MMSM and WRM. LBSS4 consumes a load of 30MW. Township consumes a load of 5MW. There are two APSEB tie lines connected to MRS for exporting and importing depending upon the conditions.

1.12 GSB-1:
Generator Switch Board-1 is a 11kV, 4500Amps, 3 section board, located at 0 meters in TPP. Each 60MW generator is connected to each section of the board. The bus is provided with a bus coupler and the bus coupler 4500Amps reactor between section-1 & 2 as well as between section-2 & 3. To section-1 & 3 of GSB-1 350MVA, 220kV/11kV are connected. Out of these 3 transformers, two are always in operation and the other one is standby. The 220kV side of transformers are connected to sub-station called Load Block SubStation-5(LBSS). Power is evacuated through LBSS-5 transformers-1, 2 and 3 and is distributed through the 220kV network of the plant. All the critical loads of the steel plant i.e. Water supply, Blast Furnace, Steel Melt Shop and Coke Oven are connected to GSB through 11kV cables. In addition all the TPP auxiliaries are also connected to GSB-1. All outgoing feeders are connected to GSB through link-reactor and Minimum Oil Circuit Breaker (MOCB) in addition to earthing switches. Turbo Generators of TPP normally operate in parallel with state grid. All three generators of each 60MW are connected to Generator switch board. This GSB-1 is a 11kV 4500Amps, 3 selection board located at 0Mt level in AA bay. All category-1 loads of the steel plant are connected to GSB-1 through 11kV cable. Power is evacuated through 50/63MVA (11kV/220kV) transformer 1, 2 & 3 which are connected to Section-1 and 3 of the GSB-1, Synchronisation facility exists for any of the incoming generators, 50/63MVA Transformer-1, 2, 3.

1.13 ISLAND OPERATION SCHEME:

A scheme has been envisaged at TPP to get isolated form the grid in case of system disturbance or low frequency condition with ABB make relay type FCX 103b relay with following settings: df/dt 1st stage 2cycles/sec rate of fall below 50HZ 47.5HZ for 0.5 sec 51.5HZ with time delay 150MS

Over frequency 2nd stage

46.9HZ with 1sec. delay

1.14 POWER REQUIREMENT:

Integrated Steel Plants are major consumers of electricity, with specific consumption of power at around 600-650kWh/Ton of liquid steel. The estimated annual power requirement of Visakhapatnam Steel Plant, at full level of production in each shop (corresponding to 3.0MT of liquid steel), is 1932 million kWh. This corresponds to an average demand of 221MW. The estimated energy consumption and average demand of major shops is given below:

SHOP

Annual Energy (106 kW Hrs.)

Average Demand (MW) 4.0 19.5 29.0 24.0 14.5 11.5 13.5 11.5 4.0 35.0 29.5

RMHP CO & CCP SINTER PLANT BLAST FURNACE SMS & CCM LMMM WRM MMSM CRMP TPP ASP

35 171 254 210 126 100 118 100 35 310 258

COM.STATION & CWP AUXILIARY SHOPS WATER SUPPLY TRAFFIC & OTHERS TOWNSHIP LOSSES

131 20 15 7 28 14

15.0 2.5 2.0 1.0 3.0 1.5

TOTAL

1932

221.0

Table 1 Estimated Energy Consumption in VSP

1.15 SOURCES OF POWER:

Power requirement of VSP is met through captive generation as well as supply from APSEB grid. The captive capacity of 270MW is sufficient to meet all the plant needs in normal operation time. In case of partial outage of captive generation capacity due to breakdown, shutdown or other reason, the short fall of power is availed from APSEB grid. Turbo Generators of VSP normally operate in parallel with state grid. Excess generation over and above plant load is exported to APSEB. The agreement with APSEB provides for a contract demand of 150MVA and permit export of power. Tariff for import, export; demand charges, penalties etc. are stipulated. For purpose of billing, import and export energy is separately metered at Main Receiving Station.

1.16 POWER DISTRIBUTION IN POWER PLANT

220kV & 11kV LOAD BLOCK SUBSTATION-5 (LBSS-5)
Integrated Steel Plants are major consumers of electricity, with specific consumption of power at around 600-650kWh/Ton of liquid steel. The estimated annual power requirement of Visakhapatnam Steel Plant, at full level of production in each shop (corresponding to 3.0MT of liquid steel), is 1932 million kWh. This corresponds to an average demand of 221MW. Power requirement of VSP is met through captive generation as well as supply from AP TRANSCO grid. The captive capacity of 270MW is sufficient to meet all the plant needs in normal operation time. In case of partial outage of captive generation capacity

due to breakdown, shutdown or other reasons, the short fall of power is availed from APSEB grid. Turbo Generators of VSP normally operate in parallel with state grid. Excess generation over and above plant load is exported to AP TRANSCO. The agreement with AP TRANSCO provides for a contract demand of 150 MVA and permit export of power. Tariff for import, export; demand charges, penalties etc. are stipulated. LBSS-5 is located outdoor and it consists of 220 kV, 1250 A, phase main bus-1, main bus-2 and transfer bus. LBSS-5 is having 12 bays i.e. three nos. for the three tie lines, two nos. of LBSS-1 lines, 3 nos. for the three 50/63 MVA transformers, one no. For 30/40/50MVA transformer, one for 90 MVA transformers, one for Bus coupler & one for bypass. In case of any difficulty in taking into service any of the 220kV circuit breakers of transformer or lines as the case may be, bypass breaker can be taken into service in line of the defective breaker by charging the transfer bus. Both 220kV main bus-1 & main bus-2 can be paralleled & transformer feeders (T1, T2, T3, T4 & T5) can be either connected to Bus-1 or Bus-2 or distributed between Bus-1 & Bus-2 depending on operational/maintenance requirement. All 220kV circuit breakers are SF6 breakers. Synchronising facility exists only for tie lines ML1, ML2, ML3, Bypass and Bus coupler breakers at Control & Relay panel of LBSS-5 located in ECR. The loads (lines or transformers) can be transferred form Bus-1 to Bus-2 and vice versa live through On Load Bus Transfer Scheme (OLBT). A typical single line diagram is enclosed.

