CORROSION AND CHEMICAL RESISTANT MASONRY MATERIALS HANDBOOK

Edited by

Walter Lee Sheppard, Jr.

C.C.R.M., Inc. Havertown, Pennsylvania

NOYES PUBLICATIONS
Park Ridge, New Jersey, U.S.A.

Copyright @ 1986 by Noyes Publications No part of this book may be reproduced in any form without permission in writing from the Publisher. Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 8525929 ISBN: O-8155-1053-5 Printed in the United States Published in the United States of America Noyes Publications Mill Road, Park Ridge, New Jersey 07656 10987654321 by

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Main entry under title: Corrosion and chemical resistant masonry.

Data

Bibliography: p. Includes index. 1. Corrosion and anti-corrosives--Handbooks, manuals, etc. 2. Masonry--Materials--Corrosion-Handbooks, manuals, etc. I. Sheppard, Walter Lee, 1911TA418.74.C5926 1986 620.1304223 85-25929 ISBN O-8155-1053-5

It

seems

appropriate for this

to

dedicate who but

this who There each person

volume died

to

those vide their them: ity ever

friends sections sections lgnatius

and experts could Metil, and

had agreed

to probefore of W. will his

book, Walter

be written. Morrow, and

are four David who of

Szymansky,

McDowell, remain

and

Stanley

an author-

in his field, as well

a wonderful respect

in the

affection

associates

as those

of his family.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Those and too have our spots. cation tion, who have rendered in putting permission material, of their to mention for assistance individually. the and at use of who to the authors together are far Those who previously are

editor given use

this volume

numerous

published

and those drawings

have permitted illustrations the who appropriate by dedimenspecial

acknowledged However and and that

individually there is Sylvia to corrected selfless work

is one person has merited Levy, the material who editor

has been of inin rearranging

estimable and retyping

assistance

for publication.

xii

Contributors

William College Rutgers

H. Bauer of Ceramics of Engineering University New Jersey

William Dow Freeport,

M. Eckert Corporation, U.S.A. Texas

Department

Chemical

Piscataway,

W.O. Eisenhut Adhesive Engineering California Company San Carlos, Harold

James P. Bennett United Bureau States Department of Interior of Mines Research of Alabama Alabama Center Tuscaloosa University University, John Sohio Niagara A.A. Atlas

L. Fike Institute D.C.

The Sulphur Washington, David

W. Fowler of Civil of Texas Texas Goltz Corporation Pennsylvania III Engineering

Department A. Bonar Division Materials Co. Kurt Pennwalt Boova Minerals and Chemicals, Inc. Eugene Garlock, Brian L. Cooley Continental-Heine Illinois Corp. Al Hendricks Wisconsin Thomas F. Degnan Delaware
XIII

University Austin,

Refractories

Engineered

Falls, New York

King of Prussia, Pennsylvania

Mertztown,

C. Heilhecker Incorporated New York

Sodus,

Peabody

Des Plaines,

Protective

Coatings

Green

Bay, Wisconsin

Wilmington,

...

xiv

Contributors

Hans J. Hoffmann Abresist Urbana, Edmond Con/Chem Furlong, Harlan Corporation Indiana W. Jarret Incorporated Pennsylvania

Kenneth Ashland Columbus, Milton

A. Poss Chemical Ohio Company

H. Potter Delaware

Wilmington, Dorothy

A. Richter New Hampshire

H. Kline Coatings

G EOSS Salem,

Ameron-Protective Division Brea, California Donald Pennwalt J. Kossler

Paul E. Schlett Exxon Research and Company Park, New Jersey Engineering Florham Mary

Corporation

Orange, California Lou Schmidt Corporation Pennsylvania William Albany United Albany, C. McBee Research Center States Department Oregon Pennwalt

Philadelphia,

Bureau of Mines Wesley Severance The Ceilcote Berea, Ohio Walter Research Kingdom Lee Sheppard, Incorporated Pennsylvania Jr. Company of the Interior

Henry G. Midgley llminster Iiminster, Robert United Cement United

C.C.R.M., Havertown,

E. Moore Engineers and Incorporated Pennsylvania

Oliver W. Siebert Monsanto Corporation St. Louis, Missouri William R. Slama Company

Constructors, Philadelphia, Edward

G. Nawy of Civil and Engineering

The Ceilcote Berea, Ohio Richard New Jersey

Department

Environmental Rutgers University New Brunswick, Keith R. Pierce

J. Smith Company Pennsylvania

Patterson-Kelley East Stroudsburg, Joseph J. Spisak

Harsco Corporation Department Sciences University Duluth, Sandor Drexel of Minnesota Minnesota Popovics of Civil Engineering Pennsylvania University of Mathematical Pennwalt Pittsburgh, Corporation Pennsylvania

Larry C. Stephans Rochester, New York

Department Philadelphia,

Contributors

xv

Anthony

J. Stump0 Incorporated New Jersey

Robert

L. Trinklein
Bend, Arkansas

Burmah-Castro1 Hackensack, Thomas Boulder Bureau United Boulder

Horseshoe Joseph

M. Walters Company Pennsylvania Springs,

A. Sullivan City

(Retired)

J.M. Waiters Chester

Engineering

Laboratory of Mines States City, Department Nevada C.V. Wittenwyler Shell Development Texas Company Center Westhollow Houston, Research

of the Interior

Preface

The public to concrete and eventual The a result borne that

is accustomed metals). from away results generally

to thinking The engineer the rusting

of corrosion usually considers of the reinforcing and alloys. (or corrosion) and

as the rusting it to include

of iron damage

(and of some other wasting

bars, and the pitting of iron and steel as that are airwalls identhat the sources on floors, engineers brick,

of various thinks action of

metals air,

public

of the rusting rain,

of weathering-the from But chemicals equipment. that

contaminants recognizes or splashed and chemical plastics,

such as salt spray

the ocean. in tanks, other

The engineer and spilled chemists or destruction

also include and other tify fore, etc.) fined subject The etc.) not

contained few

than

corrosion something corrosion nor of the

as chemical

degradation

of a material,

and theretimber, so depublic The be-

can happen thirty

to nonmetals

(concrete,

as well as to metals. over corrosion trained even that

The National years

Association

of Corrosion Societys

Engineers membership.

ago but this fact of that kinds thinks Both has never

has still not attained been adequately of nonmetals. first of metal shaped (steel,

recognition,

of a large number of nonmetals different usually

studied

cause it is so vast-there university designing more first when

are so many engineer chemical they

alloy, think etc.,

equipment-something is needed. of floors, think dykes,

easily architects

and erected, pits,

occupying

space than

and engineers sumps,

of concrete because they looks there to the designs specified for may

when

trenches,

are easily formed of equipment, that will

and poured. whether it be a storage forgets vessel, or process vessel, (or chemical what damdifferences or who and corrosion to check process The civil details if the order range of the all his structural and aggregate,

The designer a metal age) from

be suitable-without He often of the metal

his process

or chemicals.

be in the suitability is changed, of cleaners may mix types

of adding

the chemicals is increased, engineer correctly,

process the

the temperature out

if certain

are used on the equipment.

floor

have worked

the correct

of sand, cement vii

but still not considered

VIII

...

Preface

what sion bulk

chemicals (chemical plant Metal that

may

be spilled may

on the floor

and how put effect

to protect

it from mix

corroby the the in-

damage), will prevail.

or that

the additives

in the concrete on the concrete

or contractor

have an adverse concrete from will structures

under

conditions ert

or steel reinforced attack rarely

which

are not in themselves in which surfacing. they often

to chemical under

(corrosion)

the environment by a metallic

are dea coat-

signed ing.

to serve can very

be protected

The normal

protection

such conditions

be supplied

by a nonmetal,

Each nonmetal

so used has its own

limitations-chemical

or thermal-which

must be considered. Therefore, in many cases, a combination of two or more nonmetals is required to provide the necessary ultimate protection to the steel or concrete. Among vitriol fore made for acid had little cemented the chemicals called effect known to the ancients was sulfuric found be made fireclay. acid-or that oil of as they manufactured together of water-glass it. Two on granite with either (sodium millenia the ago alchemists floor mixed could with cold sulfuric blocks mortar more to preused resistant

and on hard burned hot-poured silicate) clay sulfur

The acid was thereof granite

in areas where

joints

or a slow setting being much

clean silica sand. Containers either sulfur or lead joints, was often

the acid could

be hard

burned be carried

pots or lead, the latter

expensive. vent to fied, parts: tial not

The acid could Natural or that A putty sections

in clay pipe with (lead was the over two oxide)

or in lead pipe. leakage. seal clay

asphalts made tops.

were used as coatings This inception millenia

and as membranes and glycerin of without chemically

of litharge

masonry,

a discipline

has evolved masonry

ever being codiindependent to protect does

and rarely Chemically supporting

recognized resistant from structure, thermal

for its importance structures fluid membrane satisfactory functions 93% sulfuric there

to the engineer are composed stop, abuse. and resistant require instance, materials, These

or the architect. of three lining

inner three

the membrane to any mean that

and mechanical may

parts are essenThis materials. en(condestroy material memmany is

economically the three vessel for ambient,

chemically always by two for

structure. distinct

three

The three tirely out

functions of carbon

may be accomplished steel, providing and that mill by that scale), However, that

or even a single one. is kept high, the

A storage temperature tamination) steel that (to the storage brane. mately such inner mortar ing the acts rubber liquid

acid,

may be constructed pick-up then (barrier) (and for an acid level.

the acid concentration acid

is no objection to with 12 to sheet

to some iron 15% and will rubber

in the acid. clean tank, off

if the sulfuric is lined

is to be used to pickle or another

it is diluted

unless the tank of steel, temperature which

is unaffected 200F. membrane lined joint, with

acid concentration the temperature is too will layer face high

and can act as a true of the acid for natural and brick fail rubber with

In the pickling This

is raised to approxiunless the rubber resistant reducIt also the memwhile

materials) lining

age rapidly

an insulating on the brick lining

such as acid accept keep rubber the to pickled

which

can itself to

the higher

temperature steel from

temperature lining. The

of the

an acceptable

as a mechanical

protection

damaging

may not serve by itself-without of brick always and mortar pass through joints this will

the rubber lining

brane-because

structures Some

composed liquid

can not be made and get to

and gas tight.

Preface

ix

the steel, causing An all plastic tuting attack sonry perature functions tions Brick gas and but bined types tall), ment design, (I) where with of spent lining the plastic

the steel to be corroded tank may be used for acid. rapidly the plastic down hydrochloric sufficiently inside However,

and eventually a chemical at higher

destroyed. the acid will unless a mabring the temthen, functhat comof these 800+ feet equipfor the

process such as the reconstitemperatures,

to make

its use uneconomical the interior-to and the three

is placed

to insulate

on the face of the plastic as supporting by two can and liquid their their mortar structure materials. materials

to an acceptable

level. The plastic, necessary the fact ability),

and membrane, should though only slowly, attack chimney

are supplied

be used alone through them (load

where

penetrate,

is not

important,

considerable resistance

compressive to chemical

strength

bearing

can be useful. liners (some

Examples of them for chemical

of structures foundations subject From what

are: self-supporting set in acid contaminated

soil, and supports

to splash or spill. has been said above, the following resistant rules can be outlined masonry: be composed a supporting the supporting masonry of comstructure, structure corto lining or other and use of chemically resistant provide reached and

construction All (2) from roding protect

chemically to an

construction functions: to

must (I) keep

ponents

three

impervious medium,

membrane

being

and attacked

by the chemicals resistant

(3) a chemically

the membrane. resistant or a laid joints) (I) providing masonry up lining liner (which of may be a monounits suband/or

(II)

The lithic and strate lating

chemically material mortar by: the of

composed layer thermal

individual

supplies

protection strong

to membrane protection high

a hard, from (3) the

to prevent

mechaniby insuon the chemicals

cal abuse of the surface

or abrasion, membrane the liquid,

(2) providing

unacceptably

temperatures of

contained

by altering

the environment movement

membrane-preventing a stagnant puzzle present, the reaction With through then, fluids some. the

over the surface-creating This direct interior fresh proach tiny The further Thus posed years third item were surface, surfaces of the capillaries reaction approach a membrane directly of may not with any fluids liquids products, of the lining to the a brick

condition. Think contained of it this fluid way. would moved If the be in of and apover the off only

masonry

contact

membrane.

As the fluids created would in brickwork in place

products the the brick

by the attack be washed the

the contained

on the membrane

exposed.

place,

is linear-through surface. down exinand of the slow

in the brick,

terminating remain to that

at the membrane

the surface become lined

membrane. when by the

material may rubber

is unacceptable acceptable company from

fluids lining.

terposition

A large chemical

has for damage

been able to protect

steel tanks

Preface

by

a solution

of hydrochloric brick linings

acid containing Without into

some mineral the brick, the rubber,

oils,

by installing With soon stops, (II I)

in the tanks.

the oils which it

swell the rubber the brick swells

and the acid penetrates in place, all the tiny being

to the steel in a few days. But then The swelling

the oils penetrate restrained

to fill

pores in the brickwork. by the brick. to the steel. concrete, units that

can swell

no further,

and the acid can not get through resistant is usually masonry, impossible. book is cast-a unlike

Chemically forced. forcement ward Where is most fore, are: and They (1)

is not usually and mortar, proves a sulfur

reinrein-

Where

it is composed

of structural is the exception monolithic same rule holds.

(In the section silicate,

on paper mills tothis rule.) concrete it There-

the end of this the masonry often

or a polymer chemically

concrete-the reinforced resistant they (2) regular a liquid

Where

it is gunned, concretes) in tension to

by anchoring masonry on are, but

it to the substrate. for polymer weak of mortar normally

(except

Excellent (since unit). and in thick

in compression, rely They sections,

shear will,

bond

strength blows,

con-

struction vibration nor

in many

cases, somewhat but not all have some they can not

brittle. measurgases be ex-

absorb They liquid

(in most cases)

pounding. head.

(3) They words,

able degree restrain pected This with masonry propriate tails tempted vantages points the tance erations quently The block, vides covers the volume materials. materials, them select to and

of absorption.

can not contain tight.

pressurized

In other

to be in themselves is directed buildings write and those and the It contains to those

engineers which and

and architects may require necessary proper

who

are charged resistant the deatits adviewgives be the most apWe have

designing

equipment the specifications for

chemical and draw

information their there sections.

to select

instructions on each topic is disagreement

covering

necessary authors

installation.

best informed

to discuss as many section that

limitations. is divided materials. the section section the

In areas where into Section fourteen and

as possible

have been given. The introductory architect materials structure membrane other of engineer an experienced the various the supporting on the various various for types brick on the impormay and the considsystems types. units: section Section application followed by and tile. with plastics, and brick, proVI most fre-

The volume views of these provide involved employed, fourth and etc., similar

of a practicing

II discusses and design. data the and

used to

physical provides

strength,

in its selection together with

The third

data on a great many advantages

covers for for

construction The fifth for and polymer together

limitations

of each.

information grouts

mortars large voids

and grouts

castables,

and machinery, linings joint

concretes;

seventh-monolithics-includes section section Next is a short on design covering

gunned covers expansion waste

data, and the eighth sections

materials. of rigid (piping manholes),

the fabrication handling

fundamentals,

Preface

xi

prestressing-the expanding tension. The resistant uses and resistant penultimate masonry limitations materials away

system from

employed lining

to

prevent the

a supporting inner lining

structure

from

an inner section

leaving

in unacceptable uses of chemical discussion section of the

covers sprayed

special sulfur

subjects: power industry. coatings,

chimneys, a short

materials of hot

in the nuclear and paper

field,

and the use of chemically The final is devoted

in the pulp

to the related Havertown, January

subjects Pennsylvania

of inspection

and failure

analysis. Walter Lee Sheppard, Jr.

1986

Contents

PREFACE.............................................vi CONTRIBUTORS ....................................... SECTION INTRODUCTION 1. AN ENGINEER Robert Introduction. Definition Chemically Masonry Carbon Foamed Specialty Mortars Silica Sulfur LOOKS AT CHEMICALLY RESISTANT MASONRY. xiii

.. .2
.2

E. Moore

.....................................
and Types of Chemically Resistant Units Masonry Resistant Masonry.

.........
.......

.3
.5

Components

and Materials.

Membranes. AcidBrick

.................................... ..................................
................................. ...7

.6
.7 .8 .9 and .9 0 10 Silica Brick,

Brick

.................................
Glass Block Brick, .................... and Insulating and Block for Brick

Borosilicate Brick

High Alumina

........................ and Tile. ..................

Tile........................................1 and Grouts Mortars. Mortars. Mortars Silicate

...............................
...............................

11
.I1

...............................
...............................

.I1
.I1

Resin Mortars. Hydraulic Chemically Power Specific Conclusion. Bibliography. Resistant Industry-Flue Power

Mortars

.............................
Applications ................. Systems Gas Desulfurization FGD System

.I2
13 14 15

Masonry

Plant

Experience.

.......... .............

..................................... ....................................
xvii

.I8 .I8

x VIII

..

Contents

2. AN ARCHITECTURAL

SPECIFIER

LOOKS AT CORROSION

RESISTANT
Milton

MASONRY

................................

.20 .20 .21 .22 .22

2

H. Potter

Preview. ....................................... Basic Data ...................................... Materials and Methods of Construction-Masonry

Substrate. Masonry

System .......

....................................
Units

Membrane.....................................2

................................. ........................... Liner Plate and Tile. Quarry Tile ................................. Ceramic Tile. ................................
Resistant Cements. Joints. Details. Cements and Mortars

.23 .23
.24 .24

Corrosion Sulfur Expansion Required

...............

Resin Mortars.

.............................. ............................... ............................... ...............................

.24 .24
.25

.25
.25

SECTION II STRUCTURAL MATERIALS CORROSION RESISTANT 3. METALLIC SHELLS.

SUPPORTING MASONRY .28 .28

..................................

Thomas F. Degnan

Introduction. .................................... Materials Selection. ................................

General Brittle Considerations. Fracture. Service

...........................

.28 .28
.29

................................

.......................... ......................... High Temperature Service. Corrosion Resistant Shells. ......................... ...................... Other Corrosion Considerations ....................... Economics of Steel Selection.
Low Temperature Design Considerations of Shell Cylindrical or Conical .............................. ............................... Vessels ......................... Bottoms Thickness Tolerances. Vertical Dished

.31 .34
.35

.37
.37 .39 .39

...................................

.40
.43 .43 .43 .44 .44 ..4 6 .47 .47 .48 8 .48 .48

....................... Flat Bottoms ................................ Horizontal Cylindrical Vessels ....................... Rectangular or Square Vessels .......................
Flooring.. Construction Nozzles, Internals Surface ..................................

............................. ....................... Inlets and Outlets ...................................

Details Preparation

Welds......................................4 Pressure Testing

............................ ................................

Contents

xix

Model Specification. Appendix: of Metallic Masonry References. Guideline

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .48
Specification for the Design and Fabrication Service. . . . . . . . . . . . .49 Are to Receive Chemical-Resistant Immersion

Vessels Which

Linings for Chemical

. . . .. . . . . . . ..

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .55
7

4.CONCRETE..........................................5 Edward G. Nawy Introduction.

Concrete-Producing

.................................... Materials. ......................... Portland Cement. ............................... Manufacture. ................................ Strength ...................................
Influence of Voids and Type ................................. of Cement on the Durability of Concrete ................................

.57 .57 .57 .57 .58

.59 .59 9 .60 .60

Water and Air. Entrained

Water......................................5

............................... Water/Cement Ratio ........................... Aggregates. ................................... Introduction. ................................ Coarse Aggregate. ............................. Fine Aggregate. .............................. Admixtures ................................... ......................... Criteria for Quality Concrete. Compactness ..................................
Air. Strength.. Water/Cement Texture. Quality ..................................

.60
.60

.60
.61 .61

.62 .62
..6 2

............................. .....................................
Ratio Concrete

Mix Designs for Nuclear-Shielding Tests on Concrete. Workability Air Content Compressive Flexural Tensile or Consistency. Strength Tests

..............

...........................
........................ Concrete. Beams.

.62 .62 .63 .63

.63

...................................
of Hardened

.............
..............

.63 .63
.66

Strength Splitting

of Plain Concrete

............................ ........................ Placing and Curing of Concrete

Placing.. Properties ................................... of Hardened Concrete Curing........................................6

.66 .67
..6 7 7

....................... ............................ Compressive Strength. Tensile Strength ................................

Stress-Strain Shrinkage. Curve. ..............................

.67 .68 .68

.69

.................................... ................................... .....................................

.70
1

Creep........................................7 Reinforcement References. Summary........................................7

.71
2

.73

xx

Contents

5. TIMBER CHEMICAL Walter

AS A STRUCTURAL RESISTANT Lee Sheppard, Jr.

MATERIAL

TO SUPPORT .74

MASONRY.

.......................

Selection

of Wood Structure

..........................

.80
..8 0

DesignNotes.. Bibliography. 6. SOME NOTES

.................................

Possible Sizes and Shapes

............................ ....................................
AS THE SUPPORTING STRUCTURE.

.83 .84
. . .85

ON PLASTICS Jr.

Walter

Lee Sheppard,

SECTION MEMBRANES 7. SHEET Walter LININGS ..................................... Jr.

III

.88 8 .89 .91 .92 .92 3 .93 .94 .94 .95 ..9 6 .................. .96 .97 7 ......................

Lee Sheppard,

History.........................................8 Types of Sheet Loose Liners. Substrate ................................... .................................... ............................. Lining .........................

Requirements

Testing the Completed Manufacturer Diffusion Chemical Damage Repairs.. Bibliography.

Curing..........................................g .................................... ............................ ............................. Resistance Resistance. and Absorption and Thermal or Degradation

..................................... ....................................

Sources of Data on Chemical Addendum.......................................9 8. FLUID-APPLIED Introduction. MEMBRANES. Jr.

. . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . 98 .......
98 ....... 99 100 ...... ...... 107
. . . . . 109

Walter Lee Sheppard,

Methods

.. . . . Fillers. . . . . . . .. .. . . References. . . . .. . . .
of Application NONMETALLIC

. . .

9. RIGID

MEMBRANES Jr.

Walter Lee Sheppard, 10. HOT ASPHALT Suitable

.............
Jr. Substrates

.. . . . .. . . . . .. . .......

. . ........ ........ ........ ........ ........

. 111
113 113 115 116 117

Walter Lee Sheppard, Application

............

Gauging Thickness.

....... Inspection and Repair ..... Limitations ............

Contents

xxi

Reinforcing Other Cold Asphalt Additional Reinforcing 11. FIRED GLASS References. Bibliography. 12. LEAD

....................................
of Hot Asphalt .....................

117
117 118 119 ............... 121

Applications

.......................... Applications. Notes. ................................

Fabrics for Asphalt Membranes

AND

PORCELAIN Jr.

AS MEMBRANES.

. . . . . . . . . . . 123

Walter Lee Sheppard,

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .I26 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Lee Sheppard, FURAN Jr.

AS A MEMBRANE

. . . . . . . . . . . . 127

Oliver 13. GLASS

W. Siebert and Walter FABRIC REINFORCED Jr.

MEMBRANES

..........

134 137 138

Walter

Lee Sheppard,

Installation. References. 14. EPOXY/PHENOLICS. Al Hendricks Properties Resistance

.................................... .................................... ......................

. . . . . . . . . . 139 ..........
..........
.......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ..........

.......................... .......................... Water Resistance. ................... Solvents. ......................... ......................... Alkalies.

Acids ........................... Resistance Temperature

139
140 140 140 140 140 140 140 140 141 141 141 141 141 141

............... Abrasion Resistance. ................. ....................... Weathering. ........................... Toxicity Surface Preparation .................... ......................... Application Usage ............................. ..................... Bake Systems. Air Dry Systems ....................
SECTION

MASONRY
15. ACID BRICK Acid AND SILICA BRICK

IV UNITS
144 144 144 147 149 149 149

........................
Bricks)

James P. Bennett Brick

and William

M. Eckert

(Red Shale and Fireclay

...............

................................... Properties ................................. Applications.

Chemical Resistance. .......................... Temperature Limit ........................... Pressure Effect ..............................

xxii

Contents irreversible Dimensions Growth ........................... 150 150 150 150 152 152 153 Resistance

................................ Silica Brick. .................................... ................................... Properties ................................. Applications. Chemical Resistance. .......................... Temperature Limit ...........................
Thermal Strength Expansion and Thermal Shock

......

153 154 154 154 4 154

and Abrasion

Pressure Effects. Irreversible References. 16. CARBON Walter BRICK

Resistance. ................. ............................. Growth ...........................

cost.....................................15

.................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Jr.

. . . . 155

Lee Sheppard,

Bibliography. 17. CLOSED Mary CELL

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159 BOROSILICATE GLASS BLOCK 0 162 163 163 164

FOAMED

LlNlNGSYSTEM....................................16 Lou Schmidt Methods Systems. Bonding Installation

.............................. ..............................
Adhesive/Membrane Mortar. Systems.

Urethane Inorganic

Asphalt

Silica-Based

.............. ....................
Glass Block

Combination

Linings Incorporating

........

164 166 166 167 167 167 168 168 168

................... ............................. Waste Incineration. ............................ Smelting Operations. Baghouses ................................... Tall Stacks. .................................. Pickle Tanks. ................................. Vessel Covers ................................. ................................... Bibliography.
Flue Gas Desulfurization 18. REFRACTORY Paul E. Schlett Introduction. Temperature.. Atmospheric Optimized AND INSULATING FIREBRICK

. . .. .. ..

. . . . . 170

. . . . . .
Which

. . .. .. .. . . .. . . . . .
Affect Refractory

. . . . . . . . . . 170
. . . 170

Design Parameters

Lining Selection.

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171 Composition. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174

Gradient Design Through a Refractory

. . . . .

Thermal

Lining.......................................177 Brick Shapes. References. 19. SPECIALTIES Part A: Walter

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179

. . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Porcelain

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180 Brick . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180

Jr.

Lee Sheppard,

Contents

.. XXIII

Part B:

Basalt Bricks.

.............................

183 183 183 183 184 184 184 184 185 185 185 186 187 187 187 189 189 191 .............. Service. ........ 191 191 192 192 Masonry ........... 192 192 193 193 193 193 194 194 ................ ................ 195 196 196

Hans J. Hoffmann What is Raw Basalt?. Manufacture

.......................... ................. Chemical Analysis ............................ The Use of Fused Cast Basalt. .................... Properties of Fused Cast Basalt ................... Chemical Resistance of Fused Cast Basalt. ............ .................... Choice of Setting Material. .................... Type of Tile Construction.
of Fused Cast Basalt. Resistance of Fused Cast Basalt to Bases ............. Resistance of Fused Cast Basalt to Acids .............

Conclusion. Part C: Corrosion John A. Bonar Introduction

................................
of Silicon Carbide Products

.............

Bond Systems. Corrosion Acidic

............................... ..............................
......................... ............................. .............................. Control Corrosion Carbides for Corrosive

Mechanisms

Solutions

Basic Solutions Diffusion Design. Part D: Choosing Silicon References. Granite Dorothy

Reactions

................................... ................................ as Chemically Resistant

A. Richter ............................... .......................... ....................... ....................... Liners in Steel Pickling of Granite Surface

Introduction. Definition Industrial Granite Granite Granite Lines. Properties Granite Part E: Larry 20. CERAMICTILE. William References. Portland

Uses of Granite Plates Press Rolls.

..........................

Skid Caps and Tank ................................. of Granite

.......................... and Limitations Brick

Fabrication

................................ Cement/Aggregate

C. Stephans .................................... ................................. 198 198 199 199

H. Bauer .................................... ....................................

Glazed Wall Tile Mosaic Tile. Quarry Tile Paver Tile.

.................................... Tile Standards. .................................. .......................... Ceramic Tile Definitions.

.200
203

.206

xxiv

Contents

MORTARS 21. SILICATE

Robert

SECTION V AND GROUTS (FOR TILE)

MORTARS
L. Trinklein

AND GROUTS (FOR TILE)

............

.212

212 Sodium and Potassium Silicates ....................... .214 Silicate Cements ................................ 214 Chemical Resistant Mortars and Grouts .................. 215 Silicate Mortars and Grouts-Air Drying. ............... 215 Sodium Silicate Mortars and Grouts-Chemical Setting ...... Potassium Silicate-Chemical Resistant Mortars and Grouts ... 215 216 Modified Silicate Mortars and Grouts ................. 22. SILICA MORTARS.
Joseph J. Spisak

. . . . .

. . . . . . .. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. .218

Bibliography. . . , . . . . 23. SULFUR MORTARS.

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221 .222
225

................................
Jr.

Walter Lee Sheppard,

Characteristics and Use. ............................ Handling ..................................... Specifications and Standards for Sulfur Mortars ............ References. ................................... 24. PHENOLIC
Kurt

.226
228

.228

RESINS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . ,230

Goltz

Bibliography. . . . . 25. FURAN

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ,238 .240
240 242 244 245 5 6

RESINS. ...................................

Joseph M. Walters

Introduction to Furan Resin Materials. .................. Furan Resin Formulations. .......................... Chemical and Heat Resistance ........................ Installation of Mortars and Grouts ..................... Mortars.....................................24 Grouts......................................24 Mixing Mortars and Grouts ....................... Cleaning Brick and Tile After Installation. .............. Furan Resin Membranes ............................ Furan Monolithic Surfacings ......................... Standards. .................................... Specifications. ............................... Test Methods ................................ Practices ................................... References. ................................... 26. EPOXY RESIN CHEMICALLY RESISTANT MORTARS. C. V. Witten wyler Epoxy Resins. . . . . . . . . . .. ,. .. . . . . ..

.246
247 248 249

.250 .250 .251 .251 .251 . . . . . . .252

. . . . . . . . .252

Contents
Chemistry of Epoxies.

xxv
252 253 255 255 257 258 261 262 263 263 266 266

.....................
Resins.

Physical Properties Cure of Epoxies

of Cured Epoxy

.......

......................... Epoxy Mortars .......................... ..................... Self-Leveling Epoxies. Trowellable Epoxy Floorings. ................ Fillers for Epoxy Materials .................. Wear Resistance of Epoxy Floorings ............ Chemical Resistance of Epoxy Floorings ......... ..................... Substrate Preparation. ...... Handling of Epoxy Monolithics and Mortars. ............................ References.
27. POLYESTER AND VINYL ESTER RESINS

....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... .......

.................

.267
267 8 8

Kenneth A. Poss
Introduction.

...................................

ResinTypes.................................... Uses.........................................26

.................................... ....................... Chemical Resistance Properties ............................ Formula Components. Resins. .................................... Catalysts ................................... ...................... Promoters and Cure Systems. .................................. Inhibitors. .................................... Fillers. .................................. Additives. .................................. Formulations
Properties Grout......................................27 Cement.....................................27

.270
270

.271 .271 .272

272

.273 .273 .273 .274

5 5

.................................... ............................. Substrate Preparation. Usefulness .................................... ................................... Limitations ............................ Raw Material Suppliers.
Mortar. Additives-Wetting, Catalysts (Initiators) Air Release and Adhesion Promoters

.275
275

.276 .277
277

....

277 278

............................ .................................... Fillers. .................................. Inhibitors.

