Gulfpub HP 200906

www.HydrocarbonProcessing.
com
JUNE 2009
HPIMPACT SPECIALREPORT TECHNOLOGY
PROCESS AND PLANT
OPTIMIZATION
Control, separation,
expansion projects
Mergers, acquisitions
review and outlook
Valve demand forecast
to turn around
Designing stabilization
plant filtration systems
Minimize storage vapor
and displacement losses
sky's the limit
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www.HydrocarbonProcessing.com
JUNE 2009 VOL. 88 NO. 6
SPECIAL REPORT: PROCESS AND PLANT OPTIMIZATION

33
Optimize plant performance using dynamic simulation
This plant case history illustrates the benefits
A. Al-Dossary, M. Al-Juaid, C. Brusamolino, R. Meloni,
V. Mertzanis and V. I. Harismiadis

45
Re-evaluate your expansion projects
for the new global market
Tighter economic conditions require refiners to reconsider benchmark
and optimization tools for revamps
B. Fairleigh, J. Jacobs and R. Ohmes

53
Rethink your liquid-liquid separations
A fresh look investigates general principles in designing process coalescers
R. Cusack
61
IT/automation convergence revisited
Keeping automation close-coupled to operation is key
A. G. Kern

65
Maximize ethylene gain in acetylene removal units
New-generation catalysts and proper operating strategies offer
improved selectivity and cycle length
M. A. Urbancic, M. Sun, S. Blankenship and D. B. Cooper
73
Unifying framework for six sigma and process control
The advances presented will improve quality and productivity
P. B. Deshpande and R. Z. Tantalean
Cover Construction moving forward on
the 50,000-bpd coker unit for Totals
$2.2-billion Deep Conversion Project at
the Port Arthur, Texas, refinery.
Photo courtesy of Total.
HPIMPACT
19 Mergers, acquisitions
in global oil and gas
markets slump
19 Valve industry: reason
for optimism, despite
projected downturn
21 Common sense needed
to forge energy policy,
says former Shell CEO
21 Efficiency goals could
radically reshape EUs
energy landscapeCERA
COLUMNS
11 HPIN RELIABILITY
Consider recessed-
impeller pumps
13 HPIN EUROPE
The future is big;
the future is east
15 HPINTEGRATION
STRATEGIES
Process engineering
tools drive efficiency
improvements
17 HPIN ASSOCIATIONS
Stuck upstream with the
downstream blues again
90 HPIN CONTROL
APC designs
for minimum
maintenancePart 1
MAINTENANCE/RELIABILITY
79
Designing and troubleshooting
stabilization plant filtration systemsPart 1
Compatability of the filter cartridge media with the plant feed
is a major consideration
A. Atash Jameh, A. Zamani Gharaghoosh, S. Bazargani,
S. Mokhatab and S. Rahimi
GAS PROCESSING DEVELOPMENTS
83
Minimize vaporization and displacement losses
from storage containers
Consider using this new calculation for recovery
A. Bahadori
DEPARTMENTS
9 HPIN BRIEF 19 HPIMPACT 23 HPINNOVATIONS
27 HPIN CONSTRUCTION 30 HPI CONSTRUCTION BOXSCORE UPDATE
86 HPI MARKETPLACE 89 ADVERTISER INDEX
Page 79 Designing and troubleshooting stabilization plant filtration systemsPart 1
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HYDROCARBON PROCESSING JUNE 2009

I

9

Demand swings
vex refiners
The refining industry is grappling with
shifting scenarios for tomorrows ener-
gy landscape. One scenario has the US
becoming a net exporter of gasoline
by 2010, concludes a new analysis by
global management consulting firm
Booz & Company.
The report on refining trends explores
rising demand for fuel in Asia and
the BRIC nations (Brazil, Russia, India
and China), mandates for biofuels and
the impact of inexpensive automobiles.
This confluence of factors is confound-
ing an industry that counts on 20-yr pre-
dictions to guide investment decisions
made today, according to the report.
On the demand side, the debut of
Indias Tata Motors $2,500 car has gen-
erated a lot of buzz that demand for
transportation fuels would increase.
Economic growth in developing econo-
mies is another key driver of demand.
In fact, the analysts calculate that just
a 1%/yr growth rate among the BRIC
countries would add 3 million barrels/
day (MMbpd) of demand for ground
transportation fuels by 2025.
With a situation of potential oversup-
ply, the possibility looms of the US
becoming a net exporter of gasoline
and the destruction of refiner margins
in developed countries due to the costs
of transporting the fuel to BRIC nations,
where the demand will be. Refiners
face difficult choices ahead, whether
its pulling the plug on projects in devel-
oped countries, getting into biofuels
or expanding into Asia, said Pedro
Caruso, Booz & Company principal.
The report also finds that the pace of
capacity addition is picking up, despite
high capital costs. Distillation capac-
ity has expanded 34 MMbpd over
the past four years, and is set to grow
approximately 6 MMbpd between 2008
and 2012. HP
Manufacturers of pumps, compressors and fittings were the largest
contingent of exhibitors at ACHEMA 2009, held in mid-May in Frankfurt am Main,
Germany. About 950 out of 4,000 exhibitors came from the sector. Solutions that improve
efficiency and availability had top billing. In response to rapidly increasing energy costs,
more electronic components and sensors are being installed on rotating equipment (pumps,
compressors, fans, etc.). Users are keenly interested in early fault detection systems and
predictive systems that provide information on remaining life, say the conference organiz-
ers. For more information on other industry trends showcased at the conference, go to
www.achema.de.
Three recent bankruptcies by large ethanol producers have exposed
the biofuels sectors fundamental struggles. These facilities financial woes are part of a
broader industry downturn that analysts say may claim other casualties. In recent months,
the industry has been rocked by volatile corn and oil prices, seen funding dry up for new
projects and watched demand ebb as slowing gasoline consumption and lower pump prices
reduce the call for blending the fuel with gasoline. About 16% of the total 12.6 billion gal-
lons of corn ethanol production capacity in the US is presently shut down, according to the
Renewable Fuels Association. In related news, the US Environmental Protection Agency
recently proposed enacting first-ever greenhouse gas performance standards for biofuels.
The standards would take into account all emissions created in the process of making etha-
nol, rather than just emissions from burning the fuel.
Shipments of industrial controls sank during the first quarter of 2009, accord-
ing to research from NEMA, a trade association for the electrical manufacturing industry.
That organizations Primary Industrial Controls Index showed its largest quarter-to-quarter
decline on record, contracting more than 23% in the first quarter of 2009 versus the fourth
quarter of 2008. Demand for industrial controls has mirrored that of other types of capital
equipment over the past few quarters. Inflation-adjusted shipments of industrial control
equipment have fallen to their lowest level since 1991. On a positive note, it appears that
the worst of the collapse in manufacturing activity is over, says NEMA. Nevertheless,
demand for industrial controls and similar capital goods will remain weak for the next
several quarters, according to the associations forecast.
An improved performance from banks by the end of 2009 should
provide the basis for a pick-up in financial lending. So says a mid-year economic forecast
from the European Commission. GDP is projected to fall by about 3% in the US and by
a stark 5% in Japan in 2009. Although China seems to be in a relatively good position
to counter the global recession, growth is expected to slow sharply this year: to about 6%.
Among the five largest EU economies, real GDP is expected to contract in 2009 by about
5.5% in Germany, 4% to 4.5% in Italy and the UK, and by about 3% in France and Spain.
Looking ahead, still tight financial conditions and weak confidence are set to continue
to weigh on economic activity, but they are likely to be gradually offset by the impact of
strongly expansionary macroeconomic policies, according to this analysis.
Energy professionals gathered at largest offshore industry event, held
May 47 in Houston. Attendance at the 2009 Offshore Technology Conference reached
66,820 participants despite a global economic recession and initial concerns about swine
flu. Last years exhibition and meetings drew approximately 73,000. One topical lun-
cheon featured Matt Simmons, head of the energy banking firm Simmons and Company
International. He discussed his peak oil theorythat global crude oil production peaked
in May 2005and noted that US gasoline consumption is growing, and that Korea
and much of the rest of the developing world is experiencing strong petroleum demand
increases. However, a major industry challenge is the rust crisis in the global energy infra-
structure. Leaks are setting new peaks, according to Mr. Simmons. HP
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HEINZ P. BLOCH, RELIABILITY/EQUIPMENT EDITOR
HPIN RELIABILITY
HB@HydrocarbonProcessing.com

I

11
Consider recessed-impeller pumps
Perhaps you have encountered pumping duties handling free-
flowing slurries, sludge and fibrous materials. If used in these
services, a standard centrifugal pump may clog, become vapor-
bound or wear excessively. For the applications mentioned here,
pumps with fully recessed impellers (Fig. 1) should be given seri-
ous consideration. Recessed gentle pumping action impellers
incorporate the vortex principle illustrated in Fig. 1 wherein only
an estimated 15% of the total fluid throughput makes contact
with the fully recessed impeller. These pumps are typically avail-
able in flow capacities approaching 100 l/sec (1,580 gpm) and
heads ranging to 130 m (430 ft).
Recessed-impeller pumps have been around since the 1930s.
Unfortunately for the user, a number of manufacturers offer
recessed-impeller pump configurations that have not advanced
from their respective configurational or hydraulic performance
constraints for 40 or more years. It is also fair to point out that
some legacy models require a degree of maintenance involvement
that was considered acceptable decades ago, but is no longer toler-
ated by best-of-class users.
A number of important characteristics and advancements sepa-
rate one make or design of recessed-impeller pump from another.
It is worth understanding and considering how recessed-impeller
pumps sold worldwide under the Egger or Turo labels have favor-
ably distinguished themselves in this regard. Commercial models
became available in the mid-1950s; since then the original Egger
design has seen a number of seemingly small, yet important,
upgrades. Successive iterations have consistently advanced relevant
efficiency and the ability to handle solids with minimum damage
to either the pump or the material being pumped. The overall
vortex-type operating principle has remained the same.
How recessed-impeller pumps often differ. Most
recessed-impeller pumps rotate the liquid and solids inside the
casing until the solids reach a speed at which they exit the casing.
This recirculation of solids creates wear in the casing and also
increases damage to soft solids. Egger has overcome this problem
by designing the casing with an axial spiral in the casing. Visual-
ize an automobile tire to represent the basic design of a recessed-
impeller casing. Cutting the tire at the top and then twisting it
yields a spiral. In like manner, the spiral contour helps guide solids
out of the casing; it prevents solids recirculation. The manu-
facturer has demonstrated on many occasions that this design
substantially improves the true overall pump hydraulic efficiency.
Additionally, the axial-spiral twist has greatly reduced component
wear and damage to solids being pumped. As a further point of
interest, the minimum flow capability of a recessed-impeller pump
is much lower than that of conventional radial-spiral casing design
pumps. On the minus side, top centerline discharge implies a
measure of vulnerability when pumping large hard solids. Solids
such as rocks might, on rare occasions, smash through the casing
neck. In some rock feed applications, tangential discharge might
be viewed as an advantage.
In many cases users and engineering design contractors elect
to place emphasis on pump efficiency. When asked to define effi-
ciency, they inevitably refer to power draw. That, unfortunately,
is seriously wrong. Some pumps achieve seemingly high hydraulic
efficiency by simply letting the impeller edge protrude into the
casing. Protruding impellers, of course, limit unimpeded passage
of solids through the pump. Reliability professionals are urged to
rethink what is of true importance here: the efficiency with which
both liquids and solids are being transported. Many old style
recessed-impeller designs have simply not
progressed much since their initial introduc-
tion. Their best efficiency points (BEPs) are
typically in the range of 30 to 40%. On the
other hand, advanced designs incorporating
axial-spiral design casing internals and fully
recessed impellers will have true and effec-
tive BEPs around 50 to 60%. Less energy
goes into the liquid and less power is con-
sumed to forward-feed the solids. HP
The author is HPs Reliability Editor. A practicing
consulting engineer with close to 50 years of applica-
ble experience, he advises process plants worldwide
on failure analysis, modern lubrication technology,
and maintenance cost-avoidance topics. Mr. Bloch has
authored or coauthored 17 textbooks on machinery
reliability improvement and over 450 papers or articles
dealing with related subjects. Most of his books are
still in print and are available at www.amazon.com.
85%
15%
Operating principle of a radial-discharge fully recessed impeller pump (Source: Emile
Egger, Cressier, NE, Switzerland).
FIG. 1
TIM LLOYD WRIGHT, EUROPEAN EDITOR
HPIN EUROPE
tim.wright@gulfpub.com

I

13

Refining margins have been off badly in the first half of 2009.
In Europe, a couple of simpler refiners have, at least temporarily,
taken their ball home. Is this just the way Europe weathers a reces-
sion, or have the trade winds changed for good?
BPs Global Indicator Margin is generally taken to be a broad
indicator of refinery profitability. When the company announced
a 62% drop in net profits for the first quarter, it broke out the
downstream margins to illustrate the challenges it faces. For the
second quarter of 2008, and the rest of that year, BP pegged
northwest European refining margins at $7.35/bbl. By first quar-
ter 2009, that number was down to $4.67. When a disastrous
April month is included, the average for 2009 up to April 23
comes out to only $3.07/bbl. The company responded by cutting
runs at a number of the 17 sites it operates.
Facility shutterings. Incidentally, BP was not alone in hav-
ing a rocky first quarter. There is also, of course, the price of
crude to take into account. BPs Tony Hayward told the Financial
Times that the industry was adjusting from a $100 oil world to
a $50 oil world.
But what BPs global indicator margin says about the average
refinery hides a darker reality for some of Europes aging fleet. In
April, Spains Repsol announced it would simply stop producing
fuel at its Cartagena refinery until margins improve. Across its
northern border, Total carried out a major reduction in through-
puts as traders began talking of an effort to shut in 15% to 20%
of Totals downstream output in France.
The independent sector in Europe is faring no better. After
steadily reducing throughput at its Teesside refinery, reports sur-
faced in April that Petroplus had shut that site down for the time
being. Both Teesside and Cartagena have been the subject of
ambitious upgrading plans, but in the heat of the current fire,
neither of the simple sites makes very much operational sense.
The company has flagged up many times that its been reduc-
ing production rates at Teesside, an analyst commented. Margins
for refineries like these have been at a dollar or less, which clearly
isnt enough to cover their costs. The company didnt return calls
attempting to confirm the current situation at the site.
Medium term. A halving in margins is bad enough, but speak-
ing at this years International Petroleum Week in London, PFC
Energys Marc Seris raised an ominous prospect. We dont really
see a major uptick in demand in Europe after this recession is
over, he warned. Refineries that shut up shop to get through
the downturn are shutting up for good.
Mr. Seris says that there is a massive migration of refining
taking placefrom mature markets in the OECD where peak
product demand is four years behind us, to places such as India.
Why pin your hopes on the 1 in 10 American adults who dont yet
own a car, when you could bet on India, where only 1 in 10 does?
Its to that countrys western coast that the gaze of commercial
managers and traders is magnetically drawn this summer.
Hefty new supply. For its there, at Jamnagar in the Indian
state of Gujarat, that people think big about refining. Once they
made brass goods here. Today, theres the Vadinar refinery, oper-
ated by Essar, which at 14 million metric tons/year (MMtpy) is
significantly larger than the last refinery built in Europe. But that
site is set to grow to a capacity of 34 MMtpy as the owners spend
about $6 billion on the site.
But Vadinar is dwarfed by its big brother, the Jamnagar I refin-
ery, operated by Reliance Industries Ltd. At 33 MMpty, Jamnagar
I is some 10 times the size of some European refineries.
As youre probably aware, Indias most valuable company chose
not to rest on its laurels and greeted the completion of the Jam-
nagar site by announcing the construction of its twin, Jamnagar
II. The latter has been in commissioning since the beginning
of the year, and intends to dispatch exports to as wide a range
of deepwater ports as it can. The strategy is to not completely
destroy prices at each trading point. With the addition of the new
580,000-bpd/29-MMtpy refinery, a bay in Western India is set to
have more refining capacity than the UK.
Reliance has established trading offices in London and Hous-
ton, and embarked on marketing tours to make its own links
with retailing chains and large consumers. The new refinery plans
to export a large long-range tanker of distillate every other day.
Thats about 80,000 metric tonsor equivalent to the entire daily
throughput of OMVs Burghausen refinery.
Already the effects are being felt, with Asian refiners feeling the
pinch first, as their own sales in the region come under pressure.
But those Euro IV distillates are heading to Europe, while the
gasoline is off to the US Eastern Seaboard. Thats two big prob-
lems for European refiners right therethe threat to the distillate
market, which is Europes sole growth market, and the sink for
their hapless gasoline surplus.
The only note of consolation for the soon-to-be-contract-
ing European industry is that Jamnagar II couldnt have come
onstream at a worse time for its owners. As a result, Reliance has
changed the export-only status of its larger, original refinery to be
able to sell fuels into its rapidly growing domestic market.
But in the medium term, the prospects for less profitable US
and EU refineries arent good. Indias on the march, not to men-
tion the Middle East. HP
The future is big; the future is east
The author is HPs European Editor and has been active as a reporter and
conference chair in the European downstream industry since 1997, before which
he was a feature writer and reporter for the UK broadsheet press and BBC radio.
Mr. Wright lives in Sweden and is the founder of a local climate and sustainability
initiative.
TOM FISKE, CONTRIBUTING EDITOR
HPINTEGRATION STRATEGIES
tfiske@arcweb.com

I

15
The process engineering tools (PET) market consists of two major
segments of software products that play a critical role in designing,
creating, commissioning, and operating plants and related assets.
Engineering design applications are used for the physical plant layout;
process simulation and optimization applications are used for conceptual
process design, process modeling and off-line optimization.
In recent years, PET use expanded rapidly as favorable eco-
nomic conditions and high demand drove capacity expansion
projects around the world. With the onset of the financial crisis in
the latter part of 2008, new capital projects began to slow. How-
ever, not all industry sectors or regions are affected to the same
degree. Many capital projects are still ongoing, so the investments
in PET continue. In addition, as the recession reaches global pro-
portions, the market dynamics present owner/operators with new
asset life cycle management (ALM) challenges, many of which can
be addressed via PET technology.
Focus on collaboration, efficiency and cost savings.
Major challenges for owners/operators and EPCs include improv-
ing engineering and operational performance
by getting the most out of their human and
physical asset base. To improve engineering
efficiency, companies are looking for ways to
shorten the entire design cycle through concur-
rent and collaborative methods. To improve
operational performance, companies need
more efficient, environmentally friendly and
agile assetsalong with the design information
needed to operate and maintain them.
Over the past several years, the trend has been to use every avail-
able resource to complete projects on time and budget. This means
more partnering projects, both internally and externally. There is a
growing need for smaller companies to assist larger ones and take
on some of the engineering design work. Consequently, the project
work is getting more fragmented and distributedand more chal-
lenging to manage.
To better deal with the growing complexity of project work,
many companies are investing in highly sophisticated design,
engineering and collaborative tools to obtain greater efficiency
from their valuable resources.
Use and availability of as-built information. There are
many risks associated with plant design and construction. The risks
are even greater for brownfield engineering projects, where existing
structures often clash with proposed changes. Many existing plants
do not have the accurate as-built information about their facilities
needed to help ensure error-free project execution. With the advent
of affordable laser scanning, the process plant engineering industry
is quickly embracing the technology as a means to obtain detailed
as-built status of existing facilities.
Laser-scanned data can be processed to generate a photoreal-
istic 3-D model of a plant with accurate dimensional informa-
tion. Capturing as-built engineering data and CAD modeling
for existing facilities reduces risks and enables more projects to be
completed on time and within budget. Laser scanning and 3-D
plant models have the potential to become standard procedures
in brownfield engineering over the next several years.
Laser scanning models are not only useful for brownfield ret-
rofits and revamps, but also for operations. As-built models from
laser scanning are finding use within asset management programs.
The models are integrated with other applications for plant main-
tenance, operations, training, etc., and extend the value of asset
data to everyone within the plant.
Support life cycle modeling. EPC and operating companies
are not only looking for ways to reduce design and operating costs,
but also for ways to maximize and leverage investment in models
developed in the conceptual and design phases of a project. The
model evolution approach is an important strategic development that
facilitates model reuse between various simula-
tion and optimization applications throughout
the entire life cycle of a plant or process. A model
evolution methodology allows models to scale
through the plant life cycle. This includes the
research, conceptual design, process design, plant
design, construction, commissioning, operations
and revamp stages. Model evolution maximizes
modeling efforts by reducing duplication and
ensures that decisions during different life cycle
phases are based on a consistent representation of the plant.
Since detailed engineering models contain a lot of process
knowledge, companies need to exploit this resource for opera-
tional improvements. Operators, supervisors and managers typi-
cally run their plants conservatively because they do not want to
increase variability or jeopardize safety. By providing operations
access to a simple-to-use, high-fidelity, model-centric decision-
support system based on rigorous engineering principles, opera-
tors can run plants closer to their constraints. HP
Process engineering tools drive efficiency improvements
The author is part of the automation consulting team at ARC Advisory Group,
Dedham, Massachusetts, covering the global process manufacturing markets. He is
responsible for following the global industrial automation markets, writing in-depth
research reports, and providing advice to clients, with particular focus on process
simulation (including dynamic training simulators), advanced process control, optimi-
zation and collaborative production management markets. Dr. Fiske holds a BS from
Worcester Polytechnic Institute, an MS from Northeastern University and a PhD from
Stevens Institute of Technology, all in chemical engineering. He also holds an MS
degree in the management of technology from the Sloan School at MIT and can be
reached at e-mail: tfiske@arcweb.com.
A model evolution
methodology allows
models to scale through
the plant life cycle.
HPIN ASSOCIATIONS
BILLY THINNES, NEWS EDITOR
bt@HydrocarbonProcessing.com

I

17

Downstream aficionados need to realize
that information pertinent to the petro-
leum refining business is everywhere, not
just within the clearly marked parameters
of hydrocarbon processing. For instance,
the huge Offshore Technology Conference
(OTC) that took place last month in Hous-
ton, Texas, is a primarily focused upstream,
offshore, E&P gathering. I was privileged
enough to have a front row seat for all the
proceedings at OTC, given that I was edit-
ing the official show newspaper. Since I am
a savvy consumer of downstream informa-
tion, and open to seeing how all facets of
the oil business are interrelated, I was able
to spy amidst all the pontificating about
deepwater drilling and semisubmersibles
in the Shtokman Field, some information
that refiners would find of interest. I am
happy to share it with you here.
Energy challenges. During a panel
discussion on the challenges of develop-
ing a comprehensive energy policy, two
Washington insiders offered analysis.
Jason Grumet, executive director of the
National Commission on Energy Policy,
discussed the 2008 presidential campaign
and subsequent legislative maneuvering in
the 111th Congress.
What was interesting was that you
saw a nuanced debate between Obama
and Clinton in the Democratic primary,
Mr. Grumet said. You had the two Dem-
ocratic candidates disagreeing about the
environmental and economic impact of
domestic production and it squeezed the
debate toward the middle.
He then went on to analyze what Con-
gress is doing. It would be nice if we could
put together legislation that focuses on both
supply and demand, think about our long
term needs and have a trajectory where we
are reducing carbon emissions while at the
same time increasing domestic production
in the OCS. There is a space in the debate
right now for a comprehensive bill.
David Holt, executive director for the
Consumer Energy Alliance talked about
the general publics current perspective. He
emphasized that people need to realize that
a jump to alternative energy is not going
to make an immediate tangible difference.
We need to grow and increase the supply
of alternative energy as a portfolio while we
continue to grow oil and gas, he said.
Energy is a pervasive issue in society
and the more that ambassadors from ses-
sions like this can go out and have an hon-
est discussion with friends and neighbors
about where energy comes from and what
it means to folks daily lives, all that makes a
difference, Mr. Holt said. All this cant be
solved in Washington. Consumers need to
let Washington know that it is time to step
up with a comprehensive energy policy.
Matt Simmons. Everyones favorite
Chicken Little provocateur in the realm
of predicting the decline of energy-related
natural resources is Matt Simmons. He
spoke during a luncheon at OTC and
honed his thesis that the world is now
approaching peak everything. He took
his idea of resources dwindling and applied
it to humans, saying that even the shortage
in people was getting serious. In regard to
current economic woes, he said, 40,000
workers were lost in the in the past 4
monthsprobably more than all the new
hires in 20062008. I think that most of
these will not return to the oil industry.
Employers expect half of current workers
to retire in the next five to ten years.
In light of the fact that last year at OTC
he said that oil would go through $200
like a hot knife through butter, it should
not be a shock that Mr. Simmons said,
High oil prices were not high enough.
Mr. Simmons then said that high oil
prices failed to dampen demand. He
went on to justify his $140-is-a-low-price
theme by saying that prices were not high
enough to attract hordes of new hires that
were needed.
When asked to offer solutions to current
crises, Mr. Simmons advocated for living
in a post-peak oil and gas world. He then
enumerated what this means: liberate the
work force by eliminating long-distance
commuting and let people work at home;
grow food locally to substantially limit how
much petroleum is involved in food supply;
and redesign a new fleet of seafaring vessels
to ship people and goods by water.
Climate change. Refiners are stuck in
the middle of the climate change debate,
especially with a cap and trade bill begin-
ning to snake its way through US Congres-
sional committees. During a panel discus-
sion on the subject at OTC, Dr. Thomas
Peterson, a physical scientist at NOAAs
National Climatic Data Center, said, The
recently observed climate change is beyond
the bounds of natural variability.
Mr. Peterson noted that the global sur-
face temperature time series reveal that the
planet has been warming over the last cen-
tury, and especially over the last few decades.
He noted that most of the globe has warmed
from 1900-2008 and that ocean and land
temperatures have seen increased warming
since about 1980, rising by 1.5 per decade
during the past 30 years. There is a nine out
of ten chance that warming is due to humans
from 19002000, Mr. Peterson said.
Global warming is unequivocal,
said Dr. Kevin Trenberth, one of the lead
authors of IPCCs Scientific Assessment of
Climate Change in 1995, 2001 and 2007.
The outlook is for more warming. HP
Perry Fischer and Jerry Greenberg contrib-
uted to this column.
Stuck upstream with the downstream blues again
Jason Grumet monitors the intersection of
energy issues and politics for the National
Commission on Energy Policy.

I

19
HPIMPACT
Mergers, acquisitions
in global oil and gas
markets slump
Deal activity in the energy sector offered
a schizophrenic character in 2008. The first
half of the year started with a fairly robust
number of transactions, until commodity
prices began a steep decline. Then, merg-
ers and acquisitions (M&As) slid alongside
them. By the fourth quarter, deal activity
had all but dried up, with several potential
deals being canceled and no new major deals
announced.
The increase in deal numbers was wholly
attributable to upstream activity and smaller
deals below $0.5 billion, according to a
report from PricewaterhouseCoopers (PwC).
In contrast, there were significant falls in the
number of larger value deals and a big falling-
off of very large deals. Only two deals topped
the $5-billion mark in 2008, compared with
10 such deals in 2007 (Table 1).
By regions. Companies continued to
seek growth primarily through acquisition
as opposed to exploration as the oil price
soared in the first half of the year. Purchases
were focused in relatively stable locations
such as Australia and Canada as companies
looked to safe havens to secure reserves to
meet future energy demand.
Like the oil price, 2008 was a tale of ups
and downs in deal numbers across differ-
ent parts of the world. Year-on-year deal
numbers were up in all territories with the
exception of the dominant North American
market and the Russian Federation. Every-
where, though, the pace of deal-making
slowed during the year as financial and
market conditions deteriorated.
Companies slammed on the brakes in
the final quarter with total O&G deal value
down 59% on 2007 levels and 72% com-
pared with the final-quarter high of 2006,
according to PwC.
Gas grabs top spot. Six of the top ten
2008 were purchases of gas assets. Five of
the six were for unconventional resources
that require considerable technological
investment. All of them were in Australia
and North America. This reflects the attrac-
tion of targets in stable locations close to
end markets as companies responded to
security of supply constraints.
The rush to develop Australian coal-bed
methane gas assets for LNG export helped
catapult Australias share of worldwide oil
and gas deal value up tenfold. Upstream
deal value in Australia multiplied, from $1.7
billion in 2007 to $16.6 billion in 2008.
Outlook. While M&A transactions in the
first half of 2009 look set to remain sub-
dued, it is difficult to see stronger players
remaining on the sidelines for the whole of
2009 given the opportunities for acquisi-
tions at low valuations.
PwC expects any easing of debt and
equity markets, combined with any positive
movement in oil prices, to herald a reawak-
ening of deal activity. The long-term
energy supply and demand fundamentals are
still compelling. When the market returns,
and the financial crisis has passed, the poten-
tial for a fast revival in commodity prices and
deal-making is there, says this outlook.
Deals for major assets in locations such
as Brazil and Canada, with access to end
markets and promising reserve potential,
are likely to be high on many companies
target screens. In the US, the opportunity
to access the natural gas shale plays is also
very compelling at these valuation levels.
Finally, companies seeking to broaden
their portfolios into alternative energy
may also find that distress and low valu-
ations in alternative energy stocks offer a
ripe opportunity for diversification moves.
The appetite for moves of this kind will,
in part, be influenced by the progress of
talks in the run-up to and at the December
2009 UN Climate Summit and the extent
to which this establishes a framework for
clean energy, the report concludes.
Valve industry: reason
for optimism, despite
projected downturn
As with many industries, the US and
Canadian industrial valve industry saw
the steady climb in sales and profits of the
last decade turn around in the past year to
experience a decline. However, the decrease
is slight compared to most other industries,
and is not expected to last more than a year.
So says a new report from the Valve Manu-
facturers Association (www.vma.org).
Valve and actuator shipments rise and
fall with the fate of the industries that
depend on those shipments. Noting the
downward track those industries are now
on, the VMA estimates a 5% decrease in
industrial valve shipments for 2009the
first such decrease in a decade.
However, 2009 VMA Chairman Sam
Bennardo remains optimistic. In VMAs
market forecast, we estimate shipments of
valves and actuators to return to their 2007
levels of $3.8 billion, he says. Still, com-
pared to how other industries are faring
the automotive industry, for instancethis
is a pretty modest decline, and total sales
still should be considerably higher than just
five years ago, when total shipments were
at $3.2 billion.
Historical trends. Valve demand nor-
mally does not have the dramatic highs and
lows of other industries because the diverse
markets that make up end users do not
cycle up and down at the same time.
While the global economic downturn
is among the worst in recent years, VMA
has more than 70 years of history and sta-
tistics that show the valve industry will ulti-
mately thrive because it supplies products
for industries that are absolutely essential to
a growing domestic and world population,
according to Mr. Bennardo.
WENDY WEIRAUCH, MANAGING EDITOR
WW@HydrocarbonProcessing.com
TABLE 1. Analysis of oil and gas deals by sector (2007 vs. 2008 % change in
parentheses)
Number Total deal value, $ billion Average deal value, $ billion
Upstream 690 (+20%) 114.2 (14%) 0.166 (28%)
Midstream 51 (31%) 12.9 (57%) 0.252 (38%)
Downstream 78 (17%) 17.1 (72%) 0.220 (67%)
Services 150 (+1%) 36.2 (46%) 0.231 (47%)
Source: PricewaterhouseCoopers, O&G Deals 2008 Annual Review
HPIMPACT

I

21
VMA also predicted that the drop in valve
shipments will not continue for more than a
year. The valve industry typically lags about
six to nine months behind end users as proj-
ects are plannedor canceled, Mr. Bennardo
says. With a huge number of infrastructure
projects in the works, and economists predict-
ing a bottoming out of the recession in late
2009, the organization forecasts a possible
turnaround in second quarter 2010.
By category. In 2008, automated valves
accounted for the biggest share among valve
types ($1.24 billion), followed by ball valves
($725 million), and gate, globe and check
valves ($584 million). Valve shipments hit
their peak in 2008, with $4.0 billion in
sales, up from $3.7 billion in 2007.
Of the 15 markets tracked by the VMA,
in 2009, water and wastewater is forecast to
account for 18% of valves sold, followed
by chemicals (16%), petroleum produc-
tion (12%), petroleum refining (12%) and
power generation (11%).
Common sense needed
to forge energy policy,
says former Shell CEO
The viewpoint on energy policy is an
inverted bell shaped curve, according to
John Hoffmeister, CEO of the Citizens for
Affordable Energy at a recent Energy Hot
Topics seminar in Houston, Texas (www.
gulfpub.com/events).
The population is split between the two
extremesoverzealous environmentalists
to the left and die-hard industrialists to the
right. Unfortunately for the masses, there is
no middle ground on energy issues.
Another important point made by Mr.
Hoffmeister, who is the former CEO and
president of Shell Oils US operations,
was that government should not develop
energy policies. The government has no
incentive to educate the public. In the US
as well as in other nations, elected govern-
ment officials are responsible for putting
together energy policies and legislation.
Regrettably, these elected officials are
disconnected from the gravity stemming
from the energy situation and are more
closely tuned to achieving their own per-
sonal agendas and fulfilling the needs of
their constituents. Too often, elected offi-
cials work off the next election cycle; they
see what is possible by the next election and
are acting on very short-term cycles.
The reality is that energy issues and
policies are very long-term projects. For
example, the planning of a major grassroots
refinery, petrochemical facility or lique-
faction site for natural gasfrom project
conception, front-end design, permitting,
construction and commissioningmay
take 10 years before any salable products
are available. These facilities are constructed
with an intended service life of 30 to 40
years. Energy policy and planning is very
similar to building a new refinery or pet-
rochemical facility, Mr. Hoffmeister said.
Project conditions and economic markets
will change as the project moves through
the various development phases.
Since the 1970s with the first major oil
shock, many failed efforts tried to develop
energy policies. The US is living through
tough times sourced from poor policies
developed and approved in reaction to cri-
sis events.
For example, corn ethanol will be remem-
bered as poor policy to decrease dependence
on imported oil. Owners of E85-powered
vehicles will be bitterly disappointed after
purchasing the first tank of fuel; they may
not purchase the second tank of this biofuel
upon realizing that they received 25% less
mpg with 85% ethanol-blended gasoline,
according to Mr. Hoffmeister.
What is the answer? Nations need to
look at energy solutions and planning on
several levels: short-term, medium-term
and long-term. The solution to the complex
problem of energy will be accomplished
through all three stages.
Energy policy should not condemn a
particular energy source. Nuclear power
has been completely overlooked in the US
after a partial core meltdown at Three-Mile
Island in 1979. Yet, nuclear power is an
excellent means to supply electrical power
and is a much better option to produce
electricity rather than burning natural gas.
Likewise, coal is a part of the future energy
mix, and clean-burning coal technologies
are available. There is not enough wind and
solar power to replace fossil fuels. However,
wind and solar sources do add value to the
nations energy resource pool and should
be included.
One option to break the dysfunction with
energy issues is to create a Federal Energy
Reserve Board very similar in structure to
the financial Federal Reserve Board of Gov-
ernors, Mr. Hoffmeister said. There would
be a national as well as regional Energy
Reserve Boards. These positions would be
appointed by the president and serve for a set
time. More important, the appointees would
be experts within their fields. Notably, this
board would include expert representations
from the energy industry (oil and gas, elec-
trical power, nuclear, etc.), the environment,
commercial manufacturing, transportation
and consumer groups.
Stephany Romanow
Efficiency goals could
radically reshape EUs
energy landscapeCERA
Utility companies across the EU regis-
tered all-time peak electric and gas usage
during the winter of 20082009. Action
on the EU goal of reducing energy usage
20% by 2020 through energy efficiency
could result in significant energy use reduc-
tion by 2020, and could fundamentally
reshape Europes energy landscape by 2030,
concludes a study from Cambridge Energy
Research Associates (CERA).
However, reduced energy consumption
at the level desired by the European Com-
mission (EC) would not be inexpensive
costing at least 250 billion, according
to the study. Major new policy initiatives
would also be required, making the impli-
cations a critical issue for policymakers
and industry at a time of great uncertainty.
The depth of the recession and the result-
ing freeze-up of investment combined with
lead times will mean hard choices ahead
for the EU in pursuit of these goals, said
Doug Howe, the studys director.
Our analysis shows that if the EU mem-
ber states pursue both the renewable energy
target and the energy efficiency target in
a mandatory fashion, and if energy prices
begin to rebound in 2010 and later as we
think is quite possible, then total natural
gas consumption across the EU could drop
16% by 2020 and 35% by 2030 over 2008
levels, according to CERA. Electricity con-
sumption would likely remain flat. That
means overall energyelectricity plus gas
would sustainably decline in this scenario.
Eye-opening as these results are, even
these would not meet the 2020 goal on energy
efficiency set out by the Commission, but fall
short by nearly half, added Dr. Howe.
The report concludes, however, that the
marketplace alone will not deliver these
kinds of savings. The price of energy is too
low in most EU countries, and the priority
of energy efficiency purchases is relatively
low in most households to induce most
homeowners and building owners to make
the large investments necessary to achieve
these goals. HP
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HPINNOVATIONS