1.17 SYNCHRONISATION:
The operation of connecting an alternator in parallel with another alternator or with common bus-bars is known as Synchronizing. Generally, alternators are used in a power system where they are in parallel with many other alternators. It means that the alternator is connected to a live system of constant voltage and constant frequency. Often the electrical system, to which the alternator is connected, has already so many alternators and loads connected to it that no matter what power is delivered by the incoming alternators, the voltage and frequency of the system remains the same. In that case, the alternator is said to be connected to infinite bus-bars. It is never advisable to connect a stationary alternator to live bus-bars, because, stator induced emf being zero, a short circuit will result. For proper synchronization of alternators, the following three conditions must be satisfied. (1) The terminal voltage or effective voltage of the incoming alternator must be the same as bus-bar voltage.
7

(2) The speed of the incoming machine must be such that its frequency (=PN/120) equals the bus-bar frequency. (3) The phase of the alternator voltage must be identical with the phase of the busbar voltage. It means that the switch must be closed at (or very near) the instant of the two voltages have correct phase relationship.

Synchronisation facility exists for any of the incoming generators, 50/63MVA Transformer 1, 2 & 3, Bus couplers and Bus couplers with reactors at 11kV. The synchronising operation is to be carried out using synchronising trolley in ECR.

Fig1.1 Thermal Power Plant

Fig1.2 Flow Chart of Thermal Power Plant

Chapter-2

STATIC EXCITATION SYSTEM

2.1 INTRODUCTION:
Static excitation system for synchronous generators uses the latest, state-ofthe-art digital technology. It is used both, with the rotating exciter sets as well as static terminal feed excitation. It is used for a single generator connected to an isolated system with no other synchronous plant as well as for multi-generators systems. In the former case its function is solely to maintain a constant bus-bar voltage and in the later case of multigenerator system, in addition to function of voltage regulation, takes care of maintaining the rotor angle and therefore assist in maintaining steady state stability.

2.2 MAJOR COMPONENTS:

Static excitation system consists of following major components: Excitation Transformer Power Section Thyristor rectifier and Trigger Set Over voltage protection unit De-excitation Circuit Field flashing device Actual value Detection

10

Fig2.1 System Overview

11

2.2.1 Excitation Transformer:

The excitation system uses a three-phase dry type cast-resin transformer with internal ventilation. Transformer specification: Type Standard Rated KVA 63000/220E IS2026 ONAN ONAF Rated Voltage HV LV Rated Current ONAN 50000 83000 220000 V 11000 V HV LV ONAF HV LV Frequency Vector Group Max. Short Circuit Duration Total Mass Untanking Mass 50Hz YD11 3sec 108.3Tonnes 49.5Tonnes 131.2A 2624.6A 165.3A 3307A

Each low voltage winding is provided with one resistance temperature detector sensor. The three temperature measurements are processed in temperature monitoring unit located at transformer enclosure. The temperature-monitoring unit derives the maximum temperature from the three and is processed for monitoring temperature limit violation for alarm and trip functions. The alarm and trip values are freely settable from the front panel of monitoring unit. The input modules of the system interrogate one NO contact each for alarm and trip. The HV winding of the excitation transformer is provided with one set of 3 Ph CTs. ( 5 VA, 50/5 A). The HV winding CTs in conjunction with over current relay F105 are used for the over current monitoring of the excitation transformer. The over current relay monitors the excitation transformer for the following conditions a) Instantaneous over current trip b) Definite time over current alarm
12

Fig2.2 Excitation Transformer CONSTRUCTIONAL FEATURES: Iron core: The limbs of the iron core are arranged on one level and joined by yokes. The almost boltless cores comprise laminations, which are insulated on both sides and core oriented, thereby featuring low losses. The cross-section of the limb and yoke are identical and their form is approx. circular, having numerous steps. Windings: The high voltage windings are made of copper strip wrapped in high quality insulation and are vacuum impregnated with resins up to the terminals. In the low-voltage winding, the conductor material also consists of copper. The width of the copper strip is equal to the coil length. This results in a considerable reduction in axial short-circuit forces.