(Accelerators)

.278 .278
8 278 .279

Pigments....................................27 Promoters Resins. 28. ACRYLIC

.........................

.................................... MORTARS AND CONCRETES

POLYMER

..........

.280 .280 .282 .283

W.O. Eisenhut
General Definitions.

...................................... ................................... Filler Design. ..................................

xx vi

Contents

Binder Composition. Physical Properties. Chemical Substrates Application Performance. References. 29. HYDRAULICS. Part A: Concrete Sandor Resistance.

.............................. ...............................
............................. Preparation. ...................

284 5 286 .289 289 .291 .291 .292 .293

Cure.........................................28

and Substrate

................................... .................................. ................................... .................................... Resistance of Portland Cement Mortar and

Chemical Popovics

...................................... ................................. of Portland Cement Clinker. Cement. .............. ............. ........................... of Portland Cement. ........................... ..................

.293 293 294 294 295 296 296 298 300 302 303 305 and Water.

Introduction. Composition Oxide Minor Various Blended Latent General

Composition Constituents Cements.

Major Constituents

Types of Portland Hydraulic Materials

..............................

........................
Cement Deterioration.

........ ............. Materials Which Attack Concrete .................... Sulfate Attack ............................. .................. Attack by Seawater on Concrete Attack by Seawater on Reinforced Concrete. .......... Attack by Salts Other Than Sulfates ................ Acid Attack. .............................. Other Attacks. ............................. Efflorescence ................................. ...................... Polymer Modified Concrete. Concluding Remarks ............................ References. .................................
Hydration: Reactions Between Aspects of Concrete Part B: The Use of High Alumina Engineering Henry G. Midgley Cement in Chemical and Civil

.327
330 332 334

.334 .335
336

.337
337

.338 .340
340 341 344

.................................... ................................. .......................... of High Alumina Cement ..................

of Cement in High Alumina Cement Cement Concrete in High Alumina

Introduction. Manufacture Hydration Strength Permeability

Development

.......... ..........
and

345 347 7

Physical Properties The Structural

of High Alumina

Cement Cement

Concrete Concrete

Mortar.....................................34

...... Chemical Resistance of High Alumina Cement Concrete ..... ............................ Alkaline Hydrolysis. High Alumina Cement Concrete for Chemical Resistance ....
Use of High Alumina

348 350 354 356

Contents

xxvii

Examination Mortars Practical Part C: David

of High Alumina

Cement

Concretes

and 356

in the Field

............................
Cement.

Hints on the Use of High Alumina

.......

358

References. W. Fowler

.................................
Mortars and Monolithics.

.362 .............
363

Latex-Modified

................................ ............................... Mix Design. ............................... Properties ................................ Applications. .............................. ............................ Styrene-Butadiene. Properties ................................
Introduction. Acrylic Latex. Applications. References. Part D: RHA .............................. Silica. .................... ................................. and Fumed Jr.

.363 .363 .364 .365 .367 .368 .368

.369 .369 .369

Walter Lee Sheppard, References.

.................................
SECTION VI AND AND POLYMER POLYMER CONCRETE CONCRETES

.37 1

CASTABLES, 30. SILICATE Robert 31. POLYMER David

MACHINE

GROUTS GROUTS,

CASTABLES, L. Trinklein PORTLAND W. Fowler

. .374

CEMENT Concrete

CONCRETE.

..............

.376 .377 .377 .378

.379

Latex-Modified Properties Applications. Mixing

Epoxy-Modified

.......................... ......................... ....................................

Concrete. ..................................

.......................... .................................. Finishing. Curing. .................................... ................................... References.

and Placement 32. POLYMER-IMPREGNATED David W. Fowler Systems. Introduction. CONCRETE. ..................

.380 .380 .380 .381

.383

.................................. .............................. ................................. Polymerization ........................... Impregnation Procedures ............................. Full Impregnation ....................... Partial-Depth Impregnation. .................................... Properties
Monomer Applications. References. .................................. ...................................

.383 .383 .384

384

.384
385

.387
.389 .390

xx
33.

...
VIII

Contents

POLYMER Part A:

CONCRETES. C. &Bee,

............................. Sulfur Concretes. ............... F. Fike Thomas A. Sullivan ................................. ................................ .......................... ......................... .......................... .............................. and Harold

.392 392 392 .393 393 .395 395 .399 399

Corrosion-Resistant

William

Introduction. Historical. Current Sulfur Mixture Binder Modifiers Aggregate

Technology. (Plasticizers) Gradation

Cements.

Design ............................... Requirements.

........................ Properties of Sulfur Concrete. ..................... Mechanical Properties. ........................ .................. Load Deflection in Compression. ......................... Moisture Absorption Specific Gravity and Air Voids. ...................
Thermal Expansion of Modified-Sulfur Concrete.

.401 .401 .401

403

.404
405

.......

406 407 407 409 .409

Freeze-Thaw Manufacturing Equipment. Preparation, Quality

Durability

........................ ..............

Resistance to Acid and Salt Corrosion. Process ........................... ............................... Casting, and Finishing.

................

409

............................ Sampling and Analysis ......................

Control. and Disadvantages in Using Sulfur Concrete

.412 .412
3

Safety....................................41 Advantages Summary. References. Part B: Epoxy William Slama

.....

414

.................................. .................................
Ester Grouts and Polymer Concretes

.415 .415 ....

417

and Vinyl

History. Function

...................................
of Grout. ............................

.417
8 ,419 0

Scope......................................41 Uses.....................................42

................................ ........................... Resin Component Curing Agent .............................. Aggregate or Filler. ........................... Types of Grout. .............................. ..................... Aggregate-Filled-Flowable ..................... Aggregate-Filled-Dry-Pack .............. Low-Viscosity, Crack-Repair Grouts. Underwater Grouts .......................... Polyester/Vinyl Ester Grouts. .................... Properties and Tests. ........................... ........................ Compressive Strength. Tensile Strength ............................ Bond Strength .............................
Composition.

.420 .420 .420

420

.422 .422 .422 .422 .423

423

.423 .423 .425 .425

Contents

xxix

................................ ...................... of Expansion Temperature Resistance ....................... ......................... Resistance to Creep. Density. ................................. Fill Ratio. ................................ Radiation Resistance ......................... .......................... Electrical Resistivity
Shrinkage. Coefficient Installation. Foundation Anchor-Bolt Equipment Mixing. ................................. ............................... Grouting ........................ Base or Plates Safety....................................42

.425 .426 .427 .428 .428 .428 .428

428 .429 9 .429 .429

......................

.430
0

Forms....................................43

..................................

.............. Temperature Conditions. ................................ Curing. .................................. ................................ Bibliography. Part C: Furan Polymer Concretes. ......................
Installation Placement Joseph M. Walters References. Part D: Purposes Anthony

.432 .432 .433 .433 .433 .434

435

..................................
Portland Cement Concrete for Special

Superplasticized J. Stump0

......................................

.436 .436 .437 .437 .438 ,438 .438

................................. .............................. ................................ Observations. Discussion .................................. Testing .................................... .................................. Reference
Background The Admixture. SECTION VII

MONOLITHICS 34. TROWELLED EPOXY, POLYESTER, VINYL ESTER MONOLITHIC 0

LININGS..........................................44 Wesley A. Severance Introduction. Definition History Theory

.................................. .................................. ....................................

Monolithic Linings Linings Used in Monolithic

,440 .440 .440 ......... .............

441 442

of Thermosetting-Resin, Resins.

Resinous Materials Epoxy

............................... Polyester Resins .............................. Vinyl Ester Resins. ............................ Types of Linings. ...............................
Epoxy %-Inch (3.2 mm) Silica or Carbon-Filled Lining.

.442 .442 .443 .443 .....

443

xxx

Contents

Unreinforced Mat-Reinforced Linings

X-Inch

(6.4 mm)

Lining.

Fabric-Reinforced

%-Inch Epoxy,

(3.2 mm)

Lining

................ .............
Ester-Based

443 444

Polyester

or Vinyl or Vinyl

...................................
Lining-Polyester of Linings Ester.

,444 ........
444 444 445 445 447 447

Glass-Flake-Filled Service Limitations

........................ Temperature Limits in Immersion. ................... Selecting the Lining. .............................. Designing for Monolithic Linings ...................... Vessels-Steel or Alloys. .......................... Rigidity. ................................. Accessibility. ...............................
Joints....................................44 Structural Welds Concrete Surface Exterior Reinforcement Members (Stiffeners).

.447
447 7

........

448

Appurtenances

Inside Structures ........................... ............................

.................

.448
..44 .449 .449 .449 450 8

.................................. Vessels. Quality. .............................

Shell Penetrations

........................ Wall Penetrations. ........................... Concrete and Steel Vessels ........................

Waterproofing. Floors....................................45 Surface Practical Ventilation. Preparation.

.450
450 0 452 453

..........................

During Installation ............... ................................. Temperature. ................................ Humidity. .................................. Inspection-Linings on Steel ....................... Inspection-Linings on Concrete. .................... Troubleshooting .............................. Maintenance. ................................ References. ................................... Considerations APPLIED H. Kline of Epoxy Surfacing Finish. Materials EPOXY SURFACING.

.453 .453 .453

454 454

.455 .455 .456 .458

458 .459 461 461

35.

SPRAY

................... ...................

Harlan

History

Application Controlling Application

Equipment Surface Temperature

........................... Range.

.......................... ...................... Trowel and Spray Applications ...................... Chemical Resistance. ............................. Performance of Epoxy Surfacers ..................... Epoxy Surfacers on Concrete. .......................
Situations Situations Typical Where Epoxy Where Epoxy Surfacers Surfacers Are Not Used.

.461 .461 .467 .468 .........

468 8

May Be Conditionally .469

Used......................................46 Uses of Epoxy Surfacers .....................

Contents

xxxi

Reference 36. A NOTE

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .472
MONOLITHICS: Jr. EPOXY-PHENOLICS AND

ON OTHER

URETHANES.......................................473 Walter Lee Sheppard, 37. GUNNED Part A: LININGS. Gunned J. Smith ................................. Flexural, and Tensile Strength. Equipment. of Guniting .479

Linings-Hydraulics.

................................. ....................

,478 .478

Richard

Advantages. Compressive, Manufacturers Wet Guns.

............ ...............

480

.480
0

Dry Guns..................................48

................................ ........................... Terms of Reference. ................................ Components. Cementing Matrix ........................... ............................... Aggregates. ................................ Additives. Application Over a Steel Surface .................... Mixing Water ................................
Summary....................................48 References. Part B: Silicate Robert Part C: Walter Gunned ................................. Monolithics, Potassium Jr. .......................... ....................... Gunned Silicate. Sodium Silicates. .........

.481 .481 .481 .482 .482 .483

484

.487
7 .489 489 491 491 492 .493 .493

L. Trinklein ...................... Lee Sheppard,

History Curing. Anchors,

and Limitations

Composition Application Rebound. Hardening Chemical

and Properties. .................................

.................................... Reinforcing and Membranes ................

.494 .494 495 .495 .496

.................................. or Curing Agent Resistance. ........................ ...........................

Bibliography.

................................ SECTION VIII AND REINFORCEMENTS

EXPANSION 38. EXPANSION Donald

JOINT JOINT

COMPONENTS

COMPONENTS

. .

.. . . . . . . . . .

. . .

. . . 498 . . . 498
. . . . . . . . . 498 . 499 .499 . 500

J. Kossler and Deformable

Sealants-Flexible

. . . .. . . . . .. . .

.. . Urethanes . .. Polysulfide. . . Silicones . . . .

Epoxies.

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mastics and Thermoplastics. . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . .

. . . 500

xxxii

Contents

........... ................ Sponges. ....................... Sliding Joints ....................

Other Types of Sealants Design and Uses 39. CERAMIC FIBERS.

..............
.............. .............. ..............

501 501 501 503

. . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. .. .. . .
Jr.

. . . . . .

. . . .505

Walter Lee Sheppard, 40. ORGANIC Walter 41. CARBON FIBERS.

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .508 Jr.

Lee Sheppard, FIBERS.

. . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . .
Ill IN EXPANSION JOINTS.

. . . . . . . . . .511

Eugene C. Heilhecker 42.

USE OF FLUOROCARBONS Walter Lee Sheppard, Jr.

. . . . . . . . . .514

43.

PREFABRICATED Walter

EXPANSION Jr.

JOINTS.

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .516

Lee Sheppard,

SECTION RIGID 44. RIGID A.A. THERMOPLASTIC

IX FABRICATIONS

THERMOPLASTIC Boova Introduction. Discussion

FABRICATIONS.

...

. . . . .. . . ........ ........ ........ ........ ........ ........ ........ ........ ........ ........ ........ ........

. . . . 520 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
520

..................... ....................... Chemical Resistance. .............. .................... Fabrication .................. Polyethylene ................. Polypropylene Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) ..........
Nonolefinics Polymers (Aliphatic Polymers)

. 520 . 521 . 523

525

Other

.............. ................. Fluoroplastics. ..................... Conclusion. ..................... References.

Aromatic SECTION DESIGNING 45. DESIGNING CHEMICALLY-RESISTANT WITH X MASONRY

. 528 . 533 . 538 . 538

539 540

. . . . . .

. . . . 539

CONSTRUCTIONS

CHEMICALLY-RESISTANT Jr.

MASONRY.

.....

.542
543

Walter Lee Sheppard, Designing Stability Brickwork

The Basic Principles.

..............................
Without Reinforcing-Contouring

.......

545

..................................... .......................... Expansion Joints-General Thrust Blocks. ................................. Trenches .....................................

.548
550

.555 .558

Contents

XXXlll

Weirs and Overflows. Vessels

.............................. ...................................... Bottoms ..................................... Capping. ..................................... Covers. ...................................... Prestressing .................................... Expansion Joints in Vessels. ......................... More About Floors .............................. Monolithics .................................
Differences Brick Curbs Determining Walls Subject Between Floor Expansion Thicknesses or Splash. Joints in Bonded Brick and Over a Membrane. .........................

564

.565 ,566 .572 .572

574 575

.576 .576
579 580

..................... ....................

.....................................
to Spray

.581
582 2

Tile........................................58

.................................... Side Effects ...................................

Substrate. Galvanic imity Corrosion to Carbon of Lead and Stainless and Carbon-Filled Steel Due to Proxand Grouts. Mortars

.583 .584 ....

584 586

............................... Brick Growth. ............................... Bibliography. ............................... .......................... Swelling of Brick. ....................... Other Related Articles
Bibliography. SECTION USES OF NONMETALLIC CHEMICALLY IN WASTE 46. USES OF NONMETALLIC MATERIALS IN WASTE Walter Lee Sheppard, Support Jr. XI RESISTANT MATERIALS

.586
587 587 588

HANDLING RESISTANT

CHEMICALLY HANDLING

...............

. . . . . . 594 ......
...... 594
601 602 604 607 608 608 609 610 610

Piping .................................

....................... Manholes. .............................. Trenches ...............................

and Backfill Holding, Equalizing, and Ancillary or Neutralizing Equipment Tanks

....... ...

Scrubbers Inspection

.............
and Clay Pipe.

and Repairs of Manholes

...... ...... ...... ...... ......

...... ......

............................ Internal Repair. ........................ Bibliography. ............................

Armoring. SECTION PRESTRESSED 47. PRESTRESSED Keith Introduction. BRICKWORK XII BRICKWORK

......

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

...... ......

614 614

R. Pierce

. . .

xxxiv

Contents

Brick

Linings-A Stresses.

General

Discussion,

and the Problem

of 614 614 615 615 616 616 616 617 618 619 .619

................................ A Solution-Prestressing ............................ Description of the Prestressing Process. .................. Mathematical Analysis ............................. Methods of Analysis. ................................ Composite Properties of Brick/Mortar Layers .............. Thermal Gradient Calculation ........................ Stress and Strain Calculations ........................ Stresses During and After Cure. .......................
Tensile Stresses at Operating Sample Calculation Summary References. and Shutdown Conditions ............ ................................

and Conclusions

........................... .....................................
SECTION SPECIAL XIII

.622 .623

SUBJECTS 6

48.

CHIMNEYS........................................62 Brian Coole y

.................................. ................................... Past Design Considerations .......................... Corbel Supported Brick ......................... Independent Brick. ............................
Introduction. Concept. Shell Supported Present Conditions. Overall System Steel Shells. Steel. ...........................

.626 .626
627

.627 ,628
629

..............................

.630
631

Outer Shell. ................. ................................. Brick Shells ................................. Reinforced Concrete Shells. ....................... Dynamic Wind ............................. Seismic Loads. ............................. Overall System Design-The Liner. ..................... Acid Resistant Masonry .......................... Steel and FRP Liners. ........................... Refractory Liners (Gunite or Cast) ................... Unlined Independent Concrete Liners. ................ Specific Design Recommendations-Brick Liner ............ Banding System .............................. Breeching Ductwork ............................ Annulus Pressurization. .......................... Present and Future Aspects. ......................... Recent Problems Due to Wet Gas Conditions ............ Preconditioning of Brick. ......................... Moisture/Heat Shielding. ......................... Flow Diversion Arrangements ...................... Design-The

,631 .631
632

,634 .635
635 636 637 638 641 641

,641
643 644 645 645 648 648 648

Contents

xxx v

49.

COATINGS Edmond

FOR

NUCLEAR

POWER

GENERATING

STATIONS

...

.650 .650
653 654

W. Jarret Conditions. Requirements.

............................ ......................... ..................... Coating Varieties and Application. Inspection .................................... References. ...................................
Operating Qualification 50. SULFUR William Sulfur SPRAY COATINGS. ................... .......................... and Harold L. Fike . ..............

.656 .658
.659 .659

C. McBee,

Thomas A. Sullivan

Introduction.

............................ Mixture Design ............................... Sulfur Modifiers .............................. Fillers and Fibers. .............................
Spray Coatings. Uses.......................................66

.661 .661 .661 .662

2 662 662 662

Manufacture

........................ ................. Preparation and Spraying Equipment ..................... Manufacture and Applications. Quality Control. ..............................
and Application. of Sulfur

.664
4 664 664

Safety......................................66 Properties Physical Chemical Durability Advantages References. 51. PULP AND PAPER

.................... .................. and Mechanical Properties. Resistance. ........................... .................................. and Disadvantages .......................
Spray Coatings.

.665 .666 .667

7

Summary......................................66

...................................
INDUSTRY USE OF CORROSION .......................... ........................... in the Pulp and Paper RESISTANT

.667

MASONRY Larry

CONSTRUCTION. C. Stephans of Construction

.669 669

Materials History Industry.

of Brick and Tile Construction

Acid Sulfite Peripheral

.................................... Digesters. .............................

Equipment in the Digester Area.

.670
672 674 674

............... Kraft and Neutral Sulfite Digesters ..................... Kraft Liquor Systems. ............................ Pulp Storage Vessels. .............................. Chlorine Dioxide Vessels. ...........................
Chlorination, Towers Hypochlorite, Peroxide, and Caustic Extraction ....................................

.674
675 675 ..67 6

Washers and Seal Pits

............................. Paper Mill .................................... Tall Oil Reactors. ................................ Tall Oil Spent Acid Tanks. ......................... Floors. ......................................

.676 .676
677

.677 .677

xxx vi

Contents

Summary. ........................ References. ....................... SECTION XIV AND FAILURE ANALYSIS ANALYSIS

. . . .. . . .

. . . . . 678 . . . . . 678

INSPECTION 52. INSPECTION

Walter

AND FAILURE
Jr.

......

. . . . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . 680 . . .. . . . .
. . . . . . .

Lee Sheppard, Preliminaries.

Inspection ........................

.................... Concrete ....................... Brick. ......................... Mortars ........................

Membranes Installation. and Expansion Joint Materials

. . . . .

. 682 . 682 . 685 . 687 . 688

689 690 691 . 692

. .

. . 689

....................... Membrane ...................... ..................... Monolithics

Brickwork Final and Expansion Joint.

.......

Inspection Analysis

Failure

Bibliography.

.................. .................... ......................

. . . . . 694 . . . . . 694 . . . . 715

INDEX..............................................716

Section I Introduction

1 An Engineer Looks at Chemically Resistant Masonry

Robert United

E. Moore Incorporated

Engineers and Constructors, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania

INTRODUCTION Chemically widely rently many crete, used diverse wood available resistant groups of to the masonry engineering inorganic (CRM) is at once Engineer. one of the oldest and which linings CRM construction for and most curincludes steel, conthe most properly (al-

materials, and organic These reliable, versatile

components materials composites applications service of corrosion

structures

Materials/Corrosion structures

non-metallic and other construction

can be utilized

as independent, cost-effective designed tions that

self-supporting substrates.

or as protective

are often and, when under

for various have given to other major

industrial types

and installed, are damaging coatings). CRM

extended

adverse condimaterials

resistant

loys, plastics, In general, corrosive treme good CRM and other bination

is characterized (beyond chemical the food the (but

by excellent acids most high of

resistance (dilute common thermal

to a broad materials), stability waste

range of exvery commakes pulp and and

chemical

environments

including limits not

and concentrated), this unique that chemical, treatment solvents solution

temperatures strength of so useful paper, industries. superior

in compression throughout

in tension). and

It is mainly

resistance power,

steel and metalworking, and beverage, as strong such costly acids,

pharmaceutical, temperatures,

processing may

In severe environments, CRM Even very applications exotic,

or alkato these canSome vessels,

lies at elevated aggressive not always typical

be the only

practical

conditions. withstand CRM

and scarce metals at an affordable sumps, trenches,

and alloys price. reaction

such exposures,

at least not are floors, 2

industrial

An Engineer

Looks at Chemically

Resistant

Masonry

tanks

(storage, Since

plating,

pickling),

scrubbers,

ducts,

stacks,

chimneys

and other maevalachieve ma-

air pollution terial, uated this plant terials tion ments stations, power

control a prime

equipment. objective or system with is to select and use the optimum for other goal. each application, corrosion the the should While total CRM installed criterion duration. should materials cost for That of resistant (cost-effective) be carefully to best any

component and long-term construction composite with minimum

compared

economic

industrial

is important, such as CRM maintenance (e.g., CRM) cost. ranges life

acceptance

a successful

be trouble-free

performance

and protecrequire-

for a prolonged is the one that plants 30-40 years; outage often reliability proves For

is, the optimum fuel power purchased failure capito the re-

engineering at the the

structure design

best meets the daily

the design lost or

least overall

such as nuclear and

and fossil

cost of a forced

(unscheduled) materials material

due to a critical

component its initial

is astronomical. tal cost, plant tion cord owner. of

Accordingly, A similar

far overshadows when considering based upon

and the cheapest

to be the most expensive

precaution

is necessary involving

low bid installaa long track and prod-

contractors, successful

unless they

are previously

qualified

case histories

the same generic

materials

ucts specified

for the application.

DEFINITION To quote metallic, gregate units type exposure. in order structures or tile; tight, forms must fully and bonded

AND

TYPES

OF CHEMICALLY may be defined units a mortar chemical may of several and most three them All

RESISTANT as a structure stone,

MASONRY composed block adhesion of nonagto the

the editor inert together

CRM with

chemically

masonry

such as brick, or mortars

or other

of adequate resistance units

and possessing or from

suitable

and thermal from different

for the anticipated of a single and mortars CRM such as brick a liquidin various components re-

Such a structure a combination optimum to bond system. to achieve (2) Mortars resistant to

be assembled

and mortars

types

of such units satisfactory units

economically

results. to attain

as such comprise

components: together, of these

(1) Masonry

and (3) Membranes components materials. All

are available three

are produced meet general

from both

many

different

be chosen There are two

the environmental of CRM suitable corrosive

conditions

and the design

quirements

of each application. categories with construction: physical, service free mechanical standing acid liner unit both and chemical of liner chimney brick conditions. known brick One example structures to withstand structure brick States

(1) Load bearing resistance a load lining high station lime sulfur 1,000 properties CRM bearing in the reinforced operates flue dioxide

is an independent, and mortar. The tallest high fireclay 1-I).

made of acid resistant United concrete

chimney power a wet and than

is a 900-foot chimney (FGD) (Figure

in a l,OOO-foot coal-fired particulate

This two

on high sulfur (SO,) scrubbing. are designed

coal and emits system Moreover,

hot corrosive incorporating

flue gases from liners greater

gas desulfurization

acid brick

chimney

feet in height

and used successfully

in Europe and other parts

of the world.

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

(2) rosion, other tected. (1) ture The most

Linings to protect erosion, common linings to control insulation thermal thus cements, reaches limiting carbon about mild exposed abrasion materials

floors, and/or

vessels and other thermal attack linings

equipment from chemical

subjected

to corbut promodes: or wear; temperafluid to

environments.

substrates can provide physical effects

for CRM

are carbon

steel and concrete, protection

structural CRM Barrier

such as wood

and plastics damage

may also be effectively such as abrasion and membrane of corrosive linings,

any one or all of the following or mechanical by limiting its corrosion wash, the substrate rate. CRM which

(2) Thermal the substrate, and monolithic brane fluid tively

to prevent

damage;

and (3) Reduce

permeation

minimizing corrosion the

such as acid brick of the memthe is relaEven when

also prevent products membrane

is the removal medium. surface,

or substrate eventually small, thus

by the circulating or substrate

the amount products corrodes when rust

chemical

attack,

and any corrosion in stagnant seawater However, higher the hydrated

are trapped at an avits unto

beneath By disturbed f/owing velocity tacks cally lining inforced CRM rosion protecting CRM structural brane;

the masonry analogy, corrosion seawater, and attendant seawater (FRP)

shield. steel immersed 5 mils/year steel corrodes (mpy), discounting pitting, because

erage rate of only

products

are semi-protective. at a much away Hence, design erodes pipe

subjected layer

rate because cannot

the water and atpipe rethr6 of economi-

turbulence at normal pipe from

the freshly handle must

steel surface.

bare steel piping velocities. Either alloy service blocking resistant to perform while

a protective or fiberglass life. Likewise, function

be used or a more enables

erosion-corrosion membrane

plastic

employed chemical consist

for a reasonable corrosion of three wood, and

sheathing products.

the barrier

its primary

the substrate structures support

removal

of cor-

as installed (e.g., steel, masonry

component plastic); mortar and their impurities (4) Physical (vacuum) shock) design shocks (2)

parts: shielding

(1) External memupon enagents; the mem-

concrete, unit

Fluid-tight depends

(3)

Non-metallic factors all major thermal abrasion materials

bonding

brane. The choice the following compassing ing transient pact, change variables CRM failure, strains, To element wear,

of the materials and conditions: constituents acidity positive CRM affect the useful must fuel cycles and for

used in each of the components

(1) Chemicals
and any trace or alkalinity; and or negative

concentrations, and cleaning effects

(2) Ranges of pH and total

(3) Temperature pressure.

ranges, includsuch as imThe rate of

and excursions;

of pressure

or temperature

(e.g., thermal structures. the selection,

must also be considered in any of these of the be the controlling a premature on it. up to 500conservhot boiler inand could performance To avoid imposed G3OOF air with

in evaluating

Rapid

fluctuations

can significantly in determining the CRM illustrate, static or dynamic a sudden exchangers the hot

components.

In some structure in a fossil increase that flue (e.g., 20-30

cases, operational life of a CRM be capable power service plant

structure. conditions

of resisting the (Air

any or all of the stresses, air preheater(s)

loads and other in flue minute)

loss of boiler from preheaters

can create ing heat flue heater

gas temperature period. to boiler be cooled

7OOF for a brief gas which fails,

are energy

heat

incoming prior not

combustion

is thereby

cooled gas will

particulate

scrubbing.

If an air preto the

by the heat transfer

An Engineer

Looks at Chemically

Resistant

Masonry

coming the sition herent With Viton@), FGD

boiler

combustion Should ducts shock) over this

air, and will and chimney

enter

the scrubbing occur,

system

at the higher and linings in tranplant in-

temperature.) (thermal

rare accidental liner substantial other notably materials reasons, stable the

event must

materials

system For this

be able to survive damage-i.e., structures

this rapid preserve

without

structural CRM materials

integrity. very

and many exceptions, some CRM

and linings (Teflon@, thermal up to failure

offer

advantages few while

less thermally

such as coatings

and FRP. Kynar@, limits scenario. for and by are and and end are weak of 1000-

fluoropolymers

even the best protective well above the worst-case reviewing

coatings

and FRP have upper can endure these temperatures four air preheater

250-350F, 2000F, CRM user: thus Before

single or double materials,

the basic CRM must be recognized

design

limitations strength

construction (1) CRM have good

and addressed have excellent (2) Conversely, that they such loads; restrain barrier

by the specifier compressive CRM structures

structures, load bearing

like concrete, properties; requiring

in tension, suitable relatively container outer brick. the tailed For

shear and torsion, (e.g., steel) brittle tight rigid and

be reinforced than it must flex,

or supported structures bent; when head.

substrates

to withstand

(3) CRM a fluid

and tend

to break, cannot tight

rather

(4) A structure

composed

of such units and function and a liquid duct lining Suffice

For such a by an the be in behind would lining will

to be liquid example, design All must

properly,

be supported tank

shell to take optimum later

the thrust a circular for

or membrane masonry these

or cylindrical as it would of

(or spherical) keep the CRM now,

a CRM design chapter.

compression. guidelines construction.

of these be faithfully

characteristics to realize

structures benefits

be deof CRM

in a separate

it to say for

fundamental

observed

the manifold

CHEMICALLY The major lowed detail briefly (1) brick and tile. The (I) ables, would tars. and general by some elsewhere review Each generic

RESISTANT CRM

MASONRY

COMPONENTS will

AND

MATERIALS described, be discussed this section CRM structures resistant or are: joint folin will

components

and materials of CRM in the blocks

be generally materials field. will

industrial of CRM by leading the three

applications component specialists construction

structures

and protective Hence,

linings.

type

and related CRM

basic building CRM applied

of the composite three substrate;

and linings. Primary or tile

As stated, membrane to protect

incorporates chemically,

major

components:

to a structural or grout

(2) Chemical and jointing in this (for and

the membrane mortar of CRM units; concretes; lining Only

thermally,

and mechanically; the brick

(3) Chemical

resistant categories (2)

for bedding detailed

components (3) (5) applied the Mortars over first

handbook tile);

Membranes; grouts also Each and (A

Masonry

and grouts a membrane of these

(4) Castsubstrate

polymer monolithic

Monolithics; three

(6) Expansion coated CRM units even

compounds. classes will materials

constitute be discussed of these including

CRM.) components both

component and morsizes shapes,

below-namely, inorganic

membranes, in a variety organic and

masonry compounds,

is available

of forms,

metallic

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

(e.g., lead). resins with thermal monoliths except

Most of the organic materials excellent offer By contrast, outstanding (HF) with carbon the inorganic

are high molecular alkali silicates

weight within

polymers

or and

resistance to a wide range of chemicals high temperature and strong alkalies filled furan can be handled mortar resistance (NaOH). by suitably

their specific all media almost

limits.

used as mortars in virtually

acid fluorides

For these exposures carChemically designed and installed or limita-

bon brick joined any environmental CRM tions components. of CRM

is effective.

condition

It is essential that the above four design guidelines and components CRM components in forming be closely followed and materials

materials

for a successful

application.

