MANUFACTURING METHODS

ABRAHAM AUDU Group A2 abdb109@city.ac.uk

Abstract
The relative velocity of the wind tunnel was found to be 19.44ms-1. The critical angle or stall angle is =14: for this experiment, when this point is reached, the relative wind approaching the aerofoil gradually stops to flow over the upper surface of the aerofoil resulting in turbulence being created towards the trailing edge of the aerofoil. The Reynoldss number for this experiment is Re = 1.152 x 10-5 and comparisons will be made with the theoretical values.

Introduction
Basic aerodynamics principles suggest there are four forces acting on a plane whilst in flight as illustrated in Fig 1 below.

Fig1. (http://www.waybuilder.net/sweethaven/aviation/aerodynamics01/lessonmain.asp?num=0204 )

The following experiment is primarily concerned with the Lift force and in particular the effect it has on a cross-section of a wing of an aircraft known as an aerofoil. Fig 2 shows the wing of an aircraft on the left and a cross-sectional part of the wing on the right, known as an aerofoil.

Fig 2. (Oertel, H et al, 2004, p268) The Camber line is an imaginary line connecting the leading edge and trailing edge of the chord. Angle of attack , is the angle between the chord line L of an aerofoil and the vector representing the relative motion between the aerofoil and the air A = lift, W= drag R= Resultant force In its simplest sense an aerofoil section may be defined as that profile designed to obtain a desirable reaction from the air through which it moves (Dingle & Tooley, 2005, p548). Dingle & Tooley therefore imply that the lift force for flight is generated by converting air resistance. The purpose of this experiment is to measure the static pressure distribution around a symmetrical aerofoil, find the normal force and hence determine the lift-curve slope. (ENGINEERING LABORATORY, INSTRUCTION BOOKLET) The method to be used is a simulated environment using a T8 wind tunnel and manometer to calculate the static pressure at various points on the aerofoil for varying angles of attack (angles of incidence). Relative wind is generated by the wind tunnel to simulate the motion of the aerofoil travelling through air. Wind tunnel testing has provided factual experimental
information to assist in verifying and supporting theoretically derived data about aerofoil, wing and an entire aircraft itself.

Theory
To determine the pressure distribution around the symmetrical aerofoil, Pressure difference will be taken from 15 different points along the aerofoil. The points are divided into further subsections. Points 1-7 represent the upper surface (US) of the aerofoil; Points 8-13 represent the lower surface (LS). Points 0 and 14 represent the leading and trailing edges respectively. This is illustrated by fig 3.

Fig 3. Below are the measurements of each point (hole number) taken from the leading edge 0. Measurements are given in inches.

The pressure distribution on an aerofoil is calculated by resolving the value for Pressure Coefficient using the formula below and it can be shown that this value differs for various angles of incidence.
C=

The equation can be rearranged using Bernoullis equation as shown below Bernoullis Equation: P + P + = PATM = PATM - P
Cp = Cp =

(gz ~ 0, C = PTOTAL = PATM)

substituting P = gh

Where

h = pressure at points(tappings) 0, 1, 2, 3, 4.........13, 14 hs= Static Pressure in the tunnel working section ha= atmospheric pressure reading h, hs, ha values are obtained from the readings on the manometer. Therefore Cp of all the
tappings is calculated for each attack angle (angle of incidence).

There are 5 angles of attack (angles of incidence) = -4, +1, +6, +11, +16

The equation of state is used to obtain the value for density of air in the lab, this value is necessary in order to enable to calculation of the tunnel speed
Equation of State

air =

Plab = Barometer Reading for Lab Pressure Tlab = Laboratory Temperature R = Gas constant for air

Tunnel Speed is given as: airV2=m g(hs - ha ) sin Where g = acceleration due to gravity air = density of air in the lab m = density of manometer fluid = manometer inclination to the horizontal Lift Coefficient
CL =

is given by:

The lift coefficient for each angle is used to calculate the lift force for each attack angle.

