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By Jonathan Lando
Nevin John
Christine Filippone
John P.
1
Abstract
technologies in the areas of HVAC, lighting, and insulation. We intend to do a cost benefit analysis
in each area. The design will be based on assumptions of the weather conditions during winter and
Introduction
A green building aims primarily at reducing the energy costs of the building operation.
However many other benefits come from building “Green”, such as; “enhancing and protecting
ecosystems and biodiversity, improving air and water quality , conserve natural resources, improve
student productivity and satisfaction , improve air, thermal, lighting, and acoustic ambiance, and
enhance occupant comfort and health.”1 We as a group feel that with the exception of some new
construction on Drexel’s campus (Bossone, Drexel Law), the buildings and classrooms on campus
Planning
Jon L.:
Title Page
Abstract – List the objectives of the project and summarize its accomplishments.
Introduction – Discuss the problem statement and the path the team has taken to solve the
problem.
Design Description (HVAC System) – Describe the thermodynamic specifications and targets;
critically evaluate existing products and identify the gaps the project is intended to fill; show how the
concepts were evaluated; demonstrate the analysis used for product evaluation and show its
details.
Nevin:
2
Design Description (Lighting) – Describe the thermodynamic specifications and targets; critically
evaluate existing products and identify the gaps the project is intended to fill; show how the
concepts were evaluated; demonstrate the analysis used for product evaluation and show its
details.
Impact Statement – State the potential impact of the design project on society and the environment,
Christine:
Design Description (Insulation) – Describe the thermodynamic specifications and targets; critically
evaluate existing products and identify the gaps the project is intended to fill; show how the
concepts were evaluated; demonstrate the analysis used for product evaluation and show its
details.
Impact Statement – State the potential impact of the design project on society and the environment,
John P.:
Conclusions – State the accomplishments of the project, and demonstrate that the project satisfies
engineering specifications.
Design Description
Assumptions:
Dimensions of classroom:
Width = 30 ft
Height = 12 ft
Classroom location:
The classroom is located on the second floor of a building that contains at least three
stories. This room shares one wall with the outside environment. It’s remaining three
3
walls, floor, and ceiling are shared by additional classrooms adjacent to, below, or above
this classroom. Therefore, it will be assumed that this classroom is at thermal equilibrium
with its surrounding classrooms and that heat may only be transferred into or out of the
Temperatures:
http://www.rssweather.com/climate/Pennsylvania/Philadelphia/2
classroom is the use of appropriate insulation and windows for the room. In the summer or in warm
climates, heat will tend to flow or be transferred into cooler areas, or into the classroom. In the
winter or in colder climates, the heat will tend to move out of the classroom and into the area of
colder air. This behavior is due to conduction, the transfer of energy from the more energetic
particles of a substance to the adjacent less energetic ones as a result of interactions between the
particles. In the case of air, more collisions of the molecules during random motion are occurring in
the warmer air, causing there to be a greater level of energy. This energy is naturally transferred to
4
Heat can also be transferred into or out of a classroom by convection. Because air inside
the classroom has velocity due to the HVAC system and air outside the classroom may be in
motion as well, convection will occur. Convection combines the effects of conduction and fluid
motion. It can be described as energy transfer between a solid surface and the adjacent air that is
in motion. The rate of heat transfer due to convection is greater when there is greater surface area
or there is a greater difference between the temperatures of the surface and the air in motion.
The final mechanism of heat transfer to examine is radiation. This is the transfer of heat by
the emission electromagnetic waves which carry energy away from the emitting object.3 Thermal
radiation is emitted by bodies because of their temperature.4 This is the type of radiation that the
sun emits and that can affect the thermal conditions of a classroom.
For this project, we will assume that the classroom is very well sealed and that air in motion
inside the room remains inside and the air on the outside remains outside. This means that heat
loss or transfer due to convection may be neglected. Radiation loss can be minimized by using foil-
backed insulation as a radiation barrier.5 Therefore, we will neglect the heat transferred by radiation
through the insulated portions of the classroom walls. The heat transferred through the portion of
the walls that are windows will be calculated as heat transferred by radiation.