The principal

will now be reviewed

along with their functions Membranes A membrane somewhat selection Maximum and (5) membrane strate both meric carbon barrier chemical composition

the CRM structures

and linings.

is a key material CRM membrane

that

serves as fluid-tight upon these major environment, substrate that (2) can be installed, (often Hence, primed) effective

barrier facors;

between

the The (3)

permeable of a good and economic Unprotected applied attack

lining and the substrate depends of the that

or supporting Substrate (4)

structure. rigidity,

(1) Chemical pressure, A CRM sub-

temperature corrosion

brick thickness to a properly

Internal

rate of the cleaned failure. adhesion

in the chemical. substrate

steel or concrete membranes Therefore,

is the

last line of defense and premature resistance good

in protecting

from accelerated must have to the of a an elasto-

high chemical membrane steel tank

to corrosive an acid brick that

fluids

and low

permeability acid corrosion

same media,

along with

to the substrate. lining to control

used under

must not only resist attack

by the corrosive through remain units

but be a complete

to any of the corrodent but insufficient

has migrated

the brick and mortar. intact and unaffected; or at least limit or tile) protect membrane its the of

It is necessary diffusion membrane synergism combined

that the membrane from the masonry

it must also prevent

the corrosive rate. While

reaching the substrate (brick and physical abuse,the damage.

to a tolerable

against excessive temperature in which the properties

in turn

guards the substrate

against environmental

This is a classic example materials

of complementary

are effectively

into a very useful composite.

Membranes, which include both liquid applied and solid sheet linings, can be classified as: (I) True membranes that are completely impermeable barriers to specific amount epoxy, polyvinyl corrosives, or (2) Semi-membranes which allow a low but acceptable types include cloth memof the chemical phenolic, chloride to reach the substrate. materials. and furan sheet, polyester Further, these membrane

may be divided

into rigid and non-rigid polyester (PVC) epoxy,

The rigid membranes glass linings, glass filled

resin coatings,

unplasticized

and both flake and vinyl mastic

and fiberglass

or mat reinforced branes include substrates rubber,

ester resin linings. Non-rigid used membrane epoxies; elastomers and bitumastic

hot applied variety butyl, Natural

asphalt, the most widely

on concrete plasticized natural Viton@ memsheet

(but not on steel); asphalt chlorobutyl,

PVC; and a wide neoprene, and polyurethane. brane materials

of sheet (and some liquid) Hypalon@, rubbers Fluorocarbon and synthetic

including

ethylene-propylene, are the most common (e.g., Teflon@,

for steel substrates.

Kynar@)

An Engineer

Looks at Chemically

Resistant

Masonry

linings resistant and

and

baked

coatings

are employed are almost for good with

as membranes chemically adhesion superior inert to

for

very

corrosive

pro-

cesses. These require

fluoropolymers chemical etching

and are the expansion their and heat Fluorel@

most heat anti-stick (to 4OOF) should be in ad-

of the organic When flexible are needed, Liquid

membranes membranes coatings Metallic

but have high thermal

coefficients

overcome and

properties. resistance considered. dition lead, alloys. lining) chapters. Masonry

chemical

fluoroelastomers

such as Viton@ based upon sheet stainless Viton@ membranes materials applications

applied

are now available are also utilized corrosion in

to sheet All and

membranes. and other selection

including resistant glass subsequent

chromium-nickel of these their

(austenitic) for

steels and other

membrane CRM

(e.g., porcelain are detailed

enamel,

Units or construction ASTM for material, Masonry stack liners units, defines either units vessels. Most chemically There like membranes, resistant are vital components unit used in industrial and mechanical resuch as free or tile lindirectly laying to the are required, by units in as a

Masonry CRM modular processes sistance standing ings for masonry properly brick for other

construction. non-metallic primarily is required. acid brick floors units should with

a chemical vitreous where

construction

or nonvitreous, thermal in CRM

applications

chemical, linings (liquid with units

are used both If fluid masonry resistant

structures

and in CRM

such as acid brick or gas) barriers applied

and process

be used in conjunction substrates.

membranes mortar

prepared

are installed or grout of masonry resistance

or tile various generic

a suitable conditions. abrasion, as well over used (4)

chosen

to resist available corno of and

the environmental industrial rosion, adverse salts and found types: silicate Special of these Among thermal erosion, conditions solvents units Acid

is a great variety superior elevated combination

applications wear as the

requiring and/or right materials

to chemical Practically, array units, mortars

temperatures. of CRM against

class of engineering These CRM composites the wide in High and CRM

can withstand

such a broad corrosive

membranes.

are effective

acids, alkalies,

range of pH, concentrations construction fireclay); encompass brick; brick; silicon glazed virtually

and temperatures the following brick; basic boro(6) Each and granite,

in industry. Masonry (I) brick (red shale, brick units within that (2) Carbon basalt, ceramic, utility (3) Foamed (5) Silica carbide, porcelain). all chemical rank

glass block; composition masonry these exposures services

alumina (7) Tile

and insulating (porcelain, (quarry, area of

and block

press-molded

hydraulic); diverse CRM

has its particular units, industry the design high

in CRM linings would

construction. and structures. in abrafire(covap-

can combat these CRM (best), acid types: silicon resistant (I) another

limitations

of CRM

In chemical

are also abrasive, alumina

bricks

sion resistance Acid brick Brick:

as follows: Acid C279),

carbide, or acid common

hard burned proof brick brick in CRM units

clay, and red shale. brick, also called major ered by ASTM in CRM and plications. structures are of two acid brick including Red shale, the predominant used masonry sumps, in CRM chimney

construction; linings,

and (2) Fireclay, floors,

These two

are the most widely trenches,

vessels and

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

liners. Both types of acid brick are made from selected clays or shale containing little for acid-soluble with constituents water which while normally fireclay and are fired face brick. absorption fireclay brick, in kilns at higher temperatures This produces brick. a much stronger, and superb resistance contains more and denlonger times than ordinary far lower (HF), hydrofluoric

ser brick except erally furic

to most acids The genthermal aband The

requires carbon brick which

Red shale brick is higher alumina. greater absorption and better sul-

in silica and iron content, denser shale brick acid resistance of Type than

shows lower water

has somewhat

shock resistance sorption minimum the lower iron

(less brittle) L (usually

than red shale brick. red shale brick), fireclay demanding limits

Because of the low (<I%) maximum of Type brick acid resistance L shale brick.

these bricks are more often used in to meet in certain 98% sulfuric brick and

process vessels and other absorption. content 1% absorption processes. silicate and of

applications 8% the

However,

brick can also be manufactured fireclay is beneficial

acid solubility buff-colored iron content one sulfuric

industrial potassium

For example,

acid plant producing resistant,

acid guarantees

a maximum mortar

of 25 ppm, in which fireclay as a fully

are employed

non-contaminating coated mild steel

CRM construction. In sulfuric tion forms furic by material acid production, for the sulfuric and prevent acid brick lining of membrane the most durable Such linings will protective sulfuric acid plant. tanks and reaction temperature vessels is considered and versatile construcreduce the steel shell iron sulfate film that (reducing) lining sulmust be protected systems. a thin film of Tefbrick have up HF brick

erosion of the normally (oxidizing) to carbon membranes membranes

in stagnant, acid solutions

concentrated (e.g.,

acid. Dilute

are very corrosive elastomeric) employ between

steel, which comprising

impermeable

and acid brick

Such acid brick lon@ or Kynar@ excellent to 250F, acid,

linings often sandwiched

layers of asphalt mastic. of phosphoric acid at temperatures rule-of-thumb, of carbon

In phosphoric provided brick 50

acid production the acid contains construction with a carbon on acid H,

plants, both red shale and fireclay no HF.

resistance to all concentrations must

If HF is present in the phosphoric tank linings

carbon

be used. As a rough acid require filled (I) substrate include:

levels above bonded membrane ASTM Masonry Brick, Lining suitable fully three

ppm

in phosphoric

and jointed

(or barytes) brick

furan mortar structure. C279,

over a suitable

to match the steel or concrete specifications Units, which Types covers Types

Chemical-Resistant Industrial Floor shale be Industrial Chimney present covers and

H and L brick; brick

(2) C410,

covering Brick,

L, M and T brick; solid kiln-fired construction The

and (3) C980, with C980

which

concerns

made from clay and/or the chemicals specification

for use in masonry in later

in contact newer ASTM

in the flue gases found described acid bricks:

in industrial chapters.

chimneys.

All of these brick low absorption

types will

(1) Type

I (old H), for use where (2) Type and (3) Type

and high acid lowest

resistance are not major factors; higher acid resistance are required; absorption and highest

I I, for use where ASTM

lower absorption C279

II I (old L), for use where

acid resistance

are required.

has been reis

vised to adopt these three acid brick types. Carbon Brick: Carbon brick, though costing required in some CRM applications

much

more than acid brick,

because of its high resistance to HF and con-

An Engineer

Looks at Chemically

Resistant

Masonry

centrated certain (HF) CRM without power handling centrations brick

alkalies

such as caustic with strong concentrations. However, they

soda (NaOH). Currently recent

Red shale and fireclay allowable

bricks are above ppm limits in mortar con-

not compatible threshold

alkalies

and are attacked economically long-term tolerance fluorides. little

by acidic fluorides service and 1,500 acid fluoride silicate

acid fluoride of various

levels are judged conditions. indicate significant plant materials

to be under might

50 ppm in immersion tolerate slightly

in wetdry

HF test programs higher

damage.

This greater

of HF has been observed and potassium Despite acidic fluoride

chimney well

liners made ,500

of acid brick

flue gases from

coals containing

above the 50/l

ppm range in some FGD well with to the two media,

systems, the acid NevertheHF and NaOH,

chimney

liners are performing brick offers excellent differs from

or no HF attack.

less, carbon detrimental Carbon tion, brick quently strate. Carbon (less dense),

resistance

to acid brick, silicate mortars brick acid brick expansion acid brick, lower thermal than

and monolithics, in other respects: coefficient, thicker

and silica filled resins. much higher absorpshock resistance linings freBecause carbon

generally

superior (K factor).

and much higher thermal

conductivity thermal

is more conductive This greater

carbon

brick tank

must be used for equivalent lining thickness linings,

insulation

over the membrane/subprice of carbon brick will work. for floors or vesAnother (75OF differin the sulfuric well above closed cell out-

further

increases the higher only carbon resin mortar thermal acid, limit

versus acid brick sels exposed

but in some environments

brick is often CRM

used with carbon filled furan bricks is the much (e.g., lower nitric

to hot aggressive chemicals of carbon

such as HF and NaOH.

ence in the two conditions acid). 1000F, foamed standing 960F, shock standard substrate effective (8-12% flyash

presence of oxygen) By contrast, Foamed increasing

brick due to its susceptibility heat

to strong oxidizing

in combination

with

concentrated

acid brick can readily whether Glass Block:

handle service temperatures or reducing thermally This insulating unique thermal

even to 2000F, Borosilicate glass block chemical very low

in oxidizing

acid environments.

lining, resistance

commercially industries (except (excellent

introduced

in recent years, has found properties: resistance up to good thermal comes in many

usage in many K factor

because of several to HF and NaOH), insulator), is IX) The foamed

impermeability, glass block

resistance

and very light weight. lining thickness

sizes (common

and is bonded to itself and the or an acid resistant mortar. insulator, it provides very only 12 pcf in reducing and stack of the Its light weight, design benefit of only 2-3 major plant ductwork

by an asphalt-urethane internal the density insulation

adhesive/membrane thermal is another weight to existing or duct.

Since this glass block lining is such an efficient to a steel tank linings), retrofits The installed of cementitious and permits

dead loads on lined structures. design loadings little and liners with borosilicate meability tion

psf is similar to

or no structural virtual immunity including

modifications. to cracking. electric utility

Two This

advantages

glass block versus gunned monolithic

silicate linings are its lower perblock lining has performed of air polluand paper Brick and pulp of a number systems,

well for several years in the outlet control facilities mills and municipal High Alumina Block: plications as outlined

ducts and chimneys FGD Brick,

and industrial incinerators. and Insulating Brick, Silica brick below:

and Specialty

These special composition

and block are employed

for specific ap-

10

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

High Alumina resist extreme tent ally light weight used for the Silica Brick: Specialty (2) Basalt, (3) than alumina

Brick:

This 90-99%

Al,Oa

brick is used as refractory Insulating firebrick than the higher alumina

brick to is genersilica consilica

temperatures highest

ranging 2000-3OOOF. porous with temperature

and somewhat

ranges to 3000F.

and the

higher

compositions

used below 2000F. about 99% silica is favored phosphoric include: (I) acid. Porcelain, an 85% alumina, abrawith nil absorption; bunkers and to abrasion and over acid brick for especially These

Brick containing Units:

very high acid concentrations, Masonry an extremely Silicon carbide very hard and dense brick,

good to 15OOF, dense and costly brick, noted

very cleanable cast block,

having outstanding hoppers, resistance at joints mortar

sion resistance, used for bottom chutes; and elevated used natural alkaline Tile: porcelain. tinguished distinction (5-6%) from temperatures; stone units-its hydraulic solutions

ash slurry linings, coal/ash for its excellent block, makes bonding a hydraulic

(4) Granite high density bonded and bonded

one of the oldest but now seldom difficult;

(5) Press-molded bleach C398 requirements.

brick, a special brick designed for caustic and with meeting ASTM

The three types of chemical Tile from is chemically it as follows: metallic than similar (I)

resistant tile are quarry, to, but thinner thickness. than, units <IX and plate

ceramic and glazed and is diswhile thickness,

>%6

acid brick

Tiles are masonry

<3/16

(2) Bricks are masonry between

units >11/4

(This is roughly

analogous to the thickness.) grout over a

sheet (or strip) at

Packing house or dairy tile (pavers), usually absorption red shale brick, filled membrane of concrete and ceramic strate with when and the open joints floors tile and walls restrictions

made from red shale clay with a higher

is set on a bed of CRM Quarry and ceramic tiles fired all types with glazed tile to the subthan 1 I, chemicals,

by grouting. industries

the same clays and shale as acid brick are widely in various (to HF & NaOH) 1 thick)

used to protect Quarry, directly

from corrosive

the same media

as acid brick.

(all units under

must be bonded

an adhesive that

also serves as the membrane. such as asphalt,

Units thinner

laid over a soft membrane

tend to break up under traffic,

even foot traffic. Mortars and Grouts for Brick and Tile resistant CRM mortars for acid or carbon and complete and linings masonry brick and grouts for tile are part CRM impervious composite. membranes or grouts. directly masonry and enby a anti-

Chemical the third The most

important durable

component sheathed with

the three utilize

structures

against a substrate Depending onto the onto the primary

units bonded with mortars layer of mortar

upon the service conditions, membrane surface. construction membrane The CRM include

the brick or tile may be applied mortars phenolic, and grouts used with furan, epoxy, resistant

or over a bedding

or grout troweled Resinous morpolyester bonding agents

units fall into three generic classes: siliceous, tars used in CRM with the appropriate in industry. experienced vinyl ester resins. The proper countered skilled, corrosion When selection the

resinous, and sulfur.

of these chemical CRM

brick or tile will contractor, the

resist any hot corrosive materials most net result is the

environment are installed

optimum

cost-effective

system currently

available.

An Engineer

Looks at Chemically

Resistant

Masonry

I I

Silicate acidic

Mortars:

The

major setting

inorganic agents).

silicate Perhaps other

(water the

glass)

mortars

are

based upon sodium or potassium catalysts (hardeners, are those these alkali are fully certain containing no fluorides, below

silicates cured with various organic or inorganic best of these products of hardeners. All of and 175OF employing types

silicate mortars

are very heat resistant, pH 7 except Some silicate

some up to about

acid resistant threshold organic

to HF and acid fluoride mortars

salts above resistant when confrom

concentrations.

are considered reactions mortars

to mild, dilute base. Sodium tacting utility type furic hot

bases to pH 8, possibly pH 9, depending to sulfation-hydration least suitable are not

upon the specific for acid brick

silicates are susceptible sulfuric

acid and thus are the wet sulfur oxide-laden silicate commonly mortars are more

stack liners handling boilers. reaction, they

flue gases and acid condensates used in hot, strong sulfurous in power plant

Since potassium

mortars

subject to this growth and sulchimney or and Sili-

acids and are the standard potassium alums,

for acid brick

liners. However, salts, particularly magnesium. considered. fluorides. cate mortars Silica handling

silicates are subject to the formation a silica, rather than silicate

of other growth aluminum calcium mortar may be

in the presence of sulfuric silicate mortars

acid and iron,

In such combinations, The best potassium

are free of sodium,

Both single and two component are the most absorbent Only hydraulic Silica mortar mortars

systems are available

to industry. than silicates.

and thus the most permeable have higher absorptions

of all acid rematerial, stable borosiliThis silica

sistant mortars.

Mortars:

is a strictly

acid and heat resistant contains only

all acids except A relatively

HF and acidic fluorides recent self-curing reaction

at pH O-7 and thermally no metallic Like constituents. mortars,

up to 2000F.

silica mortar of the sodium

cate glass powder, formation mortars Sulfur very problems Mortars:

silica sol and crushed silica with of the Hot potassium silicates. sulfur

avoids both the sulfation-hydration also resist organic chemicals.

silicates and the alum

the silicate

melt-and-pour

mortars alkalies

are ancient, below 200F

doubtless They (I) are One to over a pH

one of the oldest resistant range of O-12. containing lay carbon steels) product join (2) A mortar

of all chemical types filler

resistant

materials

still used today. employed:

to non-oxidizing Three with

acids and weak of sulfur filler mortars minimum

are typically

an all-silica with brick for

plasticizer,

used to bond acid brick; used primarily (to clean all-silica tanks stainless filled used to effluent

an all-carbon

and minimum

plasticizer,

nitric-hydrofluoric floors; cotta) the amount

acid pickling

and the with

underlying (terra The

and (3) A much of plasticizer

more flexible

double clay

of the other two mortars, waste acids and other industry. mortars for the power if non-silica

vitrified Resin

pipe conveying

chemicals,

and to assemble pole line hardware Mortars: following all being usable in HF exposures Mortars: The original O-IO. Phenolics are the oldest

organic/polymeric

are used in CRM

construction, Phenolic brickwork. dizing

fillers such as carbon used with acid pH nonoxipH O-12 are use-

or barytes are employed: resinous mortars materials phenolics phenol-formaldehyde alkalies. Modified have an effective further

range of about

They are very resistant to dilute raise the maximum mortars

and concentrated

acids, solvents and dilute

increase this

pH range. Such mortars

pH well above the normal resistant to aniline. Phenolics

range, and are the only resin-based

ful up to an upper service temperature

of 36OF.

12

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

Furan and alkali can accept

Mortars: (pH O-14)

Furans

have

the

broadest

range of resistance Modified furans furans

to both Furan

acid that resis-

and temperatures up to the other temperatures mortar as well mortars with

of all the resin mortars. of up to 425F materials, by

mortars temperachemisuch as choice

temperatures continuous Unlike alkalies furan

350-36OF.

are available

can withstand tures tance cals. aniline. depending Epoxy strength acids, dilute and and their hypochlorite its esters. to 475OF. to strong However, Furans upon

and intermittent organic solvents

have excellent

as non-oxidizing are attacked silica, carbon conditions.

acids and many some organic fillers, or barytes

are available Epoxies and limit

the filler

the environmental CRM materials, alkaline

Mortars: to other

are the strongest and media. resist Their 230F. handle Epoxies

resin mortars, many solvents, pH useful

have the best bond mild range to moderate is about alkali 2-14, and acid

non-oxidizing thermal acid resistance, at low Epoxy

is approximately epoxy mortars mortars

Besides their organic

excellent

many should

chemicals

and sodium to acetic properties there are the re-

temperatures.

not be exposed

have the

best physical These two related dioxide However, organic

and mechanical mortars, which weak mortars, of which

of all the resin mortars. Polyester and Vinyl many epoxy sistance nitric cellent solvents with utility ments types, resins, are suitable of resist dilute temperature

Ester Mortars: for The two

a pH range of about acids

O-l 1 and a continuous resins, and complement alkalies.

service Their

225-23OF. bleaches

and concentrated such as chlorine to that esters. of other

to acid in acetic

and to oxidizing polyester chemical

acids such as are exester morincluding acidic ce(e.g., has

and chromic

is superior

resinous

and they

acid and related resin mortars Such mortars tile

and vinyl exposures

tars are the poorest in general. FGD systems. Hydraulic structural Lumnite). >30% pH 4.5, modified prove crete or to acids, acid brick

in other are widely lower

used in paper temperature types

mills and are suitable zones of mildly (water

or ceramic Mortars: (five

in the

The two types

common cement, ASTM

of hydraulic limederived and calcium alumina,

cured)

or mortars concrete Portland

are portland cement

the

basic C150), <5% mortar Lumnite for

cement aluminate while

used in

per

normally portland

contains cement whereas too

Lumnite

alumina. below

Chemically, which

or concrete resists dilute practical either

is not resistant acids to about latex to imthe condeicing rein-

being limited or augmented by coating have been decks. nitrite version corrosion

to pH 26.0, it is attacked portland reactive on the of

rapidly resistance,

use. Various

cement

concretes For and

have been developed by densifying latex better spalling coated and cathodic is the acids to resist example,

its neutral

and alkaline the used

corrosion northern steel

components. bridge rebars

impregnated of the

concretes salt/chloride forced rebar,

decks epoxy

attendant

concrete calcium

(Elastomeric corrosion in concrete

membranes, bridge

and galvanized protection replacement markedly and similar been cement

inhibitive cement with mortar admixture)

admixture mortar

have also been effective Another of some improves chemicals. widely the of the portland resistance Flyash

deck protection.) or concrete to food ash. This ash additive ASTM resistance C618

of portland cement of the

rice hull

or concrete meeting and sulfate

(pozzolanic

has also

used to improve

the properties

of portland

An Engineer

Looks at Chemically

Resistant

Masonry

13

concrete. while I portland stantially by sulfuric proximately organic

It should cement. better

be noted that ASTM Although Type

Cl 50 Types

I I and V portland cements,

Type and mortars are subsilito apor

much more sulfate resistant, in neutral silicate

are no more acid resistant than ordinary II and V based concretes sulfate solutions, based upon sulfuric they would Lumnite,

or alkaline extend dilute would

be destroyed aluminum down

acid and its acid salts. Mortars economic mineral pH 45 (fairly selection described

cate and calcium pH 4, the mortar materials and temperature.

acid resistance

acids).

For stronger

acids below about inorganic

involve one of the acid resistant

above, depending mortars (I) and

upon the acid type, concentration be fully (3) discussed (2) joint

All of these materials-brick, in later chapters along with Monolithics compounds, (troweled, sprayed

and membranes-will grouts, linings); and

Castables, gunned

and polymer

concretes; Expansion

plus rigid plastic fabrications of industrial

such as polyethylene, host of materials requiring

polypropylene are effectively and

and PVC. These components used in a wide variety thermal should sulating efficiently the thermal is employed, ture, phatic outer energy simply resistance.

made from a whole applications

superior chemical

In closing this section, the energy conservation be cited as a principal benefit. to varying degrees, CRM (CRM lined equipment

aspects of CRM will operate insulation

construction in-

Because all CRM of external

linings are internally

cooler and more are saved. With glass block lining vinyl or aliThe

while the costs and maintenance insulation lining) insulation. thermal plant thin film

inside the duct or vessel, it is subject to less is needed for the lined steel strucby the moderate CRM lining.

damage than external a suitable

When closed cell borosilicate insulation exterior resulting personnel from coating

no external

such as an epoxy, the insulative

urethane.

In addition, temperature

are safeguarded

steel surface and materials

savings realized

from this internal

CRM design merit serious

consideration.

CHEMICALLY

RESISTANT applications handbook

MASONRY of CRM

APPLICATIONS linings and structures with countless of excellent are both numerous CRM case histories available to any engiIn general, less durable

The industrial and the varied. This from around interested industry should neering tive CRM chief power lowing many

could

be filled

the world. reader

There are a number (see Bibliography long-term of CRM

publications

at end of this chapter). chemical and thermal Cheaper, construction.

requiring materials

reliable,

resistance

does or

use one or more types systems. with will

and components is the only CRM industry,

have been used but are seldom at elevated solution. control or practical and linings in air pollution CRM

as cost-effectemperatures,

as CRM

In some severe environments viable structures especially industries these

construction experience generation discussion CRM

Since the authors systems, the folthe else-

has been in the fossil fuel areas. Certainly, and are detailed

emphasize

application

uses in other

are no less important

where in this handbook

as well as in the open literature.

14

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

Power Industry-Flue Electric problems of which utility

Gas Desulfurization

Systems operating from and maintenance not the least flyash(SO*), pH plus

FGD systems pose many difficult and his architect/engineer erosion and abrasion and flyash effects

to the owner are corrosion,

and constructor, fluorides,

high velocity sulfurous Though

laden flue gas, scrubber and sulfuric slurry 5.5-6.5

slurries, chlorides, spray tower)

(SOS) acids over a wide (absorber, temperatures still contain ducting ranging mixed

range of temperatures.

the process

in the SO* scrubber at moderate

is controlled

at a normal

of 120-1350F,

the wet scrubbed gases leaving pH. When this gas mix25F) bypass flue zone re-

the mist eliminators some SOs, halides gas to temperatures gion, a very corrosive develops that ture enters the outlet

up to 10% of the inlet flue gas SOZ content at an uncontrolled or higher height. with hot (300? condition system-i.e., FRP, mist the organic eliminators

(Cl, F) and flyash

and is reheated 150-200F gas/condensate of the FGD (alloys, of the performed

in the duct mixing

below the acid dew point It has been well established outlet linings) ducts and chimhave been used dampers, hostile liners, opera-

in the outlet

ducts and full chimney portion

the postscrubber variety

ney liner-are areas. A wide with CRM where tion. mixed

the most severe environmental of materials success downstream has generally system. linings with

zones and the highest maintenance and outlet

construction acid brick

best in this extremely plant chimney more have proved

region of the FGD coated steel or FRP In addition, prescrubbers, clude and/or acid gunned) brick,

This is especially pressurized

true of power

annuli

reliable than

liners in FGD

systems employing materials pumps. mortars linings

hot bypass reheat

non-metallic nozzles chemical resistance. brick

inorganic and slurry resistant Hard,

have been used in FGD system The favored chemically their CRM materials inbonded (cast or thermal pump

spray

and for

cements, abrasion

used as monolithic

high chemical,

dense pre-fired slurry Venturi with potassium

shapes of alumina silicate throats bricks, mortar which

and silicon

carbide are employed components. construction Acid

for abrasive/erosive bonded liners or flues. resistant calcium

spray nozzles and slurry

is the preferred resist hot sulfuric cement linings sysin FGD

for chimney

of SO* scrubbers have

been lined with are sometimes tems. that are rapidly

high alumina abrasion contain used to protect attacked mildly

or silicon carbide

acid and are more

than acid brick. aluminate and other area.

Hydraulic

steel prescrubbers

(quench

zones) pH 4.5.

These typically

or aluminum acids below gunited chemically

silicate cements Because of cements cement Some with hydraulic bonded

by sulfuric prescrubber

the controlled, are often

acidic pH in the SOZ scrubbers, However, or potassium SOs scrubbers tile. For to work membranes (or concrete) properly,

used in the

linings based upon sodium sistant and thus would completely chemical the tile blast non-metallic resistant lined ceramic concrete steel

silicate are much more acid and heat reare now built of concrete cementious prepared, lined

better handle system upsets in pH and temperature. any of these gunned the gunned

linings or preferably silicatestresses,

or tile lining must be apbest potassium and vibrational

plied over impervious cleaned, based lining thus exposing

well bonded to a suitably substrate. Even the thermal

is permeable

and may crack from to rapid attack

the steel substrate

by acid condensates

unless pro-

An Engineer Looks at Chemically Resistant Masonry

15

tected with an impermeable, acid-resistant membrane. Such cracking can be minimized by using properly spaced corrosion resistant alloy stud anchors, which distribute the stresses. Specific Power Plant FGD System Experience The extensive in-plant testing, evaluation and use of CAM linings and structures at a high sulfur coal-fired power station amply demonstrate the utility and effectiveness of many types of CAM components, which are successfully used in most utility FGD systems and other air pollution control facilities!'4,14,22 This large steam electric generating station features twin units located in a river valley, requiring two 1,000 foot high chimneys to adequately disperse the scrubbed flue gasses (Figure 1-1) .The power boiler flue gases are cleaned by a highly efficient FGD system comprising: (1) Electrostatic precipitators to remove essentially all of the particulates (flyash), followed by (2) Lime slurry-based S02 scrubbers to remove over 90% of the S02 from the flue gas. The wet scrubbed flue gases containing various levels of S02, S03, CI, F and fiyash then pass through

Fi~re 1-1: Large coal-fired power station with FGD system and two 1 ,000 foot high chimneys, one containing the tallest acid brick liner in the United States.

16

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

FRP mist eliminators, duct, through turning (100 foot ASTM A36 elevation), carbon

enter lined steel ducts which join a scrubber vanes (mixing zone region), and up the 900 foot high chimney ductwork and the internal with bracing

bypass reheat breeching of welded was [The liner.

into the chimney

liner to the atmosphere.

All lined rectangular constructed preferred

were fabricated
protective with external

steel plate or pipe, while concrete CRM linings is cylindrical

each 1,000 ducting

foot high chimney

of reinforced

an independent

design for

(no inter-

nal) stiffeners.]

I21 POTASSIUM SILICATE

CEMENT

OVER YINILESTER.

Figure 1-2:

Stack and duct linings. All eight modules are SO* scrubber modules.

Figure system. ural

l-2

shows the plan view of Units lining materials modules was later (four/unit) upgraded

1 and 2 ducts and chimneys were initially to a slightly are the 1,000 foot lining.

with

the various generic CRM The SO2 scrubber sheet, which rubber

used in different

sections of the FGD lined with soft natthicker, more imused was neoprene

permeable and triply elastomeric protected with

and heat resistant (soft/hard/soft) linings with

chlorobutyl sheet rubber

rubber linings The

(Chlorobutyl, Unit

most commonly 2 chimney

in wet SO* absorbers.) Type

a self-supporting

900 foot acid brick lining. This tallest H (or Type mortar brick II) fireclay silicate the acid containing lining

American

acid brick liner was built of modified a chemically The cured potassium CRM between flue annulus outlet gate. This is the preferred structures. greater practice ity tant column. shell was pressurized than the to prevent

brick bonded

a silica sand aggreconcrete space industrial concrete

materials

combination

used in such free standing and the outer is standard resistant

by fans to maintain acid vapors from

a positive pressure in the annular Pressurization through

gas pressure.

penetrating

cracks and permeabil-

in the brick/mortar mastic or other

liner and condensing the concrete coating protective

on the non-acid retard

In some chimneys,

shell interior to further

is lined with an acid resisacid attack of the sus-

An Engineer

Looks at Chemically

Resistant

Masonry

17

ceptible

concrete.