I

23
SELECTED BY HYDROCARBON PROCESSING EDITORS
editorial@gulfpub.com
Nanotechnology improves
hydroprocessing reactions
Criterion has introduced a new technol-
ogy platform, CENTERA. It is claimed to
provide more active and robust structures
for hydroprocessing reactions. Applying a
breakthrough in understanding of mor-
phology, the active-site assembly of the new
catalyst is based on nanotechnology.
With an initial introduction in ultra-
low-sulfur diesel (ULSD) processing,
significant performance gains with CEN-
TERA CoMo and NiMo catalysts of 25%
to 50% in desulfurization activity have been
demonstrated. Such operating conditions
enable improving refinery profitability by
maximizing diesel yield, diesel quality and
unit reliability.
Key improvements integral to the tech-
nology enable assembling and preserving
individual active sites. The technology
ensures the optimal transformation of oxidic
metal nanoparticle precursors to sulfided,
active sites. It locks them in place to ensure
that high activity is retained. Active-site
assembly is the configuration of promoter
atoms, since these are the structures where
vital hydrodesulfurization, hydrodenitrifica-
tion and hydrogenation reactions occur.
The first new CENTERA ULSD prod-
ucts provide measurable improvements of up
to 25F over earlier generation products (Fig.
1). Data are claimed to demonstrate that
the new technology enhances performance
across the full-range of ULSD conditions
experienced in the market, from the low-
pressure CoMo catalyst regime of revamped
units to the higher-pressure NiMo catalyst
environment of grassroots units that process
a high percentage of cracked feedstocks.
With activity improvements, refiners
can capitalize on upgrading opportunities
for ULSD units. Potential flexibilities are
claimed to include the ability to increase
run length, process more difficult feed-
stocks and boost throughput. Additionally,
the higher activity can be used to reduce
the catalyst volume required for ULSD,
thus freeing up reactor space to install other
upgrading catalysts that can be used for
cetane and cold-flow improvements, den-
sity reduction and naphtha conversion.
Mercury analyzer provides
fast throughput
Teledyne Leeman Labs has introduced
the Hydra II mercury analyzer. It is claimed
to be an amalgamation of performance
and productivity with low detection limits
(1 ppt), fast sample throughput and high
capacity. The 270-position autosampler
enhances productivity in laboratories
involved with mercury analysis.
The analyzer incorporates new soft-
ware that the company says brings unprec-
edented performance and productivity to
mercury analysis, all within a user-friendly
graphical interface. This intuitive software
automates the analytical process from
method development to final report gen-
eration. Help is provided in the software,
including scheduled maintenance and
audio/visual tutorials.
One useful aspect of the Hydra II is its
ability to be upgraded to direct solids anal-
ysis. This instruments ability to perform
high-throughput liquids analysis as well as
direct solid sample analysis makes it practical
for modern labs. Other advantages include:
Wide dynamic range
Over-range protection
High-capacity autosampler
Custom racks for quality control
Direct analysis option.
New hydroprocessing catalyst
enhances performance
Albemarle has released an improved
hydroprocessing catalyst system called
STAX. The system designs are based on
reaction chemistry and process condi-
tions in each part of the hydroprocessing
reactor. STAX technology can be used to
achieve refinery targets that are claimed to
include:
Maximum hydrodesulfurization (HDS)
with constrained hydrogen consumption
Maximum cetane uplift up to unit-
hydrogen limit
Maximum cycle length at specific
sulfur target
Simultaneous sulfur and volume gain
target.
Achieving a better understanding of
the chemistry of hydroprocessing inside
the reactor is a key in designing a catalyst
system for maximum performance. Many
independent variables are at work at various
points within the reactor, and the chemistry
taking place at any point both affects and is
affected by these variables.
Consider the case of ULSD. The con-
ceptual reaction zone model shows three
zones (Fig. 2). Each of the three zones in this
As HP editors, we hear about new products,
patents, software, processes, services, etc.,
that are true industry innovationsa cut
above the typical product offerings. This sec-
tion enables us to highlight these significant
developments. For more information from
these companies, please go to our website
at www.HydrocarbonProcessing.com/rs and
select the reader service number.
700
690
680
DC-2531 DC-2618
Arab medium SR diesel
300 psig
US cracked feed blend
1,200 psig
2
5
F
2
5
F
DN-3531 DN-3630
670
660
650
S
O
R

W
A
B
T

f
o
r

1
0
-
p
p
m

s
u
l
f
u
r
,

F
640
630
620
610
600
A comparison of ULSD catalyst performance. FIG. 1
HPINNOVATIONS
example has dramatically different reaction
conditions that affect catalyst performance.
In zone 1, the primary reaction occurring is
direct route HDS. The rate of desulfurization
is fast, and sulfur content drops rapidly. At
the same time, hydrogen is consumed, so the
ppH
2
is reduced and ppH
2
S increasesthe
latter creating some inhibition.
As the rate of direct route HDS slows,
the feedstock moves into zone 2, where the
focus shifts from sulfur removal to nitro-
gen removalorganic nitrogen being the
main inhibitor to increased HDS reaction
rate. Zone 2 ends when organic nitrogen
has been almost completely removed. As
the feedstock enters zone 3, hydrogenation
route HDS picks up. Although ppH
2
is at its
lowest in zone 3, the catalyst is operating in a
nitrogen-free environment, where the rate of
hydrogenation of aromaticsincluding the
aromatic rings of sterically hindered diben-
zothiophene moleculesincreases. Finally,
the feedstock exits the reactor as ULSD.
Rather than an average performance
level from a single catalyst across all
zones, an optimized catalyst system can be
designed using catalysts that perform well
in a particular regime. Key to STAX tech-
nology is claimed to be a model that can
predict reaction conditions at each point
in the hydrotreating unit.
The technology has been introduced in
several commercial units.
Website focuses on strategies
to lower costs, boost production
Honeywell has launched TheOptimized-
Plant.com, a Website that is claimed to
deliver ideas, information and tools to help
manufacturers maximize plant performance
and get the most out of existing assets.
The site focuses on four key strategies:
reducing maintenance costs, reducing risk
and improving cash flow, implementing
high-ROI solutions and driving down oper-
ational costs. It includes a variety of tools
including videos, podcasts, white papers,
case studies and informational web semi-
nars, all of which offer practical advice for
deriving faster returns during lean times.
The site features tips on extending the
life of current assets, improving prod-
uct quality, using certified recycled parts
to reduce maintenance costs, installing
applications to reduce energy consump-
tion, implementing cost-effective migra-
tion strategies, reducing raw material costs,
optimizing existing advanced applications
and complying with regulations.
Catalyst promotes diesel make
from cycle oil
BASF Catalysts is offering a new cata-
lyst technology that is claimed to enable
refiners to utilize their current gasoline-ori-
ented fluid catalytic cracking (FCC) units
to increase diesel yield. The new catalyst,
HDXtra, raises diesel yields by maximizing
light-cycle oil (LCO) production from the
FCC unit.
This technology, combined with opti-
mized operating conditions, is claimed to
enable increased LCO yield up to 10% vol.
Approximately half of the benefit is attrib-
uted to the catalysts selectivity.
A new global demand for diesel is driv-
ing a shift in processing to increase diesel
yield from FCC units.
HDXtra offers higher functionality by
providing high-matrix activity combined
with good coke selectivity. The catalyst also
uses moderate zeolite activity. This better
controls the amount of LCO cracking into
gasoline while also offering low hydrogen-
transfer activity. Such actions preserve more
hydrogen in the LCOs for minimal cetane
penaltya key measure of diesel quality.
New selective matrix cracking technol-
ogy with the catalyst has been demonstrated
in two North American refineries in 2008.
Additional trials are ongoing in Europe and
other markets.
Benzonaphthothiophenes
Dibenzothiophenes
Benzothiophenes
Dibenzothiophenes
Benzothiophenes
Dibenzothiophenes
Benzothiophenes
Suldes,
Mercaptans,
Thiophenes
Suldes,
Mercaptans,
Thiophenes
Suldes,
Mercaptans,
Thiophenes
Changes in sulfur content and
compound types at three reactor
stages.
FIG. 2
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!MMONIA&ERTILIZERs3YNGASs(YDROGENs2ElNING
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2009 KBR
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K09062 05/09
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)DEASFORSUSTAINABILITY
KBR Technology specializes in developing and licensing
process technologies worldwide. From rening to
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olens to syngas, KBR Technology helps you accelerate
protability and sustain growth.
For more information, visit www.kbr.com/technology
or email technology@kbr.com
HPIN CONSTRUCTION
BILLY THINNES, NEWS EDITOR
BT@HydrocarbonProcessing.com

I

27
North America
Jacobs Engineering Group Inc. has a
contract to provide engineering services for
Suncors Upgrader 2 (U2) 2010 reliabil-
ity projects near Fort McMurray, Alberta,
Canada. Jacobs Engineering will provide
engineering services for a number of reli-
ability projects in Suncors U2 heavy oil
upgrader complex. The various projects are
planned to be completed during the U2
2010 plant outage. Jacobs scope encom-
passes design basis memorandum through
detail engineering phases.
Air Products has an agreement to con-
struct a hydrogen production facility in
Detroit, Michigan, for Marathon Petroleum
Co., LLC. The steam methane reformer
will have a hydrogen production capacity
of more than 50 million standard cfd and
is projected to be completed in the second
quarter of 2012. The facility will provide
hydrogen and steam for Marathons heavy oil
upgrade project at its Detroit refinery.
Alfa Laval has an order for membranes
and heat exchangers for Novozymes new
production plant in Nebraska. The order
value is about SEK 50 million and deliv-
ery is scheduled for 2010. The membranes
and heat exchangers will be used to con-
centrate enzymes for further use in produc-
tion of starch-based ethanol. The facility
in Nebraska will not only supply enzymes
for the existing bioethanol industry, it will
also produce enzymes to be used in ethanol
production from cellulose.
Linde North America and Shell Oil Co.
have a long-term contract for Linde to supply
hydrogen for Shells complex in Deer Park,
Texas. The hydrogen will be used primarily
for the production of clean-burning trans-
portation fuels at Deer Park Refining Co., a
joint venture of Shell and PMI Norteamerica
S.A. de C. V. Linde will invest in excess of
$50 million to supply hydrogen through a
pipeline network connected to its facilities in
the Houston Ship Channel. The supply will
commence in mid-2010.
South America
Invensys Process Systems (IPS) has
signed a five-year, $50 million contract to
provide comprehensive safety services and
solutions to Petrobras. Under the terms
of this contract, the company will imple-
ment its safety and critical controls and asset
management technology to upgrade and
modernize 11 Petrobras refining facilities
throughout Brazil. Along with its proprietary
technology, IPS will also supply engineering,
systems integration and consulting services
to help Petrobras meet its strategic goals.
Europe
Burckhardt Compression has an order
from OJSC Syzran to deliver four process
gas compressors for OJSC Syzrans refinery
upgrade project in the Samara region of
Russia. The contractor for the project is
PMP Ltd. The compressors will be used
for a new isomerization unit.
The contract contains two hydrogen
make-up process gas compressors and two
hydrogen recycle process gas compressors.
The compressors will be skid-mounted by
Burckhardt Compression. Delivery will
take place in the first quarter 2010, with
operation scheduled by mid-2010.
Hydromotive GmbH plans to build a
demonstration plant which will produce
hydrogen from glycerine at the chemical
site in Leuna, Germany. The plant will
come onstream in mid-2010 and will repro-
cess, pyrolyse and reform raw glycerine to
produce a hydrogen-rich gas, which will
be fed into the existing Leuna II hydrogen
plant for the purification and liquefaction
of the hydrogen. The liquefied hydrogen
will initially be used in German cities such
as Berlin and Hamburg, where hydrogen is
being used as a fuel.
Middle East
Jacobs ZATE has a general engineer-
ing services (GES) contract with Rabigh
Refining and Petrochemical Co. (Petro
Rabigh) for its $15 billion facility in Saudi
Arabia. Officials estimate the potential
value of the one-year contract at $1.5 mil-
lion. Petro Rabigh is located in the Red Sea
port of Rabigh, on the west coast of Saudi
Arabia. The petrochemical complex can pro-
duce 18.4 million tpy of petroleum-based
products and 2.4 million tpy of ethylene
and propylene-based derivatives. Jacobs
ZATE will provide mechanical, electrical,
civil, chemical engineering for refinery and
petrochemical, drafting-related services,
management-related services and any other
engineering services required by the facility.
Neste Jacobs has a long-term frame-
work agreement with Abu Dhabi National
Chemicals Co. (Chemaweyaat) covering
engineering services for construction of an
industrial chemicals city. The first complex
to be built in the Chemaweyaat Industrial
City (Madeenat Chemaweyaat) in the
Khalifa Industrial Zone at Taweelah in Abu
Dhabi, will include an ethylene cracker, a
reformer and various polymer and chemi-
cals processing units. Chemaweyaat is plan-
ning to build a number of similar com-
plexes in Madeenat Chemaweyaat. Under
the framework agreement, Neste Jacobs
could be commissioned to carry out signifi-
cant front-end engineering work.
The Saudi Basic Industries Corp.
(SABIC) and the Saudi International Pet-
rochemical Co. (Sipchem) have signed a
memorandum of understanding (MOU).
TREND ANALYSIS FORECASTING
Hydrocarbon Processing maintains an
extensive database of historical HPI proj-
ect information. Current project activity
is published three times a year in the HPI
Construction Boxscore. When a project
is completed, it is removed from current
listings and retained in a database. The
database is a 35-year compilation of proj-
ects by type, operating company, licen-
sor, engineering/constructor, location, etc.
Many companies use the historical data for
trending or sales forecasting.
The historical information is available in
comma-delimited or Excel
and can be cus-

tom sorted to suit your needs. The cost of
the sort depends on the size and complex-
ity of the sort you request and whether a
customized program must be written. You
can focus on a narrow request such as the
history of a particular type of project or
you can obtain the entire 35-year Boxscore
database, or portions thereof.
Simply send a clear description of the data
you need and you will receive a prompt
cost quotation. Contact:
Lee Nichols
P. O. Box 2608
Houston, Texas, 77252-2608
Fax: 713-525-4626
e-mail: Lee.Nichols@gulfpub.com.
HPIN CONSTRUCTION
Under the MOU, SABIC will implement
several new petrochemical projects in Saudi
Arabia at a preliminary estimated value $3.2
billion, including seven plants for the pro-
duction of 250,000 tpy of methyl metha
acrylate (MMA); 30,000 tpy of polymethyl
methaacrylate (PMMA); 200,000 tpy of
acrylonitrile; 50,000 tpy of polyacrylo-
nitrile; 50,000 tpy of polyacetyl resins;
3,000 tpy of carbon fiber; and 40,000 tpy
of sodium cyanide. Sipchem will build two
plants at a preliminary estimated cost of
$810 million for the production of 125,000
tpy of polyvinyl acetate and 200,000 tpy
of ethylene vinyl acetate. These plants are
expected to go onstream by mid-2013.
A SABIC manufacturing affiliate will
crack the feedstock allocated to Sipchem
and also provide it with ethylene. One of
Sipchems manufacturing companies will
supply carbon monoxide to SABIC for the
production of MMA.
A new catalytic cracker complex with the
capacity of 45,000 bpd is under construc-
tion at Abadan oil refinery in Khuzestan,
Iran. The project is being financed using a
foreign currency allocation of 350 million.
The new catalytic cracker complex is using
UOP technology. The project is expected to
become operational in late August.
Asia-Pacific
Jacobs Engineering Group Inc. has a
contract from Hindustan Petroleum Corp.
Ltd. (HPCL) to provide project management
consultancy services for a diesel hydrotreater
(DHDT) project at HPCLs refining com-
plex in Mumbai, India. The estimated overall
total installed cost is $650 million. Jacobs will
perform front-end engineering design and
supervise the lumpsum turnkey contract-
ing for the DHDT project. Work includes
the installation of a DHDT and associated
facilities in HPCLs Mumbai refinery to meet
Euro-IV specifications for diesel.
Linc Energy Ltd. recently opened its
Chinchilla demonstration facility in Aus-
tralia. The facility features underground
coal gasification (UCG) to gas-to-liquids
(GTL) technology. It has an UCG gas field,
a Fischer-Tropsch GTL plant and an onsite
laboratory.
Kuwait and China have an agreement
for a $9 billion refinery project in Zhan-
jiang, a coastal town in Chinas Guang-
dong Province. The companies involved
are Kuwait Petroleum Corp. and Sinopec
Corp. The deal will help Kuwait achieve
its crude oil export target of 500,000 bpd
to China by 2015. The refinery will be
designed to process Kuwaiti crude supplied
by Kuwait Petroleum Corp., with a capacity
of 300,000 bpd. The ethylene cracker unit
is expected to produce 1 million tpy.
Africa
The Shaw Group Inc.s Energy &
Chemicals Group has been selected by
Sasol to provide basic engineering sup-
port for two Fischer-Tropsch units. Shaw
is providing the basic engineering pack-
age for the Fischer-Tropsch unit of Sasols
wax expansion project in Sasolburg, South
Africa. Shaws scope of work includes pro-
prietary equipment design and technol-
ogy optimization. The project is expected
to increase Sasols production of medium
waxes and liquid paraffins by approxi-
mately 50%. HP
30

I
JUNE 2009 HYDROCARBON PROCESSING
HPI CONSTRUCTION BOXSCORE UPDATE
Company Plant Site Project Capacity Est. Cost Status Licensor Engineering Constructor
UNITED STATES
Alaska Denali North Slope Gas Treating None E Fluor
California Valero Refining Co Benicia Scrubber 75 Mbpd E 2010 Belco Belco
California Shell Intl Prod Martinez Crude Unit None 43 U 2009 S&B S&B
California Paramount Petr Corp Paramount Hydrocracker 25 Mbpd H CLG CLG
Mississippi Enerkem Technologies Pontotoc Biofuel Plant 20 MMgpy 250 P
New Mexico Western Refining Gallup Scrubber 11 Mbpd H Belco Belco
Ohio Husky Energy Inc Lima Hydrocracker RE 30 Mbpd U 2012 CLG CLG
Oklahoma Terra Industries Inc Woodward Urea 480 m-tpd E 2010 UCSA UCSA UCSA
Oklahoma Wynnewood Rfg Co Wynnewood Hydrotreat, Gasoline 13 Mbpd E 2010 Axens KP Engineering, LP KP Engineering, LP
Pennsylvania ConocoPhillips Trainer Alkylation, HF RE 14 Mbpd 220 E 2012 UOP S&B ConocoPhillips
Texas Flint Hills Resources Caldwell Terminal, Petroleum None P 2010
Texas Ivanhoe Energy San Antonio Processing, Heavy Oil 10 bpd C 2009
CANADA
Alberta Ivanhoe Energy Athabasca Processing, Heavy Oil 20 bpd E Ivanhoe Energy AMEC
Alberta EPCOR Power L.P. Genesee Gasifier 500 MW E 2015 Siemens Siemens
Alberta Fort Hills Energy Sturgeon Lake Hydrocracker 100 Mbpd H CLG CLG
British Columbia Lignol Burnaby Biorefinery 100 Ml/y 10 C 2009
Manitoba Koch Chemical Brandon Ammonia EX 1350 m-tpd S 2012 ACSA ACSA ACSA
New Brunswick Irving Oil Ltd Eider Rock Hydrocracker 141 Mbpd U 2013 CLG CLG
New Brunswick Irving Oil Ltd Eider Rock Hydrotreater 78 Mbpd U 2013 CLG CLG
LATIN AMERICA
Argentina Repsol YPF La Plata Coker, Delayed (replace) 185 m3/hr E FW FW
Argentina Repsol YPF La Plata Fractionator None E FW FW
Argentina Repsol YPF La Plata Gas Plant None E FW FW
Brazil Fosfertil-Ultrafertil Araucaria Ammonia RE 1290 m-tpd E 2010 ACSA ACSA ACSA
Brazil Petr Brasileiro SA Linhares Gas Treating EX 18 MMm3/d 200 U 2009
Brazil Petrobras Linhares Processing, Oil 15 Mbpd 200
Brazil Quattor Maua Cumene BY 110 Mm-tpy 40 C 2008 UOP Promon Platume
Mexico Petroleos Mexicanos Burgos Cryogenic Gas Plant 200 MMcfd C 2009
Mexico Petroleos Mexicanos Cangrejera Paraxylene EX 210 Mtpy E 2011
Mexico Petroleos Mexicanos Cangrejera Styrene EX 100 Mtpy H
Mexico Petroleos Mexicanos Minatitlan Alkylation (1) 13.4 Mtpd U 2009
Mexico Petroleos Mexicanos Minatitlan Alkylation (2) 13.4 Mtpd U 2009
Mexico Petroleos Mexicanos Minatitlan Coker, Delayed 55.8 Mtpd U 2009
Mexico Petroleos Mexicanos Minatitlan Cracker, FCC (2) 42 Mtpd U 2009
Mexico Petroleos Mexicanos Minatitlan Distiller, Crude 150 Mtpd U 2009
Mexico Petroleos Mexicanos Minatitlan Hydrogen 48 MMcfd U 2009
Mexico Petroleos Mexicanos Minatitlan Hydrotreat, Distillate 37 Mtpd U 2009
Mexico Petroleos Mexicanos Minatitlan Hydrotreat, Gasoil 50 Mbpd U 2009
Mexico Petroleos Mexicanos Minatitlan Hydrotreat, Naphtha 7400 tpd U 2009
Mexico Petroleos Mexicanos Minatitlan Sulfur 600 tpy U 2009
1640 S. 101st E. Avenue Tulsa, OK 74128
Our comprehensive experience in heat transfer technology
and related engineering disciplines ensures that we
provide the process industry with state-of-the-art designs
and manufacturing. Each system is custom designed for
your project specic needs. We work closely with you
to optimize the interrelation of thermal, mechanical
and structural as well as instrumentation and control
engineering disciplines. 3-D modeling of all components
is done to prove dimensional accuracy for proper eld t
up. Our sister companies, Express Metal Fabricators and
St. George Steel, perform the fabrication for all North
American projects.
Please forward your requests and inquiries to
sales@expresstechtulsa.com or call (918) 622-1420.
www.expresstechtulsa.com
DIRECT FIRED HEATERS
SINGLE SOURCE ENGINEERING
AND FABRICATION

I

31
HPI CONSTRUCTION BOXSCORE UPDATE
Mexico Petroleos Mexicanos Morelos Ethylene (2) BY 300 Mtpy H
Mexico Petroleos Mexicanos Morelos Ethylene Oxide (2) BY 135 Mtpy U 2011
Mexico Petroleos Mexicanos Morelos Polyethylene (2) 300 Mtpy U 2009
Venezuela Pequiven Jose Urea (1) 2200 m-tpd E 2012 Stamicarbon Tecnimont Tecnimont
Venezuela Pequiven Jose Urea (2) 2200 m-tpd E 2012 Stamicarbon Tecnimont Tecnimont
Venezuela Pequiven Puerto Nutrias Urea 2200 m-tpd E 2013 Stamicarbon Tecnimont Tecnimont
Venezuela not disclosed Undisclosed Gas Compression (2) 25 MW P 2010 Burckhardt Compression
EUROPE
Belarus Naftan Refinery Novopolotsk Heater, Vacuum None U 2009 FW
Bulgaria Lukoil Neftochim Bourgas Burgas Amine Recovery None F 2012 Axens Technip
Bulgaria Lukoil Neftochim Bourgas Burgas Hydrogen (1) 7500 kg/hr F 2012 Axens Technip
Bulgaria Lukoil Neftochim Bourgas Burgas Hydrogen (2) 7500 kg/hr F 2012 Axens Technip
Bulgaria Lukoil Neftochim Bourgas Burgas Offsites None F 2012 Axens Technip
Bulgaria Lukoil Neftochim Bourgas Burgas Sour Water Stripper None F 2012 Axens Technip
Bulgaria Lukoil Neftochim Bourgas Burgas Utilities (2) None F 2012 Axens Technip
Czech Republic Sokolovska Uhelna, a.s. Vresova Gasifier 200 MW C 2008 Siemens Siemens
Finland Neste Jacobs Porvoo FCC, flue gas None U 2011 Belco|SGS Belco
Germany Yara Brunsbuettel Brunsbuettel Urea RE 2000 m-tpd E 2010 UCSA UCSA UCSA
Hungary MOL Hungarian Oil & Gas Danube Refinery Hydrocracker 26 Mbpd U 2012 CLG CLG
Ireland ConocoPhillips Whitegate Sulfur Recovery 10 tpd H Jacobs Nederland BV
Italy Raffineria di Gela SpA Gela Hydrogen 120 m-tpd E 2011 Haldor Topse Techint Techint
Italy Eni SpA Venice Hydrocracker 21 Mbpd H CLG CLG
Kazakhstan LyondellBasell/SAT&Co Atyrau Complex None P 2014 LyondellBasell|KPI
Kazakhstan LyondellBasell/SAT&Co Atyrau Dehydrogenation, Propane None P 2014 LyondellBasell|KPI
Kazakhstan LyondellBasell/SAT&Co Atyrau Ethane Cracker None P 2014 LyondellBasell|KPI
Kazakhstan LyondellBasell/SAT&Co Atyrau Gas Separation None P 2014 LyondellBasell|KPI
Kazakhstan LyondellBasell/SAT&Co Atyrau Polyethylene (1) None P 2014 LyondellBasell|KPI
Kazakhstan LyondellBasell/SAT&Co Atyrau Polyethylene (2) None P 2014 LyondellBasell|KPI
Kazakhstan LyondellBasell/SAT&Co Atyrau Polypropylene None P 2014 LyondellBasell|KPI
Lithuania Mazeikiu Nafta Juodeikiai Hydrocracker 35 Mbpd E 2012 CLG CLG
Netherlands Gate Terminal BV Maasvlakte LNG Terminal (2) 12000 MMm3/y E 2011 Techint|ENTREPOSE ENTREPOSE|Techint
Norway TCM Karsto Amine None E 2011 Aker Clean Carbon Aker Clean Carbon
Norway StatoilHydro Kollsness Gas Plant RE None E 2011 Aker Solutions
Poland Anwil SA Wloclawek Nitrogen Oxide Reduction Sys None E 2007 Chemeko Chemeko Remwil
Poland Anwil SA Wloclawek Utilities None E 2008 ILF Consulting Engineering Chemeko
Russian Federation Rosneft Achinsk Hydrotreat, Diesel 35 Mbpd E 2013 CLG CLG Neftechimproekt
Russian Federation Kirishinefteorgsyntez Kirishi Hydrocracker 60 Mbpd U 2010 CLG CLG SNKP
Russian Federation Korimos Moscow Alkylation RE 400 m-tpd S Exelus
Russian Federation Togliattiazot Togliatti Urea (3) RE 2600 m-tpd E 2010 UCSA UCSA UCSA
See http://www.HydrocarbonProcessing.com/bxsymbols for licensor, engineering and construction companies abbreviations,
along with the complete update of the HPI Construction Boxscore.
PROCESS & FURNACE TECHNOLOGI ES
OnQuest is a leader in process plant engineering and
combustion technologies for clients in the petroleum
and petrochemical industries. Our expertise includes
efficient, energy-saving designs for hydrocarbon
processing plants, with specialties in ammonia,
hydrogen, syngas, LNG, and ethanol plants.
We are also a world leader in direct-fired process
heater technology and burner management systems,
and have particular expertise in lump-sum, turnkey
projects, refurbishments, and revamps.
To learn more, call Randy Kessler at (909) 451-0502.
Process. Performance.
SOLUTIONS.
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project efficiency, for shorter field schedules, reduced
man-hours, and lower costs.
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experts have decades of experience in complex
design and installation projects.
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and Calgary, Alberta, and representatives in South
America, Europe and Asia, we serve clients worldwide.
180 East Arrow Hwy | San Dimas CA 91773
Tel. (909) 451-0500 | Fax (909) 451-0499
www.onquest-inc.com
Computational Fluid Dynamics
(CFD) is often used to help fine
tune injector performance
requirements and placement
Our solutions include injectors for:
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based on your operating conditions ensure performance goals are met
U Recirculating, air- or liquid-cooled, multiple nozzle designs and more
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Learn More at spray.com/injectors
Visit our web site for helpful literature on key considerations in
spray injector design and guidelines for optimizing performance.
PROCESS AND PLANT OPTIMIZATION SPECIALREPORT

I

33
Optimize plant performance using
dynamic simulation
This plant case history illustrates the benefits
A. AL-DOSSARY and M. AL-JUAID, Saudi Aramco, Saudi Arabia; C. BRUSAMOLINO and
R. MELONI, Snamprogetti, Milan, Italy; V. MERTZANIS and V. I. HARISMIADIS,
Hyperion Systems Engineering, Modeling and Simulation, Athens, Greece
D
ynamic simulation is becoming an important tool for check-
ing out and optimizing plant design leading to improved
plant performance. In this work, we present the benefits
obtained from applying dynamic process modeling to the com-
pression and medium-pressure steam utility section of a grassroots
gasoil separation plant in the Middle East. Plant construction is in
progress and the plant startup is planned for the first half of 2009.
As part of the plant design, the engineering company per-
formed a steady-state simulation of the system to check heat
and material balances and equipment sizing. Critical areas were
also modeled in dynamic mode and a high-fidelity study was
conducted. This study was focused on the compressor and steam
systems and included a series of safety and operability scenarios to
investigate the plant behavior under a wide range of conditions.
The study examined:
Compressor antisurge, power and pressure limiting controls
Special functions, such as event sequence logic (to allow
typical operations to be easily repeated) and a built-in cause-and-
effect chart (so that the plant logic is accurately reproduced and
monitored).
The main benefits from the dynamic simulation study have
been the following:
Establishing the need for advanced control schemes to avoid
compressor high discharge and low suction pressures
Verifying relief valve setpoints
Determining tuning constants for the most important con-
trollers
Verifying compressor startup and shutdown procedures
Confirming equipment and valve sizing (including under
abnormal conditions)
Verifying that the compressor motors are properly rated to
achieve startup
Evaluating different shutdown scenarios for the steam system
Improving plant reliability by defining setpoints that main-
tain safe and reliable operation of the steam system.
Simulation increases the quality level of plant design activities;
benefits are also seen during plant commissioning, allowing for a
shorter schedule than would have been the case without the study.
This is because possible startup problems have been identified
in advance and the necessary recovery actions have already been
planned. Further, it ensures reliable and safe operation of the main
plant processes.
In the following sections the possibilities of optimizing the
basic design of a process plant well in advance of commissioning
are explored. The focus is the dynamic process simulation that
can be used to help understand the plant behaviour over time
and to ensure continuous improvement in both the plant and
procedures.
Dynamic and steady-state simulation. A steady-state
model is like a snapshot of the unit operation. Any change in
the plant conditions, such as changing the pressure specification
at the top of a column, requires the model to be resolved. After
convergence, the steady-state model should predict where the
process will settle. On the other hand, at the heart of a dynamic
model, one will find a differential equation integrator. This allows
information about the behavior of the unit operation over time to
be obtained. All variables are solved at each time step and at any
specific time the process conditions can be monitored. Compared
to the steady-state snapshot, dynamic modeling is more like a
movie than a single picture.
1
Using a steady state or a dynamic
model depends on the exact requirements. For process design,
a steady-state model of the unit is initially sufficient. However,
when the controllability of the unit is in question, or the process
response to transients needs to be investigated, a dynamic simula-
tion is usually needed.
The main difference between dynamic and steady-state model-
ing is the fact that dynamic modeling is datasheet driven while
steady-state modeling is driven by thermodynamics and process
specifications. This of course has an impact on the level of detail
required for successful application of each type of simulation. In
steady-state modeling, process specifications are used and the focus
is on the feasibility of the process. For example, the temperature
on the shell side of a heat exchanger can be specified. Based on the
specifications of the nearby equipment, the heat transfer coefficient
can be calculated and parameterized, i.e., used as a datum when the
system conditions change. In dynamic simulation, the heat transfer
coefficient of the exchanger should be first estimated from existing
data (e.g., the equipment datasheet and heat and material balance
or equivalent). The flows are then estimated based on pressure
drops and resistances across the heat exchanger. Only at that stage
can the temperature at the exchanger exit be calculated.
There are further examples of differences between the two
techniques. In steady-state modeling, pumps are rarely mod-
34
eled explicitly; flow is possible from low to high pressure since
it is determined by thermodynamics alone. Distillation column
reboilers and condensers are also typically integrated within the
first and last column equilibrium stages. However, in dynamic
modeling, resistances across valves and piping are important.
Further, pressure/flow boundaries and exact pump/compressor
curves are used.
Typical scope for a dynamic simulation. The typical
scope for an engineering study includes all the items that affect the
systems dynamic behavior. This definition covers modeling the
systems physical limitations and its unit operations such as vessels,
compressors/pumps and their drivers, actuated valves, etc. Some
further important points relating to study scope are:
Volumes are vital for an engineering study since they define
the systems capacity and lag times. Piping isometric data are
needed to deduce the volume of the pipework and associated
resistances.
All regulatory control needs to be included in a dynamic
model. Advanced process control may be included, depending
on the area of the system being modeled. Compressor control
systems are always modeled since they contribute significantly
to overall plant behavior. Indeed, an investigation of the perfor-
mance of the compressor controls may well be one of the aims
of the study. Shortcuts may be applied and
simplified control schemes may be adopted
in some cases, providing that checking the
control system itself is not critical. The
deciding factor in those cases is if the sim-
plified scheme (which is a subset of the
behavior of the installed compressor con-
trol) manages to keep the system out of
surge conditions.
The systems emergency shutdown
(ESD) logic is required to capture correctly
the effects of a trip or a sudden change in
the operational conditions. Often, however,
parts of the shutdown logic are disabled in
exploratory test runs. Allowing the system
to develop in this way without shutdown
allows a maximum or minimum pressure/
temperature to be found.
Valve Cv, stroking time, character-
istic curves, failure position and manu-
facturer are important for an engineering
study. Non-return and relief valves are
always modeled. For antisurge valves, the
flow as calculated by the model should
match the datasheet flow for the condi-
tions provided.
Compressor and driver data, like iner-
tia and torque versus speed curves for elec-
trical motors, etc., are necessary for accurate
results.
Auxiliary systems are not modeled
since they do not affect the system dynam-
ics. These typically include the compressor
lube oil and seal systems, chemical injec-
tion, manual valves, drains, sample points,
etc. Note that some of the above systems
are indeed modeled if the dynamic model
is to be used in an operator training simula-
tor. Minor fittings are not modeled, but
their resistance is included in the dynamic
model.
The thermodynamics and the compo-
nent slate for the system in question are usu-
ally available before an engineering study,
and a heat and material balance, obtained
from a steady-state model calculation, is
also available. However, some engineer-
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the number of components to be used in a
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dynamic simulation. The CPU cost of thermodynamic calcula-
tions is a strong function of the number of components and large
models using many components may end up being too slow for
productive use.
Significance for an EPC contractor. For EPC contrac-
tors, dynamic simulation is an important tool that allows review-
ing engineering activities. Equipment size and design limits are
usually defined based on normal plant conditions and good
engineering practices. With dynamic simulation test runs, equip-
ment size can be checked in real conditions avoiding estimations
and generalized rules. It is also possible to monitor the effect of a
single trip on the whole plant and consider
all possible scenarios, e.g., the repercus-
sions of one trip in the utility area upon
the process area and vice versa. In addition,
the automation and control philosophies
are monitored. Complex control loops and
ESD threshold values are verified before
the DCS/ESD factory acceptance test.
In the experience of the authors, the
main benefit of dynamic simulation is the
opportunity to test the operating proce-
dures (startup, and emergency and normal
shutdowns) for the main gas compressors
before the real plant startup. Considering
the tight commissioning schedules and
the criticality of this equipment, dynamic
modeling allows familiarization with the
compressor performance in the process
environment many months in advance
of the actual plant startup. There is thus
ample time to identify potential issues and
take corrective actions if necessary.
During the detailed engineering phase,
any possible scenario can be examined
and verified to improve plant optimiza-
tion. However, the EPC contractor should
be conscious of the cost of these activities
and the specialist profile of the manpower
required. Therefore, it is necessary to limit
the modeling scope by focusing on the crit-
ical scenarios. It is also possible to identify
the area to be modeled by marking-up only
the PFDs in the first instance. P&IDs may
be marked-up at a later stage. Unneces-
sary details should be avoided and minor
units or equipment should be considered as
battery limits and/or modeled in a simpli-
fied manner. This approach saves time in
unnecessary data collection and in model
tuning and updating.
Limitations could arise for a licensed
plant; the licensor (for obvious reasons)
will never make available all the documen-
tation requested to support proper mod-
eling. In this case dynamic simulations
could be provided directly by the process
licensor or a black-box model could be
defined for the scope with a high level of
simplifications.
Gas processing system study. The gas processing sys-
tem studied is composed of a series of gasoil separation plants
(GOSPs) downstream of the oil well heads. Each GOSP is com-
posed of:
An oil stabilization system to achieve crude oil, water and
gas separation. This includes a series of drums and a crude-stabi-
lization column.
Two motor-driven compressors, with their related equip-
ment (suction/discharge drums, after-coolers, recycle valve and
associated control system). The first compressor is a single-stage
low-pressure compressor and the second is a two-stage high-
pressure compressor.
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I