2.2.2 Power Section:

The Thyristor converter comprises a unit with fully controllable three phase bridge circuits in B6C configuration. The converter unit is fully digital compact unit for three-phase connection for generation of DC current. An integrated electronics box contains the basic electronics for open-loop control, closed-loop control and monitoring of power section. This box can easily be accessed. A powerful microprocessor performs open-loop control and closed-loop control functions of the excitation system. Adaptation of the functions for the excitation system is implemented in the software of the unit by means of parametrizable program modules. The Thyristor modules are equipped with the snubber circuit, the firing transmission and pulse amplifier. Pulse generation is contained in the basic electronics of the unit. Fan assembly mounted on the top of the ventilates the Thyristors externally. In addition two fans are mounted at the top of cabinet. The fans are electrically protected by protective circuit breakers.
13

2.2.3 Thyristor Rectifier and Triggering:

The trigger set receives the required firing angle either from Automatic voltage regulator (AVR) or from Excitation current regulator (ECR), depending on the selection. Unless a firing pulse is applied to its gate, a Thyristor blocks the flow of current in both directions. The Current will not start to flow until correct polarity voltage is applied (positive to anode, negative to cathode) and a pulse is applied to the gate electrode. The current only continues to flow if it has exceeded a relative low value i.e. it holding current. The Thyristor does not regain its forward blocking ability until the current drops to zero and the voltage is negative. This may for example results from commutation of the current to another Thyristor whose applied voltage is higher. The firing pulses are generated in the gate control unit. Trigger set then decides which Thyristor is to be triggered at a given firing angle. The mean output voltage of the Thyristor set depends on the firing angle. The Thyristor set acts as a converter during normal operation and as an inverter during De-excitation process.

Fig2.3 Thyristor Characteristics

14

Fig2.4 DC voltage at ceiling Voltage (=0)

U alpha = Intermediate angle

UYB

UBR

URY

Fig2.5 Operation in Converter mode (during excitation)

U alpha = 150 deg

UYB

UBR

URY

Fig2.6 Operation in inverter mode (during de-excitation)

15

2.2.4 Over voltage protection:

Over voltage across generator field winding and the power Thyristors can occur due to grid disturbances, rotor slip or switching operations. The over voltage protection unit is connected across the dc link i.e. in parallel to field winding and power Thyristor bridge. The response threshold of over voltage protection is adjusted such that it is above the positive and negative ceiling voltage. In the excitation system over voltage setting is at 800V. Crowbar circuit: The purpose of this equipment is to prevent any high voltages produced in the generator field circuit causing damage to the Converter Bridge or rotor. This is achieved using a pair of crowbar Thyristors connected inverse parallel in series with a field discharge resistor, connected across the field winding.

Pole slipping : If pole slipping occurs current is induced in the generator field circuit. The direction of the flow of this induced current can be such as to oppose the current supplied to the field by the static exciter main bridge and if it exceeds this current a high voltage is induced in the generator field circuit. This results in the crowbar Thyristors switching on and in order to prevent the converter bridge feeding current into the crowbar Thyristor circuit an inhibit signal is generated to suppress the output of the converter bridge. If pole slipping continues the field contact should be tripped.

2.2.5 De-excitation circuit:

Generator field has high inductance associated with it. Due to this high inductance there is residual field current in field winding, even after switching off the excitation system. It is required that the residual field current in the field winding shall be brought down to zero in possible minimum time. This process of reducing field current to zero value during normal and protection OFF is called De-excitation.
16

De-excitation is ultimately achieved by reliable interruption between the excitation field source i.e. excitation transformer and field winding. The excitation system at is provided with field circuit breaker on AC side of excitation converter. To enhance safety and to allow de-excitation of generator during operation, provision is made for operating the converter in inverter mode.

2.2.6 Field Flashing device:

In excitation system where excitation power is sourced from Generator terminals Field flashing is required for initial excitation. Initially when no field current is flowing there is no voltage at the generator terminal and therefore no power is available to the excitation system. External DC or AC source with converter is used to feed the initial field current. With this, voltage of the order of 40-50% of rated value is available at generator terminals. This is sufficient for the excitation system to source controlled excitation power from generator terminals. The field flashing supply is then switched off. If the Generator terminal voltage does not reach at least 40% of its rated value within 10 sec, the excitation system is switched OFF and Field Flashing Failure indication appears on the annunciation panel.

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2.2.7 Actual value detection:

Following actual values are measured by the system: Generator voltage actual value (2 times) Generator current actual value Generator active power actual value Generator reactive power actual value Field voltage actual value Field current actual value (2 times)

The generator voltage is measured via a PT. Two sets (for acquiring generator voltage measured value two times) 3 transformers are used to further step down the voltage to 5V by voltage transformer. The mean value is formed using diode rectifier modules. The measured values are processed for correct measurement of generator voltage actual value. In case the difference is more than 15% between the two values, AVR failure signal is generated which forces the excitation mode to manual operation.

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Chapter-3

AVR & ECR

3.1 GENERATOR VOLTAGE SET POINT:

Generator voltage set point output is controlled by pressing Raise/Lower keys in control room / UCB. The generator voltage is controlled to a set point in the range of 85 to 110%. When the over excitation limiter is active, this blocks the set point generator in raise direction, with the set point generator blocked in lower direction when the under excitation limiter is active.

3.2 FIELD CURRENT SET POINT:

Field current set point output is controlled from control room / UCB and is only possible in the Excitation status ECR mode is ON.

3.3 INTERNAL FAILURE DETECTION:

Following internal failure detection takes place in components of the excitation system: 1. 2. 3. 4. Input /Output Module failure (Any of the Relays drops due to module fault) Faulty (Relay drops) Failure of both 24V Supplies (Both the Relays drops) Protection OFF generated from open loop control (Any of the Relays drops due to protection OFF).