(Note

that the independent where a barrier structure halides liner

acid brick stack liner is one of the membrane is not necessary, since both wet saturated for over five acid concenducting and in this instance.) resisted

few types of CRM there is no substrate This acid

construction chimney sulfur point

or supporting oxides,

brick

has completely

flue gas laden with low the acid dew trations chimney ture could this ney well liner years. At the higher

and some flyash and hot gases also berange of 125O-325F the condensing failure, with sulfuric in parts of the outlet

over a temperature

flue gas temperatures,

are estimated lining. rise rapidly designed is carbon This coated

to range up to 60-80% to either erected

Should there be a rare air preheater and acid brick liner thermal a sprayed

the flue gas temperaNevertheless, reester min1 chim-

4OOF or 7OOF for a brief period. condition. inert

good thermal/shock The Unit pigmented vinyl

sistance can safely withstand coating. requires imal vated except downs. ability

any transient with

steel protected steel liner

has also performed

well for over six years but excursions-i.e., resistance to elerestrictions

that the FGD system be operated Conversely, Unit 2 acid the heating the brick

to avoid thermal

hot bypass gas flow. temperatures, for possibly About limiting

because of its excellent or cooling

liner has no operational

rates during startups or shut-

the only design limitation outlet

of acid brick stack liners is their unsuita variety actual of monolithic the most cementiThis as hydurable

in a high seismic zone. ducts were lined with their behavior under was designed operating conditions.

The scrubber large scale in-plant gunned sistant draulic roded gunited steel better in the chimney sodium cement and single

tious systems to evaluate lining to combat liners. and

test program

to determine

the same wet and hot corrosive It was conclusively silicate cements clearly

flue gas conditions outperformed which flue the

shown that the much and calcium cement cement silicates, lining lining

more acid rewere corgases. The its surface of the much aggreester a (exgas very well,

potassium

linings such as aluminum component little The attack denser sodium sodium

eroded

by the acid condensates silicate silicate

and high velocity allowing containing lining vinyl

retained worked

hardness with substrate. than

but sustained cracking, sodium silicate cement cement

acid corrosion light weight vinyl

the 100%

modified potassium The well

gates. The the gunned membrane CRM shield

silicate-based all applied applied lower

performed inert filled ester coating outlet

the best of without ducts mixed

monolithic coating. worked

linings, spray

over a sprayed

high-build temperature

in the

scrubber

cept for physical floor conditions. gunited For The resistant corrosion

damage),

but failed when exposed to the hotter pigmented stainless under the better acid condensate effectively block potassium ducts. only monolithic measures

Nevertheless,

this inert

vinyl ester system performed (not carbon)

well as an acid resistant membrane cement was reinforced ducts where glass block This SS) welded such outlet borosilicate the lining

linings where the steel stud anchors. pH l-3, corrosion from had

with

(e.g., T316

stud anchors should be used to retain the lining. protected lining silicate the steel ducting lining which proved cement so successful that silicate

and abrasion. replaced

lightweight

it has largely been applied lining cell foamed

the gunned quite

to most of the outlet

Although minor

the 100% potassium

had performed

well with

cracks and repairs,

the closed

glass block lining was considered

to be virtually

maintenance-free.

18

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

The most acid resistant cost-effective protection

CRM

linings and acid brick structures problem

are providing

to the major

areas of this and many other coal

fueled power plant FGD systems.

CONCLUSION In concluding to the following (I) The this overview of CRM, it is recommended In addition, that the technical

sources listed in the Bibliography organizations: Society

be reviewed.

the reader is referred

American

for with

Testing

and Materials emphasis

(ASTM), on these

PhilaASTM

delphia,

Pennsylvania,

particular

committees: (a) (b) ASTM ASTM C-3, Chemical C-15, ASTM Resistant Non-Metallic Units and issued the stanmaterials and comMaterials

Manufactured committees

Masonry

These two dard

have prepared on CRM industry.

specifications

and test methods

ponents that are used throughout (2) The Unit T-6K and National Association emphasis T-6K

of Corrosion on NACE

Engineers

(NACE),

Houssuch as With

ton, Texas with Committee were: Brick (I) Masonry

Technical Resistant Construction Floor

Committees Construction With

on Corrosion Vessel (2)

and Allied Linings, and Brick.

Materials. and

The first two reports issued by NACE Membrane With Acidproof Construction

Acidproof

Membrane

BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. 2.

Sheppard, W.L.,

3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

Jr., A Handbook of Chemically Resistant Masonry, C.C.R.M., Inc., 923 Old Manoa Rd., Havertown, PA, 2nd edition (1982). Haffner, R.F. and Ebner, A.M., Materials Behavior in the Ducts and Chimneys of the Pleasants Power Station, pres. at 3rd NACE/APCA/IGCI Seminar, Solving Corrosion Problems in Air Pollution Control Equipment, Denver, CO (Aug. II-13,198l). Sheppard, W.L., Jr., Applications of Chemical Resistant Masonry in Liquid Waste Handling, pres. at NACE CORROSION/80, Chicago, IL (Mar. 3-7,198O). Sheppard, W.L., Jr., Using Chemical-Resistant Masonry in Air Pollution Control Equipment, Chem. Engr.,203-210 (Nov. 20,1978). Sheppard, W.L., Jr., Membranes Behind Brick-Parts I & ll,Chem. Engr. (5/15/72 and 6112172). Sheppard, W.L., Jr., Materials of Construction of Pickling Tanks, Blast Furnace and Steel Plant (Nov., 19681. Sheppard, W.L., Jr., Obtaining Sound Chemically Resistant Masonry Construction, The Construction Specifier, 20-26 (Dec., 1981). Sheppard, W.L., Jr., Spotting and Avoiding Problems with Acid-Resistant Brick, Chem. Eng. (May 3,1982). Sheppard, W.L., Jr., Inspecting Chemically Resistant Masonry-Parts I & II, Plant Eng. (3119181 & 4/16/81).

An Engineer

Looks at Chemical/y

Resistant

Masonry

19

10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15.

Sheppard, W.L., Jr., Trouble Shooting Chemically Resistant Masonry, Civil Eng.-ASCE, 68-71 (may, 1982). McDowell, D., Specifications for Acidproof Brick, C/rem. Eng., loo-104 (June 10, 1974). McDowell, D.W., Jr., Handling Sulfuric Acid, Chem. Eng. (Nov. 11, 1974). McDowell, D.W., Jr., Handling Phosphoric Acid and Phosphate Fertilizers, Chem. Eng. (Aug. 4,1975). Sheppard, W.L., Jr. and McDowell, D.W., Jr., Controlling Corrosion in Flue Gas Scrubbers-parts I & I I, Plant Eng. (2122179 & 318179). McDowell, D.W., Jr. and Sheppard, W.L., Jr., Use of Non-Metallics in Mineral Acid Plant Construction, Paper #57, NACE CORROSION/75, Toronto, Ontario, Canada (April 14-18,1975). McDowell, D.W., Jr. and Sheppard, W.L., Jr., Using Acid-Proof Brick and Mortar in Masonry Construction and Picking Nonmetallic Construction Materials to Resist Mineral Acid Attack, Plant Eng. (2/19/76 & 3118176). Hall, G.R. and Connell, P.E., Inorganic Corrosion-Resistant Cements for New Constructionand MaintenanceinChemical Industries,Paper#94,NACECORROSION/83, Anaheim,CA (April 18-22.1983). Carpenter, G. and Pierce, R.R., Linings for Sulfuric and Phosphoric Acid Plant Process Vessels, Paper #95, NACE CORROSION/83, Anaheim, CA (4/18-22/83). Boova, A.A., Chemical Resistant Joints for Vitrifield Clay Pipe Conveying Chemical Wastes, Paper #229, NACE CORROSION/80, Chicago, IL (March 3-7,198O). Boova, A.A., Masonry and Lining Technology and Techniques, Paper #253, NACE CORROSION/82, Houston, TX (March 22-26,1982). Boova, A.A., Furans as Chemical Construction Materials, Paper #159, NACE CORROSION/77, San Francisco,CA (March 14-18.1977). Boova, A.A., Chemical Resistant Masonry, Flake and Fabric Reinforced Linings for Pollution Control Equipment, pres. at 2nd NACE/APCA/IGCI Seminar on Corrosion Problems in Air Pollution Control Equipment,Atlanta, GA (Jan. 17-19). Boova, A.A., Acid Proof Floors: Yesterday, Today and Tomorrow, pres. at 20th Annual Convention of the Southern Tile, Terrazzo and Marble Contractors Association, Charlotte, NC (3/8/68). Killam, E.H., Poor Pressurization Can Wreck Stacks, Electrical World, pp 71-73 (April 1983). Rosenberg, H.S., et al., Construction Materials for Wet Scrubbers: Update, ~01s. 1 & 2, EPRI CS-1736, prepared by Battelle Columbus Labs. (March 1981). Rosenberg, H.S., et al., Construction Materials for Wet Scrubbers: Update, vols. 1 & 2, EPRI CS3350, prepared by Battelle Columbus Labs. (July 1984). Pierce, R .R. and Semler, C.E., Ceramic and Refractory Linings for Acid CondensationParts I & I I, Chem. Engr. (12/l 2183 and l/23/84). Sheppard, W.L., Jr., Failure Analysis of Chemically Resistant Monolithic Surfacings, Chem. Engr. (July 23,1984). ASTM, Manual of Protective Linings for FGD Systems, STP837 (March 1984).

16.

17.

18. 19. 20. 21. 22.

23.

24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29.

2 An Architectural Specifier Looks at Corrosion Resistant Masonry

Milton Wilmington,

H. Potter Delaware

PREVIEW This materials information Material which sonry will chapter will present It will an overview of corrosion resistant construction, and accurate practitioner, resistant will maappear detail in be

and methods. limitations affect

discuss the importance Basic Data required known

of complete

needed to establish

for Design Development. of corrosion This approach frequency

not commonly

to the architectural

design are listed. has resulted

Lack of knowledge mistakes. with

construction The

in costly

sophomoric inclusion. other forewarned The exposures posures, product processes. important. employee

but such errors have occurred information While is covered redundant, will

sufficient that the

to warrant

more specifically

and in greater

chapters. average

it is important

less experienced

of these limitations. architect never or very seldom more likely food these encounter severe corrosive exin his practice. He will with encounter the so called milder areas,

such as food processing. The The toilets correct

manufacturing, Involved will

preparation, will

food serving and dairy i.e., sterilizing contaminants toilets is as well as in the

are the cleanup involved media

design of an area which also become corrosive and

not harbor in public

architect

and change facilities. to contain much more successfully of plastics. to the many-fold in the field increase in knowhow The need for

We have learned in metallurgy, overall protection

last 20 to 30 years. This can be attributed in protective coatings protection of the structure

or building

has evolved into a more localized.

and is needless to say, more sophisticated.

20

An Architectural

Specifier

Looks at Corrosion

Resistant

Masonry

21

If the pert help, The lish charts technical these suspect

architect that

encounters

a severe corrosive of chemical

exposure, mortars

he should field.

seek expubSuch The of are

is unless he is very experienced manufacturers charts listing details can varies otherwise. the situation, by the National retain the degree their products

in the corrosion resistant and various

several

and cements agents.

extensive indicate

corrosive and mortars. degree order of

of resistance

of the cements resistant however, excellent a consultant. the to

These manexpertise so they

ufacturers

also publish representatives until proven

of corrosion be of help, widely from

masonry

construction. taker

representatives So, to best cover

An accredited

Corrosion is sug-

Specialist, gested.

accredited

Association

of Corrosion

Engineers

BASIC

DATA with query type the owner him duration. of cleaning to know active. his operating Determine shock procedure, low is or may water-hot, include corrosive temperatures The elements anticiReof type factor.

Review anticipated; pated view the

in detail. Thermal to

and high cold,

and their

be an important steaming.

be used, or solvents what Also,

cleaning

agents and solutions

can be a factor. Be aware that materials low concentrations such as caustics floor the are in a pop-

It is important very corrosive. Simple boiler was outs several Typical room made, feet things the from

is corrosive.

of some acids are very

some alkaline

are not

always conical conditions

simple. shaped were to hot chemist

As an example, pop-outs. noted. The

the concrete frequency of the floor adjacent the floor buffing of

was developing following boiler

When a remedial

survey

was greater

close to the boiler. increasing operations aided

The temperature to the touch

was ambient to the boiler. was buffed kept by compound This was a may be is ex-

of powerhouse producer

cleanliness

is godliness, The fluid them

to a high gloss. Access to a good the concrete reacted thermal a serious not likely A (about listed. posures with the aggregates triggered

on site plus excellent causing increase

records

in solving

the problem.

in the concrete by only The a small What

to expand.

reaction exposure

in temperature. corrosive to one person designated by the owner corrosive

Communication

is important. to another. resistant design All the Oh civil seemed technically

is mildly

liaison

person

to be versed to

in all design laboratory when responsible

areas, particularly included for a sewer

or corrosion project However, 100 feet).

construction. connection were was an exthe owners blew damage system in order the materials to be discharged design He queried acid. the will whole

a chemical engineer

the sewer

perienced his cork. vitrified would ment

man suspicious HF even clay pipe. in trace

of all liaison quantities was pipe. of the

representatives.

rep again and got

yes, just

a trace of hydrofluoric necessary. basic data Today,

The designer severely waste

(75 parts per million)

Redesign

probably should

be in plastic include

When the development

is complete,

the design data docuto be used on the

all design

information

including

materials

22

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

project. owner

List all material or principal especially surprises;

limitations.

Also note final

appearance.

Insist that person.

the

review the information, in work neither with corrosion

not just the liaison the document. materials. resistant

Then

insist on evidence that the owner has reviewed portance pleasant situations, tenance does the owner.

This is of great imYou want no unmany strange maintenthe plant

We have experienced

for example,

the liaison person did not talk with was a gap in knowledge

ance superintendent, procedures.

hence there

of proven plant main-

MATERIALS Corrosion trenches, brick,

AND

METHODS

OF CONSTRUCTION-MASONRY is generally more commonly

SYSTEM used in floors, basically fire and are cova bed joint of

resistant

masonry

and pits or catch basins. Other applications in detail. consists of an impermeable or mortar with joints

are chimneys, specialized

and the lining of process vessels. Both are highly system cement mortar,

ered in other chapters The masonry corrosion corrosion With mortars resistant resistant

membrane,

between quality

the brick filled

with

usually the same as the bed joint. the adhesive of the cements and with the masonry line of dewill develop element hair cracks at interface The membrane

the exception

of the epoxies,

is not high. They

units; consider these joints not watertight. fense and is the watertight Substrate While several substrates are acceptable,

is the major

in this construction.

portland

cement

concrete

is by far finish will used as Do evapma-

the most common The finish not provide membranes. bleed oration

and the most satisfactory. can be critical. for adhesion A dense steel troweled required of some of the materials

of the concrete float

the porosity A carpet floats

finish will

provide just about the correct texture. or those intended some bedding to prevent or membrane

not use magnesium water. of water.

as this will close the surface and prevent the escape of with

Do not use curing compounds These are incompatible in very poor adhesion.

terials resulting Floor drainage drains. flange

drains are generally which

cast into the concrete. to the drain body,

They are furnished with weep holes

with a into the over in

is dished

The outer

or top edge of this flange The neck of the drain

should be cast flush with or slightly should then extend units. above the flange can be obtained of the masonry

below the top surface of the concrete. and into the flange. different Membrane The more common lation than that corrosion in floor resistance. membrane lengths to accommodate

The membrane

various thicknesses

is asphalt,

hot applied.

It is a different floors,

formu-

used in road or roof construction It is impermeable to fluids. with

and is designed for maximum At elevated all openings to the top of extending

and at edges must be curbed,

membrane

An Architectural

Specifier

Looks at Corrosion

Resistant

Masonry

23

the curb behind nor defects The major inequities

the brick.

While

the asphaltic

membrane

is used to correct

mi-

in the

substrate,

in no case shall the membrane is critical, a minimum

be used to correct of in an

in the substrate. of the asphalt thickness. applied an asphaltic installed membrane up to 1 thick concrete base slab. In the southwest severely damaging of l/s, a maximum

thickness

Ys I, l/4 is the optimum Example. attempt Texas the joints bon film Other compared Note. Thin Movement finished Masonry summer to corrrect

A contractor

an improperly

sun, the asphalt softened membrane is adversely

and the brick shifted, by solvent.

in the brick floor. such as Tedlar@ membranes

Repair of the area ran into five figures. affected A layer of fluorocaror Kynar @ 2 mils thick, used. They is placed on top of the memare usually defects considered thin,

Asphaltic

brane in such exposures. are sometimes rarely to the asphlatic, Asphaltic will exceeding will /a thick. Epoxies are commonly

used. Thin membranes membranes

should never be used to correct membranes through not absorb

in the substrate. in the substrate. joints in the

bridge minor joints or cracks in substrates. movement work. Expansion in substrate.

are very rigid and will telegraph directly

to the finished

surface must be located Units

over the joints

Bricks are manufactured absorption. ASTM C-279 Type The Type L, 2l/4 thick,

from

deaerated

shale and are very dense with used and in general Brick

low

H or L. are most commonly fiber brick fiber brick. is the result of the extrusion process during of the clay scored, is in the direction of the extrusion meet the called is preferred. 13/s thick

needs of the user. The vertical packing house tile is a horizontal The fiber manufacture. matrix. mat or textured structure The fiber patterns. fiber structure

of the brick

The texture

of the sides of the extrusion structure is extruded fiber

can be varied to provide in a ribbon

The horizontal cut to 8 lengths. an emery from form excessive within

1 3/8 x 37/8 then wire pattern or have to spalling

The surface texture The horizontal load traffic during

may be smooth,-diamond brick shock. resulting Voids

grit surface. wheel brick the

is more susceptible a period

and to thermal

or blisters may of exposure, While the

the burning

process. After

salts tend exposed

to filter

into these voids and expand, of brick recommended. resistant brick

in spalling.

faces of this type fact.

is more easily cleaned, the use of horizontal manufactured in the USA has an

fiber brick is not often Important expansive thermal liner tile, concrete larly, Liner growth f/ate factor

Corrosion Expansion

of 0.16%

in any direction,

3/s in 20 feet. This is not a brick there is also

expansion. smooth

joints every 10 to 15 feet should be specified. to the above mentioned or grooved backs. These are used to line pipe or trench walls poured. Simi-

and Tile:

In addition They

faced with dove tailed then concrete

pipe and trenches. mortar, tile known

are set into the forms, joints filled with corroof the tile is available.

sion resistant

half round

as channel

This may be installed in

24

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

the same manner poured installed movement mended Quarry membrane under without

as the liner plates and used as trench the channel They thermal tile. a membrane.

bottoms

with

concrete

and around

Note channel tile and liner plates are and the like. They are not recom-

are subject to the physical stress due to the situations. it is installed usually through spilled without an asphaltic As noted such as surface. in a

of concrete, Tile: Tile

movement

in submerged

or high corrosive

is used in much of the food process and food preparation adhesive membrane an epoxy type. irregularities to the finished

areas, also toilet

and change areas. In general, a thin substrate attribute plant the

but with

above, the concrete humps and bumps. Cleanliness synthetic row,

%6).

must be true to line without of the quarry raw latex when tile installation.

All such flaws will telegraph

is a major elastomer Quarry up easily. Patterned require will

For example,

stuck tightly

to the con(very narmate-

crete floors. rial cleaned Note. ganic quarry plain laws often tile that

tile was used with an epoxy density

bed and a furan joint

Due to the greater

of the quarry pattern

tile the unvulcanized will harbor

tile such as the diamond under a non-skid the surface surface. Emery

grease and orsafety

residue.

It is not acceptable meet non-skid

some local sanitary grit embedded However,

laws. Labor

in the surface of the may comand is difficult areas. It the stain and the Tile lnIt is an

criteria.

the employees

the emery Tile: Tile

wears out their commonly

shoes too quickly

to clean. Warn the owner. Ceramic is mentioned nection with is quite used in toilets and shower here only a corrosion solutions Council to note that the case of quarry resistant grout, the installation so common found of America from exposure in toilet areas. The Handbook for Ceramic tile. and quarry tile when used in con-

will withstand (uric acid)

ing and discolorization strong cleaning The Tile stallation ANSI which

to urine

publishes

is an excellent

guide for both ceramic

standard. American 1430 New York, Do not forget National Standards Institute

Broadway NY 10018 joints in ceramic tile and quarry tile

expansion

work must be

directly

over joints Resistant

in the substrate Cements

but not limited

to such locations.

Corrosion These dundancy Sulfur before

and Mortars chapters in greater depth. Again at risk of resimilar to as-

are covered Cements:

in other Sulfur

here are a few things to keep in mind. base cements flowable are heated in a kettle cements cements poured hot, done in several steps to assure the joints are filled temperature. Other Sulfur Sulfur are plasticized are filled with (Thiokol@). plasticizers have been tried but

phalts and joints cement using 0.6% olefin

cools below polysulfide

none have proven as effective

as the polysulfide. on exposure

either silica or carbon depending

(carbon

in the case of hydrofluoric

An Architectural

Specifier

Looks at Corrosion

Resistant

Masonry

25

acid).

In the

interest

of reducing carbon

warehouse

stocks

some manufacturers

stock

only the more expensive it. If silica is ordered, Resin Mortars: epoxies. phaltic. materials. Therefore, Some Except The

sulfur.

If carbon

is specified phenolics, membrane

you are charged for polyesters and the

you are only charged for silica but get carbon filler. This group includes the furans, are used as thin and polyesters, concrete will beds in lieu of asreaction. is in-

of these mortars for the epoxies alkalinity of the

most of these are acid catalyzed retard the catalyzing before such a mortar

the concrete

substrate

must be neutralized using an epoxy

stalled in direct contact Much quarry excellent problem system

with concrete. bed with furan joints. It overcomes This is an the acidity several that this, for moderate (patented) laying filled exposures.

tile is installed particularly

of the furans,

is not subject

to stain damage at one time

and is easy to clean. Note expired

this system Sanitary

was proprietary Note. When

but patents tile,

years ago and to our knowledge the grooves are completely areas and when organic

were never renewed. groove backed with quarry it is important To accomplish the bedding mortar.

the back of the tile should be buttered materials as host to deposits Also, the mortar note will the and subsequent reaction

before the tile is set. (In food preparation growth.) The same applies to packhas a narrow opti-

are used in process, voids in grooves will serve bacterial

ing house tile and other grooved back units. of the catalyzer temperatures in the mortars will accelerate mum temperature range. Elevated the mortar of accelerator to a point where does not set Brick to be

set up before application.

Cold will retard so mortar

at all. In cold weather, The proportion

should be stored in a heated room. to resin in epoxies Store the epoxy is critical.

used should be heated to 70F for at least 24 hours prior to use. In cold conditions, the accelerator will not flow well. in a warm area.

Expansion There the mortar up. The joints. ination as nitric They

Joints are many expansion joint materials. The general practice is to leave

out of the joint.

Then partially epoxy

fill with a vinyl sponge rod as a backused for filling such

so called and bacterial that

flexiblized growth.

is most commonly

Sponge rod is not used in food plants due to possible subsurface silicones are better for strong oxidizing they lose adhesion in a project. chemical

contamsuch is

Several years ago, a series of tests were made and it resistance, in wet or submerged primer. exposures.

was found

acid. Unfortunately

require

very dry clean surfaces and a silicone before you use silicone

A test installation

recommended Required

Details that the installation be carefully detailed. Do not leave it to

It is important the discretion

of the contractor.

Figure 2-1 is a suggested detail.

26

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

r---

----r-----

-KEY 1. 2.

Acid-brick laid in acid-resisting mortar over a liquid-tight membrane. Expansion joints around periphery of floor, continued through capping. Also spaced equidistant from drain, 10' to 15' apart. Drain, centered between expansion joints. joint. Not surrounded by an expansion -

3.

4.

Pipes through floor, surrounded by a skirt so pipe can be removed and replaced. Expansion joint around skirt, set out slightly from skirt. Gutter or trench, sloped from ends to center, drains through wall, down floor on opposite side. Note expansion joint next to trench, 2 brick out from trench wall. Peripheral expansion jozonadjacent floor continues through trench and across brick capping. continued Outlet through common wall permits trench to drain. Membrane through outlet and protected by sleeve set in acid-resistant cement and mortared to brick lining.

5.

6.

Figure Z-l: A typical section of the construction: curbs, expansion joint-including locations, edges, slopes-a minimum of % per foot, floor drains, sleeves and all penetrations.

Section

II

27

3 Metallic Shells

Thomas Wilmington,

F.

Degnan Delaware

INTRODUCTION Corrosion resistant masonry lined metallic process equipment combine three vital components that must be designed to complement each other and function as a whole. First, there is a metal shell, generally made of carbon steel, which must provide a rigid leakproof elastic casing to support the ceramic lining, the possible stresses resulting from its growth, thermal stresses, the contents of the vessel and other static and dynamic loadings that will be imposed upon the vessel when it is placed in service. Second, a membrane is almost always applied to the inside surface of the shell to protect it against corrosion. The membrane can range from a few coats of paint to an elastomer or plastic lining. The metallic vessel must be designed and fabricated so that the I in ing can be properly appl ied . Third, there is the masonry lining itself, which must be designed with the necessary thickness and shape to be thermally and mechanically stable. The lower coefficient of thermal expansion of the lining compared to that of the shell, under thermal loading, for example, must be compensated for by the insulating effect of sufficient lining thickness to keep the lining in compression.

MATERIALS

SELECTION

General Considerations The vast majority

lined vessels have SA-36 been gineers)

of metallic shells for Corrosion

made of ASME,1 Grade (American quality C structural

Resistant Masonry (CRM)

Society carbon of Mechanical steel, Ensometimes

or SA-283

28

Metallic Shells

29

called "tank steel." These are the least expensive grades of weldable steel plate. They are similar steels. SA-36 has slightly higher strength [58,000 psi (400 MPa) minimum tensile and 36,000 psi (248 MPa) minimum yield] than SA-283 Grade C [55,000 psi (379 MPa) minimum tensile and 30,000 psi (207 MPa) minimum yield] .The API (American Petroleum Institute) Standard 620 II Recommended Rules For Design and Construction of Large, Welded, Low Pressure Storage Tanks"2 allows a slightly higher maximum allowable tensile stress for SA-36 than SA-283 Grade C [16,000 psi (110 MPa)vs 15,200 psi (104MPa)],butthe more conservative ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Section VIII, Division 1, Para UCS-23 shows the same maximum allowable design stress of 12,700 psi [ -20 to +650F (-29 to 343C)] for both grades. It should be noted that the ASME Code, Section VIII, Division 1, Para UCS6 has the following restrictions on the use of SA-36 and SA-283 (Grades A, B, C and D) steels when used for pressure parts in pressure vessels:

(1) The vessels are not to be used to contain lethal substances, either liquid or gas. (2) The materials are not to be used in the construction steam boilers. (3) The design temperature at which the material -20F (-29C) and 650F (343C). (4) of unfired

is used is between

For shells, heads and nozzles only, the thickness of the plate on which strength welding is applied shall not exceed S/8" (16 mm).

It is recommended that the ASME Code, Section VIII, Division 1 be used for the construction of CAM lined metallic vessels. The use of Code construction is only required where the operating pressure exceeds 15 psig, but it should be remembered that a CAM lining can swell and exert high stresses. Although SA-36 and SA-283 have been the most common shell materials, in many cases they are not the safest or most economic steels to use. Brittle Fracture

Over the years, a number of steel vessels, including those that have been lined with CRM, have failed by brittle fracture. A photograph of a failure of a brick lined tower, 60 ft. high that cracked the fulJlength of the shell is shown in an article "Brick-Lined Tanks" by R. Ladd3 in the March 14 issue of Chemical Engineering p 192-198. The author knows of a similar experience where a lined "dry tower" in a sulfuric acid plant failed in a similar manner on a cold day in February. A "dry tower" drys combustion air by passing it countercurrent to a downward flow of sulfuric acid. During the last twenty years, there has been an increasing awareness of the danger of brittle fracture of steel vessels at ambient temperatures, largely as a result of the work of Pellini and Puzak4 at the Naval Research Laboratory and their investigations of failures of World War II ships. Their" Fracture-Analysis Diagram" (Figure 3-1) shows that a small flaw can initiate brittle fracture at tem-

30

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

peratures but that exceeded.

at or below the critical There

the nilductility flaw

transition

(NDT)

temperature

of a plate, has been Mechan-

size increases rapidly analyses of structures

once this temperature Fracture to derive critical

has developed

a science based on Plain Strain

ics to make sophisticated

flaw sizes.

INlflAlION CURVES (FRIACTURE STRESSES FOR SPECTRUM OF , JPLASTIC

ELASTIC LOADS FRACTURES DO NOT

l PROPAGATE

RMURE

LIMITATION)

NOT

NDT + 30-F TEMP. -

NOT + 60-F

NOT + l20.F

Figure 3-1: Fracture analysis diagram. Reprinted with permission from Naval Research Laboratory Report 5920, Fracture-Analysis Diagram Procedure For the Fracture Safe Engineering Design of Steel Structures, W.S. Pellini and P.P. Puzak, Figure 9,p 8 (March 15, 1963).

NDT temperature Method thick Charpy seldom NDT

temperatures ratio,

vary

from

plate

to plate and are dependent size, among other test (ASTM E-208

on mangaNDT Standard Transition mm) by Code high

nese to carbon

thickness Drop

and grain

things. True

can be determined of Ferritic NDT Steels)

by a drop weight Weight but is only for

for Conducting

Test to Determine applicable thinner plates

Nil-Ductility can

Temperature

to plates % (15.9 be estimated

or thicker. Vessels built fail from temperatures testing, testing

temperatures

V notch impact testing. in accordance brittle fracture, with Section even when VII I, Division constructed 1 of the ASME of materials with

because the maximum which which is done out VIII,

allowable

design stresses are only /4 of is also bene-

the minimum Hydrostatic ficial drostatic

tensile strength,

is generally 1% times NDT

less than % of the yield strength. the design pressure, temperature. (h)l hydrostatic testing of some plate defects as long as the hyThe Code recom-

by causing plastic yielding is carried [Section failures hydrostatic testing

at the tip of crack-like above the be carried Division was below out with to occur the NDT

mends that

the metal wall temperature during

above 6OF (16C). Nevertheless, because the metal

1, Para UG-99

have been known

temperature

temperature

and a stress riser, such as the presence other or a large defect, was present.

of two unreinforced

nozzles near one an-

Metallic Shells

31

Corrosion resistant masonry (CRM) lined steel vessels can present a special risk of brittle fracture because high stresses can develop by:
l

Swelling of the brick or mortar. Swelling of the membrane. Crystallization Corrosion of the product handled in and behind the brick. is penetrated.