In order to combat the natural movement from higher to lower energy levels that occurs
during conduction, insulation can be used as a barrier between the two areas air of differing
temperatures. The rate of heat transfer by conduction can be calculated by use of the following
equation,
• ∆T
Q cond = k t A ,
∆x
in which A is the area through which the heat transfer occurs, ∆T is the temperature difference
across the wall, ∆x is the thickness of the layer of wall, and kt is the thermal conductivity of the
material. (thermo book, p 92) Another form of this equation often used in the construction industry
is as follows:
• ∆T
Q=A
R − factor
5
In this equation, R − factor describes the thermal resistance of the wall.5 This value takes into
account the material, thickness, and density of the insulation. The higher the R-value, the more
effective the insulation will be at preventing heat transfer through the wall.6 The illustration below
shows how energy moves from an area of higher temperature to an area of lower temperature over
There are several types of materials which can be considered for use as insulation for a
classroom. The main types of insulation are blankets made from mineral fibers, blown-in loose fill,
sprayed foam, rigid foam, and reflective systems.7 Each type of insulation material has different R-
value of 15 and costs approximately 37 cents/square foot. This type of insulation is usually placed
Loose fill insulation can be made from cellulose, fiberglass, or rock wool.8 Although
cellulose, made from recycled paper, has the highest of the loose fill R-values, 20% will settle after
installation and must be replaced or the R-value will decrease. Because this insulation will be for a
school classroom and low-maintenance is an important factor, rock wool will be considered instead.
(http://www.eere.energy.gov/consumer/your_home/insulation_airsealing/index.cfm/mytopic=11650)
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Sprayed foam insulation can be sprayed, injected, or poured into a wall, often made of
concrete block. Because this type of foam insulation fills in all gaps in the wall, it has an increased
R-value. A commonly used material in both sprayed foam and rigid foam insulation is polyurethane.
Reflective insulation is usually made from aluminum foil backed with paper, film, or a layer
sensitive to the direction of the heat flow and works best to reduce downward heat flow. It may not
be as effective in a climate where heat will flow in opposite directions at different times. Also, this
type of insulation is mainly useful in hotter climates. Because Philadelphia experiences hot
summers in which heat will flow into the classroom and cold winters in which heat will flow out of
the classroom, this may not be the best type of insulation for the wall of this room. The R-value for
The calculations for the heat transferred by conduction as well as costs for each of the
7
• (576 ft 2 )(70 − 48.9° F )
Q w int er = = 1085 BTU / hr = 0.318kW out of room
11.2 ft 2 ° Fhr / BTU
Reflective insulation:
8
total yearly cost = $169.83
By comparison of these results, it can be determined that using foam insulation will ensure that the
least amount of heat will be transferred to or from the room. This means that this classroom would
maintain the highest level of thermal efficiency if it is insulated with a foam material. High
performance standard fiberglass blanket insulation had the next best values for the rate of heat
transfer. Additionally, there is a much smaller material cost for the fiberglass than for the foam
insulation and the money lost each year due to undesired heat transfer is not substantially higher
for the fiberglass than it is for the foam. Consequently, high performance standard fiberglass
blanket insulation will be used in the design and construction of this classroom because it is the
most economically feasible option as well as a suitable material to help minimize the flow of heat
As important as it is to choose the appropriate wall insulation to help minimize the effects of
conduction on the temperature of the classroom, it is equally important to choose the appropriate
type of windows for the classroom. The main way in which heat is transferred through a window
surface is by radiation. Solar radiation is processed in three ways as it passes through a window.
The net rate of heat transfer by radiation is described by the following equation,
•
4 4
Q rad = εσA(T s − T surr ) ,
9
where Ts and Tsurr are the temperature of the glass surface and the surrounding outside air
respectively, A is the are of the surface, σ is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant, and ε is the
emissivity of the surface.(thermo book, p 95)
A standard glass window has an emissivity of about 0.85. This means that approximately
85% of the heat absorbed by the window pane will be transferred to the area with a cooler
temperature. According to the calculations below, if a standard glass window is used, heat will be
transferred into the classroom in the summer at a rate of about 277 W and out of the classroom in
classroom. A low-e (low emissivity) window has a thin layer of transparent metal or metal oxide
either baked into or sprayed onto the glass to reduce heat transfer. 10
http://www.leeric.lsu.edu/energy/windows/ This still allows all of the sunlight to pass through the
window. These low-e windows have emissivity values of around 0.10. As shown in the calculations
below, the amount of heat transferred into the classroom in the summer is significantly less with use
of the low-e windows than with the standard windows. Similarly, the rate of heat transferred out of
the classroom in the winter is significantly less with use of the low-e windows.