The gas export pipeline and the metering station.
A simplified process diagram of the process indicating the
gas flows is shown in Fig. 1. Note that during normal opera-
tion, each compressor stage receives gas from two different
locations.
For the typical gas compressor system shown in Fig. 2, the
main targets for an engineering study are to:
Verify safe operation during an emergency trip and pro-
grammed shutdown, and determine the need for a hot- or cold-gas
bypass valve
Confirm that the compressor driver is sufficient for a smooth
startup
Prove the suitability of the full startup and shutdown pro-
cedures
Review the compressor control algorithms ability to main-
tain compressor operation away from the surge region and choke
limit during a series of process disturbances.
A series of compressor trips were examined in the study. The
startup procedure was optimized and a number of process upsets
were tried and their effects on the operations evaluated. In the
subsequent sections, we present some of the results.
Steam system study. A HAZOP study on the steam system
identified that sudden changes in the medium-pressure (MP)
steam consumption could lead to potentially hazardous operations
for the facility personnel and equipment. Fig. 3 shows the main
MP steam production equipment and control philosophy used at
the water injection facilities and utilities plant.
The MP steam generation system shown in Fig. 3, consists of:
Three auxiliary boilers with capacity automatically con-
trolled by the MP steam header pressure. The control strategy
ensures proper load balancing of any given number of auxiliary
boilers aligned in the MP steam header.
Four heat recovery steam generators (HRSGs) with fixed
capacity for given ambient conditions
The main MP steam header
MP steam process consumersfour GOSPs in normal/
current operation, one GOSP slot for future operation and two
gas trains
MP steam to low-pressure (LP) steam let-down equipment
Main safeguarding equipment:
Excess steam condenser trains, able to downgrade MP
steam to condensate during over-pressurization scenarios
Overpressure control valves, relieving steam to atmosphere,
and opening sequentially in case of over pressurization
Pressure relief valves installed on boiler/HRSG packages
MP steam high pressure alarms.
In the study, the transient high-pressure build-up in the steam
network due to the emergency shutdown of one GOSP train was
investigated. Furthermore, the consequences on the MP steam
system equipment were evaluated in terms of:
MP steam header over-pressurization effects
Possible mechanical damage to the excess steam condensers
due to operation outside of design capacity
Ability to control the load of the auxiliary boilers.
Finally, the performance of existing safeguard equipment was
evaluated and recommendations on an operational level were given.
Project management. The EPC contractor organized a team
with all the competencies necessary with representatives from
the process (gas and auxiliary), instrumentation and automation
and machinery departments so that the dynamic study is best
Users
- 4 GOSP (normal)
- 1 GOSP (future)
- 2 Gas trains
Excess steam
condensers
MP steam to
letdown
Atmos.
Auxiliary
boiler A
Auxiliary
boiler B
Auxiliary
boiler C
PIT
PIC PIC
V3
V2
V1
HRSG1
HRSG2
HRSG3
HRSG4
Aux. boiler
load control
Simplified process diagram for the medium-pressure steam
system.
FIG. 3
GOSP 4
GOSP 2
GOSP 1
GOSP 3
Gas-oil
wells
Stabilization
system
Condensate
stripper
Gas treating
and export
HP1 HP2 LP
Simplified process diagram for the gas processing system. FIG. 1
Suction
drum
Discharge
drum
Anti-surge
valve
Feed
Simplified process diagram for a compressor system. FIG. 2
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38
organized. The process packages and piping departments were
also involved as needed. Due to the complexity of the modeling
and the know-how required for compressor modeling and control
system integration, it was agreed to involve an external company
in this activity.
During the kick-off meeting, the critical cases to be run dur-
ing the dynamic simulation study were analyzed and defined, and
the necessary project documentation (e.g., P&ID, PFD, piping
arrangement, control philosophy and description and equipment
mechanical data sheets) was made available.
It was planned to organize the activity starting from rev. B or C
of the P&IDs with engineering activities well under way. Modifi-
cations in engineering and material requisition were not expected
but would still be manageable for a few months.
In the third month of the study, the dynamic model was tested
during the model validation test (MVT) to provide formal accep-
tance of the model. During the MVT, parameters like flow, tem-
perature, pressure and main composition were checked with the
model in steady-state with reference to the project heat and mate-
rial balance. Discrepancies were discussed and the actual impact
of these on the model was considered. For example, discrepancies
occurring in minor chemical components usually have no signifi-
cant impact on model quality.
All flow lines (including those used only during startup/shut-
down/alternate running), equipment sizes and critical parameters
were checked in the model and preliminary dynamic performances
were monitored with qualitative process indicators.
After a few weeks resolving the MVT punch list, preliminary
results of critical scenario cases were available, and some months
after MVT, a document reporting all the cases (preliminary
dynamic simulation study) was issued.
Later, the model was updated considering the latest P&IDs
(rev. 0, issued for construction), latest controller setpoint or ESD
threshold values and the mechanical data sheets coming from the
vendors. The issue of piping isometric draw-
ings for the compressor area was organized in
advance to provide correct volumes for the
dynamic simulation study.
In the final report, the scenario cases were
rerun using the updated model. A few addi-
tional scenarios were also considered to better
understand the plant dynamics.
Experiences and results. Both LP
and HP compressors have a vendor-declared
startup pressure lower than the settling-out
pressure. Furthermore, the HP compressor
has a startup pressure that is significantly
lower than the normal operating suction
pressure, due to the motor sizing limitation.
For these reasons, detailed startup procedures
have been developed that include the follow-
ing major steps:
Compressor system depressurization
Drainage
Purge
Pressurization
Auxiliary system startup
Main motor startup
Compressor loading.
A detailed dynamic simulation study was
performed to:
Verify the proposed sequences and con-
firm that the compressor systems can start up
without problems.
Review performance of the compressor
antisurge system (valve and control tuning).
0
0 5 10
Volume ow, acfm
15 20 25
10
20
H
e
a
d
,

f
t
30
40
Compressor maps (head versus inlet volumetric flow plot)
for the LP compressor during startup.
FIG. 4
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40

I

Observe and analyze transients.
Starting from compressor shutdown conditions, the system was
depressurized to the startup pressure value. All critical valves were
positioned (opened or closed) based on the startup sequence pro-
cedure. Manual steps, like casing draining, were not included.
The motor was then started with the compressor running in
full recycle. In this phase, the critical equipment was checked for
safe operation with regards to surge, motor overload and subat-
mospheric conditions at the compressor suction.
After motor startup, the system loading phase was checked. It
was found that simply opening the suction and discharge isolation
valves was not enough for a smooth startup. The startup proce-
dures have been modified so that:
The HP compressor starts up with the interstage isolation
valve closed. This is required to avoid vacuum in the first-stage
suction. The interstage valve can be opened when a low differen-
tial pressure across that valve is achieved.
Opening the LP compressor suction and discharge isolation
valves should happen only when the pressures in the HP compres-
sor section are balanced. In general, the isolation valves have to
open in a way to avoid both massive flows and vacuum at the LP/
HP compressor suction.
Thus, the simulation results in this case can be summarized as:
The startup sequences were modified and validated.
The inlet valves sizings were verified and their optimum
opening ramps, during the loading phase, were defined.
The antisurge valve sizing and control were shown to be
suitablethere was no surge during startup. A typical startup
compressor map is presented in Fig. 4 for the LP compres-
sor. The blue line is the locus of the operating points and the
pink line signifies the compressors surge and operating line at
nominal speed.
40,000
35,000
30,000
25,000
20,000 F
t
F
t
F
t
15,000
10,000
5,000
10,000
20,000
30,000
40,000
50,000
60,000
0
25,000
20,000
15,000
10,000
5,000
0
0
L
P

H
P
1
H
P
2

Compressor maps (head versus inlet volumetric flow
plot) in the case of flow reduction to 30% of the normal
operation. The blue arrows show the movement of the
operation points.
FIG. 7
4
55 105
Time
P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e
,

p
s
i
g
155
8
12
16
Suction pressure of the first (blue line) and second (pink
line) HP compressor stages versus time during startup.
FIG. 5
HP2
HP1
LP
0.71
0.69
0.67
P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e
,

p
s
i
g
P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e
,

p
s
i
g
0.65
0.63
0 100 200
Time
300
400
300
200
100
0
Suction pressure of all compressor stages versus time. The
LP compressor (blue line) is linked to the left-hand axis,
while the HP compressor first and second stages (pink and
green lines respectively) are the right-hand axis.
FIG. 6
PROCESS AND PLANT OPTIMIZATION
The possibility of vacuum at the com-
pressor suction during startup was avoided,
as seen in Fig. 5 for the HP compressor.
Compressor net flow reduction. Both
the LP and HP compressors could be forced
to operate at different flowrates in a 30%
100% range of the maximum (contractual
design basis). This wide operating win-
dow is required to satisfy plant turndown
requirements. However, the compressors
normally operate in a 60%100% range
of the maximum operating flowrate. This
flow range is much smaller than the plant
turndown requirements. For these reasons,
a test has been performed to:
Verify that the compressors can with-
stand a significant flow reduction and are
able to run at turndown conditions
Review the compressor antisurge sys-
tem performance (valve and control tuning)
Observe, analyze and understand the
transients.
The base dynamic model describes nor-
mal operations. Simple ramps were used
to reduce simultaneously all of the incom-
ing feed flows to 30% of their normal
operational values. During this phase of
the test, the results were checked to verify
safe operation of equipment in terms of
surge occurrence, compressor instability or
compressor trip.
Simulation results showed the engage-
ment of the antisurge control system to
avoid surge and the discharge pressure
increase for both compressors. More spe-
cifically, the LP compressor discharge pres-
sure came quite close to its high-pressure
trip limit. The increased possibility of trig-
gering compressor emergency shutdown
dictated the need to
test the functionality
of the LP compres-
sor system after the
addition of a dis-
charge pressure lim-
iting controller. This
additional controller
acts on the antisurge
valve and limits the
discharge pressure.
In this way the pres-
sure fluctuations that
coul d potenti al l y
lead to a compres-
sor shutdown can be
avoided.
Similarly, it was
verified that a dis-
charge pressure lim-
iting controller was
not required to be
installed for the HP compressor.
Thus, the simulation results can be sum-
marized as follows:
The size of the antisurge valve was
sufficient so that any surge during flow
reduction was avoided.
There was a need to include discharge
pressure limiting control functionality in
the LP compressor control scheme.
A compressor shutdown or instability is
not foreseen. This is demonstrated in Fig. 6
where the compressor stage suction pressure
is plotted against time (blue line: LP com-
pressor; pink line: HP compressor first stage;
green line: HP compressor second stage).
The movement of the compressor oper-
ating points to lower flows is clearly seen
in the compressor maps in Fig. 7. The blue
lines are the loci of the operating points
and the pink lines signify the compressors
surge and operating lines.
HP compressor limit variation. Gas
from the HP compressor is sent to a mani-
fold and then to the plant gas treatment
section. A minimum compressor discharge
pressure needs to be guaranteed (contrac-
tual design basis). For that reason, the HP
compressor system is equipped with a dis-
charge pressure control valve. Appropriately
designed dynamic simulation tests were
performed to understand the compres-
sor system response in the case of battery
limit pressure variations. The base dynamic
model describes normal operations. A sim-
ple ramp was used to simulate increasing/
decreasing battery limit pressure.
The obtained results showed that:
When the battery limit pressure was
MV
SP
P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e
,

p
s
i
g
460
465
470
475
480
0 50 100 150 200
Time
Compressor system discharge pressure (MV) and its
setpoint (SP).
FIG. 8
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decreased, the HP
discharge pressure
control valve closed
t o mai nt ai n t he
desired compressor
discharge pressure.
The valve design was
found to be adequate,
while the controller
tuning was important
to minimize down-
stream pressure oscil-
lations. This is shown
in Fig. 8, where the
pressure downstream
of the HP compres-
sor is plotted against
time (dark blue line).
The green dashed
line is the controller
setpoint. The com-
pressor operati ng
points hardly move
at all.
When the battery limit pressure
was increased, the overpressure control
valve opened to flare the flow that was
not delivered to the downstream system.
This avoided compressor instability and/
or shutdown. The overall flow through the
compressor system was reduced due to the
higher head of the HP compressor.
Steam systemone GOSP shut-
down case. The operational setup that
was investigated reflects the system future
operation in summer ambient conditions.
In this case, two out of the three auxiliary
boilers run at 25% of the maximum con-
tinuous rating (MCR). All four HRSGs
run at their fixed loads and all five GOSPs,
along with the two gas trains, are consum-
ing MP steam.
The HAZOP study identified the
emergency trip of one GOSP and the
subsequent over-pressurization of the
MP header as a possible cause for con-
cern. However, the dynamic simulation
revealed that during such a transient, the
load for the two operating auxiliary boilers
would drop below the minimum guaran-
teed automatic control threshold (20% of
MCR). Eventually, both auxiliary boilers
would be forced to trip due to low fuel
gas pressure.
Therefore, the issue of steam produc-
tion sustainability became critical and
dictated the need to test an alternative
scenario in which the emergency trip of
one GOSP was followed by the sched-
uled shutdown of one auxiliary boiler. The
results showed that a single auxiliary boiler
was capable of maintaining the MP steam
header pressure control. This is presented
graphically in Fig. 9, where the percentage
of boiler load is plotted against time. The
dark blue line represents boiler C load,
while the pink line shows the boiler B
load. The minimum guaranteed automatic
control threshold is shown in the dashed
green line.
Boiler B is the one that remained in
operation. As can be seen from the plot,
boiler B load remained marginally above
the minimum guaranteed automatic con-
trol threshold during this scenario. Even-
tually, boiler B load settled quite close to
the threshold. These results highlighted the
need for tight MP steam header pressure
control and subsequent auxiliary boiler
load control.
At the same time our results showed
that:
The MP steam header was not pres-
surized above its design pressure.
The capacity and pressure of the
excess steam condensers did not exceed
their design limits.
The overpressure valves to atmosphere
remained closed and the pressure relief
valves were not lifted during this scenario.
Other considerations and future
work. Dynamic simulation allowed ana-
lyzing several critical plant scenarios. In six
or seven months it was possible to review a
series of options and provide answers and/
or alternatives to a number of challenging
issues. Overall, this activity improved pro-
Boiler C
Boiler B
20% MCR
B
o
i
l
e
r

l
o
a
d
,

%
0
10
20
30
0 100 200 300 400
Time
Auxiliary boiler load versus time in the case of one GOSP
train emergency trip.
FIG. 9
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43
cess quality and plant knowledge. Due to the early identification
of potential challenges, a smoother startup with a shorter schedule
is expected.
It is strongly recommended to use and continually improve
the dynamic model after plant commissioning based on the real
plant performance and feed compositions. Data should be col-
lected using a management information system after the plant
has been stabilized. Several operating conditions should be used
after a careful validation and reconciliation. It is also suggested
to use the dynamic models for a what if analysis during plant
control optimization, and also for developing an operator training
simulator. However, it is important to review and verify the sim-
plifications and assumptions considered and
ensure that the model is suitable for these
other purposes. For example, in an operator
training simulator, modeling the chemical
injection area or spare equipment is required,
and clear graphics and user-friendly methods
to change boundary conditions are expected.
On the other hand, these are not needed for
an engineering study. HP
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
Revised and updated from an earlier presentation
at the Middle East Petrotech Conference, May 2529,
2008.
LITERATURE CITED

1
Psarrou, S., Bessiris, Y., Phillips, I. and Harismiadis,
V. I., Dynamic simulation useful for reviewing
plant control, design, Oil & Gas Journal, August
13, 2007, volume 105, issue 30.
Abdullah Al-Dossary is a process engineer at
Saudi Aramco. He has more than 10 years of experience
in the oil & gas industry with particular emphasis in gas
oil separation and crude processing. Mr. Al-Dossary holds
a BS degree in chemical engineering.
Mazen Al-Juaid is a process engineer at Saudi
Aramco. He holds a BS degree in chemical engineering
and has six years of experience in engineering and devel-
opment of industrial utilities plants at Saudi Aramco.
Cristian Brusamolino is a tech-
nology manager at Snamprogetti Oil &
Gas Treatment Department, Milan, Italy.
He has more than 11 years experience
in oil & gas industry process activities,
with particular emphasis in gas oil separation plants. Mr.
Brusamolino received his doctorate degree in chemical
engineering from Politecnico of Milan (Italy) in 1994.
Vasileios Mertzanis is a supervisor engineer at Hyperion Systems Engineering,
Athens, Greece. He has three years experience in the edible oils processing industry
and eight years experience in the oil & gas industry with particular emphasis on
dynamic model development using the most commercially known engineering plat-
forms and on operator training simulators project engineering. Mr. Mertzanis holds
an MSc in chemical engineering from the University of Patras, Greece.
Vassilis Harismiadis is a business development manager at
Hyperion Systems Engineering, Athens, Greece. He has nine years
experience in the oil & gas industry with particular emphasis on
using dynamic process modeling to improve plant effectiveness.
Dr. Harismiadis holds a PhD degree from NTU Athens in thermody-
namic modeling of complex systems.
Regina Meloni is a senior control
engineer specialist in Snamprogettis
Automation Department, Milan, Italy.
She has more than 20 years experi-
ence of oil & gas industry automation
and dynamic simulation with particular emphasis in the
area of operator training simulators. Dr. Meloni received
her doctorate degree in chemical engineering from
Politecnico of Milan (Italy) in 1983.
38th Turbomachinery
Symposium
September 14-17, 2009
George R. Brown Convention Center Houston, Texas
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I

45
Re-evaluate your expansion projects
for the new global market
Tighter economic conditions require refiners to reconsider benchmark
and optimization tools for revamps
B. FAIRLEIGH, KBC Advanced Technologies, Inc., Parsippany, New Jersey;
J. JACOBS and R. OHMES, KBC Advanced Technologies, Inc., Houston, Texas
H
eightened activity levels within the refining industry
were driven by high margins, facility expansions and unit
revamps, and increasingly more stringent environmental
regulations. Events from late 2008 and early 2009 signaled a new
phase for this industry. As the global economy slowed, refining
margins tightened and capital projects are being reexamined.
The changing political leadership in the US promises more
emphasis on curtailing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, which
will impact daily refinery operations and the final product mix
of petroleum-based transportation fuels. Current changes in the
financial markets make strategic planning even more problem-
atic. Now refiners must apply a disciplined, proven approach to
evaluate various options for profit improvement and environ-
mental compliance.
In the present dynamic market, refiners need a profit-enhance-
ment process that focuses on achieving sustained profitability for
both the short- and long-term. The major components of this
process include:
Benchmark and set baseline
Identify opportunities
Evaluate low-cost options
Evaluate capital project options
Implement the process
Ensure sustainment and continuous improvement.
Several key success criteria for utilizing this process, with par-
ticular attention directed to proper benchmarking, application of
tools, creating effective teams and incorporating market impacts
will be presented.
Changing market environment. Before examining the
profit-enhancement process, reviewing the current and future
state of the refining industry is appropriate. Over the last sev-
eral years, particularly 2008, the refining industry endured dra-
matic changes. Since 2000, the expanding global refined product
demand (especially from China and India) consumed the global
spare refining capacity. The industry shifted from an era of tight
margins in the 1980s and mid-1990s to what some would deem a
golden age of refining. Cracking spreads achieved record levels,
and refiners focused on maximum throughput and utilization.
For the first time in many years, refiners were examining expan-
sions of existing facilities and building new refineries to meet
anticipated demand.
However, the refining industry is possibly heading for a new
dramatic business cycle, which started in late 2008 and is very
reminiscent of the 1980s and 1990s, with some stark differences.
High prices for transportation fuels and a weakening global
economy have severely curtailed demand and demand growth
TABLE 1. Structural and market forces on the global
refining industrypast and present
Current and future:
Past: 1980s/1990s 2009 and beyond
Crude sources Largely light and medium Shifting to heavy/sour crudes,
conventional crudes including high TAN and
synthetic crudes
Global product Flat to slight growth Falling due to economic
demand slowdown but long-term
projection to increase ~1%
per year
2
Product demand mix Gasoline >> diesel Diesel >> gasoline
Markets Local Global, with large
movements between regions
Biofuels Limited usage Significant volumes due to
legislative requirements
Refining capacity Significant global Relatively tight but
and utilization overcapacity projected to increase with
expansions
Environmental Air and water All sectors, including GHG,
carbon emissions, etc.
Key specifications Low-sulfur diesel and Global adoption of ultra-low-
reformulated gasoline sulfur gasoline and diesel,
in some countries oxygenates in gasoline, high-
cetane diesel, biofuels, lower-
sulfur fuel oils
Capital projects Environmental and Environmental, expansion,
stay in business only alternate crude slates
Staff demographics Traditionalist giving way Baby Boomers giving way to
to Generation Xs, Generation Y, tight job
buyers job market market
Data, tools and Computers becoming part High powered computing
computing of normal job, relatively readily available, data
scarce data, LPs and overload, complex LPs and
simple models rigorous full refinery
simulations
46
in the US and Asia-Pacific. Many refiners are facing breakeven
margins and are scaling back production levels. Under these
conditions, production philosophies are changing from more,
more, more to optimize what you have. Capital investment
plans are frozen or being reexamined in light of record high
commodity prices, tight capital markets and growing alternative
fuel regulations.
Before refiners revert to the strategies and practices from 15
years ago to meet this latest philosophy, some important struc-
tural and markets changes, as summarized in Table 1, should be
considered. As refiners consider optimizing existing facilities or
examining expansion options, the profit enhancement process
should account for several issues:
Converting raw data to useable and actionable benchmarks is a
critical first step, particularly for the newest generation of engineers.
Creating effective teams with the proper skills and expertise
is essential.
Applying the right tools at the proper time helps to properly
analyze and account for changes in crude and product slate shifts.
With diesel margins projected to remain strong, examining
operational and capital investment opportunities could lead to
profitability in the present tight economic environment.
Properly evaluating capital projects is important under this
era of volatility for commodity pricing, engineering costs and
future margins.
Road map for success. Virtually all refiners accept the prem-
ise that their refinery needs goals of optimization and continuous
improvement for profitability sustainment. What may not be
agreed upon, particularly within an organization, is the process to
be used on achieving these goals. Fig. 1 summarizes a road map
that can be successfully used for many industrial facilities. The six
main steps that define the profit-enhancement process are:
Step 1. Benchmark and set baseline. The first step in any
journey is to understand the current situation. Defining the sta-
tus of the facility via benchmarking becomes necessary. Setting
a baseline operation provides a basis of comparison for future
operations. Test runs and/or unit monitoring spreadsheets are
part of the baselining effort. The baseline refinery operation can
be represented in models such as a refinery linear programming
(LP) model or a nonlinear simulation flowsheet.
Sustainment and
continuous
improvement
Prot enhancement
team, tools and
methodologies
Project
teams
Implement
Evaluate capital projects
Evaluate low-cost options
Identify opportunities
Benchmark and
set baseline
The road map for successful for plant projects involves six
steps.
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Step 2. Identify opportunities. The next step focuses on
identifying opportunities. Having a team with broad organiza-
tional and experience representation is the key to completing the
brainstorming activity and selecting opportunities with the most
promise for evaluation.
Step 3. Evaluate low-cost options. Once the baseline opera-
tion is agreed upon and potential opportunities are identified, the
next step is to evaluate low-cost (or no-cost) options. This step
is really part of an overall refinery optimization using existing
assets. Some items may be no-cost (i.e., cut-point changes, higher
or lower reactor severity, tower reflux optimization, etc.) or have
minimal cost (replace control valve, pipe jumper, etc.) Focus on
optimizing the existing facility before exam-
ining significant investment is necessary to
fairly evaluate capital projects.
Step 4. Evaluate capital projects. When
profit enhancement team members are con-
fident that they have defined a mechanism
to optimize their existing plant, the team can
focus on capital projects. In this stage, the
team considers strategic investment oppor-
tunities to meet market and environmental
needs while dovetailing with existing facil-
ity optimization efforts. The optimized base
facility serves as the proper basis for evalu-
ating projects, which could include unit
revamps and/or refinery reconfigurations.
Step 5. Implement. A fully developed
profit improvement plan does not pay off
until opportunities are implemented. An
implementation plan includes a priority list
of items and projects to complete and the
formation of project teams charged with
implementing these opportunities.
Step 6. Sustainment and continuous
improvement. As with any successful pro-
cess, a feedback loop is needed. For this
process, the sustainment and continuous
improvement step ensures that the organiza-
tion examines itself against accepted bench-
marks and baselines while looking for future
opportunities and accounting for market
changes. The key to this step is a tracking
program so that staff and management can
periodically review organizational progress.
Following this road map (Fig. 1) in the
correct order typically provides the best return
on the amount of time invested by the profit
enhancement team. The temptation is strong
for team members to jump directly to the
development of opportunities (i.e., Steps 3 or
4) before setting the baseline. Doing so can
be a mistake, since opportunities are rarely
accepted by management until they are com-
pared with a validated baseline operation.
The easier and less time-consuming path
to develop viable and believable opportuni-
ties is after the benchmarking and baseline
step (Step 1) has been achieved. Optimizing
existing assets before evaluating large strate-
gic projects ensures that the value from large
capital investments is truly justified. Such an endeavor can not be
done by a single person; it requires a team focused on optimiza-
tion and improvement.
Creating an effective team. At the heart of this process is
an effective multi-disciplinary team. Although most refineries are
adequately staffed for normal operations and troubleshooting, suf-
ficient resources are not available to develop and carry out major
profit improvement initiatives. For example, an effective strategy
for project work is to make a clear division of manpower between
the project team and the plant operations/maintenance team.
However, a profit enhancement team will still require input from
48

I

a wide variety of knowledgeable employees, not just those who
are selected for a particular project.
The profit enhancement team makeup is 1) a core group guid-
ing and executing the bulk of the activities and 2) support groups
providing subject matter experts. Being a member of such a team
would not need to be a full-time job, but would require meeting
periodically with the team leader or moderators to assist in mak-
ing improvements and reviewing results. The profit enhancement
team would also be empowered to call upon various expertise
within the refinery organization as needed.
A proven method is to set up a profit enhancement team that
is moderated by consultants and includes refinery employees
and possibly staff from licensor(s), catalyst vendor(s) and engi-
neering and construction firm personnel. The key is to strike
a balance between using internal resources with knowledge of
the facility and process and using external resources bringing
a broader view to inject new ideas and to challenge perceived
limits and constraints.
Fit-for-purpose tools and methodologies. Many tools
exist to aid in the identification and evaluation of optimization
opportunities. Applying the right tool for the proper time helps
to analyze and to account for changes in crude and product slate
shifts. Many refinery operators attempt to achieve optimization
with unit KPI tracking, crude selection with a refinery LP and
various cost-reduction programs. These activities are necessary
components, but optimization benefits from these methods alone
will be limited by the overall complexity of refinery operations
and system interactions, coupled with the constantly changing
economics and regulatory requirements.
Cost reductions, particularly during lean margin periods, are
popular with refiners since these changes are often more readily
measurable and visible. However, what about the impact on the
overall facility profitability? Consider these examples, which have
been witnessed in various refineries:
1) To conserve energy, steam was minimized at a fluid catalytic
cracking (FCC) feed injection point. A unit test run demonstrated
more valuable yields from the FCC were realized with a higher steam
injection rate. The enhanced profitability from the FCC more than
compensated for the extra costs in steam. Steam usage as a wt% of
feed may be a more effective measure than the steam injection rate
to approach the optimal range of unit yield and selectivity.
2) A naphtha splitter, which was operated by the crude unit
operations group, was operated at a low reflux ratio to improve vari-
able cost performance. However, the reduction in fractionation effi-
ciency resulting from this low reflux ratio affected the quality of the
heavy straight run (HSR) and light SR (LSR) cuts, which affected
the downstream units performancereformer and isomerization
units. An increase in the naphtha splitter reflux ultimately increased
the volumes of gasoline and benzene, which were the highest value
products. The additional benefit from the yield improvement was
much greater than the cost of the higher reflux ratio in the splitter.
1
3) In cash constrained environments, the temptation is to mini-
mize cost by limiting FCC catalyst additions and lowering equilib-
rium activity targets. The optimal microactivity testing (MAT) target
is dependent on many operating parameters, and lowering activity
targets can adversely impact yield selectivity and volume gain.
These examples illustrate the need for operators of a profit-
focused refinery to see the big picture and to consider value-
focused analysis methods over cost-focused measures. Even expe-
rienced operators and engineers may not always be able to see
the knock-on effects of changing various operating parameters.
When changing one variable affects dozens of others, how can a
refiner be certain that the most optimal move is being made?
Several resources are available to aid in this effort and these
include:
Unit test runs
Licensors/technology suppliers
Linear programming (LP) models
Unit and refinery simulators.
Unit test runs can be used to test operating conditions and
the effects on unit performance. Changes can be observed on the
facilitys own processing units. However, test runs may require a
significant amount of coordination and planning by engineering,
operations and laboratory analysis to be effective.
Licensors and suppliers can also help to understand the vari-
ables associated with optimal operation. The technology licensor
can estimate the impacts of new feeds or operating strategies
on unit performance. However, licensor recommendations are
often centered on specific technologies that they provide. Unfor-
tunately, these resources cannot be relied upon for continuous
support when optimizing the facility.
Refinery LPs are an excellent tool to understand the systemic
interactions within the refinery. An LP works to optimize the
refinery profitability within a set of feed, economic, operating
and product constraints. It also provides a robust platform to
analyze refinery operations with varying feedstocks, economics
and operating parameters depending on the structure and com-
plexity. The major downside of an LP is that the linear structure
limits the predictive capability for large step outs, as this model
relies on linearization of a nonlinear process. Also, proper main-
tenance of the LP is required to maximize its effectiveness. With
the right expertise, these gaps can be mitigated by the interactive
use of unit simulators.
TABLE 2. Projected world oil demand, 20002030
Million Growth, %/yr Share, %
2000 2005 2007 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030 200507 200710 201030 2005 2007 2010 2030
LPG 6.1 6.6 6.9 7.3 7.8 8.3 84. 8.2 2.5 1.9 0.6 8 8 8 8
Naphtha 4.2 4.9 5.2 5.2 6.0 6.9 7.8 8.6 2.8 0.1 2.6 6 6 6 8
Gasoline 19.5 21.2 21.8 21.9 23.1 24.1 25.1 26.6 1.5 0.1 1.0 25 25 25 25
Jet/kero 6.5 6.6 6.6 6.8 7.2 7.7 8.1 8.4 0.1 0.6 1.1 8 8 8 8
Gas/diesel oil 20.7 23.3 24.1 25.1 27.6 29.7 30.9 31.2 1.6 1.4 1.1 28 28 29 29
Fuel oil 10.4 10.0 9.7 9.4 9.2 9.0 8.8 8.8 1.4 1.1 0.3 12 11 11 8
Other products 9.4 11.0 11.5 11.9 12.9 13.7 14.4 15.0 2.1 1.2 1.1 13 13 14 14
TOTAL WORLD 76.7 83.7 85.9 87.6 93.9 99.5 103.6 106.8 1.3 0.7 1.0 100 100 100 100
Headquarters and Workshop
Zona Industriale
Localit Pannellia, 10
33039 - Sedegliano
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Viale Sarca 336
20126 Milano - Italy
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Via Enrico Fermi, 30
33058 San Giorgio di Nogaro
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Tel.+39.0432.918811
Fax +39.0432.918098
info@mangiarotti.it
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mangiarotti. looking ahead
mangiarotti at a glance
Fabrication experience since 1930
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50

I

Rigorous nonlinear unit simulator models allow the user to
capture the nonlinearity of most refinery process units. Tuned mod-
els can be used to perform step-out evaluations for various param-
eters, making them particularly useful for opportunity evaluations.
Flowsheet simulator. Another optimization tool is a full-
refinery flowsheet simulator, which typi-
cally links several unit simulator models
together. If the full-refinery simulator
can propagate crude assay properties
and accurately simulate the complex
reactions, separations and heat trans-
fer effects of each refinery unit, then
complex refinery interactions can be
modeled seamlessly and accurately. The
full-refinery flowsheet and the LP are
complementary tools. The full-refinery
flowsheet easily handles the second and
third order system interactions. An LP
can perform a similar function, but the structure has to antici-
pate the effects. As with LPs, rigorous simulators require periodic
maintenance and substantial prep work for the set up.
Case study: Diesel maximization. Margins for diesel pro-
duction remain strong, even in the current weakening economy.
Table 2 shows the projected world oil product demand through
2030.
2
Over the next several years, gasoline demand growth will
be flat, while distillates remains strong, particularly through 2010.
In addition to long-term projections, gasoline vs. diesel selectivity
varies seasonally, as illustrated in Fig. 2. Interestingly, the market
is showing a greater preference for distillates over gasoline. While
others have examined the implications of choosing gasoline or
diesel, the choice to increase diesel production is examined here to
demonstrate the tools and methodologies discussed previously.
3
First, there are many potential opportunities to consider when
maximizing diesel production such as:
Are diesel component cutpoints at the right values?
Are tray internals operating properly in crude distillation
unit (CDU)/vacuum distillation unit (VDU), coke, and FCC?
Is diesel recovery being maximized out of gasoils?
Do the diesel hydrotreaters have the capacity to handle
additional material?
Are the diesel range streams recoverable into the diesel pool?
What is the key limitation in the distillate pool?
As indicated, investigating options for maximizing diesel is a
complex issue. Several options are available. Unit test runs can be
completed, but tracking all the changes across the entire facility is
difficult, as is ensuring that production needs and specifications
can be met when the changes are made. Using individual unit sim-
ulators is another approach. Although
the model will provide information on
how a single unit will respond, captur-
ing all the affects through the facility is
difficult, making this option margin-
ally better than test runs for significant
changes.
LPs and rigorous nonlinear simula-
tions are the more likely candidates. The
LP can capture the effects through the
entire facility. However, it will likely not
capture many of the operational, equip-
ment performance and catalyst effects
necessary to fully understand and evaluate the opportunities.
Maximizing diesel production is a classic application for a rigorous
nonlinear simulation.
Under these uncertain times, refiners need profit enhancement
teams for evaluating short- and long-term options for profitable
operations and regulatory compliance in a timely manner. Such
a team should be made up of key refinery personnel and external
resources with a full array of expertise and tools at their disposal to
carry out effective evaluations after benchmarking and baselining
is completed. Usually, an effective platform, such as an LP and/or
a full refinery flowsheet simulator, is a key component for evaluat-
ing various options. Finally, all such profit enhancement efforts
must be examined within the confines of existing and expected
regulations imposed by government agencies for refinery opera-
tions and petroleum products. HP
LITERATURE CITED

1
Calverley, S., Refocusing on refinery profit, Driving Competitive Advantage,
Q2 2004.

2
Ohmes, R. and S. Sayles, Analyzing and addressing the clean fuels and
expansion challenge, NPRA Annual Meeting, March 2007.