3.4 EXCITATION CURRENT REGULATOR (ECR):

All open loop and closed-loop control functions for the manual channel (excitation current regulator) are implemented in software of the processor module in unit. In the manual channel, the field current is controlled to a set point in range of 0 to 110% in the unit. If the generator is not connected to grid, the upper limit is adjusted downward to a value of 110% Ifo. When the generator is connected to grid, this limit is enabled at 110% Ifo again. The function of ECR is to control the excitation current manually. The ECR comes

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into service when the automatic control mode is disturbed or used specifically during testing and commissioning of the synchronous generators. ECR continuously tracks AVR to facilitate automatic and bump less transfer to manual mode. In event of disturbed control mode, the excitation must be adjusted manually to new load condition by changing the ECR set point. The under excitation and over excitation limits have to be manually monitored by operators in the event of ECR in service.

3.5 AUTOMATIC VOLTAGE REGULATOR (AVR):

The function of AVR is to regulate the voltage at generator terminals. It compares the actual value of generator terminal voltage with the reference value and then determines the firing angle for Thyristors. In addition to its basic function of regulating generator terminal voltage it takes into account other influences for safe operation of generator. AVR is a closed loop controller, which uses a signal proportional to the generator terminal voltage and compares it with steady voltage reference. The difference or error voltage obtained is then used to control the exciter output. If the load on the generator changes, the generator terminal voltage also changes, increasing the error signal. The error signal is amplified by the regulator and used to increase or decrease the excitation, as necessary to bring the voltage back to original value. And also the provision is made for the operator to change the reference voltage in response to system requirements. The synchronous generator terminal voltage is regulated by AVR throughout its predetermined rated load range. Beyond this load range, the machine may only be operated for short periods of time. After adjustable delay, the limiting controller operates and returns the excitation current to permissible value. In addition to above the AVR includes control loops, components, which perform other vital tasks. e.g. Under excitation limiter / Minimum excitation current limiter, Over excitation limiter, Field forcing limiter, Rotor angle limiter, Stator current limiter, V/f limiter etc. Following Limiters are implemented in the AVR V/f Limiter Over excitation Limiter Field Forcing Limiter
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Under excitation Limiter Rotor Angle Limiter Stator Current Limiter

The limiters are the corrective action that the AVR automatically takes under any unhealthy condition that occurs to the machine.

3.5.1 AUTOMATIC VOLTAGE CONTROL SYSTEM:

CONVENTIONAL (LEGACY) EXCITATION CONTROL SYSTEMS The oldest systems still in service are generators with rotating brush-type exciters shown in Figures 1, 2 and 3. These units are commonly equipped with a manual control rheostat and provisions for an automatic voltage regulator. Older voltage regulators were of electromechanical design. Because they used moving parts and contacts for their operation, the AVR often was taken out of service while the generator remained on line, providing power under manual excitation control. With large machines operating in parallel on a grid or network, it is possible to allow one machine to run in manual and allow the other generators to maintain the grid voltage. At least that was the case years ago, but today, with the increasing loads on the grid, operation in manual control is allowed on a limited basis and pressure to get AVR control back in service can be intense.

Fig3.1 Conventional Excitation System

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Fig3.2 DC exciter commutator and brushes, rotor slip rings and brushes

Fig3.3 Rotary excited Brush-Type Generator

Fig3.4 Static/Slip Ring Generator

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To understand the demand for AVR control, one must understand the need to substantially increase the reliability of the grid. To improve the grid reliability, a very high speed fault detection scheme with high speed interrupting of fault current, (see Figure 6) and high speed (officially, high initial response, per IEEE) excitation systems on all grid connected generating units with high field forcing capability should be implemented. By these two means, the existing grid limitations for transferring power may be extended, allowing existing grids to be optimized to carry the load until additional grid lines may be designed and built. This need creates pressure to replace electromechanical AVRs with high forcing, high speed excitation systems to improve the performance of generating units, thus improving the reliability of the grid.

Fig3.5 High Initial Response

Fig3.6 Utility Electrical System

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To perform such a replacement, the new equipment will be expected to have several standard capabilities. Remote control of the generator is normal with metering, control switches and set point adjustments accessible from the control room. The reason a control room is normally provided is to exclude noise, dust, dirt and moisture from the control environment. It also allows the temperature to be controlled independently from the rest of the plant, a benefit to the equipment inside and to the operators. Annunciation of system status and alarms is installed in the control room to keep the operator informed about the condition and status of generator unit.

3.5.2 REQUIREMENTS FOR AVR:

Sensing Requirements: The voltage regulation system must have a means of measuring generator stator voltage and current. In some cases, these quantities cannot be measured directly, so it may be necessary for transformers to step down the voltage and current to useful levels for connection to the voltage regulation system. These transformers are not normally a part of the regulation equipment.

Fig3.7 Sensing 1 or 3 phase

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Fig3.8 Sensing 2 or 3 phases, Open delta

Fig3.9 Sensing 3 phase (Y-Y) Usually, they will be housed in switchgear or the generator connection boxes. Also, their secondary quantities may be used by other equipment in addition to the voltage regulation equipment. If the voltage regulation system is to have good performance, the quality of the measurement of voltage and current must be accurate. How accurate should the information be IEEE/ANSI C57.13 is the U.S. standard for rating Potential Transformer (PT) and Current Transformer (CT) accuracy into various loads, called burdens. Using metering accuracy ratings, a rating of 1.2 for a PT or CT means that at some stated burden