0 0
l

products of the shell if the membrane

It is recommended that carbon steel material for non-refrigerated outdoor vessels be selected from Table 3-1, based on the design temperature. The information in this table is taken from API Standard 620,* except that only materials listed in Section II of the ASME Code are included. API Standard 620 lists these and also ship and structural grades that are not included in the ASME Code. API Standard 620 covers large storage tanks operating below 15 psig [and 200F (93C)I while the ASME Code covers vessels designed to operate at 15 psig or higher. The API Standard allows 20% higher allowable stress than Section VIII, Division 1 of the ASME Code. The design temperature for outdoor, non-refrigerated tanks according to API Standard 620 is the lowest mean daily temperature on record for the locality plus 15F (8OC). Isothermal lines showing the lowest mean daily temperatures for the United States is shown on Figure 3-2. This design criteria was established by API after failure of a few large new oil storage tanks during hydrostatic testing with: a view to providing a high order of resistance to brittle fracture at the lowest temperature to which the metal walls of the tank is expected to fall on the coldest day of record for the locality where the tank is to be installed.* In practice, many vessels designed for outdoor service in moderate climate are constructed of ASME SA-516 Grade 70, a fully killed, fine grain practice pressure vessel quality carbon steel plate for moderate and lower temperature service, so as to provide protection against brittle fracture. Low Temperature Service

If a CRM lined pressure vessel is to be designed for below -20F (-29C) for reasons other than seasonal atmospheric temperature, Section VIII, Division 1 of the ASME Code requires that the materials and fabrication practices meet minimum notch toughness requirements (Paragraph UG-84). Paragraphs UCS-65,66 and 67 cover the requirements for vessels operating below -2OF. The use of SA-36 or SA-283 is not permitted. Impact tests are required except for seasonal temperature excursions below -2OF (-29C) or when exempted by paragraph UCS-66 (c) which states that no impact test is required for materials used for metal temperatures below -2OF (-29C) when the minimum thickness is the greater of those determined under the most severe conditions of coincident pressure (external or internal) and temperature in accordance with UG-21 for temperatures of (a) -2OF (-29C) and above and (b) below -2OF (-29C). in which case the coincident pressure (internal if above atmospheric pressure and external if below atmospheric pressure) shall be multiplied by 2X. Paragraph UCS-67 requires postweld heat treatment of all vessels requiring impact testing, unless exempted in paragraph UCS 66 (c). Heat treatment shall

32

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

Table 3-1:

Minimum

Requirements with API

for ASME 620

Pressure Vessel Steels in Accordance

to Be Used at Various

Design Metal Temperatures Standard

Code, (Sect. II Design Metal Temperature* To 314 inclusive To 65"~ and over To 1 inclusive To 4 inclusive 25' F and over To 1 inclusive Over 1. -5F and over To 4 inclusive Over 4 Note 6 SA 36 Any listed in Note 6 SA36Mod. SA 442 SA 442 SA SA SA SA SA SA SA SA SA SA SA SA SA SA SA SA SA SA 442 516 662 737 442 516 537 662 737 442 516 537 662 737 516 537 662 737 2 55, 60 55. 60 55, 60 55.60.65.70 B, C B 55, 60 55,60.65,70 Class 1, 2 B, C B 55, 60 55.60,65,70 Class 1, 2 B. C B 55.60,65,70 Class 1, 2 B, C B Grade

--
none none "One Nate 5 Note 3 Note 1. 3 Note 3 Note 3 Notes 1, 2 Note 2 Note 2 Note 2 Note 2 Notes Notes Notes Notes 2,3,4 2.3.4 2.3.4 2,334

Specifications Special Requirements

-35F and over

To $ inclusive

To 1 inclusive

Over

Excerpts from Table 2-1, API Standard 620, "Design and Construction of Large, Welded. Low Pressure Storage Tanks," Seventh Edition (1982). Reprinted by courtesy of The American Petroleum Institute, except only equivalent ASME Code grades shown. *Design metal temperatures for unheated outdoor tanks in no" refrigerated service shall be 15F above the lowest one day mean ambient temperature for the locality recorded as determined from Figure 2 or from similarly authentic metereological data.
Note

1: Note 2: Note 3: Note 4: Note 5:

Note 6:

The steel shall be made with fine grain practice. The plates shall be normalized or quenched tempered. All plates over 14 inches in thickness shall be normalized. Each plate shall be impact tested and meet the Charpy V notch (ASTM A 370, Type) requirements of Par. 2.2.5 of API Specification 620. API Modification to ASTM A 36 requires the manganese content to have a range of 0.80 to 1.20. The material supplied shall be other than rimed or capped steel. ASME SA 36, SA 283 Grades C 6 D. SA 285 Grade C, SA 442, SA 516, SA 537, SA 662 Grades B h C. SA 737 Grade B.

alnl!lsul dJe740 UO~lW7J~SUO~ /X/k U@SG~OZ9

wnaloJiad [dJ

uw!Jawbj UOJ)

ai.j1)0

AsaiJno3 SaJnleJadWal

hq

(7361) lUa!qWe

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a6elo2g

aJnSSaJdMO7 :Z_E

pap/aM alll&j

pJepUk?lS

palu!Jdau

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SCXJ!l (eWJal/lOSl

ZSS, 08 dn rImsay epeuRJ 10 Ol~luO~,0 !Q

34

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

be in accordance ment). ment) The minimum from Exempted quirements

with

paragraph and

UW-40

(Procedures with the

for Post Weld Heat Treatheat treatment refor Post Weld Heat Treat-

vessel shall comply UCS-56

post weld

of UW-10

(Requirements specified

that apply to all design temperatures. grades of steel normally temperature A-20431b Standard for low temperature acceptance For General service and the as abstracted For Requirements of mill Charpy V notch testing,

ASTM

Specification

Steel Plates For Pressure Vessels are as shown in Table 3-2. Table 3-2: Generally Available Meeting (Normalized
Acceptance Charpy Criteria V Notch Specification Energy Absorption and

Grade-Thickness-Minimum V-Notch Requirements Condition)

Test agreed Temperature

Test Temperature Indicated

Combinations

Charpy

and Tempered

OF For otherwise

Plate

Thickness

(unless upon)

Avg. 3 ft.

for lbs.min.

Minimum for specimen ft. lbs. 12 12 15 12 A A A A 516, 1

Grade

and

Over to 2

over to 3

Over t 5

specimens

under

15 15 20 15

Grade 1

70

-50 -80

-40 -75 -90 -150

-30 -75 -90 -125

-20 _-_ -_

537 Class (2Jg max.) 537 (2Y 203 Class max.) Grade

2 -90 E -150

Source: Copyright. permission.

ASTM

Standard 1916

Specification Race Street,

A20-Sib, Philadelphia,

Table PA

15. 19103. Reprinted with

ASTM,

The design temperature temperatures temperatures normalized If ultra efficients shown notch test requirements testing temperature

should be at least IOF since it will

(6OC) higher than the testing V

in the table,

be necessary to meet Charpy

in the heat affected It should to -32OF

zones of welds. Also the minimum also be noted (-196C) that plates must be 9% nickel is likely

listed are for longitudinal may be higher. and tempered down or quenched

tests. For transverse tests, the minimum to meet these requirements. are required, steels with their lower co-

low temperatures expansion

steel and austenitic of thermal

stainless steels can be used. Nickel may be preferred, of the CRM

since low temperature

to result in excessive compression of expansion of austenitic Service for CRM lined

lining with the higher coefficient

stainless steels.

High Temperature It is unusual wall temperature.

equipment

to be designed

with

a high metal and incinera-

However,

it is possible for the walls of furnaces

Metallic

Shells

35

tots lined with stantial Although

refractories the ASME (538C),

and insulated

on the outside

surfaces to develop subunalloyed carbon steels below

metal surface temperatures. Code permits the use of certain it is desirable to limit their use to temperatures

as high as 1000F

8OOF (426OC) for two reasons: 0 0 Low strength Graphitization of welded (426C) compared to alloy steel. structure in the heat affected above 95OF (51OC) zones oxida-

of the pearlite At

components and higher.

upon long exposure to temperatures temperatures

of 8OOF

tion of unalloyed The most popular alloy, MO) and 12 (1% Cr-%% Corrosion Resistant

carbon steels becomes significant. IOOF (400-593C) Grades range are the low 11 (114% Cr-%%

steels for the 750-1 types MO) class 2.

chromium-molybdenum

such as SA 387

Shells S30400 (Type 304) and UNS S31600 (Type

Austenitic 316)

stainless steels UNS

have been used for the shells of CRM 0 A CRM containing lined S30403 (Type

lined vessels. Some examples stainless steel vessel with 30% nitric

are: siliacid

304L)

cate mortar

joints

is successfully

used for boiling to protect

an abrasive slurry. satisfactory

Stainless steel is used because there is membrane the steel shell in

no economically

such service and an unlined the abrasive slurry.

l

stainless steel shell could not withstand

A special CRM tion limit ceptable

lined

UNS

S31600

(Type

316 stainless steel) vessel an iron contaminavessel would to unaccontribute UNS S31600

is used to manufacture have adequate chemical

chlorosulfonic resistance

acid with but would

in parts per billion. iron pickup.

An unlined

Austenitic

stainless steels have high coefficients thickness of brick, to provide

of thermal

expansion,

about

50% higher than those of carbon ment of a greater temperature The cost. The corrosion struction rosion. Nickel coefficients alloys such as Alloy of thermal

steels. This property more

can result insulation

in the requireand reduce the

of the shell, and to prevent

it from expanding

away from the lining. as well as reduce of chloride stress stainless steels. It is cor-

use of stainless steel cladding cracking, that in severely a principal low carbon corrosive

can minimize

this problem the possibility of austenitic C max.)

use of clad steel can also minimize cause of failure grades (0.030% environment 600 (UNS

recommended

be used for clad con-

to avoid possible intergrannular N06600)

have been used to fabricate chlorinations. Alloy 600 has of carbon steels. The

shells of CRM

lined vessels used in high temperature expansion comparable

to those

shells are often cooled externally and also to keep the CRM

with a falling film of water to reduce corrosion

lining in compression.

36

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

Table 3-3:

Allowable

Design Stresses

Allovable (Source:

Design Srressea (ksi) For Hera1 Temperatures I. Not Exceeding: ASHE Code Section VIII. Division 1* - Para UCS-23 and WA-23)

Specifications !M)

p_
17.2 L7.2 7.2 7.2 7.2

SA 537 Cl 1 (under 24 thick) SA 537 C1 2 (under 2Y rhlck) SA 203 Grade E (34% Nickel) 16.3 16.3

16.3

16.3

6.3

6.3

6.3

6.5

Sh 240** NS 530400 NS s30403 UNS S31600 NS 331603

15.7 13.4 16.2 13.3

14.1 12.0 14.6 11.9

2.1 0.3 2.5 0.0

1.2 9.5 1.6 9.2

0.6 9.1 1.0 8.6

=20
6:: Carbon ___SA 36 SA 283 Grade D SA 285 Grade C SA 516 Grade 70 Lou Alloy Sreels SA 387 Cradr 12 Cl 2 (12 cr. 4% na. (N+T) SA 387 Crrdr 11 Cl 2 (1U cr.-u no (N + T) Steels

-~-

Ii--i--r1 I
- 1050

12.: 1 12.: 1

13.1 1

IL3.:

10.:

6.:

i
2.1

17.1 i

L6.1 1

12.t

6.1

16.:

I IL6.:
6.8

16.:

16.:

6.t

4.3

2.6

1.4

1.0

18.8

6.9

4.6

1.8

.l

1.2

Reprinted *consu1r With Pemission. latest issue of The llmerican Secrio VIII. Society since of echanical are

Engineers. twice Laver yearly. sets of

addenda

published

**Tw sets of dimeoslonal

allowable srabllty

stresses critical

are given for each grade in A-23. in cera,,,ic lined equipment.

values

shown since

Metallic

Shells

37

Other

Corrosion

Considerations corrosive services such as hot caustic, nitrates, ammonia and cy-

In certain anides, aswelded less thermally Code, Section ture of 12OOF cyanide

carbon and alloy steels are subject to stress corrosion Stress relief should be in accordance 1, Paras. UCS-56 70,000 sulfide and UW-40, except (593C)

cracking un-

stress relieved. VII I, Division (648C),

with the ASME that a temperatensile strength. steel

instead of 1 IOOF

will be necessary in the case of acid can cause hydrogen are found in NACE Refining Recom-

cracking

of steels with

psi (483 MPa) minimum and hydrofluoric affected

Other services such as hydrogen embrittlement bolting. mended of of the welds RP-04-72 (P-l) Recommended Practice Steel

and heat

zones of vessels and alloy to Prevent

practices to avoid this problem Methods and Controls Welds in Corrosive Petroleum

In-service Cracking Environments.

Carbon

Economics There CRM able. paper.

of Steel Selection are a number of steels which can be used to construct fracture the shell of a suitin this

lined steel vessel. The steel selected Consideration One way, should

should be the most economically discussed earlier

be given to brittle

proposed

by Adams

is to compare

the metal costs in dollars per loading 3-4 is shown with 1 would in Table

square foot in pounds where Boiler thick would weight) cwt,

of plate surface stressed (under per linear inch of crossection. that Section of plate

design pressure) to identical This approach in accordance

it is assumed

a vessel shell designed structural

The ASME inches

and Pressure Vessel Code, if designed using SA-36 pounds and SA-36 include a width the 1982 per square foot

VII I, Division surface.

be 0.625

steel. This would

represent

a plateweight (hundred a a of $0.30

of 25.50

The price of steel at the mill a cwt extra of a length extra of $0.15 a structural

base price extra

for carbon

steel of $24.25

extras of $0.95 extra, (9,072

a cwt, consisting of $0.45 a cwt.

plus thickness pounds

cwt. There

is no quantity

since it is assumed that there will be a minimum kg). On this basis, the cost of plate steel is $6.43 in a similar An manner, using adextra for

order of 20,000

per square foot. The cost of using other ditional V notch of $0.30 quality, impact per cwt test extras

steels was calculated appropriate for

pressure vessel, fine grain practice, was included for the non standard

heat treatment thicknesses

and Charpy calculated

each grade.

additional

steels other than SA-36. Results of this study show in Table suitable more peratures. otherwise where brittle fracture and should SA-537, require be considered normalized metal of the 3-4 that SA-285 Grade C is economically Grade 70 costs little temto low ambient is not a problem. SA-516

for most tanks subjected for low temperature Grade 70. does not reported cost. a little psi (130 necessarily the The higher

Class 2 is preferred SA-516 economy Adams relative

services that would mirror strength the relative steels have but they since

Although fairly reliable

relative index

costs of the vessel in place, more spring-back will also be thinner in bending

that

relative

metal cost is a

total

and require 20,000

more care in welding, MPa) should

and require than

less welding. be avoided,

Design stresses greater

Table 3-4:

Relative

Metal

Economy

of Carbon

Steel Plate

Steel Specification SA 285 SA 516 SA 36 SA 36 (API modified SA 537 Heat treated with Long. Impact tests SA 516 Normalized SA 516 Normalized with Long. Impact tests SA 537 Heat treated with Long. Impact tests

:rade

Minimum Yield (ksi) 30 38 36 36 60

Minimum Tensile !kSi) 55 70 58 58 a0

Max

imum

allowable (ksi) 13.8 17.5 12.7 12.7 20.0

!linimum hickness (in.1 0.575 0.454 0.625 0.625 0.397

Base Price Extras ($/lo0 lbs: ($/lo0 lb 24.25 24.25 24.25 24.25 24.25 2.10 4.80 0.95 2.55 15.25

3se and lbs/ ?xtras sq.ft. j/l00 lb: 26.35 29.05 25.20 26.80 39.50 23.48 21.93 25.50 25.50 19.19

s/q
6.19 6.37 6.43 6.83 7.58

fl

C 70

ilass 2 0 2%" ncl. 70 70

38 38

70 70

17.5 17.5

0.454 0.454

24.25 24.25

10.75 11.75

35.00 36.00

21.93 21.93

7.68 7.89

:lass 1 to !?$I ncl.

50

70

17.5

0.454

24.25

12.70

36.95

21.93

a.10

Prices as of November 15, 1982 Source - Lukens Steel Company - "Lukens Plate Steels" Assumptions: 20,000 pound minimum order. 96" length and 72" width Maximum Allowable Stresses per ASMX Code Section VIII, Division 1, (1980) Para UCS-23, for -20 to +650"F except SA-537 A-36 Modified is made to fine grain practice with manganese in range 0.80 to 1.20 percent by ladle analysis.

Metallic

Shells

39

this will which support crack.

result in a tensile strain greater than 0.067% the upper brittle that limit in inelastic factors thickness lining, its movement

(670 microinches

per inch)

is considered

for good design. Since the steel shell must must be limited selecting or the lining will steel are

Other minimum

must be considered

before

a stronger

and stiffness requirements.

DESIGN Thickness

CONSIDERATIONS of Shell lined vessel operates difference between at ambient temperature or so that there is a of the vessel, then into account the

If the CRM nelgligible Boiler the thickness following (a) (b)

thermal

the inside and outside be calculated VI II, Division 1 taking

of the steel shell should

by the rules of the ASME

and Pressure Vessel Code, Section stresses: Internal pressure

Loadings described
l

in Para. UG-22: contents under operating pressure due

Weight

of vessel and normal including

or test conditions,

additional

to static head of liquids.

l

Superimposed tached

static reactions

from

the weight machinery,

of atother

equipment

such as motors,

vessels, linings and insulation. (c) (d) (e) Weight of internals Dynamic loading growth of shale or fireclay growth silicate growth. brick in acid or aqueous of 0.16% (or 3/a in. in brick.6 Some acid, may also bottoms and batch to batch. There including agitators and heating elements (coils)

The irreversible 20 feet). mortars, contribute heads, 10% sometimes

service. The growth is sometimes

can be up to a maximum varies from mortar

The irreversible more growth to irreversible can such as sodium

in red shale than in fireclay in sulfuric In flat In cylindrical

shells and dished squeeze joints in-

be added

to the thickness.

in shells, it is necessary to incorporate

to the brickwork.6 If the operating given twice metal (Ref. to designing the operating temperature pressure the pressure. of 60F is to be 15 psig or less, consideration permit hydrostatic testing testing (before of brittle Hydrostatic must should lining) be at

vessel to (16C)

be done at a minimum fracture.

to minimize

the possibility the CRM then

1, Div. 1, Para. UG-99h). If a thermal difference will joints Vessel Construction

exist between in the lining, With

lining and the shell and Publication 6K157 suggests using the

expansion Acidproof

are not provided

NACE

Membrane

and Brick

40

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

following

formula

to determine stress:

the increased

thickness

of the shell required

to

resist this reversible

&AT,,where: At, tb E, Eb = Increased thickness

A,AT,-

s >

of shell-inches

= Thickness = Modulus = Modulus

of brick lining-inches of elasticity of elasticity for steel psi (Table) in compression for brick lining-psi

(may vary from s, A, Ab = Allowable = Coefficient = Coefficient

2 x 1 O6 to 7 x 1 06) (Table) (Table) (Table)

stress for shell-psi of expansion of expansion

for steel-inches/inch/aF for brick-inches/inch/F

AT, = Average temperature ATb=

Average temperature

rise of the steel F rise of the brick F temperatures. much higher Charging a cold vessel pressure of the brick the steel tank will exdesign stress (Ss) shell thickness of

This calculation with a hot fluid

is based on equilibrium will generate

in a short time

lining against the steel shell and is not recommended. When the term pansion of the brick for the steel. NACE l/4 (6.4 Publication 6K-157 also recommends a minimum mm) for vessels four feet or more in diameter plates. more than the CRM and lining, the then the lining will compression be necessary. linparor pressure, excessively since the lining is weak in tension. allowable expand and a minimum thickness in parentheses lining is negative, it indicates pand more than the brick lining or that the stress in the steel shell caused by exis less than the maximum allowable

of 3/s (9.5 mm) for bottom If the steel tanks Conversely, if the crack under any internal lining

loading

expands

stress in the lining is exceeded, An allowance An internal for corrosion allowance corrosion

it will also fail. loss of the metal is not necessary membrane allowance painting. may sometimes if a relatively may, however, clearances impermeable be required,

ing such as a plastic or elastomeric is to be lined. ticularly to permit Tolerances The agraph ameters tory ifies that lindrical ASME UG-81 from Boiler permits the An external corrosion if the vessel is installed sandblasting

is to be installed

before the vessel on side or bottom

without

sufficient

and maintenance

and Pressure Vessel Code, an out of roundness diameter. standard more than This DIN

Division

VIII,

Section

1, Par-

maximum 28050,

of 1% variation 4 (10.54

of all di-

nominal A German not vary

is not sufficient Section by measuring

to assure a satisfacissue) specthe radians and that

CRM

lining. must

the roundness

shall be determined to be CRM

the radians

310.4% from

the average value in the cy-

part of the apparatus

lined after final erection.

Metallic

Shells

4I

Table 3-6:

Mean Coefficients Austenitic i./ilI/F X

of Thermal

Expansion

of Steels and

Stainless Steels*
10-6 between 68~ (2oY) and:

HaterhI

212-F IOO'C 6.51

392F 2OOY 6.13

572F 3OO'C 7.12

600F 312-C -

TeLllperE&rCZs 752F BOOP 400C 422-C 7.45 -

932OP 5oo"c 7.73

1OOO'F 532-C -

11OO'F 597C

Carbon Steel (SAE 1020) Alloy Steels l%Cr.g4Ho. lkxCr.l%Mo.

7.32 7.65

7.56 7.72

7.63 -

*ustenitic
scain1ess

Steels 9.6 8.8 9.9 9.0 10.2 9.7

(UNS) 530400 S316')O

*See

References

10.11

,12-used

by

permission.

Table 3-6:

Tensile

Moduli

of Elasticity

of Steel and Austenitic

Stainless Steels* 106psi

Material Temperature

70F 21C Carbon Steels

Austenitic Stainless

200F 92C 29.5

400F 202C 28.3

600F 312C 26.7

29.9

Steels (UNS s30400 531600)

28.0

27.5

26.1

25.0

*See

Reference

13-used

by

permission.

Table 3-7:

Thermal

Conductivity
BTlJ/sq

of Steel and Austenitic ft/hr/"F/in. Temperature

Stainless

Steels*

Materials 212'F 100C Carbon Steel (SAE 1025) Austenltic Stainless Steels (UNS S30400 and S31600)
*See References 14 and

392OF 2oo"c 340

572F

300C 319

752F 400C 296

932F 500C 273

360

9.4

10.3

11.0

ii.8

12.4

15-used

by

permission

42

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

Table 3-8: Carbon Domestic Foreign 96.7 93

Typical

Properties

of Brick

Property Weight3 Lbs/ft % Water Absorption Modulus of Rupture psi compressive Strength Psi

Fireclay Type H ASTM C-279 135-145

Red Shale Type L ASTM C-279 145

Foamed Glass 12

15

17

0.7

nil

2,600

1,500

3,500

3,300

80308800

10,000

7,000 Min.

10,000

200

Coefficient of Thermal 1.7-1,: Expansion ill.lilIl"F x 10

2.8-3:6 x 10

2.4-3.26 x 10

3.0-3:2 x 10

1.6 x 10-6

Thermal Conductivity 36-46 BTU/hs/ft/"F/in.

11.5-20

0.6-0.8

Source- Sheppard "A Handbook of Chemically Resistant Masonry." Reprinted With Permission.

Another company

method

for controlling

distortion,

specified (Appendix)

by a major

chemical

and included

in the model specification

is as follows:

(a) (b)

The out of roundness of a cylindrical of the difference A template circumference When not exceed ceed 1s inch). with between

vessel shall not exceed 0.75% and minimum diameters. of the shall

the maximum

an arc length of three to the wall, (except

feet or five percent radium gap or deviation

shall be made to the specified the maximum at welds where %6 inch

of the vessel.

held tightly

the gap shall not ex-

(cl

The sidewall m) long straight the wall edge,

flatness,

as determined

by means of a three-foot against the wall parallel

(0.9 to the

(or 25% of the length of the vessel, whichever shall be held tightly gap between taken the straight at juncture

is greater) edge and of heads

axis of the vessel. The maximum shall not exceed /a inch. shall not exceed

l/16inch except Measurements

for welds, where the gap

and shells shall meet this criteria. The ASME flanges, limited themselves. Code (Paragraph UG-81) permits a l%% out of roundness of the must be

but does not mention Where to 0.4%. (Reference

the out of roundness of the bodies of the nozzles are to be sleeved, the out of roundness

these nozzles

8, p 73).

Metallic

Shells

43

Vertical

Cylindrical

Vessels

Dished or Conical Bottoms: Supports must be so located as to support the vessel and its extra weight uniformly and completely without distortion of the vessel. Thus: (a) (b) If support legs are used, they should be centered lining column tangentially to the vessel body. under the brick

If a continuous skirt is used, the skirt should be centered directly under the brick column and should be vented to provide adequate ventilation under the vessel (Reference 8, pp 73-74) so that the temperature of the bottom will not be significantly hotter than the shell during operation.

lf the head of the vessel is not to be brick lined, it may be necessary to inan internal thrust ring at the top of the vessel to contain the brick lining in compression. Flat Bottoms: Flat bottom vertical cylindrical tanks present particular problems. The bottom must be so constructed and supported as to be completely rigid and well ventilated from the sides and underneath. This may usually be provided by I beams. The bottom shall be tack welded to the I beam so that the bottom will not flex and crack the lining when it is installed. (Reference 8, p 74). The maximum free span between I beams can be calculated on the basis that the maximum deflection under full load conditions shall not exceed the free span divided by 1000. However, in the case of vessels containing only gas at atmospheric pressure and no internal spheres, then the deflection can be as great as the distance divided by 500.9 It is good design to leave sufficient space between I beams to allow for maintenance: perhaps enough space for a man to crawl between them.
stall

WRONG

RIGHT

Figure 3-3: Tank head. The right way and the wrong way to weld a dome head on a cylindrical tank. It is next to impossible to make a tight weld in the head on the left, due to the inaccessible void. A continuous filled weld is used on the head on the right.

44

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

Flat

bottom

tanks

are frequently The uninsulated

placed

on the

ground

or on concrete above ambient, remain submore than the the brickwork There is no are usutanks cannot is be

pads. In the case of CRM this can be disastrous. stantially cooler cooler sidewall.

lined vessels, operating

at temperatures will expand

side walls of the vessel will to rise up, disrupting on number and the tank circumferential

than the bottom.

The steel bottom

This will cause the bottom This has happened if this occurs, large, vertical method with

and causing satisfactory Another that lined

it to fail. repair

of occasions.

and foundation flat bottom

ally a total loss. problem API The the standard satisfactorily. design of the shell to top head construction top head is supported be welded (Figure 3-3). to the roof if a satisfactory

on a steel angle leaving an inacmembrane,

cessible gap. The shell should or any coating, Horizontal is to be applied Vessels

Cylindrical

Vessels of this design should port for the sels must 120 of circumference. be avoided loaded weight

be provided

with

wide-face

saddles with

supfor vesand

Reinforcing

and design should be computed 8, p 74). between Long, small diameter the two support to one support only

of the vessel. (Reference The vessel should

since excessive bending

saddles

will damage the lining. be permitted Rectangular Flat

be anchored

to slide over the other upon expansion or Square Vessels for CRM

and contraction.

walls are undesirable

lined construction.

An

arch effect

is

needed to force the brick against the membrane This arch effect is done for the by deliberately length may be attained designing uniform an outward from top

and supporting

steel structure.

by contouring

the walls of the vessel. This so that the vessel is

curve into each wall, continuous to bottom,

of the wail,

wider at the mid-section in a rectangular difference measured If ence figured the between

than at the ends. vessel in which the length dimension of the long sides is 1% or more be such that the and the cross end dimension, of that curve should

times that of the short sides, the amount the cross center

on the long side, is 2% of the length of the long side, and the differon the short side is 4% of the short dimensions. long side is less than 1% times that of the short, or if the vessel is in each case, should be 3% of the side dimension. six feet or longer sides, however, inches (four in no case should the difline at each side to on a side. all of the perceninches out of the straight

square, this difference In vessels with ference measured If

be less than eight at the center). the

In vessels with shorter sides, increase the percentages are expected to contain solvents,

2% and 4% and do not design for less than two inches deviation vessel contents tages given above shall be doubled. The This will always bottom result of the vessel should, and following A masonry and except if practical,

be dished under the same decontour as the vessel walls. of parts expand of design will stresses exare composed

sign specifications

the same uniform lining

in a vessel of which

all walls and bottoms

of very large cylinders. away from the lining,

laid up inside this type cases, when calculated

be strong and tight

so long as the outer in unusual

shell does not thermally

Metallic

Shells

45

teed joints

the compressive in construction.

strengths thicknesses

of brick

or mortar,

will

not require

expansion service, saving of

Such a design makes possible, of acid proof

in low temperature at considerable the bottom, joints.

the use of minimum labor and material. If mended with mum

masonry

it is impractical that squeeze

on account joints

of size to contour expansion

it is recomfor mini-

at least the sides be contoured. and additional joints of the brick walls will expansion or square tanks will of the walls or bottom. should be supported measurable of the fully supports

The bottom

can be provided However,

peripheral thickness Rectangular

still be possible and except in them. usually (Reference require external

in rare occato preon close

sion without vent deflection A flat

requiring

8, p 64). reinforcing

bottom

by continuous loaded divided

I beams welded

enough centers to prevent In any case deflection exceed the distance run from

deflection. vessel between by 1000. supports shall not beams should vessels, The

between

one side completely

to the opposite.

In the case of rectangular parallel

the recommended

design is to carry them across the bottom,

to the short

dimension, and continued To provide adequate welded the vertically I beam support.

out both sides. stiffness to the walls, gusset plates or T-bars should be top to the bottom, of the walls the top should on the same center as on is kept should from flexing by be stiffened, preferably to periphery

to the sides from The bottom plate.

its weld to the bottom by a channel, welded exactly exactly the channel or at the completely opposite

Similarly,

least, by a heavy angle, which the top.

be continuously be welded 34)

around

The gusset or T plates should stability. A sketch

at the top and at the bottom the web, to give optimum

to the centers of the I beam supports, (Figure shows

how this should be done.

B

-_ _ _ _. II#;
===z=_=

__-

z=: __

r=- _-_ _- - -_

A-A

Figure 34: Recommended style of reinforcing for a rectangular steel tank. Note gusset (section above, left) welded at top to channel, on side to tank wall, on bottom to extension of I beam. I beam weld is to face exactly opposite web (see Section B-B). This type reinforcing prevents deformation of tank walls when loaded. From Chemically Resistant Masonry, by Walter L. Sheppard, Jr., 2nd Ed. (19821, Marcel Dekker, NYC, p 81. Used by permission.

46

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

I beams stead,

are not welded

along

the

bottoms

of the ends of the tanks. welded

In-

I beams are welded

in from the ends and continuously at the top and continued to the short

to the first

I beam inside the tank end. The short sides also require gusset or T-plates. These
are also welded (Reference to the channel welded down the sides of the in from the end. for presends to be continuously 8, p 80). or square vessel suitable service. (Reference If such a vessel is to receive a masonry with dished or hemispherical 8, p 80). lining, it must be I beams running

These supports will not make a rectangular sure or vacuum designed or as a sphere. as a cylinder

heads, both top and bottom VIII.