3
KBC Market Services, World Long Term Oil & Energy Outlook, November
2008.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Bodewes, H., The economics of residue processingthe Asia-Pacific context, Hydrocarbon
Asia, Jan/Feb 2006.
Haugseth, P. and G. Chukman, Process profits with simulation, Hydrocarbon Engineering,
February 2005, pp. 5760.
Jacobs, J., R. Ohmes and S. Sayles, Gasoline or diesel, NPRA Annual Meeting, March
2008, AM-08-59.
Lee, R., E. Leunenberger and R. Powell, Optimizing the cat feed hydrotreater/FCCU com-
plex with detailed simulation tools, World Refining, July/August 2001.
LiveSmart BC Webpage, President Obama Addresses Governors Global Climate Summit,
http://www.livesmartbc.ca/government/global_summit.
Polanco, D., Monitoring and reducing a refinerys carbon footprint, NPRA Annual Meet-
ing, March 2008, AM-08-41.
Westphalen, D. and H. Shethna, Refinery wide simulation, Hydrocarbon Engineering,
March 2004.
Joseph Jacobs is a senior staff consultant with KBC Advanced Technologies, Inc.
Bill Fairleigh is a senior consultant with KBC Advanced Technologies, Inc. Parsip-
pany, New Jersey. His primary responsibilities include flowsheeting and opportunity
implementation for refinery clients worldwide. Prior to joining KBC, he worked as
a revamp engineer for Koch Refining Co. in Corpus Christi, Texas, and as a refinery
process engineer for Shell Oil in Houston, Texas, and Los Angeles, California.
In todays dynamic market,
refiners need a profit
enhancement process focusing
on achieving sustained
profitability in a holistic fashion
for the short- and long-term.
Robert Ohmes is an operations manager with KBC Advanced Technologies, Inc.
1.40
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1.65
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1.75
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Average
2008
Seasonal demand for gasoline and distillate ratio: 2002
2007.
FIG. 2
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9

I

53
Rethink your liquid-liquid separations
A fresh look investigates general principles in designing process coalescers
R. CUSACK, Koch-Glitsch, LP, Wichita, Kansas
E
fficient liquid-liquid separations are an integral part of
many industrial processes. Water entrained in oil and other
hydrocarbon products can impede quality specifications.
Entrained oil in process water streams puts additional demands
on effluent treatment systems.
Under the present economic environment, processing production
demands push plants and existing equipment beyond the original
design capacity. Equipment that formerly made clean-phase sepa-
rations can no longer do so. And for new plants, strong economic
incentives push process designers to incorporate equipment with
smaller footprints to minimize weight, plot space and capital costs.
Several examples highlight typical issues encounter with liquid-
liquid separation operations and equipment applied in the hydro-
carbon processing industry (HPI). Some general principles on
design for liquid-liquid (and some vaporliquid-liquid) separators
will also be discussed
Plant operators have found that efficient liquid-liquid separa-
tions are critical to achieve optimum plant performance But, how
does one achieve this goal? What are the critical process param-
eters to be analyzed? What plant data need to be collected? What
equipment options are available? How do you choose between
these options? To begin the process of answering these questions,
we must ask the fundamental question:
HOW WAS THE LIQUID-LIQUID DISPERSION FORMED
IN THE FIRST PLACE?
Understanding how a droplet dispersion formed provides us
with an idea of the size droplets present in the dispersion AND
their relative volume. This information is crucial when creating
effective designs for liquid-liquid separation processes. The three
primary mechanisms for droplet creation are mechanical energy
input, phase condensation or cooling and chemical reaction.
Mechanical energy input. The type of droplet distribution
produced by mechanical means is very dependent on the intensity
and uniformity of shear forces present at the point of formation.
For example, a rotating impeller has the characteristics of high
shear at the tips of the impeller and low shear at the center of the
impeller. Result: It creates a wide range of droplet sizes while mix-
ing the fluids. By contrast, if the fluid mixing occurs in an inline
static mixer, the shear characteristics are uniform and produce a
very well-defined, narrow droplet distribution. However, if these
same liquids unintentionally mix via a centrifugal pump, the shear
characteristics are typically very high and very non-uniform. The
result is a very wide droplet distribution with a high percentage
of very small droplets (often referred to as fines) that are much
more difficult to separate.
Phase condensation or phase cooling. During phase
condensation, droplets form on heat exchanger tubes (such as an
overhead condenser on a distillation column) and then flow into
piping and onto a separator drum. The droplet size distribution is
large and easy to separate. By contrast, during bulk-phase cooling
(such as in a product storage tank), water comes out of a solution
and creates a dispersion that consists of much smaller droplets simi-
lar to a fog. Separating these droplets can be extremely difficult.
Chemical reaction. Similar to the situation of bulk-phase
cooling, chemical reaction creates a dispersion that has a very
small droplet size distribution that is difficult to separate.
Separation curves. Fig. 1 shows the range of droplet sizes
associated with each of the listed mechanisms. This chart (Fig.
1) only illustrates typical ranges; it does not tell us the relative
volume of the different size drops present in the dispersion.
An inlet volumetric frequency distribution curve (Fig. 2) presents
the second piece of information needed for effective design. It
shows the volume fraction of droplets in a dispersion as a func-
tion of droplet diameter. Three values of interest that provide the
characteristics of the curve include:
Maximum droplet size, d
max
Sauter mean droplet size, d
32
Mass mean droplet size , d
50
.
These three values determine the shape of the distribution
curve, which defines the degree of separation efficiency required to
meet a particular outlet specification. The shape and limits of the
inlet distribution curve are influenced not only by the mechanism
of droplet formation, but also by the physical properties of the
liquids and the characteristics of the system piping.
Static mixers
Mechanical
Condensation
Chemical reaction
Mechanical agitator
Centrifugal pump
Two phase ow
Heat exchanger from vapor
From saturated liquid
0.1 0.0 10
Droplet size,
100 1,000
Typical droplet size ranges for various mechanisms
(microns).
FIG. 1
54

I

For example, if a large volume percentage of dispersed phase
is present in a long run of piping between the points of mixing
and of separation, a significant amount of coalescence can take
place within the piping itself. Thus, the separation is easier. In this
instance, the distribution curve shifts to the right. In contrast,
if gas is present with the liquid in the pipeline and creates high
velocity, the liquids will continue to mix as they flow through
the pipe. This causes a more difficult separation, which shifts the
distribution curve to the left.
The next piece of information necessary to analyze is from
the efficiency curve of the separator (Fig. 3). This graph shows the
removal efficiency as a function of droplet size. Of particular inter-
est, the cutpoint droplet size, d
100
, represents the smallest droplet
that is removed at 100% efficiency. All droplets above this value
are completely removed, and droplets below this value are removed
with varying degrees of efficiency based on droplet diameter.
Changing the design of the vessel and/or internals can modify the
shape of the separation efficiency curve, i.e. , shift the curve to the
left or to the right as needed, to match separation requirements.
When the design meets the required process efficiency, then
the outlet droplet distribution curve (Fig. 4) is the final curve gener-
ated. This curve represents the volumetric distribution of droplets
remaining in the outlet stream when the coalescing and settling
processes are complete. Armed with the physical properties of the
liquids, the amount and size distribution of dispersion present and
characteristics of the system piping and components, the next step
is to create a design to separate liquids.
SEPARATING LIQUID-LIQUID DISPERSIONS
The primary methods for separating liquid-liquid disper-
sions are:
Gravity settling
Enhanced-gravity settling
Coalescing
Centrifugal force
Electrical charge.
Separation designs frequently use the first three methods due to
design simplicity, a wide range of applicability, and robust design.
The last two (centrifugal force and electrical charge) are special-
ized techniques that apply to limited applications, and several of
those applications are switching to one of the other methods for
the reasons noted above. We will focus only on the first three
gravity settling, enhanced gravity settling and coalescing.
Gravity settling. The simplest of all liquid-liquid separators
is the gravity settler (Fig. 5). The gravity settler works solely on
the principle of Stokes Law, which predicts the rate of rise or fall
of droplets of one fluid inside another in accordance with Eq. 1.
The two most important physical properties in the settling process
are illustrated by Eq. 1:
0.000
V
o
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u
m
e

f
r
a
c
t
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n

f
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d
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i
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,

v
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m
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f
r
a
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t
i
o
n

p
e
r

0.001
0 200
d
max
d
50
d
32
Droplet diameter,
Separator inlet distribution
Inlet distribution
400
0.002
0.003
0.004
0.005
0.006
0.007
Inlet droplet volumetric frequency distribution curve. FIG. 2
0
400 300 200 100 0
20
40
60
80
100
120
R
e
m
o
v
a
l

e
f
c
i
e
n
c
y
,

%
Droplet diameter,
Separator efciency
d
100
Coalescer separation efficiency curve. FIG. 3
0.00
V
o
l
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m
e

f
r
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c
t
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n

f
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d
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,

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r

0.01
0 20
d
50
d
32
Droplet diameter,
Coalescer outlet distribution
Outlet distribution
40
0.02
0.03
0.04
0.05
0.06
d
max
Outlet droplet distribution curve. FIG. 4

I

55
Stokes Law

V
s
=
g
H

L
( )
d
2
18
(1)
where:
V
s
= Settling velocity, cm/s
g = Gravitational constant, 980 cm/s
2
H
= Density of heavy liquids, g/cm
3
L
= Density of light liquid, g/cm
3
d = Droplet diameter, cm
= Continuous phase viscosity, poise = g/cm-s
The key parameters are:
Density difference between the phases
Viscosity of the continuous phase.
Increased density difference makes the separation easier;
increased viscosity of the continuous phase makes it more dif-
ficult. On the surface, the equation looks simple, straightforward,
and easy to apply. However, this simplicity is deceiving because
its formulation is based on some fundamental assumptions that
limit its applicability.
The Stokes Law settling equation assumes 1) the drops are
truly spherical and 2) they are moving freely in stagnant liquid.
Either of these assumptions is rarely the case (except possibly for
the situation where the fluids are in a stagnant storage tank and
subject only to gravity forces).
In more typical cases, the fluids flow horizontally in a ves-
sel at Reynolds numbers well into the turbulent regime. This
turbulence can deform the droplets from a spherical shape to
an irregular shape that increases drag forces and hinders the
settling rate. The turbulence can also create eddy currents that
carry droplets along with them in the wrong direction. As a
result, when sizing equipment using Eq. 1, it is necessary to apply
correction factors that will account for the turbulence effects.
Determining these correction factors is very difficult to do even
with todays powerful computational fluid dynamics software.
For all the listed reasons, enhanced-gravity settling becomes the
recommended settler type.
Enhanced gravity settling. As shown in Fig. 6, enhanced-
gravity settling minimizes the turbulence effects by dividing the
stream into a number of separate channels. Dividing the flow into
separate channels provides four primary benefits:
Decreases the effective diameter, thereby greatly reducing the
Reynolds number of the flowing fluid and producing a deep lami-
nar flow environment that enhances the gravity settling rate.
Isolates the fluid in separate channels, thereby putting lim-
its on how far droplets can wander and reducing the negative
impact of eddy currents.
Decreases the distance a droplet needs to rise or fall before
reaching an interface, thereby greatly lowering the settling time
requirement.
Provides multiple interfaces inside the equipment where drop-
lets can coalesce, thereby greatly increasing the coalescence process.
These benefits promote enhanced gravity settling and it is the
recommended design rather than an empty settler vessel working
on gravity alone. However, despite these improvements, there are
situations where the droplets are so small, the density difference
is so low or the continuous phase viscosity is so high that gravity
forces alone cannot make an effective separation. In these cases,
designs often add a coalescing step.
Coalescing. When gravity forces alone do not produce an
efficient separation, adding a coalescing step (Fig. 7) to the pro-
cess can improve separation efficiency. Coalescing designs insert
targets into the flow path of the fluids. The droplets impact the
targets and collect on the surfaces of the targets through surface
energy forces. Once captured, these individual droplets combine
(i.e., coalesce) to form larger droplets that are much easier to
settle downstream.
Eddy currents cause turblence
Light phase out
Heavy phase out
Force vectors
working on
drops
Feed
Typical arrangement of a gravity settler. FIG. 5
h
Outlet heavy
phase
Outlet
dispersion
Reduced settling height
enhances separation
Chamber produces laminar
ow and minimizes eddy currents
Force vectors
working on droplets
Droplets reach liquid
surface and coalesce
Inlet
dispersion
Separation action with enhanced-gravity settling. FIG. 6
Some droplets
are too small
to be captured
Droplets impact
on target
Target wires or bers
Inlet dispersion
Droplets coalesce
into larger droplets
Force vectors
working on droplets
Coalescing process using surface energy forces with media. FIG. 7
56
The efficiency of any particular coalescing medium can be
related to the dimensionless Stokes number (St) shown in Eq. 2.
Target collection efficiency increases as the value of the Stokes
number increases, i.e., the higher the value of the Stokes number,
the greater the target collection efficiency.
Stokes number

St =

D
v(d
)
2
18d
t
(2)
Where:
St = Stokes number ()
D
= Dispersed phase density, g/cm
3
v = Superficial velocity, cm/s
d
= Particle diameter, cm
= Viscosity of continuous phase, poise - g/cm-s
d
t
= Target diameter, cm.
Based on Eq. 2, separator designs can increase target efficiency
by increasing the velocity of the droplets, decreasing the continu-
ous phase viscosity and reducing the target diameter.
Increasing the velocity increases the momentum of the drop-
lets and causes more of the smaller diameter drops to impact the
targets rather than flowing around them in streamlines. However,
higher velocity at the same time increases the drag forces on the
coalesced droplets. These forces can prematurely pull the droplets
off the coalescing media; thus inhibiting the settling downstream
within the settling zone. Consequently, there is an upper limit to
this velocity. The goal is to find a balance between a velocity that
optimizes impact on the targets and does not interfere with the
settling of droplets in the downstream settling zone.
Decreasing the continuous phase viscosity reduces the drag
forces as the droplets either rise or fall inside the continuous phase.
The lower drag forces allow the droplets to rise or fall at higher
settling velocities, thus reducing settling time. The principle way
to reduce the continuous phase viscosity is to increase the operat-
ing temperature. But there is a limit, because increasing the tem-
perature also increases the mutual solubility of the phases, which
inhibits separation. Again, designers must find a balance between
the competing elements.
Decreasing the target diameter reduces turbulence around
the targets and allows more smaller droplets to be carried into
the targets by the flowing stream. In addition to size, the mate-
rial of construction of the targets also plays a role. Materials that
are preferentially wet by the dispersed phase make the best
targets. For example, to coalesce water out of oil, hydrophilic
(i.e., water-loving) materials, such as stainless steel or fiberglass,
are often used. To coalesce oil out of water, oleophilic (i.e., oil-
Feed inlet Light phase outlet
Heavy phase
outlet
Liquid-liquid
separation media
Turbulence
isolation plate
Gauge glass
IC
Inlet dispersion
Interface
control
Interface Slotted pipe
distributor
Typical arrangement for a two-phase horizontal settler. FIG. 8
Plate-pack or corrugated-plate separation media , which
are used for higher separation efficiency.
FIG. 9
It has long been said that oil and water
do not mix. But, actually they do. And
when water and oil do mix, it usually results
in major problems. For example, consider
a car engine. A little bit of oil or a little bit
of water in the wrong place can result in
tremendous damages to the engine.

I

57
loving) materials, such as fluoropolymers or polypropylene, are
often used. And frequently, coalescing elements are made from
a combination of both hydrophilic and oleophilic materials. The
combination of materials actually enhances the overall coalescing
efficiency above that of using either material alone. The reason
that efficiency improves is not fully understood.
Once the target efficiency is optimized, selecting the depth of the
coalescing element, as well as the number of targets per unit depth
(i.e., the target density), will improve the overall coalescer efficiency.
Because of the complex nature for the coalescing process, it is
impossible to effectively design separators from first principles alone.
Instead, the design must be practical based upon information gath-
ered from either pilot-plant tests or similar application experience.
TYPES OF LIQUID-LIQUID SEPARATORS
Five basic separator types are applied in the listed liquid-liquid
coalescing and settling internals:
Two-phase horizontal settler
Two-phase horizontal coalescer/settler
Three-phase horizontal coalescer/settler
Three-phase vertical separator
Two-phase vertical coalescer.
Which design is chosen depends both on the nature of the
feed, as well as on the degree of separation required.
Two-phase horizontal settler (liquid-liquid). A two-
phase horizontal settler (Fig. 8) typically has a large percentage
(5%10% or greater) of the dispersed phase present in its feed. The
most common location is downstream of the mixing or washing
steps in a process such as caustic or water washing. Because of the
large quantity of dispersed phase in the feed mixture, droplets can
easily find each other and coalesce. The droplet size distribution
tends to be large, with a Sauter mean droplet size in the range of 500
1,000 . Unless the density difference is very narrow between the
phases and/or the continuous phase viscosity is relatively high (i.e.,
greater than 5 cP10 cP), the separation is usually not too difficult.
In these drums, the settling media typically is either plate or
corrugated plate separator media internals (Fig. 9). These internals
work on the principle of enhanced gravity settling. Plate-pack
internals are the best choice when there is concern about fouling
or plugging of the media from solids or other materials in the feed.
If the feed stream is clean, then a corrugated-plate media is the
better choice; it provides higher separation efficiency per unit of
length at a lower cost.
For a new installation, a slotted-pipe distributor introduces the
feed to the drum and directs the inlet mixture at low velocity toward
the upstream head of the vessel. This prevents turbulence effects at
the inlet from affecting the rest of the drum. Installing a turbulence
isolation plate between the inlet and the first elements of media is
a recommended practice. The plate stops any turbulence created
at the inlet before it can be transferred downstream where it could
affect separation efficiency by sending waves down the drum.
Feed inlet Light phase outlet Primary settling
media
Primary
coalescing
media
Secondary polishing
coalescing/settling
media (optional)
Heavy phase
outlet
Turbulence
isolation plate
Gauge glass
Coalesced liquid
Interface
IC
Inlet
dispersion
Interface
control
Slotted pipe
distributor
Typical arrangement of a two-phase horizontal coalescer/
settler.
FIG. 10 Isometric view of two-phase horizontal coalescer/settler. FIG. 10A
Separating the impossibleoil and water. Entrained
oil is found in several processing streams in the HPI. Here are
some major areas that must handle entrain liquids:
Refinery fractionator overhead reflux drums frequently
become a bottleneck when the towers they service are fitted
with higher capacity internals. The higher throughput rates
in the modified tower increase phase separation demands on
the overhead drum. Poor liquid-liquid separation in the drum
creates high water levels in the reflux stream that can lead to
corrosion on the trays and increased energy consumption in
the tower.
Caustic and amine treaters are critical components in the
light-ends section of any refinery. If the plant increases capac-
ity, the treaters often experience increased solvent losses from
the top of the treating tower. Any hydrocarbon entrained with
the solvent from the bottom of the treating tower can cause
foaming in the downstream stripping tower and this results in
production losses.
Alkylation units in refineries have several steps where sul-
furic acid, caustic or water mix with hydrocarbon streams
and then are separated. It is critical that these separations are
as sharp and clean as practical to minimize acid and caustic
consumption as well as to minimize the potential for fouling/
corrosion in downstream equipment.
Wastewater treatment facilities are an integral part of any
HPI facility. Upsets in the main production plant can often
burden the water effluent treatment facilities with increased
hydrocarbon removal requirements before water discharge.
58

I

While passing through the media, the droplet dispersion grows
and settles. By the time it exits the media, it has coalesced into
rivulets or streams. After exiting the media, these streams quickly
rise and/or fall to the primary interface in the vessel.
The settling section of the drum is downstream of the media. In
this section, the final settling takes place and control of the primary
interface inside the drum occurs. Depending on process require-
ments, changing the position of the interface can optimize the
settling zone performance. Raising the drum interface increases the
residence time of the heavy phase. Conversely, lowering the drum
interface increases the residence time of the light phase. However, at
the same time, these changes also impact the distance the droplets
must rise or fall before reaching the interface and coalescing. The
position of the interface for optimum performance must strike a
balance between these two different effects. Determining the opti-
mum position is found through trial-and-error experimentation.
Two-phase horizontal coalescer/settler (liq.liq.).
The feed stream for a two-phase horizontal coalescer/settler (Fig.
10) usually contains a much smaller percentage (less than 5%) of
the dispersed phase. This is typically the case for streams coming
from an upstream primary separator, condensers or coolers in the
process, or streams going to/coming from storage facilities. The
droplet sizes are smaller than those for the previous case, usually
having a Sauter mean droplet size in the range of 100 300 .
Because of the lower volume of droplets present, they are
less likely to find each other by random motion and to coalesce.
Therefore, separator designs for this case require a combination
of both coalescing and settling media. As the flow passes through
the first stage of media, the wires and/or fibers act as targets where
the droplets collect and coalesce. As discussed earlier, adjusting
the wire and/or fiber diameter, density, depth and material of
construction controls the efficiency of the selected media.
Once the flow leaves the first-stage coalescing media, it typi-
cally enters a settling zone media where the coalesced droplets
settle and form rivulets, similar to the process described for the
two-phase settlers. The settling sections normally use corrugated-
plate separators type media. For applications requiring very strin-
gent outlet stream specifications (usually in the ppm range),
installing a final stage of high-efficiency polishing media (and
sometimes additional settling media) can effectively remove the
last traces of very fine droplets. If there is a second polishing
zone, then the process repeats with a first-stage coalescing media
and then a settling media zone. Because the droplets are much
smaller, the second zone uses a higher efficiency media.
As shown in Figs. 10 and 10a, similar to the situation with
the two-phase settler, a slotted pipe distributor introduces the
feed, and a turbulence isolation plate sits just upstream of the
first coalescing media. The drum often uses a boot (or hat)
to collect the small volume of dispersed phase and to serve as the
liquid-liquid interface controller.
Three-phase horizontal coalescer/settler. In the HPI,
the three-phase horizontal coalescer/settler (Figs. 11 and 11a)
Isometric view of a three-phase horizontal coalescer/
settler.
FIG. 11A
LC
IC
Mixed phase inlet
Vane inlet
devise
Drain line
Level
control
Mist eliminator
Interface
Interface
control
Heavy
liquid
outlet
Light
liquid
outlet
Settling
media
Coalescing
media
(optional)
Turbulence
isolation
plate
Vapor outlet
Gauge glass
Typical arrangement of a three-phase horizontal coalescer/
settler.
FIG. 11
IC
LC
Vapor outlet
Heavy phase
outlet
Gauge glass
Gauge glass
Vent pipe
Vane inlet device
Mist eliminator
Liquid-liquid
separation media
Mixed phase
Inlet
Light phase
outlet
Interface
control
Level
control
Three-phase vertical separator. FIG. 12

I

59
is a common separator type applied in the
overhead systems of distillation columns or
as an upstream separator associated with oil
and gas production. As the name implies,
this vessel separates three phases: gas, light-
phase liquid and heavy-phase liquid (usu-
ally water).
The volume of the dispersed phase pres-
ent in the feed can widely vary. Droplet
size distribution can also have a wide range
because the feed-line flow is three phase
and is flowing at a higher velocity due to
the presence of the gas. High velocity causes
turbulence in the inlet line that can cre-
ate very small droplets, particularly if the
vapor-liquid surface tension and the liquid-
liquid interfacial tension are low. Therefore,
proper design of the feed inlet device, gas-
liquid separation media and liquid-liquid
separation media are all critical. For the
feed inlet, designs often use a vane inlet
device that gradually reduces the momen-
tum of the incoming stream to minimize
turbulence and droplet formation. Such
devices can also acts as the first-stage gas-
liquid separation.
When space or mechanical issues prevent
installing an inlet device, the next alterna-
tive is to direct the mixed flow toward the
upstream head of the vessel. Because the
entrance of the feed stream creates a large
degree of turbulence, installing single- or
double-turbulence isolation plates between
the inlet and separation sides of the drum
should reduce the effects of inlet turbu-
lence on the downstream gas-liquid and
liquid-liquid media. On some high-pressure
applications, particularly those related to upstream oil and gas
processing (may contain some solids), designs sometimes use a
cyclone-type separator as the inlet device.
For the gas-liquid separation in the top of the vessel, a vane-type
mist eliminator is usually the best solution. The vane mist elimina-
tor is installed vertically in a housing within the vapor segment of
the drum with a drain that extends down into the liquid for sealing
purposes. In revamp situations where it is not possible to install the
housing, the vane itself extends down into the liquid for sealing. In
clean services, installing a section of wire mesh preceding the vane
provides an agglomerator stage that grows the droplets for easier
removal by the vane, thus maximizing separation efficiency.
For the liquid-liquid separation in the bottom of the drum,
the first stage is typically some type of enhanced-gravity separa-
tion media such as the plate-pack and corrugated-plate separators
described earlier. If fouling is a concern, then the plate-pack media
is the best choice. If the system is clean, then corrugated-plate sepa-
rators media is the standard for the reasons given earlier.
Solids in the feed can present a very high potential for fouling,
which is often the case with separators in upstream oil and gas pro-
duction. In these cases, a segment on the bottom of the media is left
open so that the solids can either pass through with the heavy phase
or accumulate and be removed via flushing/drain nozzles. If very
high separation is required, adding a second polishing stage pro-
vides the ability to remove the last remnants
of entrainment. Again, leaving a bottom seg-
ment open reduces plugging concerns.
Downstream of the media in the set-
tling end of the drum, an overflow baffle
typically sets the liquid level of the light
phase in the body of the vessel. A sepa-
rate level control instrument regulates the
light-phase liquid level on the downstream
side of the baffle. If a large amount of dis-
persed phase is in the feed, then control
of the interface is in the main body of the
vessel on the upstream side of the overflow
baffle (Fig. 11). If the amount of dispersed
phase is small, then typically adding a
boot to the vessel provides the means to
collect the coalesced material and control
the liquid-liquid interface level.
Three-phase vertical separator.
Most vertical separators usually handle
only two phasesliquid and gas. However,
if the liquid being separated forms two
phases, incorporating a liquid-liquid sepa-
ration section in the bottom of the vessel
is a common practice. Common applica-
tions for these separators include pressure-
letdown drums in refinery hydroprocessing
units and the bottom of quench towers in
ethylene plants. Figs. 12 and 12a show a
typical arrangement for the three-phase
vertical separator.
As was the case for the three-phase
horizontal settler, introducing the feed to
the vessel is extremely important because
impingement at high velocity on flat sur-
faces can create fine droplets that are diffi-
cult to separate. Also, high vapor velocity across the liquid surface
can re-entrain liquid up from the bottom of the drum.
Using a vane-inlet device will gradually reduce the inlet
momentum and evenly distribute the gas phase across the vessel
diameter. In the gas-liquid portion of the vessel, a wire-mesh mist
eliminator provides high separation efficiency. In fouling and/or
high liquid load situations where a wire-mesh mist eliminator
IC GG IC GG
Light phase outlet
Heavy phase outlet
Gauge
glass
Gauge
glass
Rising
drops
Interface
Interface
Interface
control
Falling coalesced
heavy phase
droplets
Rising coalesced
light phase
droplets
Falling drops
Coalescing
media
Coalescing
media
Typical arrangement of a two-phase vertical coalescer. FIG. 13
Isometric view of three phase
vertical separator.
FIG. 12A
60

I

cannot be used, designs often use a vane-type mist eliminator.
Sometimes a combination of vane and mesh is an option when the
exiting gas stream requires very small amounts of entrainment.
In the liquid-liquid separation section in the bottom of the
drum, either plate-pack internals (when there is a concern about
solids or fouling), or corrugated-plate separators type internals
provide efficient separation of the two liquid phases.
A level-control instrument maintains the gas-liquid interface
in the main portion of the vessel. An interface control instrument
located on the downstream side of the separation media maintains
the liquid-liquid interface in the bottom of the vessel. The heavy-
liquid phase is withdrawn from the bottom of the vessel under the
interface control. The light-liquid phase leaves the drum via an
overflow nozzle. A vent line allows any entrained gas to rise to the
top of the vessel.
Two-phase vertical coalescer. The two-phase vertical
coalescer (Fig. 13) is typically found in either the top or bottom
of liquid-liquid contacting towers such as liquefied petroleum
gas (LPG) amine treaters. These coalescers remove the very small
amounts of entrainment coming from the interface and return
them to the interface to minimize either the loss of valuable solvent
or to prevent problems such as corrosion or off-spec product.
Media design for two-phase vertical coalescers is different
from the horizontal design due to the flow direction for the
coalesced droplets relative to the main process flow. In all the
horizontal coalescers and settlers, the coalesced droplets rise or
fall at an approximate 90 angle to the main flow. In a vertical
coalescer, the coalesced droplets must flow at a 180 angle from
the main flow, i.e., they need to flow countercurrent to the main
flow direction or essentially swim upstream. Under these con-
ditions, the droplets must grow to a larger size before breaking
away from the media so that they can rise (or fall) against the
drag force imposed by the continuous phase flow.
The droplet sizes to be removed in these applications are very
small, with Sauter mean droplet sizes less than 100 . These criti-
cal applications require specially designed media. These elements
have several zones and utilize a combination of knitted wire and
fiber to achieve high efficiency and high capacity. Fig. 13 shows
several options, based on the continuous and dispersed phases, for
locating these coalescers in the tower relative to the location of the
tower primary interface.
Overview. Efficient liquid-liquid separations is an integral part
of many HPI processes. The complex nature of both the creation
and separation of liquid-liquid mixtures makes equipment design
nearly impossible from first principles alone. Therefore, when
addressing these processing problems, experience with similar
applications or laboratory or pilot-plant data is needed. HP
Roger Cusack holds BS and MS degrees in chemical engineering from Manhattan
College, New York. After graduation, Mr. Cusack worked for Exxon Research and
Engineering Co., in the area of process design for both refineries and petrochemical
plants. He subsequently worked for Chem-Pro Corp., the Otto York Co. and Glitsch
Technology Corp., where he specialized in the areas of modular plant design and
liquid-liquid extraction. Mr. Cusack is co-author of the liquid-liquid extraction chapter
of Perrys Handbook, Seventh Edition. At Koch-Glitsch, Mr. Cusack specializes in the
areas of gas-liquid and liquid-liquid separation technology.