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(load) on the transformer, the secondary ratio correction factor must not exceed 1.2 percent. PT burdens are given letters of the alphabet, such as Y, indicating a burden of 75 voltamperes at 0.85 power factor. At burdens less than rated, the transformer is assumed to be more accurate. Thus, one can evaluate the ability of a PT or CT to perform within its necessary specifications by knowing the burden to be connected to it and the minimum acceptable accuracy for the application. The maximum allowable error of a transformer for voltage or current sensing in an excitation system must be less than 1% of rated voltage and current. Ordinarily, the replacement of legacy voltage control with modern voltage regulation equipment may make use of existing PTs and CTs without much concern for accuracy, because burden demands in modern solid state and digital excitation controls are generally less than the legacy equipment. Accuracy of measurement should be improved by the reduction of burden. Field Power Requirements: A good starting point for the design of an excitation system is the decision to excite the generators revolving field (static exciter) or to use the existing rotary exciter and provide excitation to the exciter field, Figure 11. This decision will impact the size and cost of the excitation system, because exciter field power will be much smaller than the requirement of the generator field. Once this decision is made, the required voltage and current to operate the generator at rated load must be determined based on nameplate data or documentation from the generator manufacturer. The resistance of the field may be determined from manufacturers data or it may be measured.

Fig3.10 Voltage Regulator Connected to the Generator Field

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Fig3.11 Voltage Regulator Connected to the Exciter Field One complication may arise if the project to update the generating system includes improvements that increase the power capacity of the unit. In this case, the excitation parameters may be estimated, but until testing of the completed unit is performed to verify the results of the improvements, it is best to make sure the excitation power is sufficient to cover any possible outcome of the test results. This kind of testing normally is performed during the commissioning process after the improvements to the unit are complete. EXCITER FIELD RESISTANCE RATED LOAD VOLTAGE RATED LOAD AMPS CALC FIELD HOT 5.8 @ 25C GENERATOR FIELD 0.17 @ 25C

98V DC 15.6A 6.2 Table 2 Exciter & Generator field

213V DC 270A 0.79

Because of the resistance of wire connections from the excitation control to the field, it is important to size the conductors to keep wire resistance low compared to the field. In static exciter applications, the field resistance may be on the order of 0.25 to 1.0 Ohms. Wiring from the static exciter to the brushes and slip rings must be very low to prevent the field current from being limited by the resistance of the cables. If power for the excitation system comes from a separate excitation transformer, the ac power leads are also subject to this same need to keep the voltage drop at a minimum. Power to the Excitation Equipment: Some choices are available for providing ac power to the voltage regulation system. A common choice is to take power from the generator stator (shunt powered). Since power plant generators are normally medium voltage (5 or 15kV or higher), a step-down transformer will be used to reduce voltage to the value needed by the voltage regulation system. For rotary exciters, this power may be small enough to be taken

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single phase, or it may require a 3 phase source, depending on the voltage regulator manufacturers recommendation. For static exciters, the power is usually 3 phase. The various sources available for the Excitation are: 1. Station Battery 2. Bus or Line Side of the Generator Breaker 3. Permanent Magnet Generator(PMG) for rotating exciters 4. Low Voltage Plant Bus (Station Service Bus) 5. Current Boost Scheme Or Compound Excitation

Fig3.12 Power Sources for Excitation

Fig3.13 Shunt-Powered Excitation System

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Primary Voltage Nominal 2.4KV 4.16KV 13.8KV 23KV

BIL Minimum 20KV 30KV 60KV 110KV Table 3

Winding-Winding Winding-GND High Potential Test 10KV 12KV 31KV 37KV

The transformer is normally designed to meet IEEE/ANSI specifications for dry-type transformers, C57.12.01. This spec includes high potential test requirements and Basic Impulse Level (BIL) test requirements for 5kV and 15kV class transformers shown in Table 2. Often, higher ratings are specified based on the standards for the metal clad switchgear. The transformer may be supplied as an item to be installed in an appropriate location, or it may be installed in an enclosure by the excitation transformer manufacturer.

Fig3.14 Basic Field Flashing

When the generator stator is used (shunt powered-shown in Figure 13), especially for a static exciter, low residual voltage may deem it necessary for the unit to receive a source of dc to the field for a short duration. The DC allows the generator terminal voltage to build to a level at which the voltage regulator will have sufficient power to operate. This is called FIELD FLASHING. This source normally uses the station battery for flashing power and control of field flashing can be built in to the excitation control as an automatic function. Normally, field flashing is initiated by an excitation start signal from the control room and terminated when the generator voltage builds up to a satisfactory level.

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Fig3.15 Automatic Field Flashing A second source of excitation power is the bus or line side of the generator breaker shown in Fig3.16. Using this source will allow a start of the excitation without any dependence on the flashing of the generator from the station battery. The bus, or line side, source must be hot in order to excite the generator. This method may be used if the plant will only be running when the bus or line side source is available.

Fig3.16 Bus-powered excitation system

A third source of excitation power, used only with rotating exciters, is the Permanent Magnet Generator (PMG) shown in Fig3.17. Although it is possible to install a PMG on an existing generator, usually the PMG already is mounted to the generator shaft and was used for excitation power with the legacy system.

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Fig3.17 PMG power for excitation A fourth source of excitation power is a low voltage plant bus (Station Service Bus) shown in Figure 18. If this source has a greater capacity when compared to the exciter power demand, for example 5 to 10 times more capacity, there is not likely to be any problem using this source. The usual reasons for using station power are to save on the cost of an excitation transformer, eliminate the need for field flashing provisions, and inherently provide excitation support. The reason for being careful of the power capacity of the source is to keep the harmonic content of the plant bus from causing problems with other loads on the plant bus. The voltage regulation system may utilize techniques in switching to control power to the field, like the SCR, which potentially can cause harmonic distortion severe enough to create problems with other equipment powered from the plant bus. This source is to be used with caution.