Experimental Arrangements
Apparatus - T8 Wind tunnel (City University Aero Lab) - Multi-tube manometer - Barometer - Thermometer - Symmetric Aerofoil of 3.5 inches chord length

WIND TUNNEL T8

AEROFOIL

TEST SECTION

MANOMETER Fig4. The airfoil spans the tunnel test section and a multi-tube manometer is used to measure the pressure distribution of the wall tappings on the surface of the aerofoil for varying attack angles so that the corresponding values of lift coefficient can be calculated. In this experiment, an aerofoil is placed in the wind tunnel attached to a beam on one side of the test section. The airfoils angle of attack can be adjusted by rotating the mount which is connected to the beam holding the aerofoil. The tunnel will be run at a constant velocity while
the angle of attack will be taken at -4, +1, +6, +11 and +16 respectively.

The manometer is inclined at an angle of 19.9 degrees from the horizontal.

Results

Graph 1 shows Cp vs x/c at -4 degree angle of attack (angle of incidence).

Pressure distribution at incidence = -4 Degrees

-3 -2.5 -2 -1.5 Cp -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 US LS x/c 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1

Graph 2 shows Cp vs x/c at +1 degree angle of attack (angle of incidence).

Pressure distribution at incidence = +1 Degrees

-3 -2.5 -2 -1.5 Cp -1 -0.5 0 0 0.5 1 US LS 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 x/c 1

Graph 3 shows Cp vs x/c at +6 degree angle of attack (angle of incidence).

Pressure distribution at incidence = +6 Degrees

-3 -2 Cp -1 0 0 x/c 1 US LS 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1

Graph 4 shows Cp vs x/c at +11 degree angle of attack (angle of incidence).

Pressure distribution at incidence = +11 Degrees

-3 -2.5 -2 -1.5 Cp -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 US LS x/c 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1

Graph 5 shows Cp vs x/c at +16 degree angle of attack (angle of incidence).

Pressure distribution at incidence = +16 Degrees

-3 -2.5 -2 -1.5 Cp -1 -0.5 0 0 0.5 1 US LS 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 x/c 1

Graph 6 shows CL vs angle of attack (angle of incidence).

Lift Coefficient Vs Angle of Incidence

10 8 Lift Coeffiecient CL 6 4 2 0 -2 -4 -6 0 5 10 15 angle of incidence () 20 CL Poly. (CL)

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Graph 7 shows CL Theory and experimental vs angle of attack (angle of incidence).

20

Lift Coefficient Vs Angle of Incidence

15

10

Lift Coefficient

5 CL 0 -5 -5 0 5 10 15 20 CL Theory

angle of incidence ()

-10

-15

Graph 8 shows Lift force of point 1 on aerofoil vs angle of attack (angle of incidence).

Lift force of point(tapping) 1 Vs angle of incidence

100 80 Lift Force 60 40 20 0 -20 0 -40 -60 Angle of incidence 5 10 15 20 L for point 1

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See appendix for calculations.

Discussion
From the results above it can be seen clearly that as the attack angle (angle of incidence) is increasing to a positive value the lift component increases up to a maximum value. Looking at the Lift coefficient Vs angle of incidence graph this value is =14: for this experiment and the maximum lift coefficient is 7.5. This value is known as the stall point. In textbooks this point is also referred to as the critical angle or stall angle. Graph 8 shows that a maximum lift force of about 85 N (Newtons) is reached at angle of incidence of 14: for point 1 on the aerofoil. Typical pressure distributions on an aerofoil

Fig 5.
(Houghton E.L. & Carpenter P.W, 2003, p29) Using Fig 5 for illustration purpose it can be clearly seen that as the angle of attack increases so does the pressure on the upper surface of the aerofoil. Also as the angle of attack increases the lift coefficient at stagnation shifts from the trailing edge to the lower surface causing a stall. When the stall point is reached, the relative wind approaching the aerofoil gradually stops to flow over the upper surface of the aerofoil resulting in turbulence being created towards the trailing edge of the aerofoil. The theoretical Reynolds number is in a range from 120,000 to 400,000, and the Reynolds number in this experiment is 115214.4. The transition from graph 1 to graph 2 shows as the angle of incidence moves from -4 to +1 the pressure on the upper surface is proportional to the pressure on the lower surface. Graph 2 to graph 3 shows the change in pressure on the upper surface increases from angle of incidence of +1 to +6.