Such vessel must also be designed in accordPressure Vessels, Section

ance with the ASME Flooring Sometimes trowelled following

Code For Unfired

it is necessary to apply to a steel decking.

acid-proof

brick or monolithics is not recommended

such as for the

epoxies reasons:

This practice

Unless the steel deck is rigidly causing the brick or monolithic If the steel decking ture flooring. If the flooring which siderable undergoes

supported,

it will flex under loading,

lining to crack. from expanding during tempera-

is restrained

changes by support

pillars or walls,

it will flex

and crack the

temperature

cycling, of thermal flooring,

a monolithic expansion. which

coating This can

is bonded to the steel will develop differences in coefficients in the case of a brick

cracks because of the conis not bonded

be prevented

and is free to slide by providing Steel decking transmits

expansion which

joints

in the brickwork. to crack

vibrations

have been known

plastic monolithic If the designer

coatings and brickwork. to protect a steel deck with acid-proof brick, he

decides

should consider the following

l

recommendations: should be sufficiently to prevent vertical expansion. thick and be rigidly should previously. midsupbe

The

steel decking at frequent

ported

intervals

any flexing

or bulging due

to movement

or thermal

The design criteria tanks, as described only

the same as for flat bottoms

l

The point

design must

include

fixed

anchorage joints,

at a suitable

and the deck should as it stretches. humping

be able to slide latterally or flexing. and be as thick

over the other

supports

Expansion

if used, must be carefully

located to prevent 0 All

welds must be continuous

as the plate to pre-

vent flexing. 0 In preparing tamination. the steel for application Surface preparation of a coating or membrane, the con-

steel surfaces must be free of mill scale, rust, grease or other shall be as specified

by the manu-

Metallic

Shells

47

facturer or applicator, sandblasting. Construction Details

but a minimum

requirement

is commercial

Nozzles, Inlets and Outlets: signing inlets and outlets. (1)

Three principles

must be kept in mind in de-

Membrane surfaces should be continuous and unbroken throughout the interior of the vessel and through all inlets, outlets and other openings so that the contained liquids may not find and penetrate any discontinuity or juncture with a different material. In other words, the openings should be flanged, not screwed and interior surfaces must be radiused and blend smoothly into the wall of the vessel.

(2) The membrane, as it passes from the vessel body into the lining of the opening must be protected from thermal and mechanical damage in the same manner as in the membrane inside the vessel, and that masonry protection, such as a sleeve or brick lining, must be continuous and part of that same structure. (3) The design must take into account all stresses in the masonry, including any shearing movement of the masonry lining against the outlet. Then the outlet location must be designed as a point of no movement between expansion joints or stress relief points. If, due to the complexity of vessel design, not all stresses may be relieved, and shearing moments must be anticipated, a flexible material must be selected to sleeve the outlet, rather than the usual ceramic sleeve. From these principles, it should be noted that inlet and outlet piping or steam piping leading to heaters or coils should not, if at all possible, pass through the vessel wall or bottom, but be brought in over the top. If they must pass through a wall or bottom, then the designer should try to design them to pass through a properly lined or sleeved opening so that said service elements are not part of the supporting structure, and so that the membrane can remain continuous and intact. (Reference 8, p 76). All nozzles and externals should be suitably braced and strengthened by gusseting or by welding collars to prevent bending or deformation under blows or movement, thus causing damage at point of entry into vessels. All nozzles should be flanged and matched with an over-sized flange so that the I.D. of the sleeve will mate with the I.D. of the connecting pipe. (Reference 8, p 77). Manholes should be designed large enough to allow for removing sand after blasting, provide ventilation during membrane installation, to admit workman, equipment and brick during lining and to allow for the thickness of the brick lining. Two 24 inch nozzles are suggested for large tanks. Small nozzles should be avoided. It is difficult to line a nozzle under three inches IPS and not practical to line one under two inches, IPS. Nozzles should be kept as short as possible to allow proper surface preparation, membrane application and ceramic lining. Recommended maximum lengths are shown in Appen-

48

Corrosion and Chemical Resistant Masonry Materials Handbook

dix I, "Guideline Specification For the Design and Fabrication For Metallic Vessels Which are to Receive Chemical-Resistant Masonry Lining For Chemical Immersion Service." Internals: Agitators, coils, dip tubes, baffles and thermometer wells are normally made of an unlined corrosion resistant metal. This can cause galvanic corrosion of the steel shell if the membrane is not impervious or becomes damaged and the liquid in the tanks is an electrolyte. Galvanic corrosion can be prevented by electrically insulating internals from contact with the shell or metal parts which are connected to the shell. The interior of the shell should be kept as clean and uncluttered as possible. Reinforcements should be on the outside of the vessel. The type of membrane lining may impose specific limitations on the type of baffles, outlets and inlets and the like, which the designer may wish to install. If coils or heaters are installed, they shall be kept a minimum of six inches away from the walls or bottom of ceramic lined vessels. Welds: The vessel shall be welded, using full penetration, longitudinal and circumferential butt welds. Welders and welding procedures should be qualified in accordance with the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Section IX "Welding." The welds on the inside of the vessel should be continuous, nonporous, smooth, blend smoothly into the adjacent plate surfaces and not extend more than Ih6 inches above the adjacent surfaces. This can usually be done by using certain welding techniques. Otherwise the welds must be ground flush. It is also necessary that circumferential welds do not cause a draw string or constricted effect and that longitudinal welds do not cause distortions when heads of different thicknesses are welded to shells, the inside surfaces must be even and flush. Surface Preparation: The steel surfaces to receive the membrane lining must be smooth, free from pits, millscale, weld splatter, and lap welds. Corners must be rounded to an internal and external radius of 1/8inch minimum. The surface must be sandblasted just before application of the membrane on interior surfaces and a paint system on exterior surfaces. Sandblasting should be in accordance with specifications supplied by the manufacturers of the membrane and protective coating system. This may require welding inside corners and then grinding to the proper radius.
Pressure Testing Vessels fabricated
Code must be

in accordance
tested

with

the

ASME
working

Boiler

and Pressure

Vessel

temperature quirement, as a proof against amic culating brittle lining

of 60 F (16 C). for less than 15 psig are not legally obliged to meet this rebut should be so tested both to assure that the vessel is leak tight and test, providing some mechanical stress relief and some protection fracture is installed. in service. Since the vessel should be tested should before the certhe additional test pressure. stresses of the lining be used in cal-

hydrostatically o o

at 1 Y2 times

pressure

at a minimum

Vessels designed

the hydrostatic

Metallic Shells
Model Specification specification covering the design and construction

49

A sugges\ed

of metallic

vessels to be lined with a membrane and ceramic lining for chemical immersion services is shown in Appendix I. The author has used various sources in prepar' ing this specification, including a model specification prepared by Pennwalt, and excerpts from "Chemically Resistant Masonry" by W .L. Sheppard. (Reference 8).

APPENDIX: GUIDELINE SPECIFICATION FOR THE DESIGN AND FAB. RICATION OF METALLIC VESSELS WHICH ARE TO RECEIVE CHEMICAL RESISTANT MASONRY LININGS FOR CHEMICAL IMMERSION SERVICE 1 00 SCOPE 1.1 This specification provides guidelines for the design and fabrication, of vessels that are to be membrane-Iined, and to receive a chemical-resistant masonry lining for corrosion resistance. 1.2 This specification pertains to carbon steel vessels, but may be used where more corrosion-resistant steel or alloy materials are used for vessel construction . 1.3 Vessel design shall be in accordance with ASME Boiler Pressure Vessel Code, Section VIII-Rules for Construction of Pressure Vessels, Division 1 (latest edition) and in particular, conform in design to Section UG-22 Loadings, subsection (a)4. 2.0 REQUIREMENTS 2.1 Engineering Considerations 2.1.1 Vessels shall be designed so that no interior surface shall exceed a tensile strain of 0.067% (670 microinches per inch) during operating or design conditions. (Tensile strain is defined as the allowable design working stress, divided by the modulus of elasticity of the steel.) In the case of carbon steel, this strain equates to a maximum design working stress of 20,000 psi (130 MPa). Steels shall have sufficient notch toughness to avoid brittle fracture under both operating and shutdown conditions. Suitable steels for atmospheric design temperatures are tabulated in API Standard 620 "Recommended Rules For Design and Construction of Large Welded, Low Pressure Storage Tanks." Special consideration should be given to areas of potential high strain such as unsupported bottom areas, sidewall to bottom weld joints, properly aligned welds, distribution of loading at supports, etc. All flat surfaces shall be straight and true, and all curved surfaces shall be smooth and continuous. Supports for tanks and vessels, which are to receive brick linings, must be located to support the weight of the brick lining,

2.1.2

2.1.3

2.1.4 2.1.5

50

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

shell, internals, contents and other loadings uniformly and completely without distortion of the structure. If a vessel is conical or dome-headed, and support legs are used, they are typically centered under the brick lining column, tangentially to the vessel body. If a vessel is conical or dome-headed, and supported by a continuous skirt, the skirt is typically centered under the brick column of the equipment, and it must be vented to provide adequate ventilation under the equipment. If the vessel is flat-bottomed, the bottom must be constructed and supported as to be completely rigid, and well ventilated from the sides and underneath. This type of support is usually provided by cribbage or l-beams. Flat bottoms are less stable than dished bottoms and should be avoided, particularly if the vessel will be subject to fluctuating temperature and pressure. Dished bottoms shall be suitably stiffened as well as the juncture between the bottom and the sidewalls. Horizontally aligned cylindrical vessels are typically supported on padded saddles. Such saddles shall support the lower 120 of the cylinder, and the support pads shall be wide enough to prevent concentrated load points. 2.1.6 The design of shell thicknesses of vesselsmust take into account loading created by the design operating conditions, the weight of the lining materials, residual stressesto be created if the brick lining is to be pre-stressed, thermal stress conditions under maximum and minimum operations, shutdown conditions and varying external ambient conditions, and also, stresses created by the irreversible growth of brick. Supports must take into account the weight of the lined vessels and contents and also any dynamic loading they may have to resist. The bottom flatness of a vessel shall be measured by means of placing a straight edge across the full diameter of the vessel/tank bottom, and measuring the distance between the underside of the straight edge and the steel. The distance measured at any point must not exceed % (6.3 mm) or the diameter divided by 1000, whichever is greater. If the vessel is a gas filled tower without internal piers, the maximum deflation shall not exceed the diameter divided by 500. l-beams shall extend across the full diameter and chords under the vessel bottom so that the steel walls and bottom are fully supported. The bottom steel shall be tack-welded to the l-beams such that the bottom will not flex and crack the brick lining when installed. The underside of the vessel shall be allowed to ventilate, i.e., do not set directly on a full concrete pad. The space between the supporting l-beams must be dimensioned in such a way that sufficient space is maintained to allow a workman to crawl between them. With respect to the bending through of the bottom construction, the following shall be met:

2.1.7

Metallic

Shells

5 1

If the free span between the beams supporting the steel floorplate is a, then the deflection of the steel plate measured across this span (deviation from a straight line) shall be no more than a divided by 500 under full load operational conditions. 2.1.8 The sidewall flatness of a cylindrical vessel shall be measured by means of a straight edge having a length of 3 (0.9 m) or 25% of the height of the wall, whichever is greater. This straight edge shall be placed against the wall at various locations. The distance between the straight edge and any point on the steel shell is to be measured. The maximum deviation from true linearity shall not exceed %6 (1.6 mm) except at circumferential welds where the deviation shall not exceed l/s (3.2 mm). Rectangular vesselsshould not have straight sides and preferably not flat bottoms. The sides should be designed with an outward curve on each wall. The depth of the curve should be a minimum of 1% of the length of the vessel and 2% of the width of the vessel. The measured differences between the cross center dimensions and the cross end dimensions should be within the specified range. Also a template shall be made with the specified curve. The template shall be 3 long (0.9 m) or 25% of the length of the side to be measured, whichever is greater. When the template is held against the wall, the template deviation shall not exceed l/16 (1.6 mm). Stiffness must be provided to keep all walls rigid and to prevent flexing.

2.1.9

2.1 .I0 The outof-roundness of a cylindrical vessel shall be determined by measuring the maximum and minimum internal diameters in the same planes. The difference shall not exceed 0.75% of the larger diameter. Also a template shall be made representing the calculated arc of inside cylindrical wall. The arc length should be 3 (0.9 m) or 5% of the circumference, whichever is longer. When held tightly against the wall, the maximum gap (deviation) shall not exceed %6 (1.6 mm) except at longitudinal welds where the gap shall not exceed l/s (3.2 mm). See Figure 3-5. 2.1 .I 1 The maximum out-of-plumbness (in inches) of a vessel shall not exceed the tank height x %oo, where the tank height is expressed in inches.
Note:

In brick lining vessels, it is not a matter of particular concern that vessels be perfectly plumb. If the vesselshave floating heads, then the plumbness does become very important. It is more critical for out work that we have the center line established, and then our other criteria, namely, out-of-roundness will tell us if the steel is acceptable for receiving a chemicallyresistant masonry lining.

52

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

outaf-roundness of cylindrical shells to be lined. A = greatest diameA - B < 0.75%A. Template length = (0.9 m) or 5% of circumference, whichever is greater. Maximum deviation from true arc = 116 (1.6 mm), except l/a (3.2 mm) permitted at longitudinal (not circumferential) welds. Figure 3-5: Allowable

ter, B = smallest diameter,

2.1 .I2

Vessels must be tested and found to be liquid tight before being lined. Pressure vessels must be hydrostatically design pressure as required methods: by the ASME Vessel Code. tested at 1% times Boiler and Pressure

Non code vessels must be tested using one or more

of the following (a) (b) (c) (d) Note:

Fill with water Hydrostatic test at 1% times design pressure welds using specified should internal pressure of

Vacuum-box-test Air/soap/water Water

temperature test.

be a minimum

6OF (16OC). Air/soap pressure hydrostatic 2.2 Accessibility 2.2.1

test must be preceded by a higher

All surfaces of the steel vessel interior for welding, surface preparation manway diameter

shall be readily

accessible

and lining application. for working entrances during

2.2.2

The

minimum

application 2.2.2.1

shall be 24 inches (60 cm). In field erected vertical tanks, one manway (work) level. of two

should be located 2.2.2.2

near ground

Large vessels should (2) manways, ground

have a minimum 18Oapart.

one in the roof and one near

level, preferably

Metallic

Shells

53

2.2.3

Additional ventilation

openings

should

be provided

as needed to facilitate

and material

handling

during lining work.

2.3

Fabrication
2.3.1 The alignment matched longitudinal of steel plate surfaces at butt weld joints shall be l/16 (1.6 on the thicknesses mm) on both circumferential of the together, and joints inside surfaces are welded vessel. Where such as heads the to within

plates of different outside

and shells, the thicker same thickness 2.3.2 All

plate shall be machined

or ground on the

surface with a 4: 1 taper so as to have approximately as the thinner plate at their junction.

welds that will

be lined over shall be continuous. shall be allowed.

No inter-

mittent 2.3.3

or spot welding

All welds shall be ground to remove sharp edges, laps, undercuts and other surface irregularities All weld spatter followed by grinding for finish. undercutting or similar debeand projections. Chipping (See Figure 3-2). may be utilized if shall be removed.

2.3.4

Pinholes, pressions

pits, blind holes, porosity,

shall not exist in the finished

surface of the weld

fore or after blast cleaning. 2.3.5 Temporary welds used for attaching alignment plates and dogs

and arc strikes shall be ground smooth. 2.3.6 Circumferential height plus variation 2.3.6.1 and longitudinal tolerance. seam welds-allowable (Weld height is defined sheets of steel .) this parmm) long weld as the

and distortion

from the plane of the welded Seams: take To

Circumferential ticular straight (203 concern,

check (406

a 16

edge, plumb

it on the weld so that 8 8 (203 mm) is below. between the straight

mm) is aboveand

If the measured mm) and 2.3.6.2 anywhere, necessary

distance

edge and the steel shell is greater than % (3.2 then the weld is too high, or string effect, corrections Seams: take To are to be made. check this particu(0.9 meter) long arc of tank across the steel and between is is the there has been an excessivedraw

Longitudinal lar concern, template wall weld. and cut

a 3 foot

to the calculated it horizontally tight against it

center the the

Hold

measure ture too and of

maximum tank l/s wall. (3.2

clearance If the

the curvature greater than

of the template mm)

and the curvaclearance

then the weld

high or has caused excessive distortion, necessary corrections are to be made.

54

Corrosion and Chemical Resistant Masonry Materials Handbook

All fillet to

abrupt welds, or be lined

contours, over,

including

sharp

edges, etc. by mm) off

inside and outside shall machining to

corners, (3.2

be rounded a l/s

grinding minimum 2.3.7 Smooth, mm) ripple-free that

radius. welds with crowns not exceeding l/16 (1.6

in height

blend smoothly

into adjacent

surfaces need

not be ground. 2.3.8 Lap-welded welded from 2.3.9 2.3.10 joints joints shall be avoided wherever possible. If lap-

are used, they must be fully edge must ground

welded

on the inside. transition

The lap welded

to make a smooth

one plate to the next.

(See Figure 3-2).

Riveted joints shall not be used. The use of internal hibited. bolted joints in any areas to be lined is pro-

2.4

Connections 2.4.1
2.4.2 All connections Vessel/tank Nozzles diameter. maximum to the vessel shall be flanged. shall be of flanged design wherever 3 IPS and never under mm) and greater with the following nozzles 2 (50.8 possible. 2 IPS in shall have

nozzles Flanged

should

not be under

lengths in accordance

schedule:

Nozzle Diameter (IPS)

(inches) 2 3 4 8-24 24-36 Over 36 (mm) 56 76 102 203-610 610-915 Over 915

Maximum Length Shell to Face of Flange (inches) (mm1 3 4 8 16 24 Any length 76 102 203 406 610

Note:
2.4.3 Nozzles

The lining thickness length.

may change the nozzle diameter

and

maximum

to be sleeved in brick-lined out-of-roundness. beyond should of vertical

vessels/tanks

must be limi-

ted to ?0.4% 2.4.4 2.4.5 Nozzles Nozzles

must not extend to be sleeved

the inside of the shell. in the center of heads move-

be placed

and near the bottom

walls. Otherwise,

relative

ment of the lining and shell is likely to destroy 2.5

the sleeve.

Appurtenances inside Vessels 2.5.1

The requirements of Sections 2 and 3 of this recommended inlined. outlet Such apconnecguideline specification include shall apply to any item to be installed agitators, anti-swirl baffles,

side a vessel that purtenances

is to be membrane-and-brick

Metallic

Shells

55

tions,

gauging devices, etc.

ladder supports,

screen supports,

support

brackets, 2.5.2

If appurtenances

inside the vessel, including

nuts and bolts, canmaterials. the steel or elecsleeves

not be lined, they shall be made of corrosion-resistant 2.5.3 Dissimilar trolytes. metals shall be electrically insulated from

vessel surface if the vessel will contain Bolts shall be insulated and washers. 2.5.4 Heating elements should be attached

aqueous solutions

by the use of dielectric

with a minimum

clearance

of 6 inches (15.2 2.6 internal 2.6.1 Structural Structural installed application. 2.6.2

cm) from the lining surface. Members members possible. shall should However, be fabricated be installed of simple on the are shapes lining

Reinforcement reinforcement wherever they round internally,

vessel exterior such as smooth

if such members

bars or pipe for ease of membrane

The use of angles, channels, should members Note: be avoided. If they shall be fully

I-beams, must

and other complex internally,

shapes these

be installed

seal-welded to protect of the

and edges ground. on such internal result in attack on

It is difficult and failure

the membrane will

members

membrane

the metal shell. 2.6.3 Reinforcement externally. 2.7 Surface 2.7.1 Preparation All interior surfaces shall be sandblasted by the membrane of the membrane. and painted in accordto a standard (SSPC or pads and stiffening members should be installed

NACE)

specified

manufacturer

immediately

prior to application 2.7.2 All exterior ance with

surfaces shall be sandblasted specifications supplied

by the customer

or protective

coatings manufacturer.

REFERENCES
1. 2. ASME Code For Unfired Pressure Vessels, Section VIII, Division 1 and Section II (1982). American Society of Mechanical Engineers. API Standard 620, Recommended Rules For the Design and Construction of Large, Welded, Low Pressure Storage Tanks, Seventh Edition (1982). American Petroleum Institute. Ladd, R., Brick-Lined Tanks, Chemical Engineering, V 73 No. 6, p 192-196 (March 14,1966). Pellini, W.S., and Puzak, P.P., Fracture Analysis Diagram Procedure For The FractureSafe Engineering Design of Steel Structures, Naval Research Laboratory, p 8 NRL Report 5920 (March 15,1963).

3. 4.

56

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11.

12.

13. 14.

15.

Adams, Ludwig, Relative Metal Economy of Pressure-Vessel Steels, Chemical Engineering,V76 No.27,~ 150-151 (December 15,1969). 26th Biennial Materials of Construction Report-Chemical Engineering, V 81 No. 24, p 126-128 (November 11,1974). NACE Technical Committee Report 6K157, Acid Proof Vessel Construction With Membrane and Brick Linings. Sheppard, Walter L., Jr., Chemical Resistant Masonry, CCRM Inc., 2nd Ed. (1982), Marcel Dekker Inc., N.Y.C., pp 64,73-74,76,77,81 (1982). Carpenter, G., and Pierce, R.R., Linings for Sulfuric and Phosphoric Acid Process Plants, Paper No. 95, Corrosion 83, National Association of Corrosion Engineers. Physical Properties of Carbon and Low-Alloy Steel,Meta/s Handbook, Vol. 1,9th Ed., Bardes, Bruce, E., Ed., American Society for Metals, p 147 (1978). ASM Committee on Wrought HeatResisting Alloys, Properties of Steels and Wrought Heat-Resisting Alloys at Elevated Temperatures, Lyman, T., Ed., Mefals Handbook, Vol. 1,8th Ed,, American Society for Metals, p. 490 (1961). ASM Committee on Wrought Stainless Steels, Wrought Stainless Steels, Metals Handbook, Vol. 3, 9th Ed., Benjamin, David, Senior Ed., American Society for Metals, p 34 (1978). ASM Review Committee on Steel Castings, Steel Castings, Metals Handbook, Vol. 1, 9th Ed., Bardes, Bruce, E., Ed., American Society for Metals, p 393 (1978). Focke, A.E., Elevated Temperature Properties of Construction Steels, Metals Handbook, Vol. 1, 9th Ed., Bardes, Bruce, E., Ed., American Society for Metals, p 652 (1978). ASM Committee on Wrought Stainless Steels, Wrought Stainless Steels, Lyman, T., Ed., Metals Handbook, Vol. 1 ,Bth Ed., American Society for Metals, p 422 (1961).

4 Concrete

Edward G. Nawy Department of Civil and Environmental Rutgers University New Brunswick, New Jersey Engineering

INTRODUCTION Plain concrete is formed from a hardened mixture of cement, water, fine aggregate, coarse aggregate (crushed stone or gravel) , air and often other admixtures. The plastic mix is placed and consolidated in the formwork, then cured to facilitate the acceleration of the chemical hydration reaction of the cement/water mix, resulting in hardened concrete. The finished product has high compressive strength, and low resistance to tension, such that its tensile strength is approximately one-tenth of its compressive strength. Consequently, tensile and shear reinforcement are placed in the tensile regions of a concrete section so that its full compressive capacity can be utilized. In order to obtain quality concrete for structural use, a knowledge of the concrete producing materials and their proportioning becomes essential. This section presents a brief account of the concrete-producing materials, namely cement, fine and coarse aggregate, water, air and admixtures. The cement manufacturing process, the composition of cement, type and gradation of fine and coarse aggregate, and the function and importance of the water and air are reviewed. The reader can refer to books and papers on concrete such as the selected references at the end of th is section . CONCRETE-PRODUCING Portland Cement Manufacture: Portland cement is made of finely powdered crystalline min. erals composed primarily of calcium and aluminum silicates. Addition of water to these minerals produces a paste which, when hardened, becomes of stone-like MATERIALS

57

58

Corrosion and Chemical Resistant Masonry Materials Handbook

strength. Its specific gravity ranges between 3.12 and 3.16 and it weighs 94 Ibs. per cu. ft. which is the unit dry weight of a commercial sack or bag of cement. The raw materials that make cement are: (1) Lime (CaO)-from limestone clay clay

(2) Silica (SiOv-from (3) Alumina

(AI2O3)-from

(with very small percentages of magnesia namely MgO and sometimes some alkalis). Iron oxide is occasionally added to the mixture to aid in controlling its com position . The process of manufacture can be summarized as follows:
(1) Grinding the raw mix of CaO, SiO2 and AI2O3 with either in dry or wet form. the added other

minor ingredients II II slurry process. (2) Feeding kiln. (3) As the heated its lower (4) As the fusion, perature kiln the mixture

The wet form

is called

into the upper

end of a slightly

inclined

rotary

operates,

the material controlled

passes from rate.

its upper

to

end at a predetermined, temperature namely, until the pellet of

the mixture combine These

rises to the point it is kept to form

of incipient at that temIh6 in. the port-

the clinkering ingredients product. clinkers. and ground of gypsum of setting

temperature, pellets

at 2700F

land cement

range in size from

to 2 in. and are called (5) (6) The clinker A small or retard (7) is cooled

to a powdery is added during

form. grinding to control

percentage the time

of cement

in the field. and a

The final portland cement small percentage is packed

goes into silos for bulk shipment in 94 Ibs. bags for shipment.

Strength: Strength of cement is the result of a process of hydration. This process leads to a recrystallization in the form of interlocking crystals producing the cement gel which has high compressive strength when it hardens. A study of Table 4-1 shows the relative contribution of each component of the cement towards the rate of gain in strength. The early strength of portland cement is higher with higher percentages of tricalcium silicate (C3S). If moist-curing is continuous, the later strengths will be greater with higher percentages of dicalcium silicate (C2S). Tricalcium aluminate (C3A) contributes to the strength developed during the first day after casting the concrete because it is the earliest to hydrate. When portland cement combines with water during setting and hardening, lime is liberated from some of the compounds. The amount of lime liberated is approximately 20% by weight of the cement. Under unfavorable conditions, this might cause disintegration of a structure owing to the leaching of the lime from

Concrete

59

the cement. mineral

Such a situation mineral

should

be prevented

by the addition

of silicious to pro-

such as pozzolan

to the cement. reacts with the lime in the presence of moisture

The added

duce strong calcium

silicate.

Table 4-1:
Type of

Percentage

Composition

of Portland

Cements

. . . . . . . . . Components. % . . . . . . . . . .
CsS 49
46

Cement Normal I
Modified II High early I I I Low heat IV Sulfate resisting V

C$ 25
29

CsA
12 6

C&F*
8 12

CaS04
2.9 2.8

CaO 0.8
0.6

MgO 2.4
3.0

General Characteristics
All purpose cement Comparative low heat liberation. Used in large-sized structures High strength in three days Used in mass concrete dams Used in sewers and structures exposed to sulfates

56 30 43

15 46 36

12 5 4

8 13 12

3.9 2.9 2.7

1 .4 0.3 0.4

2.6 2.7 1 .6

l Tetracalcium

alumina ferrite

Influence Disintegration drying The presence

of Voids of of

and Type due

of Cement to cycles

on the Durability of wetting,

of Concrete: thawing

(a) and

concrete minute

freezing,

and the propagation

of resulting

cracks is a matter the cement mixing. with

of great importance. paste increases the by the addition of

air voids throughout to the concrete while

resistance of concrete air-entraining (b) Disintegration vented. ally type

to disintegration. due to chemicals

This can be achieved in contact

admixtures

the structure

such as in or preUsu-

the case of port structures Since the concrete and sodium, II cement magnesium

and sub-structures

can also be slowed to chlorides structures. sulfate-resisting

down

in such cases is exposed to specify

and sulfates of cements.

it is imperative

will be adequate

for use in seawater

Water and Air Water: tate ing. Water chemicals having harmful ingredients, strength contamination, and setting of a mix. reacof water relative to the but only place, silt, oil, sugar or other of cement paste is destructive to the properties chemical the mixture Water is required with in the production the cement, Normally, of concrete water in order to precipiand to lubricate can be used in mix-

reaction

to wet the aggregate, drinking

for easy workability.

and might adversely Since colloidal tion whole between cement of the mixture

effect the workability gel or cement and water,

paste is the result of only the chemical it is not the proportion that is of concern after in any study,

of dry materials in the finished

the proportion honeycombed

of water skeleton

relative to the cement. product

Excessive water hydration

leaves an uneven has taken

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Materials

Handbook

while product pores give of

too

little in both

water Air:

prevents With

complete weaker

chemical

reaction than

with

the cement. from

The

cases is a concrete in the hardened

and inferior If evenly

contemplated. the mix, these could distributed density, the entrained air inair Air-

Entrained improved pores by

the gradual to the

evaporation concrete. product. of finely

of excess water distributed, very uniformly air-entraining decreases and reduces of

are produced artificial

characteristics

To achieve divided by adding workability, the

even distribution agents such required

introduction the product

bubbles as vinsol sand should crete.

throughout resin.

is possible increases and these optimum

Air-entrainment reduces mix. bleeding For

creases durability, content be kept

segregation,

in the

reasons,

percentage fraction

at the required air content

value for the desired mix starts

quality

of the conweaken control

The optimum strength.

is 9% of the mortar of the total

of the concrete.

entraining the concrete

in excess of 5-6% Ratio:

to proportionately discussion, strict

Water/Cement has to be maintained mix. cretes.

Summarizing ratio

the preceding ratio, governing as the

on the water/cement is considered be the criteria as the ratio

and the percentage real measure

of air in the con-

Since water/cement it should given It is usually

of the strength of cement

of the concrete, in the mix. Aggregates Introduction: bulk crete, tively

design of most structural to the weight

of weight

of water

Aggregates product.

are those They that

parts of the concrete 60-80% with

that

constitute

the

of the finished and solid,

comprise

of the volume

of the conas in-

have to be so graded homogenous, exist

the whole

mass of concrete the smaller

acts as a rela-

dense combination, between

sizes acting

ert filler

of the voids that

the larger particles.

Aggregates (a) (b) Since reasonable Coarse fect tion, gel. The common (1) Natural or rock or strength, types. the final weathering from

are of two types: (gravel, (natural crushed stone, or blast furnace sand) part of the mix, the more that the mix if the smallest aggreis of size afslag)

Coarse aggregate Fine aggregate the aggregate

or manufactured the major

constitutes for the specific Coarse than

gate in the mix

the cheaper

the cost of the concrete, job in which is classified Properties concrete effects. aggregate

provided it is used. as such

workability Aggregate: is greater strength organic types

of the particle

/4 in. (6 mm).

of the coarse aggregate coarse aggregate bond with

of the hardened destructive impurities,

and its resistance

to disintegramust the cement

and other

The mineral have a good

be clean

and must

of coarse aggregate stone: type. This While

are: by crushing be of igneous, rock gives and placing natural stone

crushed from it

is produced could crushed in mixing

quarries.

The rock

sedimentary, concrete the other than

metamorphic

higher

is less workable

Concrete

61

(2)

Natural ning

gravel:

This rock

is produced

by the weathering of streams.

action

of run-

water

on the

beds and banks

It gives less strength

than crushed (3) Artificial shale, They Crete. (4) Heavyweight demands due to the cial bility corase gamma-rays and

but is more workable. aggregates: These used of other to are mainly produce manufacturing slag and lightweight expanded concrete. such as con-

coarse

are frequently by-product

are the

processes, for lightweight

blast-furnace

slag or expanded

shale, or pumice

and

nuclear-shielding atomic had age and to the number

aggregates: hazards to reactors

With

the

specific radiation speX-rays,

of our

of nuclear shield against

increasing have

of atomic be produced of prime

and stations,

concretes

and neutrons. types

In such concretes,

economic barites,

and workaand

considerations aggregate

are not

importance.