Fig3.18 Station Service-powered excitation system The final source of excitation power is a current boost scheme shown in Figure 19. The idea behind this kind of excitation control is the same with a prime power
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application, except the current can be much higher, the operating voltage for the current transformers in three phases instead of single phase. The idea behind current boost with prime power normally is focused on fault current support for the operation of protective relays. Protection engineers normally will be involved in the decision to equip a generator with fault current support. Current boost systems have been designed both for rotary and static exciter systems.

Fig3.19 Compound Excitation System

3.5.3 MODES OF OPERATION:

In a Voltage Regulation System, the normal operating modes supplied for controlling generator voltage are o Automatic Voltage Regulation (AVR), and o Field Current Regulation (FCR) or Manual Voltage Control (MVC). All of these functions are found in modern voltage regulation control systems for both rotating and static exciter systems. The manual control may be a more sophisticated control than the old rheostat used with many legacy excitation systems. For example, it might be a regulated field current supply (FCR Mode). In any case, a modern manual control must be able to back up the AVR function in case of AVR problems. The AVR normally would be equipped with means of voltage drop compensation to give the operator control of generator reactive load during parallel operation with a grid or with other generators.

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Fig3.20 Excitation Mode of Operation

For units operating in parallel with utility grids, reactive power regulation in the form of VAR Control or power factor control may be provided. In this mode of operation, the generator voltage will follow the grid voltage. For small units with too little capacity to have any effect on grid voltage, one of these two modes of operation may be permissible. With large units, however, such operation is usually discouraged because the unit operating in VAR or PF control will not help support the grid voltage. Under high or low voltage conditions, the need of the grid is for all generating units to be working to assist in restoring voltage to normal value.

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Chapter-4

LIMITERS

4.1 INTRODUCTION:
The limiters of the excitation system ensure an operation within the generator capability chart. The characteristics of the limiters are within the power characteristics. Points within M-N-O-P-Q are allowed in the generator characteristics. The section M-O regards the under-excitation stability limit. The section O-P regards the stator current limit to maintain the stator temperature rise within limits whereas the section P-Q regards the generator rotor current limit to limit the rotor temperature rise. The limits O-P-Q allow dynamic overshooting with an adjustable PI characteristic.

Fig4.1 Generator power Characteristics

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4.2 UNDER-EXCITATION LIMITER:

The task of the under excitation limiter is to correct the reactive power when the excitation current falls below minimum excitation current value required for stable operation of generator. For this, the generator voltage is increased such that the operating point is returned to the limit characteristics before this, impermissible operating condition causes the under excitation protection to initiate generator shut down.

Fig4.2 Under-Excitation Limiter

The limit characteristic that sets activation of under excitation limiter is adjustable. This allows the characteristic to be modelled exactly or shifted parallel. The setting implemented must be matched with the protection characteristic. On activation of the under excitation limiter this takes over control from the closed loop voltage control, acting via a maximum selection. The limit characteristics set is stored in software characteristic module that outputs the appropriate reactive current values as a function of active current. The characteristic is shifted linearly the direction of capacitive reactive current as voltage increases. The reactive current value on characteristic for active current in force is compared with the measured reactive current value. The difference is fed to P amplifier. When the value drops below the characteristic the amplified differential signal causes the field current to increase.

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For commissioning purpose provision is made to mirror the characteristic in the inductive range, this allowing both the direction in which the control signals acts and the blocking of the set point generators is to be changed.

4.3 OVER EXCITATION LIMITER, FIELD FORCING LIMITER:

When the line voltage decreases in response to an increased reactive power requirement, switching operations, or faults, the voltage regulator increases generator excitation to hold the generator voltage constant.

Fig4.3 Over Excitation Limiter

In the event of large size line voltage drops, thermal overloading of generator can result. If the set point for the generator voltage is not reduced in time or if the transformation ratio of the unit transformer is not adjusted, the task of over excitation limiter is automatic limitation of generator excitation under these conditions by lowering the generator voltage. The over excitation limiter must permit excitation values that are above nominal excitation and extended to maximum excitation (for field forcing) for a limited time, so as to permit the generator to perform the grid stabilization in response to short drops in line voltage. When field current is > 110% of nominal excitation current the over excitation limiter and field forcing limiter are activated.

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The over excitation limiter does not take action until a delay. The field forcing value (max. 140% Ifn) is adjusted downward in inverse proportion to the amount of violation of the response threshold, with this action implemented after a delay of 10s. The minimum value attained for field forcing is then 110% or lower as required. After the field current has fallen below the response threshold, the field forcing value is then enabled again up to a max. of 140%, likewise in inverse proportion to deviation. This means that after activation of the over excitation limiter again the full field forcing value is not available immediately. The alarm over excitation limiter active is issued as soon as the field forcing value is reduced due to activation of over excitation limiter. Under certain conditions, however, actual field current will only be reduced after a delay.

4.4 ROTOR ANGULAR LIMITER:

For stable operation of generator the rotor angle shall be less than 90. For higher degree of stability a further margin of 10-12% is normally provided. Accordingly the limiter characteristic is configured in the control circuit, which outputs the permissible reactive current as a function of active current. Also the characteristic is shifted linearly as a function of generator voltage. The permissible reactive current is compared with the measured value and is fed to the limit controller when the reactive current achieved value, drops below the permissible value then the limiter comes in action and increase the reactive current. However generator voltage set point rotor angle limiter is active is prohibited.