Standard windows:
• 1m 2
Q rad summer = (0.85)(5.67 x10 −8 W / m 2 K 4 )(144 ft 2 )( 2
)(294.26 4 K 4 − 298.39 4 K 4 ) = −277.16W
10.764 ft
• 1m 2
Q rad w int er = (0.85)(5.67 x10 −8 W / m 2 K 4 )(144 ft 2 )( 2
)(294.26 4 K 4 − 282.54 4 K 4 ) = 725.34W
10.764 ft
Low-e windows:
10
• 1m 2
Q rad summer = (0.10)(5.67 x10 −8 W / m 2 K 4 )(144 ft 2 )( 2
)(294.26 4 K 4 − 298.39 4 K 4 ) = −32.61W
10.764 ft
• 1m 2
Q rad w int er = (0.10)(5.67 x10 −8 W / m 2 K 4 )(144 ft 2 )( 2
)(294.26 4 K 4 − 282.54 4 K 4 ) = 85.33W
10.764 ft
Although low-e windows generally cost 10 to 20% more than standard glass windows, 30 to 50%
can be saved in energy costs associated with heat transfer through the windows over time.
windows would minimize unwanted heat transfer between the classroom and the environment
outside, while only slightly increasing the initial construction cost of materials. Therefore, low-e
HVAC
A major part of a modern commercial building is the HVAC (heating, ventilation, and air
differential from winter to summer, thus an effective heat and air conditioning machine is a
necessity. The Vapor-Compression Refrigeration Cycle is the ideal cycle for heating and air-
pressure heat rejection in a condenser, throttling in an expansion device, and constant pressure
11 5
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The heat removed from the refrigerated space (QL) is equal to the difference in enthalpies at stages
1 and 4.
QL=h1-h4
The heat added to the warm space (QH) is equal to the difference between the enthalpies at stages
2 and 3.
QH=h2-h3
The coefficient of performance (COP) for the refrigeration or heat pump cycle is equal to the
amount of heat (QL or QH) divided by the net work into the system.
COPR = QL/Wnet,in
COPHP = QH/Wnet,in
There are three types of Heat Pumps; air source, water source, and ground source. Air
source heat pumps are impractical in a climate such as Philadelphia’s because their efficiency
drops considerably with temperatures below freezing. Ground source heat pumps exchange heat
with the earth, and thus their efficiency is not affected by freezing temperatures since the earth
maintains a relatively stable temperature above freezing. For this reason, we have decided to
implement a ground source heat pump. They tend to be more expensive than air source pumps
however, this money is often recuperated in a short amount of time with energy savings. The model
we have based our calculations on is the “Carrier 50YD GT-PX Groundwater Heat Pump.” 12
the room has the dimensions of (30x60x12) ft, or (9.14x18.28x3.66) m, then the following are the
calculations for the COP of the system under the assumed winter and summer conditions in
Philadelphia;
Total room heat loss rate (wall + windows) = 85.567 kW out of the room
COPHP = 4.4
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W’net,in = Q’H / COPHP
= 85.567 kW / 4.4
= 19.447 kW
= total power required by the heat pump to maintain the room at 700F.
Assuming that the heat pump will only be operating between the hours of 7am to 9pm (typical class
hours) Monday through Friday, a total of 14 hours a day, and considering the average cost of
electricity in Pennsylvania is 9.55 cents/kWh, we can easily calculate the operational cost of
(272.26kWh)($0.0955/kWh) = $26/day
It costs $26 a day to heat the room and maintain its temperature at 700F if the outside temperature
is 48.90F. For the entire winter, excluding weekends when there are no classes, the operational
= ($26/day)(130 days/winter)
EER = 22
COPR = 6.4478
= 32.694 kW / 6.4478
= 5.07 kW
= total power required by the heat pump acting in cooling mode to maintain the room at 700F.
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Again assuming that the system will only be operating between the hours of 7am to 9pm (and
considering the average cost of electricity in Pennsylvania is 9.55 cents/kWh, the total cost of
It costs $6.78 a day to cool the room and maintain its temperature at 700F if the outside
temperature is 77.430F. For the entire summer, excluding weekends when there are no classes, the
= ($6.78/day)(130 days/summer)
When comparing the Ground-Source Heat pump we have selected to a heat pump with a lesser
COP (the average pump has a COP of about 2.5-3.5 in heating mode, and an EER of 8-12 in
cooling mode), we can figure out how much money Drexel could save by using high efficiency
Winter
Total room heat loss rate (wall + windows) = 85.567 kW out of the room
COPHP= 3.0
= 85.567 kW / 3.0
= 28.522 kW
= ($38.13/day)(130 days/winter)
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When compared to the carrier heat pump, an increase in COPHP by 1.4, leads to an increase in
savings per day of (38.13 – 26) = $12.134/day, and per winter season, a savings of
$1,576.9/winter
Summer
EER = 10
COPR=2.93
= 32.694 kW / 2.93
= 11.155 kW
= ($14.914/day)(130 days/summer)
The carrier system we have chosen has an EER of 12 more than the average cooling system. This
$1057.70 / summer.