The main heavy magnatites,

are: steel punchings,

limonites. While concrete ft. The density criteria. both sand. terial concrete made property In certain with with these ordinary heavy aggregate aggregates rather density than weighs weighs primarily about from 144 Ibs. per cu. ft., depends cement while on the ratio in others

225 to 330 Ibs. per cu.

of heavy-weight product govern. aggregate from cases, high Fine be clean filler

radiation-shielding is the only is smaller

concrete consideration, made,

of the compact and strength

on the water

density

Fine Aggregate: It ranges gate should a well-graded aggregate. The detail recommended always

size filler

in most cases, of mahave For

in size from

#4 to #lOO organic

U.S. Standard impurities, #IO0 sieve.

Sieves. A good fine aggreclay or any deleterious It should preferably standards.

or excessive

of size smaller conforming fine

than

combination concrete,

to the ASTM

sieve analysis

radiation-shielding

steel shot of the

and crushed and fine

iron ore are used as fine aggregates are given in

gradings C-330

coarse

in ASTM

standards

and C-637.

Admixtures Admixtures which mediately economy, mixtures

l

are materials or during other

other

than

water,

aggregate

or hydraulic

cement im-

are used as ingredients before or for so as to

of concrete the mixing. make it more

and which Their function suitable

are added for the work

to the batch at hand, types

is to modify The major

the properor for of ad-

ties of the concrete

purposes

such as saving energy.16

can be summarized Accelerating Air-entraining Water-reducing Finely divided

as follows:

admixtures admixtures admixtures mineral and set controlling admixtures

0 a 0
l

admixtures concretes

Admixtures

for no-slump

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Polymers Superplasticizers

CRITERIA The lows: Compactness The with tion. Strength Concrete the different Water/Cement solid be the

FOR QUALITY general characteristics

CONCRETE of quality concrete may be summarized as fol-

space occupied aggregate criteria

by the concrete for those types

should,

as much which

as possible,

be filled may radia-

and cement

gel free from

honeycombing.

Compactness nuclear

primary

of concrete

intercept

should types Ratio should

always

have

sufficient

strength

and internal

resistance

to

of failure.

This ratio Texture Exposed withstand In order parameters: (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) Quality

be suitably

controlled

to give the required

design strength.

concrete to achieve

surfaces these

should properties,

have

dense

and

hard

texture

that

can

adverse weather

conditions. quality control and quality assurance in the selection and processing of the following

have to be rigorously

maintained

of cement of cement and cleanliness of adhesion mixing in relation to water in the mix

Proportion Strength Interaction Adequate Proper Curing

of aggregate between cement paste and aggregate

of the ingredients finishing and compaction not below 5OF of the fresh concrete while the placed concrete

placing,

at temperature

gains strength. A study to be taken of these prior requirements shows that most of the control in handling actions have

to placing of criteria Most value. mix

the fresh

concrete.

Since such a control of proportioning

is governed and placing, for each mix of histori-

by the proportions the development should be studied. cal and academic The most

and the mechanical design

ease or difficulty methods

based on the theory

have essentially concrete

become

accepted

method

of proportioning

mixes

is the American

Concrete

63

Concrete In addition

Institutes

method

both for normal

weight

and lightweight to produce

concretes. level of 28conand exspecimen C-143. The

to the aim of designing strength,

a mix to achieve the prescribed

day compressive tent of workability is formed mold is lifted,

mix design is also intended

workable

crete easy to place in the forms. is the slump. metal into a conical

A measure of the degree of consistency In the slump test, the plastic concrete as described in ASTM Standard

mold

leaving the concrete

to slump,

namely

spread or drop in height. of the mix.

This drop is the slump measure of the degree of workability Mix Designs for Nuclear-Shielding Whereas from the water/cement gamma the foregoing ratio, Concrete discussion

it is seen that the design criteria shielding against X-rays or density

was and on

in concrete the criteria magnatite garytes, (for normal concrete

used for density,

rays and neutrons,

is compactness

of mix regard-

less of workability. steel punchings, previously. Tables 4-2, for structural Results concrete

To achieve maximum magnatites,

tests have been conducted instead

various mixes using crushed

ore or fine steel shot instead of sand, and or limonites of stone as discussed and Table 4-5 proportioning

4-3a,

4-3b

and heavyweight necessary

concrete) tools for

lightweight

give the

mixes.* of these tests for both compactness and strength have shown that to 3.5 to 4.5 gallons of water.

the w/c ratio must be limited

QUALITY Workability (a)

TESTS

ON CONCRETE

or Consistency test by means of the standard in the mix indicates ASTM Code. The slump in in-

Slump

ches recorded (b) (c) Remolding Kelleys

its workability.

tests using Powers

Flow Table.

Ball Apparatus. is accepted as ASTM standard.

Only the first method Air Content Measurement when air-entraining Compressive

of air-content

in fresh concrete

is always

necessary especially

agents are used. of Hardened Concrete 6 in diameter Cylinder that the concrete position, and 12 high in compresand should be

Strength

This is done by loading sion perpendicular the same mix turbed traffic. until

cylinders

to the axis of the cylinder.

molds must be filled with is placed,

and at the same time the concrete disturb is hard

placed at once in the same vertical If it becomes

in a place where they will be undisadvanced to accept do so very gently and carefully,

and the cure sufficiently

necessary to move them,

but on no account

them for the first 24 hours.

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Table 4-2:

Approximate

Mixing

Water and Air Content Maximum

Requirements

for

Different

Slumps and Nominal

Sizes of Aggregates*

Water. lb per c yd of concrete for Indicated nominal maximum sizes of aggregate Slump. in. !b in.

) $5in. 1 3: in. ( 1 in.

Non-air-entrained

1 1% In. 1 2 1n.t 1

3 1n.t

6 1n.t

concrete 300 325 340 1.5 215 3w 315 1 260 % 0.5 240 265 265 0.3 210 230 0.2

1 to 2 3 to 4 6 to I Approximate amount of entrapped au in nonair-entrained concrete, percent

350 365 410 3

335 365 385 2.5

315 340 360 2

Air-entrained 1 to 2 3 to 4 6 to 1 Recommended average: total air content, percent. for level of exposure: Mild exposure Moderate exposure Extreme exposuretf --~ *These quantities of mixing water are for They are maxima for reasonably well-shaped of accepted specifications. tThe slump values for tests made after removal concrete containing of particles larger 4.5 6.0 1.5 4.0 5.5 7.0 3.5 5.0 6.0 305 340 365 295 260 305 325

concrete

310

SE
3.0 ::;

250 275 290

240 265 260

225 250 270

200 220 -

2.5 4.5 5.5

2.0 4.0 5.0

1.51. ;:;0g**

Log* 3.0$!** 4.00

use in computing angular coarse

cement factors for aggregates graded are

trial batches. withm brmts on slump

aggregate larger than l!; m. than l!$ m. by wet-screenmg.

based

fAdditiona1 recommendations for air content and necessary tolerances on air content for control in the field are given in a number of AC1 documents, including AC1 201. 345. 316. 301. and 302. ASTM C 94 for ready-mixed concrete also gives air content lirmts. The requirements roportloning concrete consideration in other documents may not always agree exactly, so in of the job and also meet must be given to selecting an aw content that will meet tf: e needs the applicable specifications. 5For concrete containtng large aggregates which ~11 Prior t0 testing for air Content. the Percentage of a~ should be as tabulated in the 1% in. column. However, include the air content as a percent of the whole. be wet-screened over the l!; expected in the 1:; in. nunus initial proportionrng calculations in. sieve materlal should

*When using large aggregate in low cement factor concrete. air entramment need not be detrimental to strength. In most cases nuwing water reqwrement is reduced sufflclently to improve the water-cement ratio and to thus compensate for the strength reduang effect of entrained air on concrete. Generally, therefore. for these large maximum azes of aggregate. air contents recommended for extreme exposure should be considered even though there may be little or no exposure to moisture and freezing. ttThese values are based on the criteria that 9 percent of the concrete. If the mortar volume will be substantially this recommended practice. It may be desirable to calculate percent of the actual volume. air is needed in the mortar phase different from that determmed in the needed air content by talcmg 9

mortar

Concrete

65

Table 4-3a:

Relationships Compressive

Between Strength

Water-Cement of Concrete

Ratio

and

Compressive strength at 28 days. psi* 6000 5000 4000 3000 2000

Water-cement Non-air-entrained concrete 0.41 0.48 0.57 0.68 0.82

ratio, by weight Air-entrained concrete 0.40 0.48 0.59 0.74

*Values are estimated average strengths for concrete containing not more than the percentage of air shown in Table 5.33. For a constant water-cement ratio, the strength of concrete is reduced as the air content is increased. Strength is based on 6 x 12 in. cylinders moist-cured 28 days at 73.4 f 3 F (23 ? 1.7 C) in accordance with Section 9(b) of ASTM C 31 for Making and Curing Concrete Compression and Flexure Test Specimens in the Field. Relationship assumes maximum size of aggregate about ?i to 1 in.: for a given source, strength produced for a given watercement ratio will increase as maximum size of aggregate decreases; see Sections 3.4 and 5.3.2.

Table 4-3b:

Maximum Concrete

Permissible

Water-Cement

Ratios for

in Severe Exposures*

Type

of structure

Structure wet continuously or frequently and exposed to freezing and thawing+

structure exposed to sea water or sulfates

Thin sections (railings. curbs, sills. ledges, ornamental work) and sections with less than 1 in. cover over steel All other structures

0.45 0.50

0.40: 0.45:

*Based on report of AC1 Committee 201. Durability of Concrete in Service, previously cited. tconcrete should also be air-entrained. :If sulfate resisting cement (Type II or Type V of ASTM C 150) is used, permissible water-cement ratio may be increased by 0.05.

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Table 44:

Volume

of Coarse Aggregate of Concrete

per Unit of Volume

Maximum size of aggregate, in.

Volume of dry-rodded coarse aggregate* per unit volume of concrete for different fineness modull of sand 2.40
0.50 0.59 0.66 0.71

2.60 0.48 0.57 0.64 0.69 0.73 0.76 0.80 0.85

2.80 0.46 0.55 0.62 0.67 0.71 0.74 0.78 0.83

3.00
0.44

?a ?2 ?L
I

2 3 6

I?2

0.75 0.78 0.82 0.87

0.53 0.60 0.65 0.69 0.72 0.76 0.81

*Volumes are based on aggregates in dry-rodded condition as described in ASTM C 29 for Unit Weight of Aggregate. These volumes are selected from empirical relationships to produce concrete with a degree of workability suitable for usual reinforced construction. For less workable concrete such as required for concrete pavement construction they may be increased about 10 percent. For more workable concrete see Section 5.3.6.1.

Table 4-5:

Comparison

of Fineness Modulus Lightweight

by Weight Aggregate

and by Volume

for a Typical

OPWIlW? Slew size 4 8 I6 30 50 too Pan ___ in. 0 181 0.0937 0 0469 0.0232 00111 0 0059 nnenr. mm 4.76 2.30 ,.I9 0.590 0 297 0.149 rncdl, Iby a,h,l

PerCenl retaaned by weneht 0 21.6 24 4 18.9 I4 0 II 6 9.5 = J.I)Z

Cumulative percent retaIned by weight

Bulk

Cumulattve

21.6 46.0 64 9 78.9 90 5 LOO.0

nnm...nlDdI. IYme,222 IbY =

_____

Flexural

Strength

of Plain Concrete is performed

Beams by 3 point loading of plain concrete beams of

This experiment

size 6 x 6 x 18 which have spans three times their depth. Tensile Splitting These line load Tests by loading the standard as 6 x 12 cylinder splitting by a in

tests are performed perpendicular

to its longitudinal

axis. The tensile

strength

pounds per square inch (fi) can be defined

where

P = total value of the line load registered D = diameter L = cylinder of the concrete height cylinder

by the testing machine

Concrete

67

The results of all these tests give the designer a measure of the expected strength of the designed concrete in the built structure.

PLACING Placing

AND CURING

OF CONCRETE

The techniques necessary for placing concrete depend upon the type of member to be cast, namely whether it is a column, a beam, a wall, a slab, a foundation, a mass concrete dam, or an extension of previously placed and hardened concrete. For beams, columns and walls, the forms should be well oiled after cleaning them, and the reinforcement should be compacted and thoroughly moistened to about 6 depth to avoid absorption of the moisture present in the wet concrete. Concrete should always be placed in horizontal layers which are compacted by means of high-frequency power-driven vibrators of either the immersion or external type as the case may need. It must be kept in mind, however, that over-vibration can be harmful since it could cause segregation of the aggregate and bleeding of the concrete. Curing Hydration of the cement takes place in the presence of moisture at temperatures above 5OF. It is necessary to maintain such a condition in order thatthe chemical hydration reaction may take place. If drying is too rapid, surface cracking takes place. This would result in reduction of concrete strength due to cracking as well as the failure to attain full chemical hydration. To facilitate good curing conditions, any of the following methods can be used : (a) Sprinkling with water continuously

(b) Ponding with water (c) Covering the concrete with wet burlap, plastic film or waterproof curing paper to retain the

(d) Using liquid membrance forming curing compounds original moisture in the wet concrete

(e) Steam curing in cases where the concrete member is manufactured under factory conditions such as in cases of precast beams, pipes, and prestressed girders and poles. Steam curing temperatures are about 15OF. Curing time is usually one day as compared to five to seven days necessary for the other methods.

PROPERTIES

OF HARDENED

CONCRETE

The mechanical properties of hardened concrete can be classified as: (1) short term or instantaneous properties and (2) long term properties. The short term properties can be enumerated as (a) strength in compression, tension and shear and (b) stiffness measured by modulus of elasticity. The long term prop-

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erties

can be classified

in terms

of creep and shrinkage. properties.

The following

sections

present some details of the aforementioned Compressive Strength

Depending quality of

on the type of mix, the properties compressive Commercial strengths production psi to 6,000

of aggregate, and the time and up to 15,000 psi or aggreconof concrete psi. 6 in. by 12 in. cylinders rate of loadStates are of conbecause from class with ordinary

the curing,

of concrete

more can be obtained. gate is usually crete strengths

in the 3,000

psi to 10,000

psi range with the most common

in the range of 3,000 strength, laboratory C-39.

The compressive cured under standard usually taken from crete in the actual of the difference The ACI quency

fk, is based on standard conditions specifications

and tested at a specified

ing at 28 days of age. The standard ASTM structure

used in the United

It should be mentioned and curing conditions.

that the strength

may not be the same as that of the cylinder

in compaction

code specifies for a strength

test the average of two cylinders level of an individual f:,

the same sample tested of testing, of concrete consecutive strength 500 psi. The duction

at the same age which as satisfactory

is usually 28 days. As for the fre-

the code specifies that the strength tests equal or exceed the required

can be considered strength

if (a) the average of all sets of three and (b) no individual f: by more than must be designed of plant pro-

test (average of two cylinders) average concrete strength

falls below the required a concrete mix

for which depends

should exceed f: by an amount and its prior documented

which

on the uniformity

record of test results.

Tensile Strength The tensile the tensile tensile testing strength strength f,t of concrete is 0.10 is relatively <0.20 f:. low. A good approximation It is more difficult for tension test. of rupture fr of rupture problems testing, for with with

strength

fk < f,t

to measure

than compressive A number subjected splitting used method

strength

because of the gripping are available splitting

machines.

of methods to bending, strength

the most commonly For members rather than tensile is measured tion having The weight weight crete: (a) (b) ACI

being the cylinder

the value of the modulus

fi is used in design. The modulus at two C-78). for the modulus of rupture points,

by testing a span of specifies

to failure,

plain concrete

beams 6 in. square in cross-seceach 16 in. equidistant of normal

18 in. and loaded a value of 7.5 f: concrete are the

from the end supports of the beam (ASTM concrete.

In most cases, lightweight concrete. The following

has a lower tensile strength than normal code stipulations for lightweight con-

If the splitting If f,t concrete lation

tensile strength

f,t

is specified of 0.75 weight

fr = 1.09 f,t < 7.5 fk

is not specified, and 0.85 may be used for

a factor mixtures

is used for all lightweight concrete. Linear interposand and lightweight

for sand-light

of natural

fine aggregate.

Concrete

69

Stress-Strain

Curve of the stress-strain analysis relationship of concrete is essential for develin concrete loaded After ultimate shortly structures. obcomstrengths

Knowledge oping Figure tained pression thereby parallel cylinders all the 4-l from

and design terms stress-strain

and procedures specimens

shows typical

curves for various concrete Cement Association. At

tests using cylindrical by the Portland the curvilinearity of loading of the failure

concrete

in uniaxial

as reported increasing except

approximately of its stiffness load, cracks

70 percent

stress, the material become

loses a large portion distinctly

of the diagram.

to the direction

visible, and most concrete thereafter. the strength of the concrete,

those with

very low strengths

fail suddenly

It is to be noted

that the higher

is the compressive

larger is the linear portion

of this stress-strain diagram.

EXPERI:IENTAL
7

rooamANALYTICAL COMPRESSIVE
6

0.001

0.002

0.003

0.004

STRAIN IN/IN
Figure 4-1: Stress-Strain Curves for Various Concrete Strengths

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Shrinkage Two shrinkage. the fresh exposure types Plastic concrete of shrinkage shrinkage occur in concrete: plastic shrinkage and drying placing by in such by the of

takes place during Exposed concrete attained

the first few hours after surface. than Moisture Drying

in the forms. faster from the

surfaces are more easily affected surface it is replaced

to the dry air because of their from the lower

large contact

cases evaporates bleed water develop the hydration Shrinkage rated with ume. The

layers of the concrete

elements.

shrinkages

after the concrete chemical after

has already

its final set and a good portion gel is accomplished. process. If a concrete are more unit

process in the cement reversible shrunk, having fully time undergo

is not a completely

is satuvolto

water

it will

not expand such that shrinkage:

to its original resistant

rate decreases with

since older

concretes

stress and consequently Several factors affect (a) Aggregate: ment paste, vulnerable with The

less shrinkage, of drying

the shrinkage

strain

becomes almost asymptotic

with time. the magnitude aggregate

acts to restrain with In addition, or with

the shrinkage

of the ceare less of a

hence,

concretes

high aggregate

content

to shrinkage.

the degree of restraint

given concrete

is determined

by the properties

of aggregates; those

high modulus

of elasticity process.

rough surfaces are more re-

sistant to the shrinkage (b) Water/cement ratio:

The higher the water/cement

ratio, the higher

are the shrinkage (c)

effects. element: Both the rate and total in the volume of shrinkage magnitude for of

Size of the concrete shrinkage element. members However, regions.

decrease with

an increase

of the concrete larger process to reach surface, the ex-

the duration

is longer

since more time at a depth

is needed for the drying of ten inches from at twenty-four

the internal

It is possible that one year is needed for drying the exposed inches below

to commence ternal (d) Type than ment. (e) Admixtures: ture. hardening Pozzolans surface.

and ten years to commence

of cement: other

Rapid-hardening shrinkage cracking

cement

shrinks somewhat cements restraining

more

types while shrinkage

compensating if used with

minimize reinforce-

or eliminate

This and

effect

varies depending chloride of the concrete

on the type increases the

of admixthe shrinkage.

An accelerator

such as calcium

used to accelerate

setting

can also increase the drying

shrinkage,

while air-entrain-

ing agents have little effect. (f) Amount of reinforcement: the relative Reinforced difference concrete is a function shrinks less than

plain concrete;

of the reinforce-

ment percentage.

Concrete

77

Creep Creep or lateral material tained load. Initial additional flow is the increase in strain with time due to a suselastic strain while the by deducting shrinkload is the creep stain. deformation. Although

deformation

due to load is considered

strain due to the same sustained be observed directly strain from

Creep cannot

and can only be determined the total

elastic strain and shrinkage

age and creep are not independent tion of strains is valid, hence: Total The strain (et)

phenomena,

it can be assumed that superposi-

= elastic strain (ee) of a concrete

+ creep (ee)

+ shrinkage

(fsh) by the con-

composition ratio,

specimen

can be essentially

defined

water/cement cement straining content effect

aggregate and cement

types,

and aggregate and cement the aggregate

tents. Therefore,

like shrinkage, increase creep.

an increase in the water/cement Also as in shrinkage,

ratio and in the induces a re-

such that an increase in aggregate content

reduces creep.

REINFORCEMENT Concrete ditional concrete Steel fabric, is strong in compression is occasionally but weak in tension. used to reinforce Therefore, reinforceloads. Adzone of to rewire The

ment is needed to resist the tensile stresses resulting reinforcement beam sections. Such steel is necessary for concrete of reinforcing E, consists

from the induced

the compression

for heavy

loads in order and welded standards.

duce long term deflections. reinforcement properties modulus, fv f, of bars, wires, with ASTM all of which are manufactured in accordance steel are:

most important (a) (b) (c) (d) Steel They 345 Youngs Yield

strength,

Ultimate

strength,

Size or diameter reinforcement

of the bar or wire is normally designated and mostly yield point, as Grade 40, 60 and 80 steels. and 80,000 psi (276, point. yield

have corresponding and 517/Nmm2,

yield strengths of 40,000,60,000

respectively)

have a well-defined the yield strength strengths

For steels which as the strength and 0.0035 the 40,60 The For most Welded of placing

lack a welldefined

value is taken to and

corresponding

to a unit strain of 0.005 tensile

for Grades 40 and 60 steels corresponding psi.

for Grade

80 steel. The ultimate at fracture

and 80 grade steels are 70,000,90,000 percent elongation source,

and 100,000

varies with

the grade, bar diameter

manufacturing modulus

ranging from 4.5 to 12 percent behavior is assumed

over an 8 in. gauge length. and the Youngs

steels, the

to be elasto-plastic

is taken as 29 x IO6 psi. wire fabric the fabric is increasingly used in slabs and walls because of the ease of reinforcement spacing and better bond. sheets, control

72

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The fabric reinforcement is made of smooth or deformed wires which run in perpendicular directions and welded together at intersections. Additionally, fiber reinforcement made of fine elements and of various shapes are used to produce fiber-reinforced concrete. The fiber material can be steel, fiberglass, or polypropylene in various forms. The fibers are mixed with the aggregate in the concrete. When the concrete hardens, they tend to increase the ductility of the reinforced concrete elements and considerably reduce plastic shrinkage cracking as well as cracking in general. The fiber elements range in diameter from 5 to 500 thousandths of a millimeter and 12 to 25 millimeters in length. Table 4-6 gives the standard reinforcement grades and strengths of steel and wire fabric. Table 4-7 gives the geometric properties of standard steel bars.
Table 4-6: Reinforcement Grades and Strengths
Ultimate Strength (f, 1, psi 70,000 90,000 70,000 90,000 80,000 85,000 80,000 80,000 75,000

1982 Standard

Type Grade Grade Grade Grade Grade 40 60 40 60 60

Minimum Yield Point or Yield Strength (f,), psi 40,000 60,000 40,000 60,000 60,000 75,000 70,000 70,000 65,000

Billet steel A6 15 Axle-steel A6 17 Low alloy steel A7 06 Deformed wire Smooth wire

Reinforced fabric Reinforced fabric

56,000

70,000

Table 4-7:

Weight,

Area and Perimeter

of Individual
Dimensions Cross-Sectional Area (Ab), square inch 0.1 1 0.20 0.31 0.44 0.60 0.79 1 .oo 1 .27 1 .56 2.25 4.00

Bars

. . . . . . . . Nominal
Bar Designation, Number Weight per Foot, pound 0.376 0.668 1.043 1.502 2.044 2.670 3.400 4.303 5.313 7.65 13.60 Diameter (db), inch 0.375 0.500 0.625 0.750 0.875 1.000 1.128 1,270 1.410 1.693 2.257

. .. . . .
Perimeter, inch 1.178 1.571 1.963 2.356 2.749 3.142 3.544 3.990 4.430 5.32 7.09

8 9 10 11 14 18

SUMMARY

In summary, quality concrete can be produced if adequate quality control and quality assurance are exercised in all stages of its production and in the se-

Concrete

73

lection of all its constituent materials. As the concrete is placed in the forms, the curing process has to be fully attained and the sequence of stripping the formwork (and reshoring if necessary) has to be well planned and correctly executed. Control test to determine the compressive and tensile splitting strength have to be in full accordance with ASTM standards and full loading of the finished system realized after the concrete has achieved its 28 days strength as a minimum. Transient loads during the construction process have to be strictly controlled as they can reach levels higher than the actual design loads when the shored concrete can least sustain them. The recommendations given in this section, if followed, can result in quality concrete consistent with the environment it is expected to service.
Acknowledgement Significant portions of this chapter are adaptations from Reinforced Concrete: A fundamental Approach, by Edward G. Nawy, 1985,720 p,, Prentice-Hall, Inc., with their permission.

REFERENCES
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. American Society for Testing and Materials, Annual Book of ASTM Standards-Part 14, Concrete and Mineral Aggregates, ASTM, Philadelphia, PA, 834 pp (1983). ACI Committee 221, Selection and Use of Aggregates for Concrete,Joornal, American Concrete/nsriture,Proceedings,Vol.5B,N0.5,pp 113-142 (1961). American Concrete Institute,AC/ Manual of Concrere Pracdce, Part 5 (1985). ACI Committee 212, Admixtures for Concrete, Manual of Concrete Practice, Detroit, Ml,ACI 212.1 R-B1,29pp (1983). Nawy, E.G., Ukadike, M.M., and Sauer, J.A., High Strength Field Modified Concretes, Journal of the Structural Division, ASCE, Vol. 103, No. ST12,pp 2307-2322 (Dec. 1977). American Concrete Institute, Super-plasticizers in Concrete, ACI Special Publication, SPS2, Detroit, Ml (1979). Mindness,S. and Young, J.F.,Concrete, Prentice-Hall Inc. (1981). Nawv, E.G., and Balaguru, P.N., High Strength Concrete, Chapter 5, Handbook of Structural Concrete, Pitmen Books, Ltd., and McGraw-Hill Book Co (1983). Pennwalt Corp., Pennwalt Standards For Concrete Vessels Designed ro Receive Brick or Membrane andBrick Lining, Technical Data BMS301 (March 1974). ACI Committee 211, Standard Practice for Selecting Proportions for Normal, Heavyweight and Mass Concrete (AC1 211 .l al), American Concrete Institute Standard, pp l-320 (1981). ACI Committee 211, Standard Practice for Selecting Proportions for Structural Lightweight Concrete (AC1 211.281), American Concrete Institute Standard, pp l-18 (1981). Nawy, E.G., Strength, Serviceability and Ductility-Chapter 12, Handbook of Sfructural Concrete, McGraw Hill Book Co., New York (1983). Nawy, E.G., Reinforced Concrete-A fundamentalApproach, Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 720 p (1985). Nawy, E.G., Simplified Reinforced Concrete, Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 324 p (1986).

6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

Il.

12. 13. 14.

Timber as a Structural Material to Support Chemical Resistant Masonry

Walter

Lee Sheppard, Incorporated

Jr.

C. C. R.M., Havertown,

Pennsylvania

The following uid tightness that follows W. Siebert, material factories chemical Wood

discussion

deals with masonry-a Properly

the use of wood type designed,

as a supporting requiring wooden

struc-

ture for chemically-resistant been and continue Materials

of construction unlined in many

total liq-

and rigid support. is intended to reflect

tanks have

to be used most satisfactorily Performance, walls, floors

services, and nothing 1983).]

on such construction. history,

[See, for instance, Oliver

Vol. 22, No. 10, p, 9 (Oct. and roofs of dwellings,

Since the beginning for frame, cooking, where all manner treatment

of recorded

wood has been used as a structural and for the shops and the tanning products, of medof food preparation

of end products

were produced-including of all manner

of leather,

preparing of textile

and packaging

fibers and the dyeing of cloth,

icines, and many other crafts and industries has also been used for hundreds and food stuffs, as material tanks and for the first two of chemicals 19th tanks century,

involving chemicals. of years to contain During 20th, the aqueous solutions from staved half of the wooden into which latter for anything

of construction of the

barrels to storage

and process equipment. decades

rectangular solutions

were used in steel mills to contain in dilute sulfuric

the acid pickling

steel was dipped long, particularly ture tighter, swell, well wooden

to remove scale. The life of wood acid which of halogen

in this service was reasonably tend rather less to how

swells wood and makes the strucacids which to leak. But no matter before

not as good in solutions tanks are constructed, will

perhaps even to shrink

it and cause the tank

in severe service, especially leak or weep-long floors under

if not carefully the economical pro-

maintained,

sooner or later they

life of the wood

has passed and, therefore, 74

such tanks require

Timber

as a Structural

Material

75

tection. iously

Strong damage

acids wood,

and

some

other

chemicals-particularly wooden

alkalis-can floors, when

sersuch memat-

and without

some protection, maintenance.

spillage occurs, will require expensive When, a protective tempts tures. Brick in the lining brane was first receiving

193Os, a system of acid brick work notice as a method of protection what for rubber-lined mortar of floors steel tanks,

over a liquid-tight of concrete to protect membrane more

floors and struc-

logical than that timber

be made to use acid brick and sulfur pickling

in the same manner

linings over an asphalt were surfaced over timber plants. enough with

were installed Brick and shops, a the brickfloors in topping. flexing many for of brick-

in wooden century, phenolic

tanks in steel mills in the latter were applied

part of the 3rd decade of this brick and sulfur.

and a number resin mortars

floors in electroplating braced to prevent functioned 195Os, similar of % epoxy from

few breweries, work from

and in a few chemical under load,

Where the floors flexing

were sound and well many

of these floors with

satisfactorily,

and several of this design are still in service. food and candy Where these and cracking, lined wooden wet (with plants were constructed, were sufficiently adequate and rigid these floors

In the mid a surfacing

to prevent

the topping The

and where

provision good.

was made for expansion, service. record

have also survived

given economical

tanks has not been equally and many to the interior solutions

The designer must bear in mind that wood water When dry, it shrinks. In a pickling

is not dimensionally dissolved

stable. When it swells. be applied before putso but

of chemicals

in water) would leaking

tank, the asphalt membrane tank to prevent membrane

as a membrane the wood which

of the wooden When

ting the brick into it. But this barrier dries out and shrinks. the now leaks at the tear.

keeps water out of the wood,

it shrinks,

it tears the asphalt membrane, in this area swells-usually the timber, and to creand this type of lining for chemically-rewith an impervious masonry. The by spills or memthe wood will

Not only

is the tank now leaking on the floor, and the wood enough to distort in rectangular

the area around

leak is now wet,

not enough to stop the leak, but quite (hot asphalt membrane But when sistant masonry, wood, wood membrane will and acid brick)

ate more leaks. No tank of this design could be kept tight, the wood is only to be the structural to be contained of then the wood the porosity originally except Shrinkage

tanks was abandoned. support

and the solution of

is too strong for unprotected

or is non-aqueous, because

must be protected wetting

the chemically-resistant for accidental seasoned material,

be dry continuously, Even when after erection.

brane leakage. dry out further tween tion.)

built with

will take place and cracks will open bethe staves in the walls of cylindriare used throughout the construcbase, it caused rupturing. on the surface of the wood and other problems

the planks (In

in the bottom

and between

cal tanks.

rectangular,

of course, planks

If a membrane Techniques

is to be placed directly and elasticity the cracks,

must have the strength by this dry condition facturers. adequate required nailing,

to bridge these cracks without instability in recent

to deal with

have been developed is the application

years by wood tank manusheets, with This may not be

One procedure when properly

of marine grade plywood

to the entire

inside surface of the wood tank.

designed prefabricated

PVC bag liners are to be installed,

and such design may be used for other types of membranes.