The Pressure distribution on the upper surface is seen to approach maximum in graph 4 with a value of -2.75 however there is a rapid decrease in the value of the pressure distribution on the upper surface to -1.7 as shown in graph 5 indicating the stall point has been reached. The theoretical lift curve slope for graph 6 can only be used upto the stall point, which theoretically is between 10: and 15:. Graph 7 shows the theoretical lift curve slope to have a value of 0.1097 per degree however the experimental value is As the angle of incidence increases the value of Cp increases from 0.031 at -4 angle of attack to 0.625 at + 16 angle of attack. Looking at graph 6 it can be seen the aerofoil has no lift at 1:. Both Random uncertainties as well as systematic uncertainties occurred. To better the experiment i would have taken and accounted for these errors in my calculations. The values obtained have been rounded up or down above and below the true value respectively. I would have used a computer or another instrument to offset the uncertainties, which in turn will provide more accurate results.

Conclusion
Relative wind passing over the top of the aerofoil produces aerodynamic. The shape of the airfoil causes a low pressure area above the aerofoil according to Bernoulli's Equation, and the decrease in pressure on top of the aerofoil creates an upward force. It is apparent from the experiment that an aerofoil has lift only if the pressure is higher on the lower surface than the upper surface. It can be concluded that: (i) At low angle of incidence the lift is caused by the difference between the pressure on the upper surface and lower surface (ii) At higher incidences the lift is partly due to pressure reduction on the upper surface (iii) The pressure reduction on the upper surface increases both in intensity and extent until, at large angle of incidence. (iv) The stagnation point moves progressively further back on the lower surface and the increased pressure on the lower surface covers a greater proportion of the surface.

References
Dingle,L & Tooley,M (2005) Aircraft Engineering Principles. Butterworth-Heineman Fundamentals of Aerodynamics (2008) Forces acting on an aircraft Avaliable at:
http://www.waybuilder.net/sweethaven/aviation/aerodynamics01/lessonmain.asp?num=0204 (Accessed: 18 November 2008)

Houghton E.L & Carpenter P.W (2003) Aerodynamics for Engineering Students Butterworth-Heineman Oertel, H, Prandtl,L, Bhle,M, & Mayes, K (2004) Prandtl's Essentials of Fluid Mechanics. Springer

Appendix
RAW DATA FROM EXPERIMENT
Tube No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 31 Attack Angle, Pressure Point on aerofoil Atmospheric pressure 0 1 8 2 9 3 10 4 11 5 12 6 13 7 14 Reference Pressure -4 +1 +6 Pressure Value (inches) 4.2 4.2 4.2 6.8 4.9 5.9 6.8 9.3 11.7 12.4 8.4 6.1 5.3 7.8 11.4 11.4 9.1 7.5 7.7 9.2 10.5 10.7 9.5 8.6 8.3 9.1 10.0 10.2 9.3 8.6 8.3 8.9 9.5 9.4 8.8 8.6 8.1 8.5 8.2 8.4 8.4 8.1 7.8 7.9 8.0 7.7 7.5 7.7 7.4 7.4 7.4 +11 4.2 10.6 15.5 4.9 15.9 6.1 11.7 7.6 10.2 7.9 9.5 8.2 8.7 8.0 8.1 7.9 7.4 +16 4.2 8.4 10.5 5.0 12.7 5.9 10.3 7.5 10.2 7.8 10.1 8.4 10.4 8.5 9.9 9.4 7.4