4.5 STATOR CURRENT LIMITER:

During operation at high active power and / or low voltage the stator current of the generator tends to rise beyond its rated value and can cause the thermal overloading, in spite of the action of the excitation current limiter. An additional current limiting controller acting on the generator excitation is provided as a safeguard against such states of operation.

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Fig4.4 Stator Current Limiter NOTE: The stator current limiter max increase beyond the rated value during high active power and / or low voltage operation of the generator. In such cases the stator can be thermally overloaded. Stator current limiter is provided to safeguard the generator station under such circumstances. Stator current limiter always monitors the stator current measured value for crossing the rated stator current. Stator current limiter permits small time overload but comes in action thereafter and influences the effective generator voltage set point, so as to reduce the reactive power till the stator current is brought down below the rated value. However0 the change in generator voltage set point is not blocked when stator current limiter is active. The Stator current limiter does not operate near power factor = 1, because near this value any operation of the limiter would cause oscillations between the under- and over-excitation range. In this case the active current should be decreased via the Turbine.

4.6 V/F LIMITER:

This limiter is also known as over fluxing limiter. As generators are not normally sensitive to short-time rise of the flux densities which gives rise to local eddy currents resulting in thermal overloading. If a power station is to be kept in operation even in case of substantial frequency drops, for instance in order to prevent complete breakdown of the system, a V/f limiter is used to lower the voltage proportional with frequency drop.

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Fig4.5 V/f Limiter

This limiter is the protection function for the generator transformer. With increase in ratio of V/F the local eddy current causes thermal overloading of generator transformer, while in AVR mode V/F ratio is continuously monitors the limit characteristic violation. In case the ratio crosses limit characteristic, the upper limit as the effective AVR set point is reduced as a function of V/F ratio. This limiter is used when it is required to keep the unit operating even in case of substantial frequency drop. For example in order to prevent the complete breakdown of the system by lowering the voltage proportional to frequency drop.

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Chapter-5

MONITORING AND DIAGNOSIS

5.1 FAULT MESSAGES:

A number is allocated to each fault message. The time at which an event is occurred is also stored with the fault message. This allows the cause of the fault to be pin pointed promptly. The most recent eight fault messages are stored with fault number, fault value and hours count for diagnostic purposes. When a fault occurs: The binary output function Fault is set to LOW (selectable functions) The drive is switched of (controller disable) & current I=0, pulse disable, relay Line contractor CLOSED drops out and An F with the fault number appears on the display, the FAULT LED lights up. Fault messages can be acknowledged on the operator panel, via binary assignable function terminal or serial interface. When a fault has been acknowledged, the system switches to the STARTING LOCKOUT status. Starting lock out is cancelled by OFF.

5.2 AUTOMATIC RESTART:

The system can be restarted automatically with in a parameterizable time period of 0-2 sec. If this time is set to zero a fault message is activated immediately (on power failure) without a restart. Automatic restart can be parameterized in connection with the following fault messages: Phase failure, under voltage, over voltage, failure of electronic power supply, under voltage on parallel unit. Fault error or messages are divided into following category: Line fault: Phase failure, under voltage, over voltage, line freq. <45 or >65 Hz Interface fault: Basic unit interface to supplementary boards are malfunctioning Drive fault: Monitor for current etc., has responded, no current. Start up error.

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Fault on electronic board. Fault message from Thyristor check: This fault message will only occur if only the Thyristor check is activated via appropriate parameter. The check function ascertains whether the Thyristors are capable of blocking and firing.

External faults via binary assignable-function terminal. Fault messages can be deactivated individually. The default setting for some

fault message is deactivated so they need to be activated in the appropriate parameter.

5.3 STATUS INDICATIONS:

1. STATOR CURRENT LIMITER ACTIVE: This stator signal is displayed when the stator current tends to go beyond rated value of current. 2. V/F LIMITER ACTIVE: This indication comes when v/f limiter is active in the lowering the voltage commensurate with frequency drop. 3. O/E LIMITER ACTIVE: This indication comes when If> 110% of Ifn 4. FIELD FORCING LIMITER ACTIVE: This indication comes when the excitation current goes beyond 140% of Ifn. 5. U/E LIMITER ACTIVE: This indication comes when under excitation limiter is active in controlling the excessive under excitation of the generator i.e. correction of reactive power, when reactive power exceeds characteristics limit. 6. LOAD ANGLE LIMITER ACTIVE: This indication comes when the load angle limiter is active in controlling the generator load angle (when it exceeds 75 deg) i.e. correction of reactive power, when reactive power exceeds characteristics limit. 7. STATUS INDICATION: Green LEDs. This indication comes only in the case when system is running in auto mode.