I

61
IT/automation convergence revisited
Keeping automation close-coupled to operation is key
A. G. KERN, Tesoro Corp., Los Angeles, California
I
n August 2008, two leading process control journals ran cover sto-
ries regarding the shared challenges facing information technol-
ogy (IT) and automation, and of their coming convergence.
1,2

As lead automation engineer at a major oil refinery, this caught me
off guard because convergence wasnt even on my radar.
After reading the articles more closely, the ideas behind conver-
gence became more clear, and it is indeed a topic of high concern,
though in a different light from the August articles. This article argues
that what goes on between IT and automation is largely beside the
point, while keeping automation close-coupled to operation is key.
Mind the gap (or Im with Cliff!). The core challenge
to any automation success, whether deployed in the automation or
the IT domains, is to understand the opportunity being targeted
from an operations point of view. If the end result is not a clear
improvement in some aspect of plant operation, then no success
has been achieved. Thus, the key area of interest is not between IT
and automation, but between automation and operation.
Its a mistake to assume that automation difficulties originate
in poor IT/automation teamwork, or that capturing automation
opportunities depends on extraordinary teamwork between these
two. These groups naturally work well together. Both tend to be
technically strong and well-focused on computer skills. The root
source of most automation shortfalls is that both groups tend to be
technically weak and poorly focused regarding plant operations.
In projects, IT often expects automation to serve as operation
representative, but realistically, automation groups today are rarely
able to fulfill this role effectively. Perhaps this is why problems
seem to arise between IT and automation, while actually most
gaps originate between automation and operation.
The best strategy to deal with the situation is to shore up
operations knowledge of automation personnel. Many companies
today retain the goal of pulling automation engineers from the
ranks of successful operation engineers, but several factors have
widely defeated this strategy. In particular, automation technology
has greatly expanded and specialized, making it all the more dif-
ficult for individuals to bridge both roles. Moreover, modern focus
on software means that many of todays automation specialists
are actually software engineers, not chemical engineers, and most
have never worked directly in an operations environment.
To grok with operations personnelwith their workmans
motif, process lingo, knack for cooperation and constantly shifting
prioritiesis bridge building to be proud of, but few automation
or IT personnel ever loiter here for long. The few individuals that
do successfully bridge this gap can indeed play make-or-break roles
in a companys automation program. Unfortunately, most plants
today have to persevere without the luxury of such people.
Of the many industry experts cited in the August articles, only
Cliff Pedersen, a 39-year veteran of process control and oil refining,
mentions the operation gap, rather than the IT/automation gap, as
the key limitation. Convergence could work for some, he says, if you
have an IT head who is knowledgeable about the manufacturing
process, but most IT heads are computer smart, not plant smart.
Updated IT/automation paradigm. Fig. 1 is the tradi-
tional IT/automation paradigm, with problems presumed to arise
from the undefined area of overlap. Indeed, many things are left
undefined in this model, which is perhaps why it has historically
led to finger-pointing rather than cooperation.
Fig. 2, on the other hand, introduces a number of important
distinctions and brings a number of benefits:
Identifies the important and appropriate lines of com-
munication
Provides a basis for proper design, selection and deployment
of decision-support and automation applications
Maximizes productivity of specialized manpower in each area
Preserves integrity of the IT and (especially) automation
domains.
Decision support systems (DSSs) are applications (properly)
deployed in the IT domain that utilize information passed from the
automation domain. Examples include data historians, data recon-
ciliation, performance dashboards and (the business side of ) alarm
management, among many others. The primary users are process
engineers, foremen, planners and managers (usually not operators).
The time scale of DSS applications is daily or weekly, so although
these applications draw on control system information, they are not
real time, dont do control and dont really belong in the automation
domain. These applications are best supported by IT personnel,
similar to other business-level applications. For most purposes, the
IT/DSS group can interface directly with operations for design,
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t.BOZ%44BOEBVUPNBUJPOBQQMJDBUJPOTJNQSPQFSMZEFTJHOFEEFQMPZFE
t*OFGmDJFOUNBOQPXFSVUJMJ[BUJPO
Firewall
Corporate
IT domain
Automation
Traditional IT/automation paradigm. FIG. 1
62
deployment and support of such applications. Overlap between DSS
and automation is primarily for setup of automated data transfer.
Process data historians have often followed this model, but the
blossoming DSS field overall has ignored it, resulting in applica-
tions that often spill recklessly across domains, leading to chronic
problems such as compromised integrity of the respective IT and
automation domains, corruption of console operators scope of
responsibility and work processes and stretching of valuable spe-
cialist manpower into each others areas of expertise.
DSS and automation specialists both have operations interests
in common, but DSS specialists are computer engineers who put
their operations knowledge to work in the IT domain, while suc-
cessful automation specialists are usually chemical engineers who
put their operations knowledge to work in the process automation
domain. Making one from the other does not alleviate the man-
power shortage that exists in both areas (especially in automation).
Making a DSS engineer from a successful automation engineer,
a common enough mistake, is a net loss. And making automa-
tion engineers from computer engineers also has not panned
outcomputer engineers rarely learn to temper software results
with the realistic process perspective necessary to make process
automation work.
Reconcile Fig. 2 with your business. Achieving greater DSS
and automation effectiveness remains a crucial challenge, but con-
verging IT and automation is not really indicated. The salient gap is
in knowledge, not organization, and lays with DSS and automation
already on the same side, but operations on the other. Todays DSS
and automation specialists are usually software oriented rather than
operations oriented, with an idealized idea of operations born of the
software that frequently forms a bigger part of their training and
experience than actual operations. On the operations side of the gap
is the complex reality of the operations environment. Reconciling
Fig. 2 with your business, rather than convergence, can help bridge
this gap to more skillfully and effectively capture the expected ben-
efits of your automation and DSS programs. HP
LITERATURE CITED

1
Policastro, E. F., Plays well with others, Intech, August 2008.

2
Katzel, J., Automation, IT find teamwork pays, Control Engineering, August
2008.
Allan Kern has 30 years of international process control experi-
ence and is currently working as a lead control systems engineer at
Tesoro Corporations refinery in Los Angeles, California, USA. Mr.
Kern is a licensed professional engineer, an ISA Senior Member and
a 1981 graduate of the University of Wyoming.
Lines of communication
t"QQSPQSJBUFCPVOEBSJFTBOEMJOFTPGDPNNVOJDBUJPO
t"QQMJDBUJPOTEFQMPZFEJOBQQSPQSJBUFEPNBJO
t&GmDJFOUNBOQPXFSVUJMJ[BUJPO
Firewall
Corporate
IT domain
Decision
support
Automation (or
process control)
Plant
operations
Updated model provides many benefits. FIG. 2
Creativity is the art we apply
to achieve superior design
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SINCE 1921...
AND WE
STILL LOVE IT
Costacurta S.p.A.-VICO
via Grazioli, 30
20161 Milano, Italy
tel. +39 02.66.20.20.66
fax: +39 02.66.20.20.99
Management systems
certified by LRQA:
ISO 9001:2000
ISO 14001:2004
OHSAS 18001:1999
www.costacurta.it

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For more than eighty years, we at Costacurta have
been constantly and resolutely committed to the
development and manufacture of special steel wire and
plate components used in many different industrial
processes. Every day at Costacurta, we work to
improve the quality of our products and services and the
safety of all our collaborators, paying ever-greater
attention to the protection of the environment. Within
the wide range of Costacurta products you will also find
some, described below, that are used specifically in the
oil, petrochemical and chemical industries:
- RADIAL FLOW AND DOWN FLOW REACTOR INTERNALS;
- GAS-LIQUID AND LIQUID-LIQUID SEPARATORS;
- ARMOURING OF REFRACTORY, ANTI-ABRASIVE AND
ANTI-CORROSIVE LININGS .
For more information visit our website or contact the
division 'C' components for the oil, petrochemical
and chemical industries at tcrc@costacurta.it.
Armouring of refractory,
anti-abrasive and anti-corrosive linings

I

65
Maximize ethylene gain
in acetylene removal units
New-generation catalysts and proper operating strategies offer
improved selectivity and cycle length
M. A. URBANCIC, M. SUN and S. BLANKENSHIP, Sd-Chemie Inc., Louisville, Kentucky;
D. B. COOPER, Sd-Chemie Inc., Houston, Texas
A
troublesome byproduct from ethylene production is
acetylene. It is a severe poison to downstream polym-
erization catalysts. Acetylene cannot be separated from
ethylene by conventional distillation. Most acetylene converter
units are tail-end hydrogenation units. Catalyst deactivation and
nonselective hydrogenation with resulting ethylene loss are the
most common operational problems associated with tail-end
operations. Although proper operating strategies can minimize
these problems, catalyst selection is the most important factor
affecting unit performance. A new generation of selective hydro-
genation catalysts can achieve significant gains in overall acetylene
converter performance.
Ethylene overview. The annual global ethylene demand
exceeds 100 million metric tons. As the leading commodity pet-
rochemical produced, ethylene is referred to as the backbone of
the petrochemical industry. The largest
single use of ethylene is for polyethylene
(PE) production.
A key process for ethylene purifica-
tion is acetylene removal. This is nor-
mally accomplished with a selective
hydrogenation catalyst. The tail-end
selective hydrogenation process was first
introduced in the early 1960s. Today,
this process still accounts for over 60% of all acetylene removal
units worldwide.
Profitable operation of a tail-end acetylene removal unit can be
challenging. The most common operational problems with tail-
end units are 1) nonselective hydrogenation with resulting ethylene
loss and 2) catalyst deactivation. The proper choice of operating
strategy can help minimize these problems; however, the most
important factor affecting tail-end unit operations is catalyst.
Continued catalyst improvements over the years have allowed
plant personnel to make a remarkable shift in operating target
from low ethylene loss to high ethylene gain.
2,3
To achieve maxi-
mum ethylene gain, it is critical to use the right catalyst for the
right feedstock. Recent successful commercial operation of the
latest generation tail-end catalyst has demonstrated that a further
increase of 20% (abs) in average ethylene selectivity or a doubling
of the catalyst cycle length can be achieved.
Ethylene production and purification. Steam cracking
hydrocarbons is, by far, the most predominant method to produce
ethylene. In this process, the feedstock is mixed with steam and
raised to temperatures of 750C950C for less than one second.
Due to the high temperature, large molecules are broken down
into smaller ones, and saturated hydrocarbons become unsatu-
rated. Result: A complex mixture of hydrocarbons is cooled,
condensed and separated by downstream distillation.
One of the more troublesome byproducts of ethylene production is
acetylene. It is problematic because it is a severe poison to the down-
stream polymerization catalysts used to produce polyethylene.
But acetylene cannot be separated from ethylene by conventional
distillation. Depending on the feedstock and cracking severity,
acetylene yield can be as high as 2.5 tons for every 100 tons of
ethylene produced. Yet, the maximum specification for acetylene
in purified ethylene can be as low as 1 ppm.
The most common process to remove
acetylene from ethylene is by the use of a
selective hydrogenation catalyst. While a
variety of different selective hydrogena-
tion process configurations is available,
the one that is still most commonly used
is the so-called tail-end process. In this
process, the acetylene converter contain-
ing the selective hydrogenation catalyst
is located at the overhead of the deethanizer, after all of the
hydrogen has been removed (see Fig. 1)thus the term tail-end
or back-end configuration.
Since all of the hydrogen from the cracked gas is removed
upstream, some hydrogen must be added back at the tail-end unit
to hydrogenate the acetylene. But the hydrogen/acetylene ratio
must be carefully controlled to keep acetylene conversion and
ethylene selectivity in proper balance. Less selective catalysts may
also require that carbon monoxide (CO) be injected at this point.
Since CO is highly toxic, this can be a major safety concern.
Nonselective operation. Selectivity is simply the measure-
ment of ethylene gain across the converter. It is expressed as the
portion of acetylene that is converted to ethylene:
Ethylene selectivity =
moles ethylene produced
moles acetylene converted
Choice of catalyst is the
most important factor
affecting tail-end operations.
66
When catalyst operates with low selectivity, ethylene losses occur,
and profit is reduced. Often selectivity can be improved by making
simple changes in operating conditions, such as reducing excess
hydrogen feed to the reactor, reducing temperature or tempering the
reaction with CO. However, if the catalyst has been operating in a
high-hydrogen or high-temperature environ-
ment for an extended period, a change in the
catalyst can occur. At that point, it is seldom
possible to return to normal conditions. The
overall selectivity will be decreased for the
remaining cycle. If the catalyst is inherently
too active for the application, ethylene losses
will remain high despite attempts to optimize
operating conditions.
Occasionally, a reactor may operate with
such low selectivity (from zero ethylene gain
to even a net loss) that the acetylene in the
feed cannot be reduced to levels below target.
Under these operating conditions, the reaction
of acetylene to ethylene is no longer substan-
tially preferred and may be mass transfer lim-
ited. All hydrogen is consumed in the unde-
sirable ethylene-hydrogenation reaction, and
acetylene is present in the ethylene product.
The symptoms of this nonselective opera-
tion include little to no hydrogen exiting the
bed, excessive reaction occurring in the top
portion of the bed, and acetylene slip from
the reactor exceeding 2 ppm. The latter pre-
vents operators from feeding ethylene into a pipeline and may
require flaring the product. If the only disposition for off-spec prod-
uct is flaring, one off-spec incident that contaminates downstream
equipment with acetylene can result in a loss of several hundred
thousand dollars in profit, not including environmental fines.
Cold box
Quench/
fractionate
HC feed
Cracking
furnace
C
4
recycle
C
5
plus
Compression
Acid gas
H
2
S/CO
2
Dryers
Compression
H
2
Methanator
LP CH
4
H
2
O
Deethanizer
C
2
fractionator
C
2
recycle
Depropanizer
C
3
=
C
2
=
Debutanizer
Heavy gas + fuel oil
Demethanizer
CH
4
(off-gas)
Tail-end
acetylene
converter
MAPD
converter
C
4
hydro.
Flow scheme for a steam cracker showing location of tail-end acetylene removal unit
in the downstream effluent separation section.
FIG. 1
Deliquescent Drying Technology
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I

Optimizing operating conditions early in the cycle and making
small changes in conditions over time are paramount to maintaining
good selectivity over the operating cycle and avoiding acetylene slip
due to highly negative selectivity. However, the most important con-
tributing factor to both good selectivity and achieving full acetylene
conversion is choosing the correct catalyst for each application.
Right catalyst for right application. Not all tail-end acety-
lene conversion catalysts are created equal; thus, choosing the cor-
rect catalyst for each application is vital to a successful operation.
Factors to consider when choosing a catalyst include plant feed
slate, reactor feed contaminants, reactor feedrate and future project
implementation.
If the cracker process is mainly ethane/propane and the feed
stream is relatively clean, a low-activity catalyst can be recom-
mended. If the cracker processes naphtha, liquid feeds with poten-
tial metals contamination or olefinic streams from other sources
(e.g., a nearby refinery) that contain low levels of contaminants,
a more moderate activity catalyst is recommended. High-activity
catalysts are generally only recommended when the reactor is
required to operate at very high space velocities (such as in iso-
thermal reactors) or in a high poison environment (including high
CO that may enter with the hydrogen stream).
The main benefit of a moderate activity catalyst is flexibility.
When the operating facility is running at full rates or processing
feedgas with contaminants, a moderate activity catalyst will have
enough activity to provide full acetylene cleanup at reasonable selec-
tivity. If market conditions require a change in feed slate or a cutback
on rates, CO can be injected as a temporary poison to temper the
catalyst activity and increase overall selectivity. Ideally, a new genera-
tion catalyst would be flexible enough to allow rate and feed slate
changes while maintaining high selectivity without CO addition.
Catalyst deactivation. There are three key mechanisms by
which selective hydrogenation catalysts deactivate in a normal
operation cycle: 1) deposition of poisons from the feedstream, 2)
sintering of the active metal particles and 3) formation of carbo-
naceous deposits on the catalyst surface.
Catalyst deactivation by poisons from contaminants in the
feedstock is not widespread for tail-end catalysts. However, if it
is occurring, a commercial poison guard can be used to maintain
catalyst activity. Sintering (agglomeration of the active metal
particles on the catalyst surface) is not a problem during normal
use of tail-end catalysts due to the low operating temperature.
However, sintering can take place during the high temperatures
experienced during catalyst regeneration.
4
Both industrial experi-
ence and literature data indicate that sintered catalysts not only
suffer a permanent activity loss due to diminished available metal
surface area, but they also become nonselective. A sintered catalyst
is also more vulnerable to metal poisoning, which can further
accelerate catalyst deactivation. The potential to deactivate the
catalyst by sintering can be reduced if the cycle length is extended,
since the number of regeneration cycles is decreased. This can be
achieved by applying new generation catalysts.
Due to the low hydrogen partial pressure in the inlet stream
to the tail-end acetylene converter, polymer formation on the
catalyst surface by oligomerizing acetylene is a normal occur-
rence.
5
This condition is usually the major cause for catalyst deac-
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I ND U S T R I A L I NS U L A T I ON
V I S I O N A R Y
by
tivation. Under non-optimum operating
conditions, polymer formation can occur
quite rapidly.
Oligomers of acetylene that form on the
catalyst surface can be divided into three
groups, depending on how they affect
catalyst performance. The first group can
desorb from the catalyst, pass through the
catalyst bed and be collected downstream
as green oil. Green oil reduces the over-
all gain in ethylene selectivity. But it does
not affect catalyst performance since it
does not stay on the catalyst surface. The
second group includes polymers with low
H/C ratio that are left on the catalyst. The
buildup of such polymers on the catalyst
surface covers and reduces available active
metal sites and results in activity loss. Also,
accompanying the activity loss is a decline
in the ethylene selectivity. The decline in
selectivity is caused by the third type of oli-
gomers that accumulate on the support. It
has been suggested that the oligomers on
the support increase the hydrogen spill-
over that accelerates the hydrogenation of
ethylene to ethane.
5
Also these oligomers
can increase the internal diffusion limita-
tion of acetylene, and thus increase the
hydrogenation rate of ethylene to ethane
at active sites on the internal surface of the
pores. However, such diffusion limitation
should not be a problem for catalysts that
are properly manufactured with an egg
shell metal distribution with less than 200
m of palladium penetration.
New tail-end catalyst: laboratory
development. Normally, tail-end cata-
lysts have operation cycles that are shorter
than one year. For example, a start-of-run
(SOR) selectivity of about 70% with rapid
decline to zero within four to six months
at end-of-run (EOR)
is not unusual. To
significantly increase
operation cycle length
and/or improve selec-
tivity retention, a new
generation catalyst
is highly desirable.
To achieve this goal,
a new catalyst was
specially designed to
reduce the polymer
formati on on the
catalyst surface and
was tested extensively
in the laboratory.
Fig. 2 shows the
increase in bed tem-
perature over time
onstream (TOS) that is required to main-
tain a target acetylene conversion for the
new and commercially available tail-end
catalysts in a bench-scale test unit. By
the end of the test, the new catalyst only
required a temperature increase of about
13C, while Catalyst A and Catalyst B
needed increases of 53C and 29C, respec-
tively. With the new catalyst, the deacti-
vation rate is dramatically slower, thus
allowing a much longer operation cycle.
Commercial plant operation has confirmed
that the cycle length of the new catalyst can
be two times longer than that of Catalyst
B.
Fig. 3 shows the decline in ethylene
selectivity with TOS over the new catalyst
and two reference catalysts in the same
bench-scale test. The ethylene selectivity
decline rate for the new catalyst was only
half of that observed for the reference cata-
lysts.
Assuming operation to a similar cycle
length, it is clear that an operator will gain
significantly more ethylene by using new
generation catalysts. Depending on the
actual operation cycle and EOR condi-
tions, the average ethylene selectivity gain
can be as high as 20% (abs).
The slower deactivation rate and excel-
lent ethylene selectivity retention for the
new catalyst is due to the strong resistance
to polymer formation on the catalyst sur-
face. Fig. 4 illustrates the significantly
reduced polymer formation and higher
ethylene yield over the new catalyst relative
to Catalyst B. The lower polymer make also
means lower greenhouse gas emissions upon
regeneration.
New tail-end catalyst: commercial
experience. The first few commercial
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
Time onstream
B
e
d

t
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

-

S
O
R

t
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e
,

C
New catalyst
Catalyst A
Catalyst B
Increase in bed temperature over time onstream to
maintain a target conversion for the new catalyst and two
commercial reference catalysts.
FIG. 2
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I

71
installations of any new catalyst systems are typically monitored
extremely closely to confirm that the expected performance is
achieved. Fig. 5 illustrates commercial data from one of the first
users of the new-generation catalyst. The data shows that selec-
tivity retention on the new catalyst far exceeds predictions and
that cycle lengths increased by a factor of two under the new-
generation catalyst. More important, the operations levels were
maintained without CO additions. With regard to regenerability,
the new catalyst has already been regenerated in another com-
mercial plant and was put back online with no apparent loss in
activity or selectivity. HP
LITERATURE CITED

1
Oil and Gas Journal, Vol. 106, No. 28, July 28, 2008, p 46.

2
Voight, R. W., J. S. Merriam and S. A. Blankenship, AIChE 8th Ethylene
Producers Conference Proceedings, pp. 156169, 1996.

3
US Patent No. 6,936,568.

4
Hall, J. B., B. J. Huggins, M. P. Kaminsky and B. L. Meyers, AIChE 6th
Ethylene Producers Conference Proceedings, pp. 615634, 1994.

5
Borodzinski, A. and G. C. Bond, Catalysis Reviews, Vol. 48, pp. 91144,
2006.
Dr. Michael Urbancic is the R&D Manager for petrochemical catalysts with
Sd-Chemie Inc. in Louisville, Kentucky. He has over 30 years of experience in catalyst
preparation, testing and development. During his 19-year career at Sd-Chemie, he
has held a variety of positions in both R&D and technical services. Dr. Urbancic earned
a BS degree in chemistry (with honors) from Purdue University and a PhD in inorganic
chemistry from the University of Illinois.
Dr. Mingyong Sun is the R&D group leader for olefins purification catalysts with
Sd-Chemie Inc. in Louisville, Kentucky. He has over 15 years of experience in catalyst
preparation, testing and development. Dr. Sun earned a BS degree in chemistry from
Nankai University in China and a PhD in technical chemistry from ETH Zurich Switzer-
land. Dr. Sun has done post-doctoral research in catalysis and reaction engineering at
the University of Alberta and the University of Waterloo in Canada.
Denise Branagan Cooper is currently a regional sales manager for pet-
rochemical catalysts with Sd-Chemie Inc. in Houston, Texas. She also serves as
Sd-Chemies global topic expert in tail-end acetylene hydrogenation. Ms. Cooper
worked as a process engineer for a global ethylene producer prior to joining Sd-
Chemie three years ago. She holds a BS degree in chemical engineering from Virginia
Polytechnic Institute and State University.
Steve Blankenship is employed with Sd-Chemie Inc. as a senior research
scientist in Louisville, Kentucky. He has over 28 years of experience in the catalyst
industry. Mr. Blankenship earned a BS degree in chemistry from the University of
Kentucky in 1980.
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
Days on load, (DOL)
R
e
l
a
t
i
v
e

s
e
l
e
c
t
i
v
i
t
y
,

%
First cycle on new catalyst
65% (abs) selectivity gain
at 200 DOL
Multiple cycles on previous commercial catalyst
Commercial performance of new catalyst compared
to previous catalyst demonstrates dramatically higher
selectivity and cycle length.
FIG. 5
Time onstream
E
h
t
y
l
e
n
e

s
e
l
e
c
t
i
v
i
t
y
,

%
New catalyst
Catalyst A
Catalyst B
20%
Decrease in selectivity over time onstream at constant
conversion for new and two commercial reference
catalysts.
FIG. 3
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
R
e
l
a
t
i
v
e

s
e
l
e
c
t
i
v
i
t
y

(
n
e
w

c
a
t
a
l
y
s
t
/
c
a
t
a
l
y
s
t

B
)
Ethylene Ethane Green oil Polymer on
catalyst
The amounts of polymer, green oil, ethane and ethylene
produced by the new catalyst relative to reference
Catalyst B.
FIG. 4
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I

73
Unifying framework for six sigma
and process control
The advances presented will improve quality and productivity
P. B. DESHPANDE and R. Z. TANTALEAN, Six Sigma and Advanced Controls, Inc.,
Louisville, Kentucky
T
his article presents advances in six sigma and process con-
trol and illustrates how six-sigma concepts can be embed-
ded in process control applications and vice versa. Thirty-
five percent of US businesses are reported to have embraced six
sigma.
1
The concepts presented could motivate many of the rest
to embrace it as well. Doing so will further boost quality, produc-
tivity and competitive position. The advances reported may be
used within process industries where the major impact factors are
seen to be influencing both the mean and the standard deviation
of response variables. Potentially, such applications exist across a
wide array of diverse industries including polymerization, biologi-
cal and biochemical processes, among others.
Background. The work presented was inspired by a handwrit-
ten page from the book, Jack: Straight from the Gut (Fig. 1).
2

Taking Order to Delivery Time as an illustration, Dr. Welch
made a convincing case for how focusing on improving the mean
performance (performance on average) is insufficient to compete
in todays global marketplace. One must focus on reducing vari-
ability, that is, the mean must be moved in a favorable direction
and the standard deviation reduced. When this is achieved, all
the benefits of six sigma accrue. To learn how, consider the rela-
tionship between the response variable, x, deemed to be normaly
distributed, and the standard normal variable, z, for an application
with a double-sided specification:

z
1
=
USL
(1a)
z
2
=
LSL
(1b)
Here, is the response variable mean, its standard devia-
tion, and USL and LSL are the upper and lower specification
limits, respectively. The total area under the normal curve
being one, the area between z
1
and z
2
represents good product
while the area outside these limits represents defective product.
To reduce the defective area, the values of z
1
and z
2
must be
increased. The specifications USL and LSL are driven by cus-
tomer needs and are not amenable to adjustments for other rea-
sons. To increase the good area, therefore, the denominator of
Eq. 1 must be reduced and the numerator increased. That is, the
standard deviation of the response variable must be reduced and
its mean moved in a favorable direction (increased, reduced or
brought to target, depending on the specific application under
scrutiny). Fig. 2 shows the dramatic influence of increasing z
on defect reduction.
Mean performance versus reducing variability with
permission of Jack and Suzy Welch from Jack: Straight
from the Gut.
2
FIG. 1
0
40,000
80,000
120,000
160,000
1 2 3 4 5 6
Z
D
e
f
e
c
t
s
,

p
p
m

Defects versus z (single-sided specification). For z = 4.5,
defects are 3.45 per million opportunities.
FIG. 2
I (first author) have stared at the hand-
written page for several years ever since I
acquired the book. His example implied
that major impact factors exist that influence
both the mean and the standard deviation
of response variables. Indeed, GE six-sigma
professionals showed that these factors do
exist for both moving the mean to target and
reducing the standard deviation to +1 day.
The example Dr. Welch used to make
his point was clearly a transactional prob-
lem. I was telling myself, if major impact
factors existed in transactional applications
that influenced the standard deviations of
response variables, not just their means, they
must also exist in manufacturing applica-
tions. However, I could not understand how.
That is, how could the repetitive application
of the same values of known major impact
factors say, pH, temperature and time in an
illustrative reacting system, give rise to vary-
ing values of the response variable (process
outcome), say yield? We understand that
the values of the response variable would
not be identical time after time because of
common-cause variability. Thus, if a number
of experiments at the same factor levels were
conducted, the response variables would not
be identical due to common-cause variability
arising from uncontrollable factors, but that
is different from saying that the major impact
factors influence the standard deviation
response variables, not just their means.
To continue with the explanation, flows
are routinely used in the process industries as
major impact factors. If air-top pressure on a
control valve was chosen as a major impact
factor, then the associated response variable
would or could be different for the same value
of the air-top pressure because of line sup-
ply pressure changes. However, we also know
how to overcome this lacuna by installing a
fast control loop to maintain flow more or
less constant regardless of changes in the sup-
ply pressure. Now, if flow were chosen as the
major impact factor, we should get the similar
values of the response variable for identical
values of flow subject, of course, to common-
cause variability considerations. Therefore, I
was back to square one. Recently, the answer
suddenly struck me. I have gathered sufficient
courage to state it as a natural law:
If identical values of major impact fac-
tors lead to substantially different values of
the response variable(s) over and beyond com-
mon-cause variability considerations, then the
population of response variable(s) must be het-
erogeneous or deemed to be heterogeneous.
Heterogeneity of response variable popu-
lations can occur for two reasons: (1) There
are uncertainties in the inputs (impact factors)
that manifest themselves as heterogeneity of
the response variable population and (2) the
population of response variables is heteroge-
neous due to imperfect mixing in manufac-
turing applications. In either case, if a strati-
fied random sample of size n representative of
a heterogeneous response variable population
is drawn and the mean and the standard devi-
ation of the sample are computed, the major
impact factors will be seen to be influencing
both the mean and the standard deviation of
the response variable. No mathematical proof
of this law can be given, at least I do not know
how. However, the way to disprove a natural
law is to find evidence to the contrary. I look
forward to reading about reader reactions to
this natural law and to learning about any
evidence that refutes it.
We cite two examples for further clarifi-
cation of issues (1) and (2), one in nonman-
ufacturing and the other in manufacturing.
The nonmanufacturing example is intended
to shed light on the uncertainty issue (1).
My associate, Mark Goldstein, a Certified
Six Sigma Master Black Belt, uses a catapult
experiment to demonstrate how the settings
of major impact factors may be optimized to
reduce variability. Here, several teams con-
duct experiments to show that identical val-
ues of major impact factors (e.g., pin loca-
tion, launch angle and hook position) result
in different values of the response variable
(distance in feet the projectile travels). He
also shows that the results of different teams
are different owing to common-cause vari-
ability considerations. Mark then uses the
data collected from designed experiments
to develop two regression equations, one
relating the response variable mean and the
other, its standard deviation to the major
impact factors. He then uses the regres-
sion models in an optimization algorithm
to compute the best settings to apply for
maximizing the mean and minimizing the
standard deviation of the response variable.
He concludes the experiment by applying
the optimized settings to the catapult and
demonstrates that the variability has been
reduced. In this application, though it is
not obvious that the population of response
variables is heterogeneous, we can only say
that the response variable is deemed to have
come from a heterogeneous population.
Here, the major impact factors (pin loca-
tion, launch angle and hook position) appear
to be deterministic. However, certain causes
may manifest themselves as uncertainties in
these major impact factors rendering them
stochastic. Some examples of such uncertain-
ties are: The pin over which the rubber band
passes can rotate. The viscoelastic properties
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of the rubber band can change over time. The
duration for which the experimenter holds
the launch position before releasing the pro-
jectile is not the same from one launch to the
next, and so on. Because of these and other
such uncertainties, the projectile may travel
varying distances for the same values of major
impact factors from one launch to the next.
Large batch or semibatch polymerization
reactors are a good example of heterogeneity
due to mixing issues in the manufacturing
sector. Here, one or two samples are drawn
from the sample port in the reactor vessel
at the end of the batch cycle to infer prod-
uct quality and the information is used in
many cases to make changes in the major
impact factors for the following batch in the
belief that this will improve quality. Unfor-
tunately, the population of response vari-
able being heterogeneous because of mix-
ing issues, the response variables may vary
substantially from one location to another
in the reactor. Therefore, had samples been
taken from a different location in the reac-
tor vessel, they would have suggested widely
different changes in the major impact fac-
tors for the following batch.
To ascertain whether the variability in a
response variable is due to common causes
or uncertainties in the major impact factors
or mixing issues, the suggested approach is
to examine the regression equation relat-
ing the standard deviation of the response
variable to the major impact factors. High-
correlation coefficients (R
2
) and favorable
p-values are suggestive of uncertainties/
missing issues while poor-correlation coef-
ficients and unfavorable p-values are sug-
gestive of common-cause variability. Such
situations are bound to exist in batch and
continuous process applications as well.
What is the big deal with this natural
law anyway? Well, in the past 35 years as a
chemical engineering educator and industry
consultant, my students and I developed a
number of control laws aimed at achieving
perfection. However, we never concerned
ourselves (neither did anyone else to my
knowledge) with the possibility that perhaps
both the mean and the standard deviation of
the response variable(s) can be improved.
Based on foregoing ideas, we believe
we have advanced the state-of-the-art of
six sigma and advanced control of static
(batch) and continuous processes that
should serve as a unifying framework for
six sigma and process control.
Advances in process control of
static systems. This advance pertains to
static systems such as batch polymerization
reactors. Leffew
3
successfully tested con-
strained model-predictive control (CMPC)
on a semibatch polymerization reactor for
improved control of within the batch opera-
tions but the focus here is on batch-to-batch
operations. For clarity, let us assume that a
standard recipe-driven operating strategy is
used. Thus, the focus in the proposed strat-
egy is on major impact factors (e.g., initia-
tor, modifier, chain transfer agent concen-
trations, etc.) to use from one batch to the
next to achieve the best value of the mean of
the response variable and the least possible
standard deviation. The quality attribute of
the product at the end of the batch cycle is
the response variable. In theory, there could
be more than one response variable.
The suggested approach is to conduct
classical designed experiments in which
the major impact factors are varied and the
product quality ascertained at the end of each
batch. The magnitude of changes in the fac-
tors must be large enough to produce suffi-
ciently large changes in the response variable.
Since the population of response variables
is heterogeneous, a stratified sampling plan
must be used. The number of repetitions and
replicates needed will depend on the hetero-
geneity of the population. This strategy will
require a mechanism to draw random sam-
ples from various locations in the vessel and,
therefore, could pose practical difficulties in
some applications and will obviously incur
additional expense. The financial benefits
from improved product consistency, pro-
ductivity and competitive position would
have to justify the additional cost of multiple
measurements involving repetitions and rep-
licates. There is incentive here for companies
to figure out how to make such measure-
ments with instrumentation.
Once the experiments are devised and
conducted, they will produce data that, when
analyzed with standard statistical design of
experiments software packages, will lead to
two predictive equations per response vari-
able: one for the mean and the other for the
standard deviation, both as a function of the
factors to be optimized. The terms involv-
ing products of major impact factors need
to be retained in the regression model to
account for the possible presence of interac-
tion among them, something that chemical
engineers typically do not do because it ren-
ders the model nonlinear. Quadratic terms
could be included if warranted.
With the regression model at hand, one
may proceed to compute the optimal val-
ues of the factors to apply to the process to
achieve the best value of the mean of the
response variable and lowest value of the
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standard deviation. For an illustrative system with two factors and
one response variable, the procedure is as follows: The regression
equations selected for the illustrative example are of the form:

y =a
0
+a
1
x
1
+a
2
x
2
+a
3
x
1
x
2
(2a)
s =b
0
+b
1
x
1
+b
2
x
2
+b
3
x
1
x
2
(2b)
The major impact factors, x
1
and x
2
, are in coded form. The
terms are defined under Nomenclature at the end of the article.
The goal of optimization is to find the values of x
1
and x
2
such
that a user-defined objective function is minimized. The complete
optimization problem takes on the form:

Min J =[mega{C
1
(V
1
U
+V
1
L
) +C
2
(V
2
U
+V
2
L
)}
+C
3
x
1
+C
4
x
2
] (3)
subject to the following constraints:

a
1
x
1
+a
2
x
2
+a
3
x
1
x
2
y =a
0
d
1
(4a)
b
1
x
1
+b
2
x
2
+b
3
x
1
x
2
s =b
0
d
2
(4b)
y +S
1
u
V
1
u
= y
u
(4c)
y S
1
L
+V
1
L
= y
L
(4d)
s +S
2
u
V
2
u
= s
u
(4e)
s S
1
L
+V
1
L
= s
L
(4f )
x
1
1 (4g)
x
1
1 (4h)

x
2
1 (4i)
x
2
1 (4j)
An examination of Eqs. 4a4j reveals that the terms on the
right sides involve upper and lower bounds on

y and s, the biases
a
0
and b
0
and the terms d
1
and d
2
.
The bounds are user specifications and because the process
regression model is known, the biases can be calculated from Eqs.
2a and 2b. The terms d
1
and d
2
are feedback signals, calculated
by sampling the response variable at the end of each batch, com-
puting its average and standard deviation, and subtracting from
them the values
y
~
and
~
s predicted from the respective regres-
sion equation. Chemical engineers will recognize this strategy as
CMPC commonly used in continuous process applications. A
block diagram of the CMPC strategy is
shown in Fig. 3.
The linear objective function sug-
gested in Eq. 3 is believed to be suffi-
cient. The goal of optimization is to com-
pute the best possible values of y and
the least possible value of s such that the
optimization index, J, is minimized. Due
to the large size of mega (for example,
10
6
), the optimizer will first attempt to
eliminate the violation variables in Eq. 3.
If it can do so, only then will it focus on
minimizing the costs as specified by the
user. In other words, the bounds on

y
and s are treated as soft constraints while
the bounds on x
1
and x
2
are treated as
hard constraints and are therefore never
violated. The terms C
1
and C
2
allow for
relative weighting of the response vari-
ables while C
3
and C
4
allow for relative
cost minimization of factors. Maximiza-
tion may be achieved by making the signs
of the cost coefficients negative. The user
may specify the bounds on y and s or
may specify targets. For the latter, the
upper and lower bounds are set equal to
the target. The number of response vari-
ables and the number of major impact
factors will determine whether cost
minimization (or profit maximization)
is theoretically possible. This optimiza-
tion problem is not amenable to linear
programming due to the presence of the
Optimizer
Eqs. 3 and 4
Process
Targets
x
1
, x
2
+
+
y, s
Compute
with
Eqs. 2a and 2b
~ ~

y, s
CMPC system for the 2x2 example. FIG. 3

I

77
product x
1
x
2
. This means that it may not always be possible to
guarantee the global optimum. A local optimal solution should
be sufficient.
Statistical packages have their own algorithms for solving opti-
mization problems such as this. Here we describe a generic proce-
dure for solving this constrained optimization problem.
1. Assume trial values of x
1
and x
2
within allowable ranges.
2. Compute y and s from Eqs. 4a and 4b, respectively.
3. Compute the violation and slack variables from Eqs.
4c4f.
4. Compute J. If J has reached the minimum, end. If not,
return to step 1 with new trial values of the factors and repeat.
Successful optimization strategies for this problem will ensure
that the trial values of the major impact factors progressively
move toward the optimum from one iteration to the next. The
optimization surface in this problem and in problems like this
is unusual owing to the presence of the product of the factors x
1

and x
2
. This poses difficulties to the optimization algorithm in its
ability to find the global optimum. A local optimum solution is
believed to be sufficient.
Advances in six sigma. The foregoing ideas and concepts
are an advance in the state-of-the-art of six sigma as well. The
advance belongs to the Improve Phase of six-sigma investiga-
tions. In this phase, six-sigma practitioners traditionally utilize
the regression models developed in the Analyze Phase to find
the optimal values of major impact factors to obtain the best val-
ues of the response variable averages and the least values of their
respective standard deviations. When this is done, defects reduce
and the benefits of six sigma accrue. In the Control Phase, the
response variables means and standard deviations are monitored
typically with control charts to detect the arrival of new assign-
able causes. These assignable causes are worked on to return the
response variables to their respective states of natural variability.
The foregoing concepts suggest that the Improve Phase should
not be a one-time calculation in those applications where the
major impact factors can be adjusted. When the major impact
factors cannot be manipulated, the feedback signals d
1
and d
2

are zero. But when they can be manipulated, formulating it as a
CMPC problem and using exactly the same procedure will lead
to improved performance.
Advances in continuous process control applica-
tions. The concepts described here appear to have significant
potential in continuous process industries. The continuous pro-
cess is assumed to operate under the command of a DCS system.
The approach to follow is to first determine the longest closed-
loop settling time of the process. This is the sampling interval
for making changes to the major impact factors. Then, a host of
major impact factors is identified; typically, they are the setpoints
of feedback controllers or CMPC strategies. The response vari-
ables are quality attributes of the product. With this information
at hand, classical designed experiments may be carried out involv-
ing repetitions and replicates to identify the major impact factors
and regression models relating the response variable means and
their respective standard deviations to the major impact factors.
Then, the foregoing optimization strategy may be implemented
to achieve the best mean and lowest standard deviations of the
response variables, the quality attributes.
Example. (Adapted from the Six Sigma Black Belt Participant-
Guide of Air Academy Associates, Colorado Springs, Colorado).
An experimenter conducts two
3
full-factorial designed experi-
ments on a process with three major impact factors and one
dependent variable. The inputoutput data are analyzed with
standard statistical software leading to the following regression
equations:

y =1, 051+163.8x
1
+301.6x
2
+75.07x
3
+44.16x
1
x
2
(5a)
s =35.080.3951x
1
+1.08x
2
+2.21x
3
+2.047x
1
x
3
+2.685x
2
x
3
(5b)
The problem is to determine the major impact factors x
1
, x
2

and x
3
to apply to the process such that 1,025 ^
y
^ 1,050
and 32 ^ s ^ 34. Employing the optimization strategy described
earlier, constrained optimization software gives the optimal values
of the major impact factors according to: x
1
= 0.751, x
2
= 0.644
and x
3
= 0.996. In the absence of modeling errors and load
disturbances, these factors will result in y = 1,026 and
~
s = 33
according to Eqs. 5a and 5b. The predicted values are within the
specifications.
It is hoped that this article will motivate a number of compa-
nies to embrace the ideas presented and to find novel and higher-
impact applications of the methodologies as suggested here. HP
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors thank Dr. Kenneth W. Leffew, DuPont Fellow, and business
associate Mark Goldstein, Certified Master Black Belt, formerly of General Electric
for their review and comments on this article.
NOMENCLATURE
a
0
Bias in the regression model, Eq. 2a
a
1
a
3
Regression coefficients in the model, Eq. 2a
b
0
Bias in the s regression model, Eq. 2b
b
1
b
3
Regression coefficients in the s model, Eq. 2b
C
1
, C
2
Weights on the response variable mean
C
3
, C
4
Cost coefficients on the major impact factors
d
1

y
(plant)
y
(regression)
d
2
s(plant) s(regression)
J Optimization index
S Slack variables
s Standard deviation of the response variable, y
V Violation variables
xs Major impact factors
y Response variable average
SUBSCRIPTS AND SUPERSCRIPTS
u Upper limit
L Lower limit
LITERATURE CITED AND FURTHER READING

1
Crocket, R. O. and McGregor, G., Six Sigma Still Pays Off at Motorola,
Business Week, December 4, 2006. p. 50.

2
Welch, J. and Byrne, J. A., Jack: Straight from the Gut, Warner Books, Inc.,
New York, 2003.

3
Leffew K. W., Semi-batch Polymerization Process Control for Polymers
Used in Microlithography, presented at Center Jacques Cartier Conference
on Modeling, Monitoring and Control of Polymer Properties, Lyon, France,
2007.