Lighting
Maximizing day lighting, implementing energy efficient lights and installing proper controls
are all different improvements that could be made to help create a more efficient room.
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Day lighting is the first option that should be looked at when efficiency is being looked at.
Day lighting can help reduce the amount of actual lighting that is required and cause a decrease in
energy and costs. Day lighting is dependent on the environment around the room and also the
material being used for the windows. If properly implemented and designed, day lighting can
eliminate a lot of unnecessary lights that are used within the rooms depending on the amount of
Implementing energy-efficient lights is very important when discussing improving lighting options
within a room. There are multiple variables that need to be looked at during There are various
http://www.aps.com/main/_files/services/BusWaysToSave/Lighting.pdf
Fluorescent Light bulbs are currently the best light bulbs for design purposes for a class
Characteristics of Common Light
Sources
Light Source Efficacy Average Lamp Color
(Lumens/Watt) Life (Hours) Rendering
Index
Standard Incandescent 5-20 750-1000 100
Tungsten-Halogen 15-25 2000-4000 100
Compact Fluorescent 20-55 10,000 80
Tubular Fluorescent 60-100 15,000-24,000 50-90
Mercury Vapor 25-50 Up to 24,000 15-30
Metal Halide 45-100 10,000-20,000 60-90
High Pressure Sodium 45-110 Up to 24,000 9-70
room because of its high efficacy (lumens/watt) and huge increase in lifetime.
Due to their high efficacy, they produce much less heat than other light sources. The energy not
used to produce light is converted to heat. This is an example of first law of Thermodynamics;
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“Energy can neither be created nor destroyed during a process; it can only change forms”.
Another factor that affects lighting is the ballasts that it operates on. A ballast help maintain
the current flow in the bulbs. There are generally two types of ballasts that fluorescent bulbs are
attached to in the market, which are, magnetic and electronic. Magnetic ballasts are less efficient
than electronic ballasts. Magnetic Ballasts also have fewer options such as dimming and are also
noisier. Electronic Ballasts are more expensive but does save energy and reduce energy costs.
http://nemesis.lonestar.org/reference/electricity/fluorescent/components.html
Cost-Effectiveness Example
Performance Base Model Recommended Level Best Available
T12,34 watts, magnetic T8,32 watts, electronic T8,32 watts, electronic
Lamp and Ballast Type
ballast ballast ballast
Rated Lamp Output -
5300 lumens 5600 lumens 6000 lumens
2 Lamps
Actual Light Output with
4738 lumens 5018 lumens 5256 lumens
Ballasta
Input Power 82 watts 62 watts 57 watts
Annual Energy Usage 295 kWh 223 kWh 205 kWh
Annual Energy Cost $17.70 $13.40 $12.30
http://www1.eere.energy.gov/femp/procurement/eep_fluortube_lamp.html
Implementing light controls is another option on how we increase efficiency of campus rooms.
Dimming controls and occupancy sensors are two simple solutions to saving energy.
Dimming controls help to create an ideal lighting environment for anyone in the room. Instead of
running at the maximum voltage, it will run at a lower voltage with more desirable lighting output.
The lower the voltage input, the less energy it will need for running the lighting. More often than
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Occupancy sensors are really effective lighting controls as well. These sensors are very
helpful on campus environments because of constant occupancy change within class rooms.
Occupancy sensors limit energy usage by shutting off energy to the light bulbs when the room is
unattended or unoccupied. These sensors use an IR (Infra red) sensor and work effectively
Assumptions
4. Number of Lamps= 40
= 80 W
18
= 253.44 kWh/year
= $22.80/year
= $40
= ($40/$22.80/year)
= 1.75 Years
Assumptions
Energy Savings
= 2703.36 kWh/year
= ($72)/($243/yr)
=.296=3.5 Months
After doing a cost and energy analysis on adding a occupancy sensor( Appendix 7), the
payback for the occupancy sensor will be in 3.5 months. After the payback, the room will save
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$243 per year. In a campus of multiple buildings with hundreds of rooms, these energy savings can
Multiple studies were done across the country which proved that students performance increase in
more lighting friendly environments. With more day lighting and dimming options, students can be
more comfortable. Fluorescent light bulbs can also be similar to daylight tones instead of the bright
white tone they are familiarized with. According to experts at Carnegie Mellon University, “the
average productivity impacts found by Carnegie Mellon in the 25 studies reviewed for lighting
impact was 3.2% and, separately, temperature control impact on productivity is 3.6%. Another area
of productivity impact evaluated by Carnegie Mellon found an average productivity gain from
improved day lighting and control of 11% in 5 studies reviewed.102 Improvements in acoustics and
reduced noise in schools also have been found to improve the quality of learning
environments.”(Pg. 39-40 National Review of Green Schools: Costs, Benefits, and Implications for
Massachusetts)
Impact Statement
Improving lighting in campus rooms can have a huge effect on a college environment. The
benefits include energy savings and a better learning environment. Switching light bulbs and
instituting occupancy sensors is the bulk of energy savings for a room. After doing a cost and
energy analysis on switching light bulbs (Appendix 6), it will save the university $22.80 per year
Improving the HVAC system has a tremendous positive impact. It benefits the
environment for students, allowing them to perform better on examinations, and stay alert in class.