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Chapter-6

POWER SYSTEM STABILISERS

Excitation control plays a vital role in any power system. In order to maintain system stability, it is necessary to have very fast response excitation systems for synchronous machines operating with the grid. This means that the field current of a

synchronous machine must be matched extremely fast to changing operational conditions. A high control speed is achieved by using an inertia free control and power system. Fully controlled Thyristor bridges are used to feed the generator field for controlling the generator output parameters. Any deviation in the generator terminal voltage is sensed by an error detector and causes the voltage regulator to advance or retard the firing angle of the Thyristors, which in turn controls the field supply of the alternator. Besides maintaining the field current and steady state operating points of the generator within generator capability curve, the excitation system is required to improve the natural damping behaviour and extend the stability limits. Excitation system of any

synchronous machine should have good response in voltage and reactive power control it should also take into consideration-satisfactory steady state, dynamic stability and transient stability for all stated conditions. System should have fast voltage recovery after fault clearance. In steady state operation, voltage response is of main importance. In dynamic stability damping behaviour of small oscillation is of more importance. Under faulty

conditions, the transient stability i.e. ability to return to the normal operating point is the main objective and voltage response again plays a secondary role. Power system stabilization function helps to damp out the low frequency power oscillations during dynamic conditions to improve system damping and stability. The power system stabilisation signal is treated as an additional signal and superimposed with the control signal generated by the voltage regulation. The power system stabilisation feature is normally used where the steady-state stability is endangered by the presence of long transmission lines in the power system and where the natural damping properties of the generator are inadequate.High speed excitation systems have contributed significantly in the field of power system stability. The steady state stability limit and the performance under transient conditions improve to a great extent in power systems employing the high speed excitation equipments. However, the high gain and fast response of these excitation systems introduce the problem of sustained power

42

oscillations under dynamic conditions. This problem is particularly significant in a weakly connected large power system, where the overall system damping is low. The damping torque in a typical system with a single machine connected to infinite bus through a reactance is directly proportional to two factors such as the gain in the excitation system and the change on the generator terminal voltage for small changes in rotor angles at constant d-axis flux linkages. This results in sustained oscillations in the active power output or machines getting out of step in extreme cases. One extreme case which resulted in out of step tripping of machines was reported in Visakhapatnam Steel Plant due to severe hunting of control valves responsible for steam admission into the turbine. Other

reported tripping on out of step protection was as a result of severe disturbances in the state grid/southern grid due to loss of generation in public utilities on transmission line faults. To offset sustained oscillations in power output and to improve the system damping in general, artificial means can be introduced in the excitation systems. These artificial means should see that more active power is given off at the generator terminals when the rotor is accelerated and less when it is decelerated. These signals which are fed into the input node of the voltage regulator of excitation system are called supplementary signals and the networks used to generate these signals are known as Power system stabilisers or Slip stabilising units. Stabilising signals can be derived from the speed or frequency or active power. Any one or combination of these signals should be processed in suitable networks to obtain proper phase relationship before it is fed into automatic voltage regulator. Though rotor speed would be ideal for deriving stabilising signals, the same is generally avoided for the following reasons.

The design of suitable speed transducers and the associated filters calls for complicated mechanical and electrical equipments. The speed transducers generally mounted on the end of the generator shaft also sense the torsional oscillations arising out of other problems which have no relation with rotor oscillations under discussion.

The speed transducers can be placed at nodal point of the generator shaft to avoid torsional oscillations pickup but the same is not practicable as the nodal point is normally situated at the interior of the turbine which is not accessible. Frequency as stabilising signal is not popular owing to various sources of

error. Active power as stabilising signal is more appropriate and advantageous over any other form of stabilising signal. Whatever be the basic variable used for slip stabilisation, the gain
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settings of the slip stabilising equipment should be properly selected for effective use of the same since the damping present in a system depends on the operating conditions. Hence, theoretically determined gain settings of the slip stabilising equipment should be optional for a wide range of generator operating conditions.

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CONCLUSION
To maintain system stability, it is necessary to have very fast response excitation systems as discussed earlier for synchronous machines operating with the grid. The field current of a synchronous machine must be matched extremely fast to changing operational conditions. With the advent of fast microprocessors, it is now possible to achieve the matching response in digital control systems. Beside, maintaining the field current and steady state operating points, the excitation system improved the natural damping-behaviour and extended the stability limits. The operating conditions taken into consideration are: Good response in voltage and reactive power control Satisfactory steady state and dynamic stability Transient stability for all stated conditions Quick voltage recovery after fault clearance.

In steady state operation, the voltage response is of main importance. In dynamic stability, damping behaviour of several oscillations is of more importance. Under faulty conditions the transient stability i.e. the ability to return to the normal operating points is the main objective and voltage response will play a secondary role. When a generator is running in parallel with the power network, it is essential to maintain its synchronism without exceeding the maximum permissible load on the machine and also without tripping by the protection system. Limiter functions are provided to ensure this by influencing the voltage regulator function to limit the over excitation and under excitation. This not only improves the security of parallel operation but makes the operation of the system easier. However, it must be made clear that the limiters do not replace the protection system but only prevent the protection system from tripping the machine unnecessarily, under transient conditions.

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Rotor and stator current limiters reduce the excitation in over excited operation after a time delay to facilitate filed forcing to overcome short-lived faults in the network. Under the limit conditions in the under excited operation of the machine, the load angle limiters and stator current limiter (capacitive) increase the excitation without any delay, power system stabilization function helps to damp-out the lower frequency power oscillations during dynamic conditions to improve system damping and stability.

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BIBILIOGRAPHY

References:
1. Basic Principle of Power Systems 2. Electrical Power Systems 3. Switch Gear and Protection 4. Electrical Technology 5. Electrical Machines V.K. MEHTHA C.L. WADHWA SUNIL.S.RAO B.L. TEREJA, A.K. TERAJA J.B.GUPTA

Websites:
www.wikipedia.com

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