4
Burden, A. C., Tantalean, R. Z. and Deshpande, P. B., Control and Optimize
Nonlinear Processes, Chemical Engineering Progress, 99, 2, February 2003.
pp. 6373.

5
Deming, W. E., Quality, Productivity, and Competitive Position, MIT
Center for Advanced Engineering Study, Cambridge, Maine, 1982.

6
Deshpande, P. B., Six Sigma for Karma Capitalism, Six Sigma and
Advanced Controls, Inc., Louisville, Kentucky, first quarter 2010.

7
Deshpande, P. B. Blog: www.on-a-quest-for-change.blogspot.com.

8
Deshpande, P. B., A Small Step for Man: Zero to Infinity with Six Sigma,
78

I

Six Sigma and Advanced Controls, Inc., Louisville, Kentucky, 2008.

9
Deshpande, P. B. and Tantalean, R. Z., Process Control and Optimization,
Six Sigma and Advanced Controls, Inc., June 2007.

10
Deshpande, P. B., Six Sigma Enlightenment, Business World, October 4,
2004.

11
Deshpande, P. B., Makker, S. L. and Goldstein, M., Boost Competitiveness
with Six Sigma, Chemical Engineering Progress, 95, 9, September 1999. pp.
6570.

12
Deshpande, P. B., Emerging technologies and six sigma, Hydrocarbon
Processing, April 1998.

13
Deshpande, P. B., Globalization, Economic Development, and
Competitiveness: Opportunities and Challenges, R. N. Maddox
Distinguished Lecture, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, April 1998.

14
Deshpande, P. B., Ramasamy, S. and Yerrapragada, S. S., Neural Nets
Improve Batch Quality, Control Engineering, April 1996. pp. 5356.

15
Deshpande, P. B., Bhalodia, M. A., Caldwell, J. A., and Yerrapragada, S.
S., Should You Use Constrained Model Predictive Control?, Chemical
Engineering Progress, 91, 3, 1995. pp. 65-72.

16
Deshpande, P. B., Hannula R. E., Bhalodia, M. and Hansen, C. W., Achieve
Total Quality Control of Continuous Processes, Chem. Eng. Progress, 89, 7,
1993.

17
Deshpande, P. B., Improve Quality Control On-line with PID Controllers,
Chem. Eng. Progress, 88, 5, 1992.

18
Doyle, J. C., Analysis of Controls Systems with Structured Uncertainty, IEE
Proceedings, Part D, No. 129, 1982. P. 242.

19
Harry, M. J. and Lawson, J. R., Six Sigma Productivity Analysis and Process
Characterization, Addison-Wesley, Reading, Maine, 1992.

20
Krishnaswamy, P. R., Shukla, N. V., Deshpande, P. B. and M. N. Amrouni,
Reference System Decoupling for Multivariable Control, Ind. Eng. Chem.
Research, 30, 4, 1991.

21
Ramasamy, S., Deshpande, P. B., Tambe, S. S. and Kulkarni, B. D., Robust
Nonlinear Control with Neural Networks, Proceedings of the Royal Society,
Series A, London, 449, June 1995. pp. 655667.

22
Schmidt, S. R. and Launsby, R. G., Understanding Industrial Designed
Experiments, Air Academy Press, Colorado Springs, Colorado, 1998.
Pradeep B. Deshpande is professor emeritus and a former
chair of the Department of Chemical Engineering at the University
of Louisville. He is also a visiting professor of management, Gatton
College of Business & Economics, University of Kentucky, and the
founder president and chief executive officer of the Louisville-based
Six Sigma and Advanced Controls, Inc. (SAC). He was among the first to introduce
six sigma training in corporate India and in engineering and MBA programs here, in
Greece and in India. Dr. Deshpande is an author or co-author of six textbooks and
over 100 refereed technical papers and presentations. During his 30 years on the
faculty at the University of Louisville, he supervised 20 PhD graduates and over 40
masters graduates. Dr. Deshpande is a fellow of ISA and a recipient of numerous
awards for research and teaching. He is listed in Whos Who in the World, and has
taught at the Indian Institutes of Technology in Kanpur and Madras, University of
Bombay Department of Chemical Technology and has spent a year on sabbatical at
Indias National Chemical Laboratory in Pune.
Roberto Tantalean is a consultant with Six Sigma and
Advanced Controls, Inc. He has served as assistant professor of
chemical engineering at the Universidad de Trujillo for eight years.
Dr. Tantalean obtained his bachelors degree in chemical engineering
from Universidad de Trujillo, a masters degree in computer science
from Universidad de Cantabria in Spain, a masters degree and a PhD in chemi-
cal engineering, both from the University of Louisville, USA. He has developed and
implemented a real-time communication facility for the constrained model-predictive
controller software [ONLINE]t, and implemented an expert system for fault monitoring
and abnormal situation management on an industrial-scale steam plant. Dr. Tantalean
held an internship as a process engineer at Talara Refinery, Per-Petro, the main Peru-
vian oil company. He has been part of the lecturer team in workshops in the areas of
process control for Hindustan Petroleum Company in India and Six Sigma Training for
the Private Universities Council in Kuwait. Dr. Tantalean is a consultant in the area of
information technology for a US-based company He is a professor for a graduate school
of engineering in a Peruvian private university in Software Engineering Quality.
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I

79
U
sually feed for a stabilization plant is supplied by a gas res-
ervoir that has considerable dispersed brine water (forma-
tion water). Removing brine water from feed is essential
in gas processing plants. One of the most common methods to
remove water from unstabilized condensate is use of a filtration
system such as a liquid/liquid coalescer. In selecting an appropriate
filter cartridge element, it is important that its media be compat-
ible with the plant feed. Installing a filtration system that includes
a prefilter for the liquid/liquid coalescer could improve feed to
stabilization plants. Filtration systems that have been installed in
the Sarkhoon gas plant not only provide more stable plant opera-
tion, but also decrease corrosion in the debutanizer column and
improve the quality of products such LPG and NGL. We have
saved about $650,000 and reduced CO
2
emissions by 3,466
metric tons annually.
In this part (1) we emphasize evaluating the filtration system
and all the parameters that must be considered during design.
It is necessary to do a pilot field test to have a precise design for
selecting filtration system cartridges and help the manufactur-
ers develop their design criteria. The scopes of filtration system
installation are:
Remove water and dissolved salt from fresh feed. Any
change in temperature causes water to flash and salt deposits on
the exchanger, control valve, and trays of the deethanizer and
depropanizer towers.
Remove solid particles and abrasive contaminants down to
two microns from condensate to protect against downstream ero-
sion and corrosion specifically of pumps and mechanical seals.
Background. The stabilization plant (Unit 700) of the Sark-
hoon refinery has been designed for stabilizing 1,550 tpd of unsta-
bilized condensate. The products of this unit are 11,940 bpd of
LNG and 1,048 bpd of LNG at standard conditions. To remove
water and dissolved salt from the condensate feed to the stabiliza-
tion plant, the liquid/liquid coalescer system was designed to con-
tinuously separate solids and water from the condensate feed to
the stabilization plant down to two microns absolute of water.
The package was installed in 2005. The prefiltration and
coalescer systems use ultipleat high-flow and aquasep-plus car-
tridges, respectively (Fig. 1).
After installation and commissioning based on visual inspec-
tion (Fig. 2), plant laboratory results and operating experience,
a large amount of water was removed from the prefilter and
Designing and troubleshooting
stabilization plant filtration
systemsPart 1
Compatability of the filter cartridge media with the plant feed
is a major consideration
A. ATASH JAMEH, A. ZAMANI GHARAGHOOSH and S. BAZARGANI,
Sarkhoon & Qeshm Gas Treating Company, Bandar Abbas, Iran; S. MOKHATAB,
Gas Engineering Consultant, Vancouver, BC, Canada; and S. RAHIMI, Bid Boland II
Gas Treatment Plant Project, Tehran, Iran
TABLE 1. Accumulated water in spherical storage
when filtration system has been operated
Water liters at
Date LPG storage tank Filtration remarks
02.03.05 20 Filtration in operation
14.08.07 450 Filtration out of service
S-701
F-701
Brine water
Clear condensate
to deethanizer
Condensate from
upstream
FS-701
Brine water
Filtration system schematic (surge drum, prefilter and
liquid/liquid filter coalescer).
FIG. 1
80

I

coalescer condensate feed. At the filtration system outlet the
samples were very clear and sparkling.
There was a big difference in water concentration in LPG
before and after coalescer installation due to the high-efficiency
separation in the coalescing section (Table 1).
An ultipleat high-flow filter element is used in F-701 to remove
solids from the condensate to protect the aquasep liquid/liquid
coalescer elements. Prefilter lifetime was lower than expected (the
cartridges blocked every 10 days), because it has been shown these
elements have three months lifetime in some references.
Root-cause survey and solution. To determine the cause
of the prefilters cartridge blockage a used filter cartridge was sent
to a scientific laboratory for examining particle size distribution
and specifying the nature of the solids.
After performing a complete laboratory test, we submitted a
complete report comprising detailed information about particle
size and nature. Microscopic observation of collected contami-
nation in the used cartridge revealed that the contamination is
mainly made of black-colored particles with an average size of
1040 m. However, very fine particles smaller than 5 m are
present as well (Figs. 3 and 4).
The exact nature of the contaminants was confirmed in the
laboratory with an elemental analysis using a scanning electronic
microscope coupled with energy dispersive spectrometry. Based
on observations by using the optical microscope, it is clear that
they could mainly be metallic particle sands and some unknown
nonmetallic particles like gel or polymer compounds.
A 20-micron prefilter and phase separation cartridge were
installed. According to the coalescer performance results obtained
from field test, it is believed that this change did not affect the
global separation performance.
After four days the new prefilter cartridges were blocked, which
is not acceptable to the cartridge manufacturer due to increasing
pore size from 2 to 20 microns.
By receiving data from the plant it was clear that each cartridge
has about 1,200 grams extra weight. This indicated that the filter
isnt blocked due to solids and contamination size.
Loading is not an issue for rapidly increasing pressure drop
in normal operation. In amine filtration each ultipleat high-flow
cartridge can have up to a 12 Kg weight difference between clean
and clogged conditions.
We believed that after confirmation the amount of contaminants
that the prefilter had removed, as the weight data provided by the
plant would indicate, the solids content would be quite low.
To specify which causes were the main issues, the following param-
eters had to be checked to be sure of the systems designed values:
1. Review the prefilter design regarding the number of ele-
ments, clean pressure drop, filter media compatibility with the
process stream and removal rating.
2. Check the prefilter pressure vessel mechanical design
hydraulics.
3. Check the gas trap and condensate evaporation in the filter
pressure vessel to high volatility.
The scientific laboratory of the cartridge manufacturer
approved the prefilter design, number of elements and compat-
ibility. The actual clean pressure drop is less than 25 mbar at
design flowrate.
Although we couldnt believe that the
high-flow element was completely compat-
ible with our plant, it is not discussed in
this article. That subject will be discussed
in part 2.
The scientific laboratory also approved
the prefilter mechanical and internal designs
such as the tube sheet and sealing mecha-
nism based on approved drawings.
For a gas trap upset the condensate Rvp
is very low and due to the inlet/outlet nozzle
tube sheet and filter media pressure drop,
Samples from filtration system inlet (left) and outlet
(right).
FIG. 2
Different layers of the upstream (left) and downstream sides (right) of the media
pack structure.
FIG. 3
Agglomeration of black/brown-colored deposit on the
upstream layer of the media.
FIG. 4

I

81
some evaporation will occur inside the vessel and it seems that a
gas trap forms inside the vessel. We have checked gas bubble traps
that are able to provide an artificial clogging of filter media by
providing complete prefilter vessel ventilation. This case has not
been considered completely by the cartridge manufacturer yet.
Based on all previous testing on filter media, liquid condensate
fluid and the site test on the prefilter housing, we conclude and
believe that there are unknown components in the condensate stream
that generated from the process upstream. In the plant laboratory we
have carried out visual checking of the unknown components.
The sample that has been taken from the surge drum boot (Fig.
5) is gray and loaded with black solid particles.
After a short settling time, the sample separated into three
phases. The top phase looked like condensate oils while the bot-
tom phase is brine water and the middle phase is milky/grey.
These gel-like components are likely made of combination of
some hydrocarbons with none of the partially soluble components
being corrosion inhibitor.
Gel has a blocking effect on the filter media and various chemi-
cals are injected into wells upstream for process and maintenance
operation. When a sample is shaken, we clearly observe some vis-
cose gel-like component on the walls of the bottles. It seems that
the main chemical that is likely present in the condensate is an
organic-oil-soluble anticorrosion inhibitor that is injected into the
gas wells. However, according to the drawings provided, the con-
densate stream collected from the two-phase separator is mixed with
a hydrocarbon stream collected from NGL recovery and the glycol
dehydration unit upstream of the stabilization unit (Fig. 6).
There are two main sources for gel for-
mation:
Inside the refinery such as in prelimi-
nary separation, sweetening, dehydration
and NGL recovery
Upstream processing where the corro-
sion inhibitor is injected by the exploration
company in gas well production.
Regarding the first item, the major vessel
that the probability of the gel source might
have come from was selected. Samples taken
from the equipment (Fig. 7) proved that the
process plant could not be a main cause of
gel formation. Samples showed the amount
of gel that could be collected at the inlet separators is more than
had been taken from the dehydration units separators. So this
could have enhanced the hypothesis that the main cause of gel
source formation should be the upstream wells. As a result of
finding the root cause of the problem all activities concentrated
on upstream well production and all the chemicals that were being
injected into the wells to protect against corrosion.
For the second item, gel formation and its delivery to gas plants
should be controlled and reduced by the exploration company
after having a technical discussion with the corrosion inhibitor
manufacturer about compatibility of the corrosion inhibitor
with hydrocarbon condensate. We made a decision to replace
the chemical with a new one. All of the operating parameters
required to evaluate the effect of the new chemical on the car-
tridges were controlled. We checked the effect of this chemical
by taking samples from surge drum S-701 and the condensate
quality at coalescer FS-701s exit was acceptable. As a result the
final decisions were:
Remove gel produced by filtration upstream of the stabiliza-
tion unit
Optimize gas processing and control chemical qualities, rate
and dosage.
Prefilter F-701 was removing all impurities and solids from the
hydrocarbons so the emphasis on this subject by the contractor
is acceptable.
Removing gel by installing a new filter was presented by the filter
designer, but after pilot testing it was clear that applying this policy
could be a final solution for filtration. Then we concluded that
The gel layer is between the hydrocarbon condensate and
brine water.
FIG. 5
Rich glycol
Sour
gas
Gas sweetening unit
(Unit 1,000)
Corrosion inhibitor
Antifoam
Ethanolamine (DEA)
Stabilization unit
(Unit 700)
Condensate
Glycol
regeneration
(Unit 600)
Corrosion
inhibitor
Lean glycol
Dehydration unit
deethylene glycol
(Unit 400)
Inlet separation
(2-phase
separators)
(Unit 200)
Dry gas to sale
Sarkhoon gas
wells (sour gas)
Corrosion
inhibitor
Sarkhoon gas
wells (sweet gas)
Corrosion
inhibitor
Sweet gas
Chemical injection at the plant. FIG. 6
Sample from surge drum S-701 (left). Gel produced in the laboratory on dosing 0
ppm, 50 ppm, 100 ppm, 200 ppm and 500 ppm (from left to right).
FIG. 7
another option must be selected. Regarding the second option, we
changed the corrosion inhibitor and controlled the injection. After
a while it was determined that changing the chemical improved
filtration system performance but other issues were raised that will
be discucssed in the next article by the authors. HP
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors appreciate the efforts of the following individuals and depart-
ments for their persistence in helping us to collect the plant operation data.
Thanks to M. Mihandost of production, M. Nori of laboratory and M. Salehadai
of Panid Co.
LITERATURE CITED

1
Hawn, R. R., Ellington, E. E., et al, International Gas Processing Prospects
Look Bright to 2000, Oil & Gas Journal, July 20, 1992.

2
Pauley, C. R., Langston, D. G. and Betts, F. C., Solving Foaming and Amine
Loss Problems Treating Plant, presented at the AICHE Summer National
Meeting, San Diego, California, August 1990.

3
Murphy, W. L., Practical In-Service Simulation Tests for Rating of
High Aerosol Coalescing Performance, PEDD-FSR-101a, Pall Corporation
Equipment Development, November 1984.
Abolfazl Atash Jameh is the head of process engineer-
ing, a division of engineering and technical services, in Sarkhoon
and Qeshm Gas Treating Company, Iran. He joined the National
Iranian Gas Company (NIGC) in 1999 and has 10 years of experi-
ence in process engineering, modeling and optimization as well
as troubleshooting gas processing units. Mr. Atash Jameh holds an MS degree in
chemical engineering from the Sharif University of Technology in 1998 and a BS
degree in chemical engineering from the Petroleum University of Technology in
1995. He has authored and coauthored more than seven papers in national and
international conferences.
Ahmad Zamani Gharaghoosh is the head of technical
inspection department in Sarkhoon & Qeshm Gas treating company
(SQGC). He joined National Iranian Gas Company ( NIGC) In 1997.
Mr. Zamani Gharaghoosh has more than 11 years of experience
in gas refinery processes, static equipment inspection, risk-based
inspection and is a corrosion specialist at the gas refinery.
Saeid Mokhatab is an internationally recognized expert in the
field of natural gas engineering with a particular emphasis on gas
transmission, LNG and processing. He has been involved as a tech-
nical consultant in several international gas-engineering projects
and published over 150 academic and industry-oriented papers.
Mr. Mokhatab is a member of the editorial board for most professional oil and gas
engineering journals, and serves on various SPE and ASME technical committees.
Saifollah Bazargani is head of technical services and engi-
neering in Sarkhoon and Qeshm Gas Treating Company, Iran. He
joined the National Iranian Gas Company (NIGC) in 1996 and has
extensive process engineering experience in separation processes
and acid gas removal. Mr Bazargani has also worked with National
Iranian Petrochemical Company for seven years in the olefins Plant. He holds a BS
degree in petrochemical engineering from Amir Kabir (Ploytechnic Tehran) University
of Technology in 1983.
Samad Rahimi is the head of engineering and design for the
Bid Boland II Gas Treatment Plant basic design project. Before that,
he was the head of engineering and technical services in Sarkhoon
and Qeshm Gas Treating Company, Iran. His areas of specialty
include gas processing, LNG separation and hazard identification.
Mr. Rahimi joined National Iranian Gas Company (NIGC) in 1989 and has held various
design engineering positions including chief engineer for NIGC. He received his BS
degree in chemical engineering from the Petroleum University of Technology.
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I

83
A
storage tank is generally not pumped completely dry
when emptied. The vapor above the remaining liquid will
expand to fill the void space at the liquids vapor pressure
at storage temperature. As the tank fills, vapors are compressed
into a smaller void space until the set pressure on the vent/relief
system is reached. Some filling losses are associated with the liquid
expansion into the tank.
Vapors emitted from a storage tanks vents and/or relief valves
are generated in two ways:
Tank vapors forced out during filling operations (displace-
ment losses)
Vapors generated by liquid vaporization stored in the tank.
Storage classification. There are two types of storage clas-
sifications, above ground and underground. Categories include:
Atmospheric. These tanks are designed and equipped for
content storage at atmospheric pressure. This category usually
employs tanks of vertical cylindrical configuration that range in
size from small shop-welded tanks to large field-erected tanks.
Bolted tanks and, occasionally, rectangular welded tanks are also
used for atmospheric storage service.
1
Low pressure [0 to 17 kPa (ga)]. These tanks are normally
used in applications for storage of intermediates and products
that require an internal gas pressure from close to atmospheric.
The shape is generally cylindrical with flat or dished bottoms and
sloped or domed roofs. Low-pressure storage tanks are usually of
welded design. However, bolted tanks are often used for operat-
ing pressures near atmospheric. Many refrigerated storage tanks
operate at approximately 3.5 kPa (ga).
1
Medium pressure [17 to 100 kPa (ga)]. Medium-pressure
tanks are normally used for the storage of higher volatility inter-
mediates and products that cannot be stored in dished bottoms
and sloped or domed roofs.
1
High pressure. These tanks are generally used for the stor-
age of refined products or fractionated components at pressures
above 100 kPa (ga).
1
Underground. Gas processing industry liquids may be
stored in underground, conventionally mined or solution mined-
caverns. No known standard procedures are available for this type
of storage; however, there are many publications and books cover-
ing the subject in detail.
1
Displacement losses. The combined loss from filling and
emptying is considered a working loss or displacement loss.
Evaporation during filling operations is a result of an increase
in the liquid level in the tank. As liquid level increases, the pres-
sure inside the tank exceeds the relief pressure and vapors are
expelled from the tank. Evaporative loss during emptying occurs
when air, drawn into the tank during liquid removal, becomes
saturated with organic vapor and expands, thus exceeding the
vapor space capacity.
Vaporization losses. Vapors are generated by heat gained
through the shell, bottom and roof. The total heat input is
the algebraic sum of the radiant, conductive and convective
heat transfer. This type of loss is especially prevalent where
light hydrocarbon liquids are stored in full pressure or refrig-
erated storage. This is less prevalent but still quite common
in crude oil and finished product storage tanks. These vapors
may be recovered by using the vapor recovery system. To calcu-
late vaporization in tanks, the sum of radiant, conductive and
convective heat inputs to the tank must be taken into account.
Approximate vapor losses in kg/h can be calculated by dividing
the total heat input by the product latent heat of vaporization
at fluid temperature.
1
New proposed correlation. Eq. 1
presents a new correlation where four coef-
ficients (a, b, c and d) are used to relate the
filling losses from storage containers in per-
cent of liquid pumped in with working pres-
sure in kPa(abs). However, vapor pressure at
liquid temperature kPa(abs) must be con-
sidered when estimating the displacement
losses from storage containers.
Minimize vaporization
and displacement losses
from storage containers
Consider using this new calculation for recovery
A. BAHADORI, Curtin University of Technology, Perth, Western Australia
TABLE 1. Tuned coefficients used for polynomial models.
x A
x
B
x
C
x
D
x
1 1.96692469015064E-1 2.997855656735E-3 1.5038580989E-5 2.4675901E-8
2 3.6068872437314E-2 5.96919209298E-4 3.065251613E-6 5.109185E-9
3 1.725348224825E-3 2.5923852687E-5 1.30357956E-7 2.174E-10
4 1.26233316566389E-5 1.833674141261E-7 9.137656612E-10 1.5231731E-12
84

I

loss = a = bP = cP
2
= dP
3
(1)
where a, b, c and d are derived through polynomial equations in
the third order (A
x
= B
x
P
v
= C
x
Pv
2
= D
x
Pv
3
) with x denoting
either 1, 2, 3 or 4. The tuned coefficients (A
x
, B
x
, C
x
and D
x
)
used in polynomial models are given in Table 1 which covers
reported data for working pressure less than 250 kPa (abs) and for
vapor pressure at liquid temperature less than 100 kPa (abs).
Results. Fig. 1 compares the new proposed correlation results
for predicting the filling losses from storage containers in percent
of liquid pumped in, to the available reported data. As shown,
there is an agreement between predicted and reported values. This
correlation covers the reported data for working pressure less than
250 kPa (abs) and for vapor pressure at liquid temperature in kPa
(abs) for less than 100 kPa (abs). HP
NOMENCLATURE
A Coefficient
B Coefficient
C Coefficient
D Coefficient
Loss Filling loss in percent of liquid pumped in
P Working pressure in kPa (abs)
Pv Vapor pressure at liquid temperature in kPa (abs)
LITERATURE CITED

1
Gas Processors and Suppliers Association Data Book, 12th Edition, Tulsa,
Oklahoma, 2004.
Alireza Bahadori is a PhD student in the chemical engineer-
ing department at the Curtin University of Technology, Perth, West-
ern Australia. Previously, he worked as a senior process engineer at
National Iranian South Oil Company (NISOC) for 10 years and was
involved in several large-scale oil and gas projects. Mr. Bahadori
is the author and co-author of 70 referred journal papers and the recipient of the
Australian Governments Department of Education Science and Training Endeavor
International Post Graduate Research Scholarship (EIPRS). Hes also received the state
of Western Australias top scholarship through the Western Australia Energy Research
Alliance (WA:ERA). Mr. Bahadori is a member of Engineers Australia.
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
0.00
0.05
0.10
0.15
0.20
0.25
0.30
Vapor pressure at liquid temperature, kPa (abs)
F
i
l
i
n
g

l
o
s
s
,

p
e
r
c
e
n
t

o
f

l
i
q
u
i
d

p
u
m
p
e
d

i
n
Working P=5 kPa (g)
Data
Working P=10 kPa (g)
Data
Data
Data
Data
Data
Comparison of predicted and reported data of the
displacement losses from storage containers.
1
FIG. 1
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HPI Construction
Boxscore Update
2009
JUNE
YEAR AGO (JUNE 2008)
Rfg Pchem Gas Other Total
United States 239 168 185 79 671
Canada 82 22 50 34 188
Latin America 184 126 97 51 458
Europe 458 312 242 141 1,153
Asia/Pacific 350 642 267 166 1,425
Africa 58 40 65 29 192
Middle East 193 366 221 162 942
Total 1,564 1,676 1,127 662 5,029
THIS ISSUE (JUNE 2009)
United States 254 172 184 104 714
Canada 95 25 53 39 212
Latin America 206 140 116 68 530
Europe 486 360 258 157 1,261
Asia/Pacific 376 700 291 184 1,551
Africa 65 51 64 35 215
Middle East 210 389 230 161 990
Total 1,692 1,837 1,196 748 5,473
COUNT OF TOTAL ACTIVE PROJECTS
YEAR AGO (JUNE 2008)
United States 40 13 15 5 73
Canada 6 6 7 4 23
Latin America 10 10 5 3 28
Europe 13 19 27 22 81
Asia/Pacific 33 30 29 10 102
Africa 4 5 4 7 20
Middle East 16 19 13 10 58
Total 122 102 100 61 385
THIS ISSUE (JUNE 2009)
United States 5 1 3 1 10
Canada 3 1 1 0 5
Latin America 12 7 7 0 26
Europe 15 11 17 6 49
Asia/Pacific 14 13 10 1 38
Africa 2 3 0 1 6
Middle East 3 9 3 2 17
Total 54 45 41 11 151
COUNT OF NEW PROJECTS

I
B-1
See page B-8 for licensor, engineering and construction companies abbreviations.
B-2

I


UNITED STATES
Alaska Tesoro Corp Kenai Benzene Reduction EX None 90 E 2012 Mustang
Alaska Denali North Slope * Gas Treating None E Fluor
Arizona El Paso Corp Eloy Storage, Natural Gas 3.5 Bcf A 2010
California Valero Refining Co Benicia * Scrubber 75 Mbpd E 2010 Belco Belco
California Tesoro Corp Los Angeles Cogeneration EX None 300 E 2012 Fluor
California Shell Intl Prod Martinez * Crude Unit None 43 U 2009 S&B S&B
California Paramount Petr Corp Paramount * Hydrocracker 25 Mbpd H CLG CLG
California Alon/Fina Oil & Chemical Paramount Iso Treating 17 Mbpd H CLG CLG
California Alon/Fina Oil & Chemical Paramount IsocrackingUnit 25 Mbpd H CLG CLG
Colorado Enterprise Products Meeker Gas Processing (2) TO 1.5 Bcfd C 2008 Gas Liquids Eng
Hawaii Tesoro Corp Kapolei Benzene Reduction RE None 17 E 2012 Mustang
Illinois Secure Energy, Inc. Decatur Gasifier 500 MW U 2011 Siemens Energy Siemens Energy
Illinois Secure Energy, Inc. Decatur Gasifier (2) 500 MW U 2011 Siemens Energy Siemens Energy
Illinois ConocoPhillips Wood River Scrubber 60 Mbpd C 2008 Belco Belco
Illinois ConocoPhillips Wood River Scrubber (2) 60 Mbpd U 2010 Belco Belco
Illinois ConocoPhillips Wood River Scrubber (3) 30 Mbpd U 2010 Belco Belco
Indiana BP Whiting Coker, Delayed 102 Mbpsd U FW FW
Kansas Frontier El Dorado El Dorado Scrubber 40 Mbpd C 2009 Belco Belco
Louisiana Placid Rfg Co Port Allen Hydrotreat, Gasoline 0.3 MMgpd C 2008 Axens Mustang
Louisiana Placid Rfg Co Port Allen Scrubber 30 Mbpd C 2008 Belco Belco
Massachusetts Hoegh LNG Neptune terminal LNG Shuttle Regasification Vessel (1) 145 Mm3 U 2009 Hamworthy
Massachusetts Hoegh LNG Neptune terminal LNG Shuttle Regasification Vessel (2) 145 Mm3 U 2010 Hamworthy
Mississippi Enerkem Technologies Pontotoc * Biofuel Plant 20 MMgpy 250 P
Mississippi Ergon Refining Vicksburg Deasphalting, Propane 8 Mbpd U 2009 KBR Wink Eng BE&K
Mississippi Ergon Refining Vicksburg Hydrotreater 8 Mbpd U 2009 Wink Eng BE&K
New Mexico Holly Corp Navajo Rfy Distiller, Crude BY 40 Mbpd 15 E 2009 KP Engineering, LP KP Engineering, LP
New Mexico Holly Corp Navajo Rfy Hydrocrack, Gasoil 15 Mbpd 90 C 2009 Process Dynamics Inc KP Engineering, LP KP Engineering, LP
New Mexico Holly Corp Navajo Rfy Solvent Deasphalting (2) BY 18 Mbpd 60 E 2009 KBR Lauren Lauren
New Mexico Western Refining Gallup * Scrubber 11 Mbpd H Belco Belco
New Mexico Navajo Rfg Co Lovington Crude Unit TO 70 Mbpd 22 C 2009 KP Engineering, LP KP Engineering, LP
North Dakota Tesoro Corp Mandan Benzene Reduction EX None 32 E 2011 Mustang
Ohio Husky Energy Inc Lima * Hydrocracker RE 30 Mbpd U 2012 CLG CLG
Ohio Sunoco Inc Toledo Scrubber 75 Mbpd U 2009 Belco Belco
Oklahoma Chesapeake Energy Grady County Gas Treating BY 15 MMcfd 10 C 2008 Gas Liquids Eng
Oklahoma Midstream Energy Panhandle Helium Extraction TO 25 MMscfd 8 C 2008 Thomas Russell Co.
Oklahoma ConocoPhillips Ponca City Scrubber 30 Mbpd C 2009 Belco Belco
Oklahoma Atlas Pipeline Roger Mills Co Cryogenic Gas Plant TO 125 MMscfd 14 C 2008 Thomas Russell Co.
Oklahoma Atlas Pipeline Sweetwater Cryogenic Gas Plant (2) EX 60 MMscfd 6 C 2008 Thomas Russell Co.
Oklahoma Enogex Inc Undisclosed Cryogenic Plant TO 120 MMscfd 14 U 2009 Thomas Russell Co.
Oklahoma Terra Industries Inc Woodward * Urea 480 m-tpd E 2010 UCSA UCSA UCSA
Oklahoma Wynnewood Rfg Co Wynnewood * Hydrotreat, Gasoline 13 Mbpd E 2010 Axens KP Engineering, LP KP Engineering, LP
Pennsylvania ConocoPhillips Trainer * Alkylation, HF RE 14 Mbpd 220 E 2012 UOP S&B ConocoPhillips
Tennessee Valero Refining Co Memphis LPG Recovery 20.7 MMscfd E 2010 KP Engineering, LP KP Engineering, LP
Texas Flint Hills Resources Caldwell * Terminal, Petroleum None P 2010
Texas Shell Deer Park Deer Park * Hydrogen None 50 P 2010 Linde Linde
Texas GreenHunter BioFuels Galena Park Biodiesel RE 105 MMgpy C 2008
Texas GreenHunter BioFuels Galena Park Methanol RE 1500 bpd C 2007
Texas Energy Transfer Godley Cryogenic Gas Plant EX 200 MMscfd 13 C 2008 Thomas Russell Co.
Texas PL Propylene LLC Houston Ship Channel Propylene 544 MMmtpy 400 U 2010 Lummus Technology Lummus Technology S&B
Texas Atlas Pipeline WestTex Plant Cryogenic Gas Plant TO 150 MMscfd 20 U 2009 Thomas Russell Co.
Texas DCP Midstream North Texas Cryogenic Gas Plant 40 MMscfd 5 C 2008 Thomas Russell Co.
Texas Motiva Enterprises LLC Port Arthur Cogeneration 146 MW U 2011 Burns and Roe Burns and Roe Bechtel\Jacobs JV
Texas Motiva Enterprises LLC Port Arthur Coker, Delayed (2) 95 Mbpd U 2011 ConocoPhillips Bechtel\Jacobs JV Bechtel\Jacobs JV
Texas Motiva Enterprises LLC Port Arthur Crude Unit 325 Mbpd U 2011 Shell GSI Bechtel\Jacobs JV Bechtel\Jacobs JV
Texas Motiva Enterprises LLC Port Arthur Hydrocracker 75 Mbpd U 2011 CLG Bechtel\Jacobs JV|CLG Bechtel\Jacobs JV
Texas Motiva Enterprises LLC Port Arthur Hydrotreat, Naphtha 113 Mbpd U 2011 UOP Bechtel\Jacobs JV Bechtel\Jacobs JV
Texas Motiva Enterprises LLC Port Arthur Hydrotreater (2) 50 Mbpd U 2011 Shell GSI Bechtel\Jacobs JV Bechtel\Jacobs JV
Texas Motiva Enterprises LLC Port Arthur Hydrotreater (3) 60 Mbpd U 2011 CLG
Texas Motiva Enterprises LLC Port Arthur Isomerization 48 Mbpd U 2011 UOP Bechtel\Jacobs JV Bechtel\Jacobs JV
Texas Motiva Enterprises LLC Port Arthur Reformer 85 Mbpd U 2011 UOP Bechtel\Jacobs JV Bechtel\Jacobs JV
Texas Motiva Enterprises LLC Port Arthur Sulfur Recovery 525 tpd E 2009 Black & Veatch S&B Bechtel\Jacobs JV
Texas Motiva Enterprises LLC Port Arthur Sulfur Recovery (2) 525 tpd E 2009 Black & Veatch S&B Bechtel\Jacobs JV
Texas Motiva Enterprises LLC Port Arthur Sulfur Recovery (3) 525 tpd E 2009 Black & Veatch S&B Bechtel\Jacobs JV
Texas Motiva Enterprises LLC Port Arthur Treater, Tail Gas 525 tpd E 2009 Black & Veatch|Shell GSI S&B Bechtel\Jacobs JV
Texas Motiva Enterprises LLC Port Arthur Treater, Tail Gas (2) 525 tpd E 2009 Black & Veatch|Shell GSI S&B Bechtel\Jacobs JV
Texas Motiva Enterprises LLC Port Arthur Treater, Tail Gas (3) 525 tpd E 2009 Black & Veatch|Shell GSI S&B Bechtel\Jacobs JV
Texas Ivanhoe Energy San Antonio * Processing, Heavy Oil 10 bpd C 2009
Texas ConocoPhillips Sweeny Scrubber None U 2009 Belco Belco
Undisclosed Chesapeake Energy Undisclosed Cryogenic Gas Plant TO 200 MMscfd 14 U 2009 Thomas Russell Co.
Undisclosed Chesapeake Energy Undisclosed Cryogenic Gas Plant (2) 60 MMscfd 7 U 2009 Thomas Russell Co.
Undisclosed Chesapeake Energy Undisclosed Cryogenic Gas Plant (3) 60 MMscfd 7 U 2009 Thomas Russell Co.
Utah Tesoro Corp Salt Lake City Benzene Reduction EX None 55 E 2011 UOP Mustang
Utah Tesoro Corp Salt Lake City Hydrotreater 8 Mbpd 25 C 2008 Axens Mustang
Washington Tesoro Corp Anacortes Benzene Reduction EX None 90 E 2011 UOP Fluor
CANADA
Alberta North West Upgrading Edmonton Hydrocrack, Resid 29 Mbpd U 2010 CLG CLG KBR
Alberta Fort Hills Energy Edmonton Hydrotreater 42 Mbpd E 2011 CLG CLG
Alberta Shell Canada Scotford Hydrotreater 47 Mbpd U 2010 CLG CLG
Alberta Fort Hills Energy Fort Hills Hydrotreater 120 Mbpd H 2011 CLG CLG
Alberta OPTI Canada Inc Long Lake Hydrocracker (2) 54 Mbpd H 2011 CLG Fluor|CLG
Alberta OPTI Canada Inc Long Lake Upgrader 54 Mbpd U 2008 Fluor|Propak|Air Liquide Fluor|Ledcor|
Air Liquide|Flint
Alberta Shell Canada Ft Saskatchewan Hydrocrack, Resid 47 Mbpd U 2010 CLG Bechtel|Bantrel|CLG PCL
Alberta EPCOR Power L.P. Genesee * Gasifier 500 MW E 2015 Siemens Siemens
Alberta Devon Canada Corp Manatokan Storage, Crude BY 10 Mbpd C 2008 Gas Liquids Eng
Alberta Fort Hills Energy Sturgeon Lake * Hydrocracker 100 Mbpd H CLG CLG
HPI Construction Boxscore Update