Studies have shown that the air quality and temperature in a school environment greatly affects
student aptitude.
Conclusion
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Any temperature regulated room represents a thermally dynamic system with various
energy inputs and outputs. The goal of this report is to analyze different building elements to
construct a thermally efficient classroom, i.e. reduce the energy requirements of the room while
also reducing energy loss. The three areas that mainly affect this are insulation, lighting, and HVAC
systems.
Proper insulation plays the biggest role in preventing energy waste; it prevents heaters
from over working in the winter and air conditioners from over working in the summer. Foam
insulation can approximately halve the energy lost from loose fill insulation, and is even more
efficient than standard fiberglass. The downside to this is that the foam insulation is much more
expensive. While the energy savings will defray the initial cost over the life time of the building,
using foam may require too much of an initial investment, especially if used throughout a large
structure.
Efficient lighting sources can dramatically cut down on the power requirements of a
classroom. The most efficient source would be to use daylighting, but this not always possible or
practical. The best bet would be to use high efficiency fluorescent bulbs. These bulbs have very
high lumen/watt ratios when compared to other sources, such as incandescent bulbs. LEDs can
have efficiencies just as high as fluorescent bulbs, but remain expensive and require large arrays to
All of these elements can be considered part of a new wave of “green” engineering –
building structures that do not waste energy and have little negative impact on the environment.
For many, the ultimate goal of green engineering is to create a so-called zero energy building.
Such a building would provide its own power and not draw anything off the power gird. While the
field of green engineering is beyond the scope of this report, it is important to note that the elements
discussed here play a critical role in the design of environmentally friendly structures.
Future Work
There were several assumptions made during the analysis of this project. All the heat
transfer equations assumed that the room was tightly sealed and disregarded any heat loss do to
convection or radiation. These are obviously idealized conditions. Further research into the
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properties of airflow into and out of the classroom are needed to construct a more accurate
thermodynamic model. This includes any air leaking through cracks in the walls or improperly
sealed windows. Convective effects become very important if one tries to model the room with all
the windows open. For the HVAC system, variables such as humidity, pressure gradients, and air
density all must be taken into account. Also, the amount of direct sunlight incident on the room
needs to be specified. In a real world situation, the side of the building the room is on would only
receive direct sunlight for a portion of the day. The change of daylight with the change of seasons
This report compares the thermal efficiency (and thus the cost effectiveness) of new
building materials versus preexisting ones. While the results show that long term energy savings
eventually defer higher initial material costs, no cost analysis is considered for renovating existing
structures. Such a cost analysis would have to be done on a case-by-case basis to account for
In order to make a room, and indeed an entire building more thermally efficient, there exist
numerous novel devices to conserve heat. The products described in this report are elements used
to reduce the energy requirements of a room. Devices such as hot water heat recyclers and
seasonal thermal stores can be used to increase the thermal efficiency of a building as a whole. It
was recently announced that new Drexel campus buildings will be designed to be “environmentally
friendly”. The new integrated science building on 33rd and Chestnut St. will include features such as
a biofilter wall – a wall of vegetation that naturally processes air. It would be interesting to find out
what other features will be included in this building, and what types of energy efficient materials
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1
www.usgb.org: “Why Build Green.”
2
http://www.rssweather.com/climate/Pennsylvania/Philadelphia/
3
http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/hframe.html
4
“Thermodynamics: An Engineering Approach, Sixth Edition, pg 94
5
http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/hframe.html
6
http://www.eere.energy.gov/consumer/your_home/insulation_airsealing/index.cfm/mytopic=11340
7
http://www.ornl.gov/sci/roofs+walls/insulation/ins_08.html
8
http://www.powerhousetv.com/stellent2/groups/public/documents/pub/phtv_se_in_bu_000574.hcsp
9
http://www.commercialwindows.umn.edu/issues_energy1.php
10
http://www.leeric.lsu.edu/energy/windows/
11
www.wikipedia.com, Vapor Compression Refrigeration Cycle
5
12
http://www.commercial.carrier.com/commercial/hvac/product_physical_data