Pressure Coefficient:
C=

Bernoullis Equation: P + P + = PATM = PATM - P

Cp = Cp =

(gz ~ 0, C = PTOTAL = PATM)

substituting P = gh

c = chord length = 3.5 =0.0889m h = pressure at points0, 1, 2, 3, 4.........13, 14 Convert inches to metres: inches * 0.0254 = metres hs= Static Pressure in the tunnel working section = reference pressure (tube 31) = 7.4inches = 0.188 ha= atmospheric pressure reading = atmospheric pressure (tube 1) = 4.2 inches = 0.1067m hs, ha values are in meters Cp is calculated for each point of the aerofoil and for each angle of attack (angle of incidence). There are 5 angles of attack (angle of incidence), = -4, +1, +6, +11, +16

Foil number 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

x (distance from leading edge) 0 0.05

x/c 0

=(-4) 0.1875 0.1875 0.65625 0.09375 0.28125 0.28125 0.21875 -0.125 -1.5625 -1.25 1.03125 -0.875 -0.625 -0.3125 0.09375

0.014286 0.18 0.051429 0.53 0.151429 1.23 0.351429 1.75 0.5 2.45 0.7 3.15 0.9 0.09 0.025714 0.26 0.074286 0.88 0.251429 1.49 0.425714 2.1 0.6 2.8 0.8 3.5 1

=(+1) =(+6) 0.78125 0.46875 0.59375 1.34375 -0.125 -1.25 -0.5625 0.96875 0.53125 -0.8125 0.46875 0.65625 0.34375 -0.25 0.15625 -0.1875 -0.3125 0.40625 0.53125 0.03125 0.65625 -0.375 0.59375 -0.375 -0.4375 -0.375 -0.3125 0.21875 0.03125 0.09375

= (+11) -1 -2.53125 -2.65625 -1.34375 -0.875 -0.65625 -0.40625 -0.21875 0.78125 0.40625 -0.0625 -0.15625 -0.25 -0.1875 -0.15625

= (+16) -0.3125 -0.96875 -1.65625 -0.90625 -0.875 -0.84375 -0.9375 -0.78125 0.75 0.46875 -0.03125 -0.125 -0.3125 -0.34375 -0.625

Equation of State

air =

Plab = Barometer Reading for Lab Pressure = 1010mb = 101kPa Tlab = Laboratory Temperature R = Gas constant for air
= 22:C + 273 = 295K = 287 JKg-1K-1

Substituting values into the equation of state air = 101000/ (295 * 287) air = 1.193 kgm-3

Tunnel Speed is given as: airV2=m g(hs - ha ) sin air = density of air in the lab = 1.193 kgm-3 m = density of manometer fluid = 830 kgm-3 = manometer inclination to the horizontal = 19.9: Therefore rearranging equation gives tunnel speed V = ( Substituting values into the equation for tunnel speed V={( 2 * 830 kgm-3 *9.81ms-2 *(0.1880m -0.1067m)*sin19.9)/1.193} V = 19.44ms-1 Lift Coefficient
CL =

is given by:

Using a variety of methods such as the trapezium rule etc the value of Lift coefficient CL can be calculated for each attack angle (angle of incidence) by getting an approximation for the area between the upper surface and lower surface on each graph. Theoretical value of CL is given as 2 per radian.
-4 1 6 11 16 CL CL Theory -4.55 -12.5664 0.355 3.141593 3.525 18.84956 7.175 7.325

By rearranging the equation L (lift force) can be calculated

CL =

-4 1 6 11 16

L for point 1 -51.2843 4.001302 39.73124 80.87138 82.56208

Reynolds number: Re = Vc/ vair V= tunnel speed = 19.44 ms-1 c= chord length = 0.0889

vair = Kinematic viscosity of air = 1.5 x 10-5 m2s-1

Substituting values into equation Re = 19.44 ms-1 * 0.0889m/ 1.5 x 10 m2s-1 Re = 115214.4
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