I

B-3

British Columbia Lignol Burnaby * Biorefinery 100 Ml/y 10 C 2009
British Columbia Terasen Gas Mt. Hayes Storage, Natural Gas 1.5 Bcfd 173 U 2011 CB&I CB&I
Manitoba Koch Chemical Brandon * Ammonia EX 1350 m-tpd S 2012 ACSA ACSA ACSA
New Brunswick Irving Oil Ltd Eider Rock * Hydrocracker 141 Mbpd U 2013 CLG CLG
New Brunswick Irving Oil Ltd Eider Rock * Hydrotreater 78 Mbpd U 2013 CLG CLG
New Brunswick Irving Oil\BP JV Eider Rock Refinery 300 Mbpd 7000 P 2015
Saskatchewan Saskferco Products Inc Belle Plaine Urea (3) RE 3400 m-tpd E 2009 Stamicarbon
Saskatchewan Consumers Coop Refineries Regina Cracker, FCC (2) EX 22 Mbpd E 2012 UOP Mustang|IAG
Saskatchewan Consumers Coop Refineries Regina Crude Unit EX 30 Mbpd 1500 E 2012 UOP Mustang|IAG
Saskatchewan Consumers Coop Refineries Regina Desulfurization, Diesel (2) RE 8.5 Mbpd E 2011 Axens Colt Eng
Saskatchewan Consumers Coop Refineries Regina Hydrotreat, Distillate (2) RE 18 Mbpd E 2011 UOP Colt Eng
Saskatchewan Consumers Coop Refineries Regina Hydrotreater, Naphtha RE 6 Mbpd E 2011 UOP Colt Eng
Saskatchewan Consumers Coop Refineries Regina Isomerization (2) RE 6 Mbpd E 2011 UOP Colt Eng
Saskatchewan Consumers Coop Refineries Regina Platformer (2) RE None E 2011 UOP Colt Eng
Saskatchewan Consumers Coop Refineries Regina Polymerizer (1) RE None F 2012 UOP Mustang
Saskatchewan Consumers Coop Refineries Regina Sat Gas (2) RE None E 2011 Colt Eng
Saskatchewan Consumers Coop Refineries Regina Storage, LPG 18 MMbbl E 2012 Colt Eng
Saskatchewan Consumers Coop Refineries Regina Storage, Tank 800 MMbbl E 2012 Colt Eng
LATIN AMERICA
Argentina Repsol YPF La Plata * Coker, Delayed (replace) 185 m3/hr E FW FW
Argentina Repsol YPF La Plata * Fractionator None E FW FW
Argentina Repsol YPF La Plata * Gas Plant None E FW FW
Brazil Fosfertil-Ultrafertil Araucaria * Ammonia RE 1290 m-tpd E 2010 ACSA ACSA ACSA
Brazil Ultrafertil SA Araucaria Melamine 20 Mtpy A 2003
Brazil Petrobras REFAP Scrubber 44 Mbpd E 2010 Belco
Brazil Petrobras Reduc (Duque de Lube Hydroprocessing 16 Mbpd U 2015 CLG CLG
Caxias Refinery)
Brazil Petrobas Guanabara Bay LNG FSRU 138 Mm3 U 2009 Hamworthy
Brazil Petr Brasileiro SA Linhares * Gas Treating EX 18 MMm3/d 200 U 2009
Brazil Petrobras Linhares * Processing, Oil 15 Mbpd 200
Brazil Quattor Maua * Cumene BY 110 Mm-tpy 40 C 2008 UOP Promon Platume
Brazil Petrobras RNEST Pernambuco * Hydrogen (1) 125 MNm3/h E 2011 Haldor Topse Haldor Topse
Brazil Petrobras RNEST Pernambuco * Hydrogen (2) 125 MNm3/h E 2011 Haldor Topse Haldor Topse
Brazil Petrobras RNEST Pernambuco * Hydrotreater (1) 83 Mbpsd E 2011 Haldor Topse Haldor Topse
Brazil Petrobras RNEST Pernambuco * Hydrotreater (2) 83 Mbpsd E 2011 Haldor Topse Haldor Topse
Chile Enercon Aconcagua Refinery Amine Regeneration 4135 m3/d C 2008 FW|MAN Ferrostaal| Tecnicas Reunidas|
Tecnicas Reunidas MAN Ferrostaal|FW
Chile Enercon Aconcagua Refinery Coker, Delayed 20 Mbpd 430 C 2008 FW MAN Ferrostaal| FW|Tecnicas Reunidas|
Tecnicas Reunidas|FW MAN Ferrostaal
Chile Enercon Aconcagua Refinery Heater, Coker 35 MW C 2008 FW FW FW
Chile Enercon Aconcagua Refinery Stripper, Sour Water 1100 m3/d C 2008 FW|Tecnicas Reunidas| Tecnicas Reunidas|
MAN Ferrostaal MAN Ferrostaal|FW
Chile Enercon Aconcagua Refinery Sulfur Recovery 45 tpd C 2008 FW|MAN Ferrostaal| Tecnicas Reunidas|
Chile Enercon Aconcagua Refinery Utilities None C 2008 FW FW
Chile Enercon Aconcagua Refinery Water Treatment 2280 m3/d C 2008 FW|MAN Ferrostaal| Tecnicas Reunidas|
Chile Undisclosed Undisclosed Hydrocracker 45 Mbpd H 2011 CLG CLG
Mexico Petroleos Mexicanos Burgos * Cryogenic Gas Plant 200 MMcfd C 2009
Mexico Petroleos Mexicanos Cangrejera * Paraxylene EX 210 Mtpy E 2011
Mexico Petroleos Mexicanos Cangrejera * Styrene EX 100 Mtpy H
Mexico Petroleos Mexicanos Minatitlan * Alkylation (1) 13.4 Mtpd U 2009
Mexico Petroleos Mexicanos Minatitlan * Alkylation (2) 13.4 Mtpd U 2009
Mexico Petroleos Mexicanos Minatitlan * Coker, Delayed 55.8 Mtpd U 2009
Mexico Petroleos Mexicanos Minatitlan * Cracker, FCC (2) 42 Mtpd U 2009
Mexico Petroleos Mexicanos Minatitlan * Distiller, Crude 150 Mtpd U 2009
Mexico Petroleos Mexicanos Minatitlan * Hydrogen 48 MMcfd U 2009
Mexico Petroleos Mexicanos Minatitlan * Hydrotreat, Distillate 37 Mtpd U 2009
Mexico Petroleos Mexicanos Minatitlan * Hydrotreat, Gasoil 50 Mbpd U 2009
Mexico Petroleos Mexicanos Minatitlan * Hydrotreat, Naphtha 7400 tpd U 2009
Mexico Petroleos Mexicanos Minatitlan * Sulfur 600 tpy U 2009
Mexico Petroleos Mexicanos Morelos * Ethylene (2) BY 300 Mtpy H
Mexico Petroleos Mexicanos Morelos * Ethylene Oxide (2) BY 135 Mtpy U 2011
Mexico Petroleos Mexicanos Morelos * Polyethylene (2) 300 Mtpy U 2009
Mexico Sonora Terminal and Pipeline Puerto Libertad LNG Terminal 1 Bcfd F CH.IV Intl
Trinidad Phoenix Park Gas Processors Point Lisas Butane Fractionator 3500 bpd C 2009 Black & Veatch Black & Veatch
Trinidad Phoenix Park Gas Processors Point Lisas NGL Recovery 600 MMscfd U 2009 Ortloff Black & Veatch Black & Veatch
Venezuela Pequiven Jose * Urea (1) 2200 m-tpd E 2012 Stamicarbon Tecnimont Tecnimont
Venezuela Pequiven Jose * Urea (2) 2200 m-tpd E 2012 Stamicarbon Tecnimont Tecnimont
Venezuela Pequiven Puerto Nutrias * Urea 2200 m-tpd E 2013 Stamicarbon Tecnimont Tecnimont
Venezuela not disclosed Undisclosed * Gas Compression (2) 25 MW P 2010 Burckhardt Compression
EUROPE
Austria Neste Oil\OMV Schwechat Biodiesel 200 Mtpy A 2008 Neste Jacobs
Austria OMV AG Undisclosed Gas Treating 3 MMNm3/d H Black & Veatch Black & Veatch
Belarus Grodno Azot Grodno Controls/Info Systems None E 2008 Siemens
Belarus Naftan Refinery Novopolotsk * Heater, Vacuum None U 2009 FW
Belgium ExxonMobil Chem Europe Antwerp Cogeneration 125 MW C 2009
Belgium BASF\Dow Chemical Co. JV Antwerp HPPO 300 Mtpy C 2009 BASF\Dow Chemical Co. JV
Bulgaria Lukoil Neftochim Bourgas Burgas * Amine Recovery None F 2012 Axens Technip
Bulgaria Lukoil Neftochim Bourgas Burgas Hydrocrack, Gasoil 37 Mbpd E 2012 Axens Technip
Bulgaria Lukoil Neftochim Bourgas Burgas Hydrocrack, Resid 47 Mbpd E 2012 Axens Technip
Bulgaria Lukoil Neftochim Bourgas Burgas * Hydrogen (1) 7500 kg/hr F 2012 Axens Technip
Bulgaria Lukoil Neftochim Bourgas Burgas * Hydrogen (2) 7500 kg/hr F 2012 Axens Technip
Bulgaria Lukoil Neftochim Bourgas Burgas * Offsites None F 2012 Axens Technip
Bulgaria Lukoil Neftochim Bourgas Burgas * Sour Water Stripper None F 2012 Axens Technip
Bulgaria Lukoil Neftochim Bourgas Burgas * Utilities (2) None F 2012 Axens Technip
Croatia INA Rijeka Hydrocracker 29 Mbpd U 2010 CLG CLG Lummus Technology
Croatia INA Sisak Diesel, HDS 20 Mbpd U 2013 CLG CLG Lummus Technology
Croatia INA Sisak Hydrocracker 20 Mbpd U 2013 CLG CLG Lummus Technology
Czech Republic Sokolovska Uhelna, a.s. Vresova * Gasifier 200 MW C 2008 Siemens Siemens
England SONHOE Dev. Co. Teesside Upgrader, Heavy Oil 200 Mbpd 4000 F 2014
England SONHOE Dev. Co. Wilton * Hydrocracker 200 Mbpd 4000 A CLG CLG
Finland Neste Jacobs Porvoo * FCC, flue gas None U 2011 Belco|SGS Belco
Finland Neste Oil Porvoo Isomerization (1) 600 Mm-tpy 126 U 2010 Axens Neste Jacobs Neste Jacobs
Finland Neste Oil Porvoo Renewable Diesel (2) 170 Mm-tpy U 2009 Neste Oil Neste Jacobs Neste Jacobs
France Total Gonfreville Lube Hydroprocessing 8 Mbpd U 2011 CLG CLG
France SolVin Tavaux Polyvinylidene Chloride 20 Mm-tpy C 2009
B-4

I

France Undisclosed Undisclosed Hydrogen 2.5 MNm3/h U 2009 Caloric
Germany Yara Brunsbuettel Brunsbuettel * Urea RE 2000 m-tpd E 2010 UCSA UCSA UCSA
Hungary MOL Hungarian Oil & Gas Danube Refinery * Hydrocracker 26 Mbpd U 2012 CLG CLG
Hungary MOL Hungarian Oil & Gas Danube Refinery Hydrotreat, Diesel 4 Mbpd U 2011 CLG
Hungary MOL Hungarian Oil & Gas Szazhalombatta Hydrocracker RE 36 Mbpd C 2008 CLG
Ireland ConocoPhillips Whitegate * Sulfur Recovery 10 tpd H Jacobs Nederland BV
Italy Raffineria di Gela SpA Gela * Hydrogen 120 m-tpd E 2011 Haldor Topse Techint Techint
Italy Eni SpA Miglianico Field Sulfur Degasser 15 tpd H 2009 Siirtec Nigi Siirtec Nigi Siirtec Nigi|Irem
Italy Eni SpA Miglianico Field Sulfur Recovery 15 tpd H 2009 Siirtec Nigi Siirtec Nigi Irem|Siirtec Nigi
Italy Eni SpA Miglianico Field Sweetening, Gas 9 MMcfd H 2009 Siirtec Nigi Irem|Siirtec Nigi
Italy Eni SpA Miglianico Field Treater, Tail Gas 15 tpd H 2009 Siirtec Nigi Siirtec Nigi Siirtec Nigi|Irem
Italy Raffineria di Milazzo Milazzo Hydrodesulf (HDS) RE 62 Mbpd C 2009 Albemarle Techint SpA Techint SpA
Italy Eni SpA Raffineria di Sannazzaro * Sour Water Stripper 3.5 Mcfd F 2009 Siirtec Nigi
Italy Eni SpA Raffineria di Sannazzaro Sulfur Degasser 210 tpd C 2009 Siirtec Nigi Siirtec Nigi Siirtec Nigi
Italy Eni SpA Raffineria di Sannazzaro Sulfur Recovery 160 tpd C 2009 Siirtec Nigi Siirtec Nigi Siirtec Nigi
Italy Eni SpA Raffineria di Sannazzaro * Sulfur Recovery (1) 80 tpd F 2009 Siirtec Nigi
Italy Eni SpA Raffineria di Sannazzaro * Sulfur Recovery (2) 80 tpd F 2009 Siirtec Nigi
Italy Eni SpA Raffineria di Sannazzaro Treater, Tail Gas 275 tpd C 2009 Siirtec Nigi Siirtec Nigi Siirtec Nigi
Italy Eni SpA Raffineria di Sannazzaro * Treater, Tail Gas (2) 160 tpd F 2009 Siirtec Nigi
Italy Eni SpA Sannazzaro Hydrocracker 27 Mbpd U 2009 CLG Snamprogetti|CLG
Italy Eni SpA Raffineria di Taranto Hydrogen 120 tpd U 2009 Haldor Topse Techint Techint
Italy Eni SpA Raffineria di Taranto Sulfur Degasser (3) 210 tpd U 2009 Siirtec Nigi Siirtec Nigi Siirtec Nigi
Italy Eni SpA Raffineria di Taranto Sulfur Recovery 160 tpd U 2009 Siirtec Nigi Siirtec Nigi Siirtec Nigi
Italy Eni SpA Raffineria di Taranto Treater, Tail Gas 340 tpd U 2009 Siirtec Nigi Siirtec Nigi Siirtec Nigi
Italy Eni SpA Taranto Hydrocracker 13 Mbpd U 2009 CLG Snamprogetti|CLG
Italy Eni SpA Venice * Hydrocracker 21 Mbpd H CLG CLG
Kazakhstan LyondellBasell/SAT&Co Atyrau * Complex None P 2014 LyondellBasell|KPI
Kazakhstan LyondellBasell/SAT&Co Atyrau * Dehydrogenation, Propane None P 2014 LyondellBasell|KPI
Kazakhstan LyondellBasell/SAT&Co Atyrau * Ethane Cracker None P 2014 LyondellBasell|KPI
Kazakhstan LyondellBasell/SAT&Co Atyrau * Gas Separation None P 2014 LyondellBasell|KPI
Kazakhstan LyondellBasell/SAT&Co Atyrau * Polyethylene (1) None P 2014 LyondellBasell|KPI
Kazakhstan LyondellBasell/SAT&Co Atyrau * Polyethylene (2) None P 2014 LyondellBasell|KPI
Kazakhstan LyondellBasell/SAT&Co Atyrau * Polypropylene None P 2014 LyondellBasell|KPI
Lithuania Mazeikiu Nafta Juodeikiai * Hydrocracker 35 Mbpd E 2012 CLG CLG
Lithuania Mazeikiu Nafta Mazeikiai Alkylation, Solid-Acid RE 3500 bpd H Exelus Exelus
Lithuania Mazeikiu Nafta Mazeikiai Amine Recovery RE None A FW
Lithuania Mazeikiu Nafta Mazeikiai Utilities RE None A FW
Netherlands NAM\Shell Assen Cond. Sweetening TO 1510 bpd U 2009 Merichem Technisch Bureau Dahlman Technisch Bureau
Dahlman
Netherlands Gate Terminal BV Maasvlakte * LNG Terminal (2) 12000 MMm3/y E 2011 Techint|ENTREPOSE ENTREPOSE|Techint
Norway TCM Karsto * Amine None E 2011 Aker Clean Carbon Aker Clean Carbon
Norway TCM Karsto Carbon Dioxide Capture 100 Mtpy E 2011 Aker Solutions Aker Clean Carbon
Norway StatoilHydro Kollsness * Gas Plant RE None E 2011 Aker Solutions
Poland Anwil SA Wloclawek * Nitrogen Oxide Reduction Sys None E 2007 Chemeko Chemeko Remwil
Poland Anwil SA Wloclawek * Utilities None E 2008 ILF Consulting Engineering Chemeko
Portugal Galp Energia Porto Cracker, Visbreaker None E 2011 Fluor
Portugal Galp Energia Porto Diesel, HDS 50 Mbpd E 2011 Fluor
Portugal Galp Energia Porto Distiller, Vac RE None 455 E 2011 Fluor
Portugal Galp Energia Porto Refinery RE 2.5 MMtpy 455 E 2011 Fluor
Portugal Galp Energia Porto Utilities None E 2011 Fluor
Portugal Galp Energia Sines Hydrocracker 43 Mbpd U 2011 CLG CLG Tecnicas Reunidas
Russian Federation Rosneft Achinsk * Hydrotreat, Diesel 35 Mbpd E 2013 CLG CLG Neftechimproekt
Russian Federation Kirishinefteorgsyntez Kirishi * Hydrocracker 60 Mbpd U 2010 CLG CLG SNKP
Russian Federation Rosneft Komsomolsk Hydrotreat, Diesel 35 Mbpd U 2012 CLG CLG
Russian Federation ZAO NaftaTrans Krasnodar Cracker, Visbreaker None C 2008 Shell GSI Bechtel
Russian Federation ZAO NaftaTrans Krasnodar Distillate, HDS None C 2008 Shell GSI Bechtel
Russian Federation ZAO NaftaTrans Krasnodar Distiller, Crude Vac None C 2008 Shell GSI Bechtel
Russian Federation ZAO NaftaTrans Krasnodar Gas Plant None C 2008 UOP Bechtel
Russian Federation ZAO NaftaTrans Krasnodar Hydrocracker None C 2008 Shell GSI Bechtel
Russian Federation ZAO NaftaTrans Krasnodar Hydrotreat, Naphtha None C 2008 UOP Bechtel
Russian Federation ZAO NaftaTrans Krasnodar Isomerization None C 2008 UOP Bechtel
Russian Federation Naftatrans Krasnodar Refinery 6 MMtpy C 2008 Bechtel|Vnipineft
Russian Federation ZAO NaftaTrans Krasnodar Reformer CCR None C 2008 UOP Bechtel
Russian Federation ZAO NaftaTrans Krasnodar Sour Water Stripper None C 2008 Shell GSI Bechtel
Russian Federation ZAO NaftaTrans Krasnodar Sulfur Recovery None C 2008 Shell GSI Bechtel
Russian Federation ZAO NaftaTrans Krasnodar Treater, Amine None C 2008 Shell GSI Bechtel
Russian Federation ZAO NaftaTrans Krasnodar Treater, Tail Gas None C 2008 Shell GSI Bechtel
Russian Federation Korimos Moscow * Alkylation RE 400 m-tpd S Exelus
Russian Federation Nizhnekamskneftekhim Nizhnekamsk Ethylene EX 650 Mtpy E 2009 Lummus Technology CB&I Lummus|Vnipineft
Russian Federation TANECO Nizhnekamsk Hydrocrack, Coker Gas oil 55 Mbpd U 2011 CLG CLG
Russian Federation TANECO Nizhnekamsk Lube Hydroprocessing 5 None U 2012 CLG CLG
Russian Federation Gazprom Novy Urengoy Polyethylene 420 Mtpy E 2010 Basell Tecnimont|Vnipineft
Russian Federation Gazprom Neft Omsk Refinery 17 MMtpy F 2010 Vnipineft|Honeywell Intl
Russian Federation Sibur Khimprom Perm Ethylene Complex 80 Mtpy E 2009 Vnipineft
Russian Federation Sakhalin Energy Investment Co Sakhalin Island LNG 4.8 MMtpy C 2008 Shell Chiyoda|Toyo Japan Toyo Japan|Chiyoda
Russian Federation Sakhalin Energy Investment Co Sakhalin Island LNG (2) 4.8 MMtpy C 2008 Shell Chiyoda|Toyo Japan Toyo Japan|Chiyoda
Russian Federation Sibur Khimprom Tobolsk Dehydrogenation 550 Mtpy E 2010 UOP Tecnimont|Vnipineft
Russian Federation Sibur Khimprom Tobolsk Polypropylene 550 Mtpy E 2010 INEOS Linde|Vnipineft
Russian Federation Togliattiazot Togliatti * Urea (3) RE 2600 m-tpd E 2010 UCSA UCSA UCSA
Russian Federation Rosneft Tuapse Hydrotreat, Diesel 82 Mbpd U 2012 CLG CLG
Russian Federation Novomoskovsk Azot Tulskaya Oblast Urea Granulation 1400 m-tpd E 2010 Stamicarbon Chemoprojekt Chemoprojekt
Russian Federation Novomoskovsk Azot Tulskaya Oblast Urea Granulation (2) 2000 m-tpd U 2009 Stamicarbon Chemoprojekt Chemoprojekt
Russian Federation Lukoil-Volgograd Neftepererabotk Volgograd Distillation, Crude 6 MMtpy E 2009 Vnipineft
Serbia NIS Pancevo Oil Refinery Pancevo Diesel, HDS 30 Mbpd U 2012 CLG CLG
Serbia NIS Pancevo Oil Refinery Pancevo Hydrocracker 30 Mbpd U 2012 CLG MECS|CLG
Slovakia Slovnaft as Bratislava * Polyethylene, LD 220 Mtpy F 2012 Tecnimont
Spain Repsol YPF Cartagena Coker, Delayed 53 Mbpd U 2011 FW FW
Spain Repsol YPF Cartagena Heater, Coker None U 2011 FW
Spain Repsol YPF Cartagena Heater, Vacuum None U 2011 FW
Spain Enagas Cartagena * LNG Terminal (4) EX None U 2011 FW
Spain Repsol YPF Cartagena Vacuum Unit 90 Mbpd U 2011 FW
Spain BP Oil Rfy de Castellon Castellon Coker, Delayed 20 Mbpd C 2008 FW FW FW
Spain BP Oil Rfy de Castellon Castellon Heater, Coker 43.5 MW C 2008 FW FW
Spain Enagas Huelva * LNG Terminal (3) EX None U 2011 FW
Spain CEPSA La Rabida Refinery Heater, Crude None U 2010 FW
Spain REGANOSA La Coruna * LNG Terminal (2) EX None E 2011 FW
Spain Petronor Muskiz * Butadiene 5 m-tpd E 2011 Axens Intecsa-Uhde|FW
Spain Petronor Muskiz * Cogeneration 42 MW E 2011 Sener
Spain Petronor Muskiz * Coker 2115 m-tpd E 2011 FW FW
Spain Petronor Muskiz * Coker, Naphtha 28 m-tpd E 2011 Axens Intecsa-Uhde|FW
Spain Petronor Muskiz * Merox 2115 m-tpd E 2011 UOP FW|Intecsa-Uhde
Spain Petronor Muskiz * Sulfur 110 m-tpd 1081 E 2011 Centry Sener
Spain Petronor Somorrostro Coker, Delayed 36 Mbpd U 2010 FW Sener|FW

I

B-5

Ukraine Kherson Oil Refinery Kherson Hydrocracker 19 Mbpd A 2010 CLG
Ukraine Ukrtatnafta JSC Kremenchug * Deisopentanizer TO 88 None P 2011 Axens Ukrneftekhimproekt
Ukraine Ukrtatnafta JSC Kremenchug * Hydrodesulf (HDS) TO 610 Mm-tpy P 2011 Ukrneftekhimproekt
Ukraine Ukrtatnafta JSC Kremenchug * Naphtha HDT TO 380 Mm-tpy P 2011 Axens Ukrneftekhimproekt
Ukraine Ukrtatnafta JSC Kremenchug * Technology Consultancy Services TO None P 2011 Axens Ukrneftekhimproekt
United Kingdom Powerfuel Plc Hatfield Colliery * Treater, Adsorption None P 2013 UOP
ASIA/PACIFIC
Australia QGC Curtis Island * LNG 3.8 MMtpy F 2013 ConocoPhillips Ltd Bechtel Bechtel
Australia QGC Curtis Island * LNG (2) 3.8 MMtpy F 2013 ConocoPhillips Ltd Bechtel Bechtel
Australia Santos Gladstone LNG 4 MMtpy 7700 C 2008 Bechtel|FW
Australia Shell\Gladstone Ports Corp JV Gladstone * LNG None S
Australia Woodside Energy Ltd Karratha Acid Gas Removal None C 2008 FW|WorleyParsons Ltd WorleyParsons Ltd|FW
Australia Woodside Energy Ltd Karratha Fractionator None C 2008 FW|WorleyParsons Ltd FW|WorleyParsons Ltd
Australia Woodside Energy Ltd Karratha LNG (5) EX 4.2 MMtpy C 2008 WorleyParsons Ltd|FW WorleyParsons Ltd|
CB&I|FW
Australia Woodside Energy Ltd Karratha (Pluto LNG) Waste heat recovery unit (2) None U 2010 FW FW
Australia EnCana Corp Latrobe Valley * Gasifier 500 MW P 2013 Siemens Siemens
Australia Nexus Energy Melbourne * FPSO None P SBM
China Dalian Petrochem Dalian Hydrotreat, Resid 3000 Mtpy C 2008 CLG LPEC|CLG Dalian
China WEPEC Dalian * Scrubber, FCC 52 None E 2011 Belco
China Erdos Union Chemical Co Erdos Urea TO 3520 m-tpd C 2008 Stamicarbon CNCEC|Chengda Eng Chengda Eng |CNCEC
China JianFeng Chemicals Fuling Urea 2700 m-tpd U 2010 Stamicarbon CECC Design Institute
China Guizhou Crystal Organic Chem Guizhou Acetic Acid (2) 36 Mtpy U 2010 Chiyoda Chiyoda Guizhou Crystal
Organic
China Giuzhou Jinchi Guizhou * Urea 1750 m-tpd E 2009 UCSA UCSA UCSA
China CNOOC Oil & Petrochem Huizhou * Lube Hydroprocessing 9 Mbpd U 2010 CLG CLG
China Hulunbeier New Gold Hulunbeier * Ammonia EX 1632 m-tpd E 2010 ACSA ACSA ACSA
China Shanxi Lanhua Chemical Jincheng Gasifier 500 MW E 2012 Siemens Energy Siemens Energy
China Shanxi Lanhua Chemical Jincheng Gasifier (2) 500 MW E 2012 Siemens Energy Siemens Energy
China Shanxi Lanhua Chemical Jincheng Syngas 100 Mm3/y E 2010 Siemens Energy
China PetroChina Lanzhou Scrubber 25 Mbpd U 2009 Belco
China Sinochem Quanzhou Hydrotreat, Resid 48 Mbpd U 2010 CLG CLG
China Shaanxi Carbonification Shaanxi * Methanol EX 2000 m-tpd E 2010 MCSA MCSA MCSA
China Bei Yuan Chemical Shenmu * Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) 50 Mtpy U 2010 Chisso
China Shijiazhuang Chem & Fbr Shijiazhuang * Ammonia EX 700 m-tpd E 2010 ACSA ACSA ACSA
China PetroChina Sichuan * Hydrotreat, Resid 48 Mbpd U 2013 CLG CLG
China Tianjin Kaiwei Group Tianjin * Lube Hydroprocessing 2 Mbpd U 2012 CLG CLG
China Shanghai Coking & Chem Undisclosed * Wet Sulfuric Acid (WSA) 100 tpd E Haldor Topse Haldor Topse
China Sinopec\SK Energy JV Wuhan Polyethylene, MD/HD 300 kty U 2011 INEOS
China Sinopec\SK Energy JV Wuhan Polypropylene 200 Mtpy U 2011
China Dragon Aromatics Co Xiamen Hydrocracker 70 Mbpd U 2011 CLG SEI|CLG
China Sinopec Yanshan Scrubber None H Belco
China Shenhua Ningxia Coal Yinchuan Gasifier 500 MW 38 U 2010 Siemens Energy Siemens Energy
China Shenhua Ningxia Coal Yinchuan Gasifier (2) 500 MW 38 U 2010 Siemens Energy Siemens Energy
China Shenhua Ningxia Coal Yinchuan Gasifier (3) 500 MW U 2010 Siemens Energy Siemens Energy
India Gujarat Narmada Valley Fertilizer Bharuch Air Separation 6 MWh 12 C 2005 Linde Linde
India Gujarat Narmada Valley Fertilizer Bharuch Cogeneration 33 MW 34 U 2010 BHEL
1640 S. 101st E. Avenue Tulsa, OK 74128
Our comprehensive experience in heat transfer technology
and related engineering disciplines ensures that we
provide the process industry with state-of-the-art designs
and manufacturing. Each system is custom designed for
your project specic needs. We work closely with you
to optimize the interrelation of thermal, mechanical
and structural as well as instrumentation and control
engineering disciplines. 3-D modeling of all components
is done to prove dimensional accuracy for proper eld t
up. Our sister companies, Express Metal Fabricators and
St. George Steel, perform the fabrication for all North
American projects.
Please forward your requests and inquiries to
sales@expresstechtulsa.com or call (918) 622-1420.
www.expresstechtulsa.com
DIRECT FIRED HEATERS
SINGLE SOURCE ENGINEERING
AND FABRICATION
B-6

