F.W.

RIGGS

1.INTRODUCTION His work is regarded as path breaking work in comparative public administration. Emphasized cross cultural and cross national administrative study Theory finds lots of relevance in developing countries. Used three broad analytical tool :1. Ecological approach 2. Structural-Functional approach 3. Ideal Models

2.1.Ecological Approach: Administration is affected by the environment in which it operates and in turn affects the environment. Interrelationship exists among administration,social,political & economic subsystems. 2.2. Structural-Functional Approach 5 imp functions of society: social,economic,political,communication and symbolic This approach is analyzing these functions which are carried by structures responsible for it. 2.3.Various Models

2.3.1. Agraria-Industria Model

Agraria is system where agriculture predominates. The administrative system has ascriptive values ; structures are diffused and norms followed are particularistic and nonegalitarian.

Industria are industrial societies having an administrative system which has achievement norms , have universal principle and is egalitarian. Riggs later added transitia model which represents a model of transforming society.The transitia represents transitional stage between agrarian and industria and possess the characterstic of both agrarian and industria. 2.3.2. Fused-Prismatic-Diffracted Model See section 3 3. Fused-Prismatic-Diffracted Model 3.1. Fused Model

Based on the principle of prism. White light represents a society with a very less degree of development. Diffracted rainbow represents highly developed society. The in between transition stage is prismatic society.

Neither of ideal extreme exists. Only degree varies.

Heavily depend on agriculture; economic system based on barter system

King and officials nominated by the king carry out all administrative, economic and other activities. Royal family and special sects dominate. Ascriptive values dominate.

3.2. Diffracted Model Each structure carries out its own functions. Attainment value in society. Economic system based on market mechanism(demand and supply) Responsive government General consensus among all the people on all basic aspects of social life.

3.3. Prismatic Model Achieved certain degree of differentiation. Specialization of roles have been achieved but coexistence of these roles have friction. 3 Features: Heterogeneity Formalism Overlapping

3.3.1.

Heterogeneity

Simultaneous existence of different kinds of system and viewpoints. Ex. rural-urban, Indian gurukulas-western education, homeopathic-allopathic. Various factors pulling apart the system.

 Political and administrative officers enjoy enormous influence. Priviledges for selected groups and pressure group which may be communal. It creates problem in administration

3.3.2. Formalism Discrepancy between formally prescribed and effectively practiced norms. Prismatic society has high degree of formalism. Rules and regulations are prescribed but wide deviations are observed. Lack of pressure on Government for programme objectives. Weakness of social powers to influence bureaucratic performance. Hypocricy in social life. Constitutional Formalism gap between stated principles and actual implementation . ex- office of Chief Minister .

3.3.3.

Overlapping

Extent to which differentiated structures coexists with undifferentiated structures of fused type. New or modern social structures are created , but traditional social structures continue to dominate. Ex Parliament , Government , Offices exist but behavior is governed by family, religion, caste etc.

4. Sub systems in prismatic model 4.1. Sala Model (Administrative sub systems)

Certain features of bereau ( diffracted ) coexists with certain features of chambers ( fused ).

Formalism exists: 4.1.a. Universalizaion of law is there but is not followed 4.1.b. Objective is social welfare but priority is personal aggrandizement. Overlapping exists: Highly concentrated authority structure overlaps with localized and dispersed control system.

Non cooperation among rival communities also reflects in administration. So favouritism and nepotism is widespread

Existence of clects The dominant group who use modern methods of organization but retains diffuse and particularistic goal of traditional type.

For promotion officers depend on ascriptive ties . Officers unresponsive to people . Unbalanced polity in which bureaucracy dominates exists.

Nepotism, corruption and inefficiency

4.2. Bazar-canteen Model ( economic subsystem)

Market factors ( demand and supply ) as well as areana factors ( religious, social, family) dominates the economy.

This leads to price indeterminancy further deteriorating economic conditions encouraging blackmarketing, hoarding, adulteration etc. Foreign domination and a small section of people dominate economic institution. Price of services vary from place to place, time to time and person to person. Economic sunsystem acts like subsidized canteen to priviledged & tributary canteen to members of less priviledged, politically non influential or members of outside group. Wage relation: Wide gap exists for same work. Persons with less wage may feel motivated to earn more by illegitimate means.

5.1. Development

Rising level of diffraction represents development. Higher the level of differentiation ( various structures for various functions ) and integration (coexistence of these structures ), higher the development.

If differentiation is high but no sufficient integrative mechanism , it leads to confusion and chaos. Differentiation depends upon technological factors. Integration depends upon: 5.1.a. Penetration recepitivity of law and govt. willingness and ability.

5.1.b. Participation - willingness of people to participate.

5.2. Change 5.2.1. Exogeneos: Triggered by foreign technical assistance;Goves rise to formalism 5.2.2. Endogeneous: Triggered from inside.

6. Criticism

Usage of scientific words does not make administration science. It has highly technical description Prismatic and sala models are equilibrium models and does not lead to social change. ( Lee )

Lack of measurement of level of diffraction in prismatic or diffracted society. Diffracted society is also not desirable because it is static and in equilibrium. Difficult to identify the level of differentiation and integration for development. Lack of international perspective.

Wrong analytical tool. (Tilman)

Fails to explain the role of administration in society.

Overlapping is not specific phenomena of prismatic society but exists in diffracted society also. (Arora )

Prismatic model has a negative character.