I

India Gujarat Narmada Valley Fertilizer Bharuch * Ethyl Acetate 150 tpd U 2010 KBK Chem KBK Chem
India Gujarat Narmada Valley Fertilizer Bharuch Methanol BY 30.6 Mtpy 4.35 C 2006 Staff Staff
India Gujarat Narmada Valley Fertilizer Bharuch Nitric Acid (5) 150 tpd 11.15 U 2010 Plinke
India Gujarat Narmada Valley Fertilizer Bharuch TDI 150 tpd 329 U 2010 Chematur IBI Chematur
India Bharat Oman Refineries Bina Hydrocracker 35 Mbpd U 2011 CLG EIL|CLG EIL
India Bharat Oman Refineries Bina Hydrotreater 36 Mbpd U 2011 CLG EIL|CLG EIL
India Chennai Petroleum (CPCL) Chennai * Hydrogen Generation 21 Mtpd U 2011 Haldor Topse Haldor Topse
India ONGC Ltd Dahej Ethylene 1.1 MMtpy 981 E 2012 Linde Samsung Eng|Linde Samsung Eng
India Chambal Fertilizers & Chem Gadepan Ammonia (1) RE 1900 m-tpd U 2009 KBR PDIL
India Chambal Fertilizers & Chem Gadepan Ammonia (2) RE 2000 m-tpd U 2009 KBR PDIL
India Chambal Fertilizers & Chem Gadepan Urea (1) RE 3500 m-tpd U 2009 Snamprogetti PDIL
India Chambal Fertilizers & Chem Gadepan Urea (4) RE 3300 m-tpd U 2009 PDIL
India Krishak Bharati Coop Ltd Hazira * Ammonia (5) RE 1890 m-tpd E KBR KBR
India Krishak Bharati Coop Ltd Hazira * Ammonia (6) RE 1890 m-tpd E KBR KBR
India Krishak Bharati Coop Ltd Hazira * Urea (1) RE 3325 m-tpd E 2012 Saipem PDIL|Saipem
India Krishak Bharati Coop Ltd Hazira * Urea (7) RE 3325 m-tpd E 2012 Saipem PDIL|Saipem
India Reliance Petr Ltd Jamnagar Sulfur Recovery (5) 675 tpd U 2009 Black & Veatch Black & Veatch Reliance
India Reliance Petr Ltd Jamnagar Sulfur Recovery (6) 675 tpd U 2009 Black & Veatch Black & Veatch Reliance
India Brahmaputra Cracker and Polymer Lepetkata Polyethylene LLD/HD 220 Mtpy E 2010 INEOS
India Chennai Petroleum (CPCL) Manali * Hydrocracker RE 46 Mbpd E 2013 CLG CLG
India Chennai Petroleum (CPCL) Manali * Sulfur Degasser 200 tpd F 2009 Siirtec Nigi
India Chennai Petroleum (CPCL) Manali * Sulfur Recovery 100 tpd F 2009 Siirtec Nigi
India Chennai Petroleum (CPCL) Manali * Sulfur Recovery (2) 100 tpd F 2009 Siirtec Nigi
India Chennai Petroleum (CPCL) Manali * Treater, Tail Gas 200 tpd F 2009 Siirtec Nigi
India Mangalore Rfg & Petrochemicals Mangalore * Distillation, Crude None 100 E Jacobs
India Mangalore Rfg & Petrochemicals Mangalore * Distillation, VDU None 100 E Jacobs
India Indian Oil Corp Paradip Paraxylene 1.2 MMtpy E 2012 FW
India Indian Oil Corp Ltd Paradip Petrochemicals None E 2012 FW
India Indian Oil Corp Paradip Polypropylene 700 Mtpy E 2012 FW
India Indian Oil Corp Ltd Paradip Refinery 15 MMtpy E 2012 Indian Oil FW
India Indian Oil Corp Paradip Styrene Monomer 600 Mtpy E 2011 UOP|Lummus Technology CB&I Lummus|FW
India Rashtriya Chemicals Trombay Methanol (2) TO 220 tpd U 2009 Haldor Topse PDIL Rashtriya
India NOCL Undisclosed * Scrubber, FCC None E 2011 Belco
India Indian Oil Corp Ltd Gujarat Refinery Treater, Tail Gas 600 tpd E 2009 Black & Veatch L&T|Toyo India L&T
India HPCL Vizag * Project Management Services None U 2011 Haldor Topse PDIL
Indonesia PT Patra SK Dumai Lube Hydroprocessing 10 Mbpd C 2008 CLG CLG
Indonesia PT Trans Pacific Petrochem Tuban LPG Recovery 480 m-tpd H 2008 Black & Veatch
Japan Mitsubishi Gas Chemical Mizushima Meta-xylene 70 Mm-tpy U 2009 UOP Chiyoda Chiyoda
Malaysia Malaysia LNG Dua Bintulu LNG RE 1.3 MMtpy C 2009 FW FW
Malaysia Petronas Penapisan Melaka Lube Oil Refining 16 Mbpd C 2007 EMRE OGP|FW
Malaysia Malaysian Rfg Co Melaka Offsites (2) RE None U 2009 FW
Malaysia Malaysian Rfg Co Melaka Refinery RE 45 Mbpd U 2009 FW
Malaysia Malaysian Rfg Co Melaka Utilities (2) RE None U 2009 FW FW
Pakistan Fatima Fertilizer Co Sadiqabad Urea 1500 m-tpd U 2009 Stamicarbon Sojitz Corp|Kawasaki Kawasaki Plant
Plant Systems Systems|Sojitz Corp
Singapore Lucite Intl Jurong MMA 120 Mtpy 150 C 2008 Lucite Intl FW FW
Singapore ExxonMobil Chemical Asia Pacific Jurong Petrochemicals None U 2011 FW Led JV|WorleyParsons FW Led JV|
WorleyParsons
Singapore Shell Eastern Petr Pulau Bukom Cracker, FCC-Resid TO 37400 bpd U 2010 Chiyoda Singapore Pte Chiyoda Singapore Pte
South Korea Hyundai Oilbank Co., Ltd. Daesan * Hydrotreat, Resid 66 Mbpd U 2011 CLG CLG
South Korea SK Energy Incheon * Hydrocracker 40 Mbpd U 2012 CLG CLG SKEC
South Korea Doosan Undisclosed * IGCC None F 2014 FW
South Korea Hyundai Oilbank Co., Ltd. Undisclosed * Scrubber, FCC 52 Mbpd E 2011 Belco
South Korea PolyMirae Yeosu * Polypropylene None E LyondellBasell
Taiwan Chinese Petroleum Corp Kaohsiung * Hydrocracker 12 Mbpd H CLG CLG
Taiwan Chinese Petroleum Corp Talin Lube Hydroprocessing 6 Mbpd U 2012 CLG CLG
Taiwan Chinese Petroleum Corp Tao Yuan Hydrotreat, Resid 70 Mbpd H 2010 CLG CLG
Thailand Bangchak Petroleum PCL Bangkok Reformer, Steam None C 2008 CTCI|FW CTCI
Thailand PTT Public Co Ltd Khanom * Recovery, Condensate 25 MMscfd 19 U 2009 UOP WorleyParsons WorleyParsons
Thailand Thai Oleochemicals Co Map Ta Phut * Esters 15 Mtpy 16 U 2009 Uhde Inventa-Fischer WorleyParsons WorleyParsons
Thailand Thai Oleochemicals Co Map Ta Phut FAME 200 Mtpy C 2008 AT Agrar-Technik|Cognis Uhde|WorleyParsons Uhde|WorleyParsons
Thailand Thai Oleochemicals Co Map Ta Phut Fatty Alcohols 100 Mtpy C 2008 Uhde|AT Agrar-Technik|Cognis WorleyParsons |Uhde Uhde|WorleyParsons
Vietnam Nghi Son Refinery Nghi Son * Hydrotreat, Resid 105 Mbpd U 2013 CLG CLG
AFRICA
Algeria Algeria Oman Arzew Ammonia (1) 2100 m-tpd E 2010 Haldor Topse PDIL
Algeria Algeria Oman Arzew Ammonia (2) 2100 m-tpd E 2010 Haldor Topse PDIL
Algeria Algeria Oman Arzew * Urea (1) 3675 m-tpd E 2010 Snamprogetti PDIL
Algeria Algeria Oman Arzew * Urea (2) 3675 m-tpd E 2010 Snamprogetti PDIL
Algeria Sorfert Algerie Arzew Urea 3450 m-tpd U 2010 Stamicarbon Uhde Uhde
Algeria Sonatrach El Merk Facility * Processing, Oil 98 Mbpd E 2012 Petrofac
Algeria Sonatrach El Merk Facility * Storage, NGL 600 MMscfd E 2012 Petrofac
Algeria Sonatrach Hassi Messaoud LPG Recovery 24 MMscfd E 2012 Shaw E & C Saipem|Shaw E & C
Egypt Abu Qir Fertilizers Co Abu Qir Urea (2) RE 2500 m-tpd E 2010 Stamicarbon Uhde Uhde
Egypt Burullus Gas Co Idku Gas Dehydration TO 450 MMcfd U 2009 Advantica Siirtec Nigi Siirtec Nigi
Egypt Burullus Gas Co Idku Gas Dehydration (2) TO 450 MMcfd U 2009 Advantica Siirtec Nigi Siirtec Nigi
Egypt Egyptian Methanex Damietta Methanol 3.6 Mm-tpd U 2010 Davy Process|JM Techint Techint
Egypt EAgrium Damietta Urea Granulation 2000 m-tpd E 2010 Stamicarbon Uhde Uhde
Egypt EAgrium Damietta Urea Granulation (2) 2000 m-tpd E 2010 Stamicarbon Uhde Uhde
Egypt EHC Suez * Ammonium Nitrate 1.06 Mm-tpd F Carbon Holdings KBR
Egypt Suez Oil Processing Co Suez * Ammonium Nitrate 85 Mm-tpy C IE-SA
Nigeria Nigeria LNG Ltd Bonny Island LNG (7) 8.5 MMtpy C 2007 Technip|FW|JGC|KBR|
Chiyoda|Snamprogetti
Nigeria Chevron Nigeria Ltd Escravos Hydrocracker 34 Mbpd U 2010 CLG Snamprogetti|JGC|KBR|CLG KBR|Snamprogetti|JGC
Nigeria Chevron Nigeria Ltd Izombe GTL 34 Mbpd C 2007 Chevron |Sasol FW
Nigeria NNPC Warri * Alkylation, HF RE 341 m-tpd P Exelus
Repub S Africa ROMPCO Komatipoort Gas Compression None U 2009 FW FW
Repub S Africa ROMPCO Komatipoort Project Management Services None U 2009 FW FW
MIDDLE EAST
Bahrain BAPCO Sitra Diethanolamine RE None C 2008 FW FW
Bahrain BAPCO Sitra Gas Treating None C 2008 FW FW
Bahrain BAPCO Sitra Sour Water Stripper None C 2008 FW FW
Bahrain BAPCO Sitra Sour Water Stripper-2 (2) None C 2008 FW FW
Bahrain BAPCO Sitra Sulfur Recovery 220 tpd C 2008 FW FW
Bahrain BAPCO Sitra Treater, Tail Gas None C 2008 FW FW
Iran Golestan Petrochemical Agh-ghala Urea 3250 m-tpd E 2012 Stamicarbon Hampa
Iran Bandar Imam Petrochemical Bandar Imam Butane 787 m-tpy 204 E 2011 Tecnicas Reunidas Namvaran|Tecnicas Reunidas Asphalt Toos
Iran Bandar Imam Petrochemical Bandar Imam Ethane 544 m-tpy 204 E 2011 Tecnicas Reunidas Namvaran|Tecnicas Reunidas Asphalt Toos
Iran Bandar Imam Petrochemical Bandar Imam Hexanes 290 m-tpy 204 E 2011 Tecnicas Reunidas Namvaran|Tecnicas Reunidas Asfalt Toos
Iran Bandar Imam Petrochemical Bandar Imam Pentane 390 m-tpy 204 U 2011 Tecnicas Reunidas Namvaran|Tecnicas Reunidas Asphalt Toos

I

B-7

Iran Bandar Imam Petrochemical Bandar Imam Propane 1029 m-tpy 204 E 2011 Tecnicas Reunidas Namvaran|Tecnicas Reunidas Asphalt Toos
Iran Esfahan Oil Refinery Co Esfahan Hydrotreat, Resid 80 Mbpd 74 E 2012 Axens Namvaran
Iran Esfahan Oil Refinery Co Esfahan Isomerization 27 Mbpsd 187 E 2010 UOP Namvaran|HEC Dorriz
Iran Esfahan Oil Refinery Co Esfahan Naphtha HDT 62 Mbpsd 187 E 2010 Axens Namvaran|HEC Dorriz
Iran Esfahan Oil Refinery Co Esfahan Reformer CCR 32 Mbpsd 188 E 2009 Axens Namvaran Dorriz
Iran NPC/Golestan Petrochem Golestan Urea Granulation 3250 m-tpd E 2012 Stamicarbon Hampa Hampa
Iran Kharg Petrochemical Kharg Island Methanol (2) 4430 m-tpy 632 H 2010 Davy Process|JM Namvaran IIND
Iran Lavan Oil Refinery Lavan Island Distillation, VDU 50 Mbpd 58 U 2009 Namvaran Mehvar
Iran Lordegan Petrochemical Lordegan Urea 3250 m-tpd E 2012 Stamicarbon Hampa
Iran NPC/Lordegan Petrochem Co Lordegan Urea Granulation 3250 m-tpd E 2012 Stamicarbon Hampa Hampa
Iran Ghadir Urea/Ammonia Petro Co Bandar Assaluyeh Urea (2) 3250 m-tpd C 2009 Stamicarbon Chiyoda|Toyo Japan Steam|PIDEC|Chiyoda
Iran Amir Kabir Petrochemical Petrochemical Special Polyethylene, LD 300 Mtpy 230 C 2009 Basell Namvaran|Daelim| Namvaran|Simon
Economic Zone Simon Carves Carves|Daelim
Iran Zanjan Petrochemical Zanjan Urea 3250 m-tpd E 2012 Stamicarbon Hampa
Iran NPC/Zanjan Petrochem Co Zanjan Urea Granulation 3250 m-tpd E 2012 Stamicarbon Hampa Hampa
Iraq SCOP Karbala * Refinery 140 Mbpd F 2010 Technip
Kuwait KPPC Shuaiba Industrial Area Naphtha, Light 800 Mtpy U 2009 UOP SKEC|Bechtel|Tecnimont SKEC|Tecnimont
Kuwait KNPC Al-Zour * Utilities None P 2012
Kuwait KNPC Mina Abdulla Hydrotreat, Resid (2) RE 150 Mbpsd P CLG
Kuwait KNPC Mina Al Ahmadi Hydrotreat, Resid RE 50 Mbpsd U 2011 CLG CLG
Kuwait Kharafi National Undisclosed Gas Treating 700 MMcfd 100 E 2009 Gas Liquids Eng
Qatar Qatar Petroleum Al Shaheen Scrubber None E 2012 Belco
Qatar Qatar Petroleum Al Shaheen Sulfur Recovery 650 tpd H 2013 Black & Veatch Technip
Qatar Qatar Petroleum Al Shaheen Sulfur Recovery (2) 650 tpd H 2013 Black & Veatch Technip
Qatar Qatar Petroleum Al Shaheen Treater, Tail Gas 650 tpd H 2013 Black & Veatch Technip
Qatar Qatar Petroleum Al Shaheen Treater, Tail Gas (2) 650 tpd H 2013 Black & Veatch Technip
Qatar Qatar Fuel Additives Mesaieed * Methanol 3000 m-tpd S 2010 MCSA MCSA MCSA
Qatar ExxonMobil Ras Laffan * Gas Processing (1) 850 MMscfd F 2009 Ortloff|GAA|EMRE| Chiyoda
Merichem |UOP
Qatar ExxonMobil Ras Laffan * Gas Processing (2) 850 MMscfd F 2009 Ortloff|GAA|EMRE| Chiyoda
Merichem|UOP
Qatar Qatar Shell GTL Ltd Ras Laffan Gas Processing 800 MMscfd U 2010 Merichem |Shell Chiyoda|HHI Chiyoda|HHI
Qatar Oryx GTL Ltd Ras Laffan Hydrocracker 34 Mbpd U 2011 CLG CLG
Qatar Qatargas 2 Ras Laffan LNG (4) 7.8 MMtpy 4 C 2009 APCI|UOP Chiyoda\TechnipJV Chiyoda\TechnipJV
Qatar Qatargas 2 Ras Laffan LNG (5) 7.8 MMtpy 4 C 2009 UOP|APCI Chiyoda\TechnipJV Chiyoda\TechnipJV
Qatar RasGas (3) Ras Laffan LNG (6) 7.8 MMtpy 200 U 2009 Shell|Ortloff|APCI| Chiyoda\TechnipJV Chiyoda\TechnipJV|
Merichem|UOP Dodsal
Qatar not disclosed Undisclosed * Gas Compression (1) 25 MW P 2010 Burckhardt Compression
Saudi Arabia Arabian Petrochemical Al Jubail * ABS 200 kty F Shaw
Saudi Arabia SHARQ Al Jubail MEG 700 Mtpy C 2008 SD
Saudi Arabia Sipchem Al Jubail Vinyl Acetate 300 Mtpy C 2008 DuPont|Eastman FW Fluor
Saudi Arabia Saudi Aramco Manifa Bay Processing, Heavy Oil 900 Mbpd E 2011 FW
Saudi Arabia Saudi Aramco Manifa Bay Project Management Services None E 2011 FW
Saudi Arabia Sipchem Jubail Ind City Project Management Services None C 2008 FW
Saudi Arabia Saudi Aramco Khurais NGL 70 Mbpd U 2009 HDEC|FW HDEC|FW
Saudi Arabia Saudi Aramco Khursaniyah * Utilities (2) EX None E Petrofac
Saudi Arabia PETRORabigh Rabigh Offsites None C 2008 FW FW
Saudi Arabia PETRORabigh Rabigh Petrochemicals None C 2008 FW
Saudi Arabia PETRORabigh Rabigh Refinery None C 2008 FW
Saudi Arabia Aramco Ras Tanura Sulfur Recovery 200 tpd F WorleyParsons FW
Saudi Arabia SABIC Undisclosed * Acrylonitrile 200 Mtpy 3204 S 2013
Saudi Arabia SABIC Undisclosed * Carbon Fiber 3 Mtpy 3204 S 2013
Saudi Arabia Sipchem Undisclosed * Ethylene Vinyl Acetate 200 Mtpy 810 S 2013
PROCESS & FURNACE TECHNOLOGI ES
OnQuest is a leader in process plant engineering and
combustion technologies for clients in the petroleum
and petrochemical industries. Our expertise includes
efficient, energy-saving designs for hydrocarbon
processing plants, with specialties in ammonia,
hydrogen, syngas, LNG, and ethanol plants.
We are also a world leader in direct-fired process
heater technology and burner management systems,
and have particular expertise in lump-sum, turnkey
projects, refurbishments, and revamps.
To learn more, call Randy Kessler at (909) 451-0502.
Process. Performance.
SOLUTIONS.
High-Performance Solutions Our designs prioritize
project efficiency, for shorter field schedules, reduced
man-hours, and lower costs.
World-Class Expertise Our engineers and process
experts have decades of experience in complex
design and installation projects.
Global Capability With offices in California, Texas,
and Calgary, Alberta, and representatives in South
America, Europe and Asia, we serve clients worldwide.
180 East Arrow Hwy | San Dimas CA 91773
Tel. (909) 451-0500 | Fax (909) 451-0499
www.onquest-inc.com
B-8

I

Saudi Arabia SABIC Undisclosed * MMA 250 Mtpy 3204 S 2013
Saudi Arabia SABIC Undisclosed * PMMA 30 Mtpy 3204 S 2013
Saudi Arabia SABIC Undisclosed * Polyacetyl resins 50 Mtpy 3204 S 2013
Saudi Arabia Sipchem Undisclosed * Polyvinyl Acetate 125 Mtpy 810 S 2013
Saudi Arabia SABIC Undisclosed * Sodium Cyanide 40 Mtpy 3204 S 2013
Saudi Arabia Osos Petrochemicals Yanbu Offsites None C 2008 FW FW
Saudi Arabia Osos Petrochemicals Yanbu PBT 60 Mtpy C 2008 FW
Saudi Arabia Osos Petrochemicals Yanbu Project Management Services None C 2008 FW FW
Saudi Arabia Osos Petrochemicals Yanbu Utilities None C 2008 FW FW
United Arab Emirates EPCL Dubai Hydrotreater 70 Mbpd U 2009 FW
United Arab Emirates EPCL Dubai Reformer, Cat None U 2008 FW
United Arab Emirates GASCO Habshan Project Management Services None U 2009 FW
United Arab Emirates GASCO Habshan Gas Complex Gas Plant EX 350 MMscfd U 2009 FW
United Arab Emirates EPCL Jebel Ali Offsites RE None U 2009 FW FW
United Arab Emirates EPCL Jebel Ali Refinery RE 120 Mbpd U 2009 FW FW
United Arab Emirates EPCL Jebel Ali Utilities RE None U 2009 FW FW
United Arab Emirates Borouge Ruwais Ethane Cracker EX 1.4 MMtpy U 2010 FW
United Arab Emirates GASCO Ruwais NGL (3) None U 2009 FW
United Arab Emirates Borouge Ruwais Offsites EX None U 2010 FW|Tecnicas Reunidas Tecnicas Reunidas
United Arab Emirates BorougeII Ruwais Polyethylene EX 540 Mtpy U 2010 Borealis A/S Tecnimont|FW Tecnimont
United Arab Emirates BorougeII Ruwais Polypropylene EX 400 Mtpy U 2010 Borealis A/S Tecnimont|FW Tecnimont
United Arab Emirates Takreer Ruwais * Scrubber, FCC None E 2015 Belco
United Arab Emirates Undisclosed Undisclosed * Gas Processing, Sour 60 MMscfd 2009 Epic Energy
PROJECT or CAPACITY
* First appearance in tabulation
By Increment of capacity added
To Total capacity after construction
Re Revamp, modernize or de-bottlenecknot reported
whether increment increase or final capacity
Ex Expansionnot classified
ABBREVIATIONS
bpd barrel per day
Bcf billion cubic feet
Bcfd billion cubic feet per day
Bcmy billion cubic meter per year
cfd cubic feet per day
cmd cubic meters per day
gpm gallons per minute
kg/hr kilograms per hour
kgmol/hr kilogram-mole per hour
kl kiloliter
kl/hr kiloliters per hour
kty kilotons per year
lb/d pounds per day
lb/hr pounds per hour
LTPD long ton per day
m
3
/hr cubic meters per hour
Mbpd thousand barrels per day
Mcfd thousand cubic feet per day
Mcfh thousand cubic feet per hour
Mcfy thousand cubic feet per year
Mgpd thousand gallons per day
Mm
3
thousand cubic meters
Mm
3
/d thousand cubic meters per day
Mm
3
/hr thousand cubic meters per hour
MMbpd million barrels per day
MMcfd million cubic feet per day
MMl/y million liters per year
MMlb/y million pounds per year
MMpcd million pounds per calendar day
MMscfd million standard cubic feet per day
MMNm
3
/h million normal cubic meters per hour
MMNm
3
/y million normal cubic meter per year
Mmtpd thousand metric tons per day
MMmtpy million metric tons per year
MMtpy million tons per year
MMtpd million tons per day
mt metric ton
Mt thousand tons
mtpd metric tons per day
Mtpy thousand tons per year
Mtpd thousand tons per day
MW megawatt
MWh megawatt per hour
Nm
3
/d normal cubic meter per day
Nm
3
/h normal cubic meter per hour
Scfd standard cubic feet per day
Sm
3
/h standard cubic meters per hour
tpd tons per day
tph tons per hour
tpy tons per year
EST. COST Cost in millions of US dollars.
This cost includes other units at this site and is
repeated with these other unitswhether they
appear here or completed in earlier listings.
STATUS
A Abandoned
C Completeddeleted from subsequent tabulations
E Engineering
F Feed
H Hold
M Maintenance
P Planning
U Under construction
T Presumed complete
S Study
SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS
ABBREVIATIONS FOR Licensor, Engineering or Constructor
AA Azar Aab Ind. Co.
AAT Acid Amine Technologies
ABL Alliance Bechtel Linde
ACS Actividades de Construccion Servicios, S. A.
ACSA Ammonia Casale SA
AET Advanced Extraction Technologies
APCI Air Products & Chemicals, Inc.
AKC Aker Kvaerner China
Astra Astra Evangelista SA
Basell Basell Polyolefine GmbH
BDI (Sinopec) Beijing Design Institute
BHEL Bharat Heavy Electricals Ltd.
BNI Ballast Nedam International B.V.
BPEC (Sinopec) Beijing Petrochemical Eng.
Burns Roe Burns and Roe Worley
CB&I Chicago Bridge & Iron Co. N.V.
CCC Consolidated Contractors Co.
CEPSA Compaa Espaola de Petrleos
CLG Chevron Lummus Global
CNCC China National Chemical Const.
CNCEC China National Chemical Eng. Corp.
CPECC China Petroleum Eng & Constr Corp
CWCEC China Wuhuan Chem. Eng. Corp.
Dedini Dedini S/A Indstrias de Base
ECC Erection & Construction Co.
Ecolaire Ecolaire Espana SA
EDL EDL Anlagenbau Gesellschaft MBH
EIED Energy Industries, Eng. & Design
EIL Engineers India Ltd.
EMRE ExxonMobil Research & Engineering
Energea Energea Unwelttechnologie GmbH
ENPPI Engineering for the Petr & Process Ind
FB&D Ford Bacon & Davis Co., Inc.
FFBL Fauji Fertilizer Bin Qasim Ltd.
FRIPP Fushun Research Institute of Petr &
Petrochemicals
FW Foster Wheeler Corp.
GAA Goar Allison & Assoc.
GE General Electric Co.
Genpro Genpro Engenharia Ltda
GLF Grand Lavori Fincosit SpA
GPN GPN Engineering & Process
GV Giammarco-Vetrocoke
HDEC Hyundai Engineering & Construction
HEC Hyundai Engineering Co. Ltd.
HHI Hyundai Heavy Industries
HQCEC Huanqiu Contracting & Eng. Corp.
HTI Hydrocarbon Technologies, Inc.
IAG International Alliance Group
ICI Imperial Chemical Industries plc
IET Integrated Environmental Tech
IFP Institut Franais du Ptrole
IHI Ishikawajima Harima Heavy Ind.
IMP Instituto Mexicano de Petrleo
IKPT PT Inti Karya Persada Tehnik
IOEC Iranian Offshore Eng & Constr.
IRSL Indo Rama Synthetics Ltd
ITL Independent Technology Ltd.
JGC Phil JGC Philippines
JJC JJC Contratistas Generales SA
JM Johnson Matthey Catalysts
JP Jahan Pars
KBC KBC Advanced Technologies plc
KBR Kellogg, Brown & Root, Inc.
KJT KBR/JGC/Technip JV
KPT Kvaerner Process Technology
KTY Consultoria e Projeto de Instalaes
Industriais
KVT Kanzler Verfahrentechink GmbH
Leighton Leighton Contractors Pty Ltd.
LGC LG Chemical Ltd.
LGI Le Gaz Integral
LGNCH OOO Lengironeftechim
L&T Larsen & Toubro Ltd.
LPEC Luoyang Petrochemical Eng. Corp.
MCC Mitsubishi Chemical Corp.
MCSA Methanol Casale SA
MEPI Middle East Project Intl.
MGC Mitsubishi Gas Chemical
MHI Mitsubishi Heavy Industries Ltd.
MES Mitsui Engineering & Shipbuilding
MWKL M W Kellogg Ltd.
NIOEC National Iranian Oil Eng. & Constr.
Niplan Niplan EngenhariaLtda
NPCC National Petroleum Construction Co.
NRC Navajo Refining Co.
OIEC Oil Industries Eng. and Constr.
OGP OGP Technical Services
OPD Optimized Process Designs, Inc.
PCL PCL Industrial
PCT Engr PCT Engineers Pty Ltd.
PDE Project Design Engineers Ltd.
PDF Process Design & Fabrication Pty Ltd.
PDIL Projects and Development India Ltd.
PECL Pacific Engineers & Constructors Ltd.
PIDEC Petrochemical Ind. Design & Eng. Co.
PRAJ PRAJ Industries Ltd.
Projectus Projectus Consultoria Ltda
REG Renewable Energy Group
RIPP Research Institute of Petr Processing
S&B S&B Engineers & Constructors
SD Scientific Design Co., Inc.
SCO Schrader-Camargo/Otepi
SEI Sinopec Engineering Inc.
Setal Setal Engenharia e Construcoes SA
SIAC SIAC Butlers Steel Ltd.
SKEC SK Engineering & Construction Co.
Shaw E & C Shaw Energy & Chemicals
SNEC Sinopec Ningbo Eng. Co.
Staff Staff
STC Service & Technology Corp.
Takreer Abu Dhabi Oil Refining Co
TBD To be determined
TCE TCE Consulting Engr., Ltd.
TJ Tehran Jonoob
UCC Union Carbide Corp.
UCSA Urea Casale SA
VEC VEC Ingenieria y Construccion
VTA Verfahrenstechnik & Automatisierung
GmbH
WEC Wuhuan Engineering Co. Ltd.
WGII Washington Group International Inc.
YFT Yara Fertilizer Technology
Yara-KT Yara-Kaltenbach Thuring
ZA Zoha Sonat
ZRCC Design Zhenhai Refining & Chemical Co.
HPI MARKETPLACE PROCESS EQUIPMENT AND MATERIALS HPI MARKETPLACE HPI MARKETPLACE PROCESS EQUIPMENT AND MATERIALS
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th
6 Floor, Antriksh Bhawan, 22, K.G.Marg, New Delhi -110001 (India)
Phone : +91 11 23357598 / 23311693
Fax : +91 11 23721656 / 23721657
Mail : kamal@kecindustries.com
Web : www.kecindustries.com
Representative Offices: Kuwait, France, USA
(Soliciting sales rep. for South East, Middle East Asia & China)
! An ISO 9001:2000 Company
! World class design & manufacturing facility with technical
backup from ENGINEERS INDIA LTD (EIL).
! KAMAL Air Preheaters (APH) approved by various
international inspection agencies such as LLOYDS, MOODY,
TUV, BV, DNV, UHDE, SGS and TOYO.
! More than 180 Air Preheaters supplied to Oil Refineries,
Petro Chemical, Fertilizer and Steel Plants are in operation
and giving satisfactory performance.
! International Clients served:
KTI Rome, Foster Wheeler-UK, JNK Korea, Heurtey France
for overseas supplies of APH to Qatar, Indonesia, Egypt,
Korea, Kuwait, Russia, Thailand, Myanmar and Poland.
Numerous international enquires under consideration.
! Most competitive prices & on time deliveries.
AIR PREHEATERS
(CAST & GLASS)
KAMAL
ABV Srl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 (177)
www.info.hotims.com/25253-177
ACS Industries Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 (76)
Altair Strickland. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 (110)
Ashland Inc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 (95)
Axens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 (53)
Bently Pressurized Bearing Co . . . . . . . . 76 (173)
BME Global Limited . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 (114)
Bryan Research & Engineering . . . . . . . . . 8 (113)
Carpenteria Corsi Srl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 (57)
Carver Pump Company . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 (156)
Chemstations Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 (153)
Coade Engineering Software . . . . . . . . . 70 (179)
Costacurta SpA Vico . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 (71)
Dresser-Rand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 (171)
Dyna-Therm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 (152)
Eaton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 (116)
Emerson Process Management
(Fisher Controls) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 (69)
Express Integrated Technologies. . . . . . . 30 (154)
FBM Hudson Italiana SpA . . . . . . . . . . . 41 (159)
Flexim GmbH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 (163)
Flexitallic LP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 (93)
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I

Y. ZAK FRIEDMAN, CONTRIBUTING EDITOR
HPIN CONTROL
Zak@petrocontrol.com
I, and others, have written much about the difficulties of main-
taining advanced process control (APC) applications.
15
It is a
problem to be tackled on many levels. There are issues of man-
ning, training and organizing that we APC engineers have only a
limited influence on. On the other hand there are other areas that
we do indeed influence, and this editorial addresses one of those:
Design of the APC application in a way that would make it easily
maintainable. What is more important for the APCto recover
100% of potential benefits or to recover 70% of potential benefits
and be easy to comprehend and maintain? Considering the history
of APC maintenance the latter is better by far.
I would like to offer several rules for making APC more robust and
durable, to the point that applications can survive in an environment
of poor maintenance, but lack of space permits only one rule, leaving
the others to be addressed by following editorials. The rule is generic
and should apply to any APC configuration, though the simple distil-
lation column of Fig. 1 will serve to illustrate the points.
Design rule 1. Do not clutter the control matrix.
Associate each control variable (CV) preferably with one, hope-
fully no more than two, manipulated variables (MVs).
But arent we dealing with a multivariable predictive control
(MVPC) tool? Cant we move many MVs to bring a CV to its desired
target? Yes, the CV of interest could have a model against many MVs,
but the easy-to-maintain (and to implement) application would
move only one or two handles per CV. If those two MVs are off then
the associated CV should be shed. In our distillation example, CV1 is
a top product purity inference and MV1, the associated manipulated
variable, is tray six temperature. Are there other MVs that could affect
the top product purity? Yes, of course, increasing reboiler steam,
MV2, would increase fractionation and affect the top purity. Increas-
ing column pressure, MV3, would change the equilibrium on tray
six and affect top product purity as well.
How then would the MVPC know that pressure and steam are
not to be used to control top purity? How would the top purity be
controlled when tray six TC is against a max limit?
Answer. Associate the column pressure, MV3, also with the top
quality. Now there are two handles for control of top quality. Set
one of these to a lower priority: Pressure changes are to take place
only when the tray temperature controller is against a limit. In a
well-operated application the tray temperature setpoint would not
be superficially bound, but in a poor maintenance environment, if
the operator makes a mistake of setting a temperature limit qual-
ity, control would still work.
And how should we use reboiler steam, MV2? The column of
our example has a DCS tray temperature controller manipulating
reflux. Increasing reboiler steam heats up the column, and the tray
temperature controller would close the heat balance by increasing
the reflux. This MV has only a limited influence on the top prod-
uct quality, and I would be inclined to use it solely to control reboil
ratio, CV3. A reasonable reboil ratio would ensure that if top purity
specification is met then bottom purity is also under control.
To complete this design we ought to consider abnormal con-
straints, such as a hydraulic reflux valve limit, CV2, or a flooding
limit, CV4. Should the demand for reboil ratio conflict with reflux
valve position or flooding constraint that renders the control
problem infeasible, dictating that the reboil ratio target, CV3,
must be abandoned.
Thus, we have come up with the simplest possible design, and
if the top product inferential model is reliable, such a design is
likely to survive in a lack of maintenance environment. HP
LITERATURE CITED

1
Friedman, Y. Z., Avoid advanced control project mistakes, Hydrocarbon
Processing, October 1992.

2
Latour, P. R., Does the HPI do its CIM business right?, guest editorial,
Hydrocarbon Processing, July 1997.

3
Friedman, Y. Z., Advanced process controlit takes effort to make it work,
HPIn Control, Hydrocarbon Processing, February 1997.

4
Kane L. A., Controversy in Control, editorial, In Control, March/April
1998.

5
Friedman, Y. Z., Audit your APC applications, Hydrocarbon Processing,
December 2006.

6
Friedman, Y. Z., Choosing inferential modeling tools, Hydrocarbon
Processing, January 2006.
APC designs for minimum maintenancePart 1
The author is a principal consultant in advanced process control and online
optimization with Petrocontrol. He specializes in the use of first-principles models
for inferential process control and has developed a number of distillation and reactor
models. Dr. Friedmans experience spans over 30 years in the hydrocarbon industry,
working with Exxon Research and Engineering, KBC Advanced Technology and since
1992 with Petrocontrol. He holds a BS degree from the Israel Institute of Technology
(Technion) and a PhD degree from Purdue University.
FC
FC FC
FC
FC
PC
Tray
25
Tray
30
LC
LC
TI
TC
TI
PI
LC
TI
TI
Steam
Tray 6
MV1
MV3
MV2
A distillation column candidate for APC. FIG. 1
Registered trademarks of T.D. Williamson, Inc. in the United States and in foreign countries. Trademarks of T.D. Williamson, Inc. in the United States and in foreign countries.
As the worlds leading provider of pressurized piping system mainte-
nance and repair capabilities, TDW delivers innovative, customized
products, services and solutions that optimize system performance
with a minimum of downtime.
Give us a call. And put our solutions to work for you.
NORTH & SOUTH AMERICA: 918-447-5000 | EUROPE/AFRICA/MIDEAST: 32-67-28-36-11
ASIA/PACIFIC: 65-6364-8520 | OFFSHORE SERVICES: 832-448-7200
For more information
Paris +33 1 47 14 25 14 Houston +1 713 840 1133 Email information@axens.net
The performance improvement specialists
www.axens.net
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and operational efficiency keep you
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