76

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

During perience

filling

and emptying

or ambient

temperature

changes, tanks may exif is pronounced

minor

movements

and changes of shape in the shell walls, particularly may be particularly expecially walls and the bottom, stave design-brick membranes-have if the bottom

the tank is permitted at the juncture concrete. In cylindrical occasionally rubber out

to dry out. The movement

of the vertical tanks-wood

and membrane

linings are still in of replaced by spread

used. Where they are employed adhered elastomeric contact They bag membranes.

successfully,

the hot asphalt-and to the interior PVC

fact all other completely or other

been eliminated,

The bag is fitted face. The flexible

the tank and suspended from the top of the tank as a loose liner, carefully in complete tearing. over all the interior elongation currently without in use have a 300% and so can adjust to structural where desired, by cutting

bag liners movement the slot

may be anchored,

short grooved

slots in the bag, and tacking into the wood, tained liquid

large head, long shaft, pins or tacks through to the timber. seal beyond

but not driving the pins home into the wood, from leaking through the slot around

thus leaving the bag To prevent the conpatch the limit of the slot,

free to move the length of the slot in relation is placed over the pin head, with the vulcanized so that the movement of the bag around

the pin, a large rubber

the pin is not obstructed.

STAVE

CROSS SECTION OF STAVE

HOOPS LINER, PLYWOOD OR FELT

\ PLACE ADDITIONAL SUPPO'RT DIRECTLY UNDER COLUMN

BOTTOM

CHIME JOIST

FOUNDATION, SLAB, WALLS OR BEAMS OF BRICK

Figure 5-1: Typical connection of wood stave wall to wood bottom of round wood container ready for membrane and chemically resistant masonry installation.

Timber

as a Structural

Material

77

The brick lining (if one is required cal protection contoured successful. that, ment. to the bag membrane) designed, recommended vessels, properly It is not often

to provide thermal is then laid within of lining this type

insulation

or mechani-

the bag. In cylindrical has been moderately shapes since the moveIt is important moveand vessels should liner, to prevent of any

for rectangular more difficult

ment of the wooden

walls is somewhat

to control.

in such cases, the walls be adequately The bands on cylindrical to the proper tension prior

braced externally to the installation

tanks and tie rods of rectangular

be adjusted

bands on the former be secured to shell wall to maintain their positions. In tanks where brick wall linings may not be desired, brick floors are sometimes from for installed in the bottoms 3, 1980, to protect the bottoms (and perhaps the bag liner) Chemical of three Processing rectangular in 1958, and for acid/sulThe units are to timsteam jets, mechanical September Douglas Fir tanks, abuse and the like. provides 316 with (Canadian

Page 21,

a case history

creosoted apparently furic lead-lined, ber floors, supports floor fully

stainless tie rods, installed at the date of publication

still used by the purchaser of copper with acid brick

cleaning

and brass bars up to 50 feet in length. laid over the lead in the tank bottoms.) monolithic toppings

If it is desired to apply either it is best, first, must be supplied, a smooth, plywood, visual deflection of the floor

or acid brickwork loading rebuilt. will Next,

to verify surface. uniform

that any anticipated If any movement and supports making

not cause sand the

at all is visible, additional then nail over it and that to a uniis now

or the floor

surface until matched,

surface has been attained,

sheets of marine

at least % thick, and covered

sure that all edges are carethem anywhere, plastic wood with

with absolutely surface.

no open cracks between smoothly

the nails are all countersunk form smooth applied If acid brick laid out and placed or a polymer

is to be used, the glass-reinforced on the usual centers. is to be applied, the periphery

asphalt

membrane

in the usual manner, concrete,

and the brick laid over it, expansion If a monolithic, polyethylene filled whether separator with

joints carefully a /4 topping bars should be placed, joint seal-

set above the cracks around the bars removed, ant. will develop When, over timber and could today, that with that

of every sheet, the monolithic expansion that,

and the cavities thus formed telegraphing

If this is not done, you can be certain cracks at these points, sheets below it. 1930s and early in the

sooner or later, the monolithic through the surface the pattern

of the plywood

194Os, linings of the above types were used if not the least exand tanks with is rarely available and companies of units Barring stave are so great

substrates, be employed

wood

was one of the least expensive,

pensive, structural

material.

Long heavy beams and planks were readily available, of large diameters, timber Though very long individual

in the construction

walls as high as 100 feet. long heavy units. market concrete of shorter Wood

beams and planks can still be assembled stave tanks are seen in many may well and wood stave walls, where a bottom

by finger jointing

industries,

such items bottoms tanks

opt for the design and construction the diameters entirely out of timber.

it is not economical

to construct of this type for chemical

bad workmanship, ter ducting as well.

have demonstrated

long life. Wood

pipe is still being installed

wastes and may be used for large diame-

78

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

-HI
N

Cl .i

PICKLING

TANKS

PLUNCER TYPE ..s wan.,

Figure 5-2: Book).

Courtesy

of Brooks

Lumber

Co., Bellingham,

WA (from

The Doug/as Fir Use

Timber

as a Structural

Material

79

Lug for Tank and Pipe Hoops.

width.

depth

Chimr length. Figure 53: Tank Co.). Courtesy of Caldwell Tank Co., Louisville, KY (Successor toThe Hauser-Stander

80

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

SELECTION
The known final

OF WOOD STRUCTURE
choice of of a support economic system will, of course, be based on the well of wood and any be very

principles

selection.

Established

manufacturers conditions masonry will

tanks, when supplied be imposed other pertinent similar taining modate to that a variety

with dimensional

requirements, masonry,

weights and other forces to operating for consideration. used for conto accom-

by the chemically-resistant supports

data, should be able to supply cost estimates for chemically-resistant wood There for cylindrical of aqueous or rectangular solutions.

The design of wood

tanks presently

will be some differences imposed

the additional

loads and requirements

by the chemically-resisin which will offer wooden con-

tant masonry and the membrane. There may be certain situations tainments and supports tages and economies The components ried by manpower of other tools. In confined occur, or where seriously materials.

and site conditions masonry are relatively

for chemically-resistant structures

some advan-

over supports of other materials. of wooden Erection small and can be carcomponents and hand manpower into areas inaccessible to the larger and heavier using only

can be completed

spaces where spills, overflows the ambient affected conditions by mild

or some leakage may occasionally corrosive, wood will not be liquids which would

are mildly

or rapidly

acids and some other

damage other structural

materials

extensively.

DESIGN NOTES
The design of wood than wood on mathematical and metal tanks is based more on experience and textbook theory. should and craftsmanship selection of the

calculation

The

components the wood,

for the structure there

be made by experienced

wood tank manufacturers. When selecting and economical for specific the cost; a lower and a membrane. judgement machinery, The partly but may by such operating etc. rods or hoops in unlined to the hydraulic load of past experience. wood tanks is determined previously, the related imposed As noted by the contents, may impose addesigner are choices to be made to achieve a suitable service. Some species are better than others of the lumber chosen will affect if the tank is to be lined with plywood varies with the tank size, but the may be influenced loads from super-imposed tank for the specified

conditions.

The grade, or quality, of the lumber as excessive

grade can be considered The thickness conditions

of the manufacturer,

based on previous experience, agitation,

size of the metal be modified

by calculations

by dictates

chemically-resistant ditional should versible sistant

masonry

lining on the walls and the bottom of loads on the structure expansion consequent soaking and

loads on the walls requiring be aware of the possibility growth masonry. characteristics The accidental

more tie rods or hoops. The tank

caused by the irreof the chemically-reswelling of the dry

and the thermal

wood shell may also be a factor to allow for.

Timber

as a Structural

Material

8 1

hard clay, concrete. etc.

Concrete

Pad

TYPE6

Pier or Pile and Beam construction.

Concrete Piers

Chime Joists

4 TYPEC W&l Construction

Figure54: Typical foundation arrangements for wood Courtesy of the Canadian Wood Pipe and Tank.

stave tanks

with

wood

bottoms.

82

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

A STREE

Outlets are furnished in Duriron. bfonel Metal and Bronze. When Installed in the bottom of the tank the flange Is countersunk. Ground plug 1s furnlshed to fit tapered seat. Lag sciew type outlets are furnished In bronze wltb lead plug cast on bronze I bolt.

Piping

Diagram

for Pickling

Tank

Outlets.

Figure 5-5:

Tank outlets

and steam jets. Courtesy

of the Caldwell Tank Company.

Timber

as a Structural

Material

83

FILL WITH RESISTANT COPING

ACID MORTAR TIMBER

ACID

RESISTANT BRICK

LINING

TIMBE

IMPERVIOUS

MEMBRANE STIFFENER

ACID

RESISTANT MORTAR

CHAMFER

BRICK

Figure 56: Detail of a wood bumper inside a brick lining in a pickling tank. Note that with this design, all hardware is kept out of the tank to prevent any chemical attack. Courtesy of the Pennwalt Corp.

POSSIBLE SIZES AND SHAPES There is an economic and practical limit for the diameter to which a wooden bottom can be built for a round tank. Though wooden bottoms have been built in the range of 60 to 70 feet in diameter, it is probable that, today, the alternative of a flat concrete bottom will have to be considered for economic reasons when the diameter exceeds 30 to 40 feet. In tanks with concrete bottoms, the wood staves stand vertically on a horizontal ledge around the circumference of the bottom and are sealed against an inner vertical concrete lip. Many tanks over 100 feet in diameter have been built in this manner and have given adequate service. However, when the concrete and the wood staves are supports for the chemically-resistant masonry, the sealing of the membrane at the junction of the wood and the concrete can become complicated. The wood stave walls will always expand and contract relative to the concrete base. The amount of movement is related to the tank diameter and may be caused by changes in the temperature of the hoops, liquid level in the tank, or other operating conditions such as vigorous stirring or agitation.

84

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

Wood cylinders, shape. Wood circular transport

tanks have been built in most common rectangular

shapes: vertical

and horizontal

and square boxes, even vertical

stave walls in an elliptical pipes, ducts Semifor the

has also been extensively some with

used for round and rectangular linings,

and stacks for pulp mill and smelter exhaust flumes, abrasion-resistant of mineral slurries. of linear thermal eliminating many

fumes and for liquid effluent. have been built

The coefficient be ignored struction expansion

expansion

of wood

is so small that it may in the conand expensive

in long structures. joints. Used alone,

This property wood

can be most attractive

of long ducts,

the necessity for complicated constructions services. structures

have served satisfactorcould be modi-

ily for very long periods in certain chemical Basic design criteria fied as required Finally, the three the wooden mum result to make masonry. developed them suitable

for these wooden

for the support

of chemically-resistant and installers of each of the membrane on the total and final can

it must be stressed that designers, suppliers, elements: the diverse performance of any the chemically-resistant properties structure support must cooperate,

main

masonry,

discussing and agreeing of the materials Failure created to obtain

design so that economy,

are combined

for maxi-

and safety.

such agreement

in the failure

by the marriage

of such diverse

elements.

Acknowledgements The writer wishes to thank Mr. Fred Cressman, of Waterloo,Ontario,for his assistance and suggestions, and for authorizing the use of four drawings, numbers 2 through 5, and copies of items 1-3 in the Bibliography. The current technical bulletins from National Wood Tank Institute were supplied by the Hall-Woolford Wood Tank Co., Inc., of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. The Douglas Fir Use Book, sections of the 1961 edition reprinted in 1962 by Brooks Lumber Company, Bellingham, Washington. lnsfrucrions for Erecting Open Top Tanks, Canbar Products, Ltd., Waterloo, Ontario. Wooden Tanks for Every Purpose, The Hauser-Stander Tank Co. Technical Bulletin S-82, Specifications for Wood Tanks and Pipe. Technical Bulletin 758.

Both the Technical Bulletins are published by the National Wood Tank Institute, 848 Eastman Street, Chicago, Illinois. They contain useful chemical resistance data and tables for wood.

6 Some Notes on Plastics as the Supporting Structure

Walter

Lee Sheppard, Incorporated

Jr.

C.C. R.M., Havertown,

Pennsylvania

Although not widely recognized by either manufacturers or users, it is possible to upgrade an all-plastics vessel to accept thermal conditions, and perhaps even some chemical exposures, beyond the limits of the bare plastic by the use of a lining of chemically-resistant masonry. One such design, now perhaps seven years old, involves all F RP equipment designed to reclaim spent HCI pickling solution in steel mills. The original designer perhaps thought that the very hot concentrated acid, as it entered the 6 foot diameter receiver, might be beyond the acceptable limits of the FRP, and he therefore inserted a 2% inch brick liner in the unit to accept the impingement of the entering HCI. Several units have been built to this design and, to date, no complaints have reached this writers ears. However, if the equipment had been larger, the story might well have been different. The high coefficient of thermal expansion of the FRP in larger units, and in cases where a considerable difference between operating and ambient temperatures will occur, will inevitably result in the expansion of the FRP away from the brick lining, resulting in loss of support for the walls and their eventual collapse. A simple brick bottom to withstand abrasion and impingement has a better chance of survival. If the FRP designer plans on a marriage of FRP and masonry, he would do well to carefully study the following documents: Custom Contact Molded Reinforced Polyester Chemical Resistant Proc-

ess Equipment

(PS15-69), a Department of Commerce years old, but still containing much useful information and the manufacture of tanks, ducts and pipes. 85

Standard 15 on materials

86

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

Filament

Wound

Glass Fiber

Reinforced

Thermoset

Resin Chemical

Re-

sistant Tanks Contact sistant

(ASTM

D-329981) Reinforced Thermoset Resin Chemical Re-

Molded

Glass Fiber

Tanks (ASTM

D-4097%2) the dead weight of all the materials weights that that may be may be conse-

He must carefully used in the tained lected he will masonry masonry

compute lining

and add this to all other structure) in service. many than require expansion flexible will

in the vessel (or other has a coefficient that lining FRP not need to allow

Unless the lining material

of thermal is much more

times that of acid brick, He must, however, Therefore, strong, built if a must be derigid supagainst it suffibrick.

for expansion

stresses in addition. acid

remember

is to survive within inflexible. (and/or fall bracing

an FRP structure, This banding). If a flat

the structure adequate, bottom

signed to be rigid and ports and external lining will resting crack on it will

oil cans a brick include

break up. If a wall flexes, will

a brick

lining

and probably of the

in. The design should therefore between then plastics primarily

cient reinforcing Because expansion, operating

to prevent any visible (to the unaided vast difference components with

eye) deflection. and masonry in thermal qualwill heat transmission

masonry

good to moderate

ities have use in few temperatures be close to ambient. bination

FRP structures-and

in those that will have high insulating of a com-

in the lower thermal

ranges when the vessel exteriors with extremely

On the other hand, materials

values may have a very real future book on closed cell borosilicate In contact mold, then which 0.75. the (cooler and joints the FRP molding, between the the

in such design. Here we are thinking glass block. Chapter with 17.) can be attached an elastomeric

of FRP and closed cell borosilicate glass block, block, blocks made

(See the section of this to the inner adhesive, and Now when block,

say 2 thick,

laid up upon, the

and bonded liquid

to, the back of the block. face will of 96OF.

the molds

are stripped,

contact temperature

be the borosilicate

has a top surface operating of thermal FRP Thus, it is possible to operate

In these higher thermal while keeping thermal drop

ranges, the coefficient inner FRP they surface ducting, below

conductivity at about liners

of the block ranges from 0.60 to 32OF. be used. have always been limited to use at which range of the resins from are manufactured first building For greater

a vessel so lined at, say, 600F,

of the

unit

FRP),

a thicker

layer of block would

pipe and chimney the acceptable the designer If cylindrical shaped

temperatures winding fabric they

top thermal materials may consider

are made.

by filament

on a mandril, body.

a layer of closed sub-

cell borosilicate stance to permit are adhered

glass block on the mandril, some movement without

and then winding

on it the resin-glass

The joints between

the block would of the individual joints

be made of an elastomeric The insulation

blocks with the FRP to which value of the alive to keep the elastomer on the surface.

breaking

or block.

blocks has been shown by experience at the bottom of the joint

to be sufficient

even when it is heavily

carbonized

Section III Membranes

87

Sheet Linings

Walter

Lee Sheppard,

Jr.

C.C. R&l., Incorporated Havertown, Pennsylvania

HISTORY For three-quarters have known that, of sheet natural if uncured the adhesion ber that ral rubber finishing centrations 14OF. Hot asphalt applications ner lined with made granite lective system from blocks. adhesion timber, had been used for many years in concrete service, and also, of course, unlined tanks made by hollowing which tanks, inin sebrick for similar wood tanks rubber of a century, metal and probably equipment longer, rubber manufacturers discovered rub-

how to protect

from corrosion

by the application

to the surface was many by sulfuric

of the metal. times greater

It was quickly than that

sheet was bonded tightly

to the metal surface and cured in place, of precured Inasmuch of the adhesive alone. as natu-

of the rubber

relied for bond on the curing is little affected of lining was a natural

acid in concentrations

below the oxidizing for use in steel acid con12Oand

range, this type

for steel tanks designed

mills for the pickling varied from

of steel (removal

of mill scale), where of between

10% to 15%. and at a temperature

and small pickling

out cavities

But the use of hot asphalt cold flow to steel and so would a number the asphalt of inventive

as a liner for steel tanks had been unof the asphalt demonstrated and open cracks in the membrane it adhered. with To overcome the manufacrubincluding to make

satisfactory

due to the erratic

tear

in the areas of cold flow below the points where similar

this difficulty, ber, in which rubber.

persons experimented with

ture of asphalt sheet lining materials, These asphaltic compound

in form to the sheets of natural various admixtures, sufficiently

was compounded

sheets were then warmed 88

Sheet Linings

89

them joints

flexible

and adhered to provide in many

to the

interiors

of steel tanks membrane provided that

as a lining, This type

with

all

heat-sealed,

a liquid-tight

lining.

of sheet from

was found mechanical In the 140F,

to work 193Os,

such applications, considered

it was protected

damage on the exposed surface by a brick lining. it was generally sheets would against at temperatures acid-brick much over rubber only age at an uneconomical damage, rate, so it was the as an internal internal lining well it was gensur-

natural

usual practice protection-not thermal below erally 14OF

in lining tanks

in steel mills to install mechanical

but also to provide of the rubber By the 1940s.

insulation considered

and to drop the surface temperature that natural rubber 1960s. could

so as to increase the life of the linings. and by the

be used economically up to 18OF. elastomers,

at 160F

face temperature,

some manufacturers

were recommending such as neoto some

it as giving economical In the late 1930s. prene (chloroprene), than corrosives interest oped natural

service at surface temperatures and early rubber. had been developed Then which

194Os, a few synthetic during

had better

resistance

the second World rubber, resulting

War, the disrupin an accelerated resins for had been develsheet linings mechanof number

tion of sea lanes created in all synthetic sheet lining applications. and given field chemical mentioned ical and sources. In the was offered it for monia. above, a wide

a shortage of natural

rubbers, other elastomers, By the 196Os, a myriad variety of materials become tests so that today, have

and in thermoplastic of alternatives

besides the two original having different available vinylidene from a great

physical,

properties

195Os, an elastomer for a number and more. This

made from material

chloride after

and called Saran has not seen with am-

of years as a vessel lining, but the author was cured

a decade

installation

TYPES

OF SHEET of sheet most frequently with a number it is intended, used today from is still natural rubber. It may or fillers, depending including on fabto soft to hard, and from a uni-

The type be compounded formly

of different varying

modifiers

the service for which calendered ric-reinforcing. Many different form butyl sheet lining rubber.

sheet to laminates

of soft and hard or laminates

synthetic elastomers are also compounded

materials. Examples are: neoprene, with Hypalon,

and calendered butyl

and chlor-

Asphalt-based sheets, usually compounded

able, and still used in some lining exposures. With plasticized for chrome ber. the war years, polyviny/ PVC compounds,

some rubber,

are still avail-

chloride (PVC)

resins came under study, and available as calenand rubfor

based on these material and chromic limit limit

resins, became mixtures now

dered sheet lining materials-the such strong oxidants (A higher which the continuous as nitric

of choice for stainless steel pickling acid which rapidly seldom attack natural

plating and other exposure employing temperature modification

of chemicals including seen is PVDC,

temperature

is said to be 170-IgOOF.)

90

Corrosion and Chemical Resistant Masonry Materials Handbook

The Germans had researched PVC in depth, and after the war, rigid, unplasfirst from offered French and Gerof vessels and for a wider range of sheet) at but the addition of the unplastiits rigidity, high to softo

ticized many

PVC sheet and pipe became quickly other purposes. The unmodified

available, sheet

man sources, and then in the United chemical once

States, for the fabrication resin material However, limit then available, the usefulness (actually

resistances than did any other (necessary the chemical one present resistance.

of a plasticizer lowered

if the sheet was to be flexible

like rubber

cized sheet was limited uous, though coefficient of thermal

by its low thermal day manufacturer it conform slowly expansion,

given as 140F contin-

gives it as 15OF),

and its memory. to an irregular return

It could be warmed

ten and shape it and make cool and harden perature in that or higher,

surface, then permitted shape, tearing

shape. But when it was bonded.

it was warmed to its original

again to the same temloose

it would

from any surface to which Further, gradually no really disbonded from

high bond adhesive was found fabric

for it, so that the surface Efforts to improve but this

the adhesive over a period of time. of cases, the fabric an unplasticized

the bond included

calendering

into the face of the rigid material,

was largely abandoned The corrosives derside bonding ily most

because, in a number method to provide

pulled out of the PVC face to the sheet to the un-

sheet so that the sheet still disbonded. successful was found to be a laminate, calendering a plasticized

(or back side) of the unplasticized to the substrate, Domestic years, this laminate is available sheet

sheet to provide

a good surface for NJ, and readago, but curin northsheet,

leaving the rigid side exposed sheet was manufactured was discontinued from Europe, first on import in the manufacture

to the harsh chemicals. in Trenton, a decade

For many rently,

available.

the material

and is stocked as a plain

ern New Jersey.

Polypropylene
bonding

appeared

1950s. backing

white

then, like the early PVC sheet, with a fabric agent was ever found its use in this manner lining material synthetic all the Angeles for a number

laminated

to it. No effective has not heard of a sheet or

for this material, of years.

and this author However, laminated surface.

there is available

having a sheet of polypropylene 1950s. a myriad from

to a sheet of natural

rubber to provide following Rubber

an adhesive accepting domestic

Since the early

of sheet materials

have appeared, (Yearbook literature.) variously

and today of the Los

are available Group,

sources.

Inc. and various manufacturers (NR), (top temperature

Natural

rubber,

(isoprene)

140-150F

continuous, Hard natural Butyl 212F) Chlorobutyl Nordel@ EPDM)

170-18OF rubber

intermittent) 185F) (IIR) (top temperature 200-

(top temperature isoprene polymer)

(isobutylene,

(ethylene

propylene)

(copolymer

and

terpolymer)

(EPM,

Sheet Linings

91

Nitrile

(Buna N,

butadiene-acrylonitrile

copolymer)

(top temperature

about 210F Neoprene 180-200F) Hypalon@ variously Viton@ applicator membrane used with ture exacting

intermittent) (chloroprene polymer) (CR) (top temperature variously

(chlorosulfonated 200-220F) (fluoro lining. elastomer) Though under

polyethylene)

(CSM)

(top

temperature

(FPM)

(As of this writing,

no tank

lining

is offering

a Viton they

sheet lining for a tank require careful

as an impervious

both calendered to provide

sheet and an adhesive to be and exact high temperalining under on procedures a satisfactory

it are available, conditions.

vulcanizing

pressure

Experiments

are being conducted

and methods.) Chlorinated Polyvinyl polyethylene chloride (CPE) (PVC) (top temperature 1 40-1 50F) others)

(plasticized)

Polypropylene (top continuous In addition, Polyvinyl

laminate

with a backing of rubber variously importers 200-230F) are: laminate

(and probably

temperature from

available

chloride,

rigid/plasticized

(top temperature laminate

140F)

Polypropylene Polyisobutylene

(and system to bond it without rubber (top temperature

backing) others

180F),

and probably

LOOSE LINERS
The most successful method But, of course, where it is not always example may of protecting sheet lining the substrateof bonded tightly a vessel has proven to that substrate. wastes

to be by the use of an impervious Take as an extreme the substrate tank.

possible to obtain more

a tight bond to the substrate. pond for chemical compacted tank, soil. Or conor a leak-

the lining

of a retention solid than

be nothing

sider, perhaps, the emergency ing wooden containers, substrate

lining of a badly damaged concrete the leakage of contained

In order to prevent

liquids from such and the tear-

loose bag or envelope remains sufficiently

liners have been used, and so long as the excessive movement limits of the bag are not exceeded, or other environmental be successfully use even in composite considerbonded to linlinings em-

sound to prevent

ing of the bag, such a procedure Occasionally, the substrate, ploying ing from attempted

and as long as the thermal has been reasonably when the chemical exposure

successful. that cannot

ations have dictated acid brick thermal study without

the use of a material or other rigid internal damage.

this same principle or mechanical

has found

facings to protect

the membrane and should

An application persons.

of this kind requires the not be

most careful

and construction

if it is to be successful,

the advice of experienced

92

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

SUBSTRATE
The great ported require For the satisfied: (1) metallic

REQUIREMENTS
majority of bonded usually sheet linings are applied to rigid, well-supsurfaces. must be

substrates,

carbon steel, though those linings that do not can often also be applied to concrete the following basic requirements

heat curing installation

(vulcanizing)

to be successful,

The substrate without successfully

must be, in itself, a liquid-tight, to apply any bonded

continuous

structure,

any open or working

seams or joints.

(It is not possible or thermal ex-

lining over a void. If there is any liquid, rupturing

movement-even how small-you (2) The substrate

the pressure of a contained can anticipate surface must (You the eventual be very cannot

pansion of the structure

on either or both sidesof the void, no matter of the lining).

smooth expect

and free of contamito obtain sound bond

nants and rough spots. to a rough or dirty (3)

surface.) or bending the

The design must be rigid enough to restrain any flexing that may exceed the ability structure.

of the liner to flex or bend with

(4)

There

can be no sharp internal

or external

angles or corners.

Sheet and

linings must be rolled even the thinnest corner. The Protective welded prepared find that Rubber Linings for Manufacturers Technical

or curved to fit all changes of direction

such linings cannot

fit into or over a right angle

Association Bulletin which

(see Bibliography) provides specific

has prepared standards

a for

steel structures concrete,

to receive such sheet linings. but the engineer enunciated

No such standard are followed, applicator

has been and the before he vessel.

who plans to design such a vessel will

if the principles points

in this steel standard

above four

observed,

and if he consults a competent he should be able to produce

starts to pour the concrete,

a satisfactory

TESTING
In the most

THE COMPLETED
western

LINING
it has been customary linings on carbon exceptions conductivity to test for continuity linin

hemisphere, sheet fillers,

rubber

(and similar) have conductive

steel vessels by using a high An alternative method some-

voltage electric ings which

spark. The only an electrical or other obviously to another Obviously,

have been those sheet (or other) test using an electrolyte to the substrate will work, cannot solution metal.

such as carbon.

times seen employs a swab on a copper through spection European an ammeter filler is conductive, practice

conductive neither

probe completing

a low voltage circuit If the and only a visual inbe so tested. test

probe grounded test method include applications

is possible.

to concrete either

does not normally

a spark or conductivity

and relies solely on visual inspection.

Sheet Linings

93

CURING
Sheet linings fall into four different categories when classified by method change chloride, on beof at Joints welding

of curing-a in application. polypropylene, the curing tween

word with

many shades of meaning. undergoes no appreciable we find precured rubber. rubbers, polyvinyl the sheet.

(1) Precured.

This is a sheet lining which sheets and butyl of the adhesive

In this category, asphaltic

Here we rely almost totally

or hardening

used to anchor

sheets in some of the applications

are made by heat or solvent In those where curing upon the

welding of the ad-

of the laps or lap strips, PVC being such a material. laps is not possible, success of the lining depends and thermal materials hesive to a high level of chemical (2) Selfcured. dered with ural rubber (3) the sheet at ambient

resistance so as to complement, may be compounded of time,

its exposed edges, the resistance of the sheet. Some elastomeric temperatures. sprayed and calenslowly cure noted in nata chemical curing agent which will, over a period and troweled employed controlled coatings,

This type of curing is primarily

and neoprene in Shop.

and has not, in recent

years, been, to the writers Cured ture to cure, usually best handled (4) sealing boxes Field the and cured in the shop. Cured. under

knowledge, carefully

for total cure of sheet linings. high pressure and temperaSuch conditions are therefore, is only applied It conditions.

Some sheet linings require

in an autoclave, Natural filling

and this type of material, rubber it with is an example steam, or

of this kind of material.

can be cut, fitted,

and applied

in the field and then cured, either by placing them by section, filling with

by closing and steam, and so

vessel and

and sealing steam

over the surface,

section

cure the lining section by section.

Repairs can be made in the same manner.

MANUFACTURER
It is not the purpose of this section However, he will to advise the reader on the manufacunderstand certain exhow he can and how he cannot rubber and the asphaltic

ture of sheet lining materials. aspects of the process so that pect such lining materials linings, the plantation tic or other blend it with able compound the anticipated amount the total weight. The compound truded between sheet desired, is then basic material (rubber) or from lining Just as in the manufacture

the end user should know

to perform. of sheet natural sheet the as the sheet lining manufacturer the refiner or importer that will receive his synthetic plasticizers, and other receives it from elastomer, it-and

(asphalt),

the manufacturer thermoplaswill have to under actual

of the synthetic

materials

basic resin from fillers, stabilizers, will-as which

the company a lining-perform

produces its function length

materials

to make a suitThe

satisfactorily of time.

conditions,

and for

an economical

of the basic resinous material

in the compound between

may be as low as 70% of rolls, or perhaps exthe thickness of flat it is

calendered finished section

calender rolling-to

dies-perhaps

by a final is required,

or if a curved

pressed into a mold where

94
held forced

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

until with

it has totally lacks strength layers

conformed or the ability

and set into the desired to withstand (glass, synthetic and thermal limit

shape.

If the basic carbon,

material

rapid flexing, fabrics,

it may be reincotton,

of a selected fabric alters the chemical reducing a lower thermal

etc.) or a layer of another Compounding terials-almost resistance and often invariably

resinous material. resistances of the basic masheet has less chemical compounding. limits. Thereit, so that the finished

than the resin before

But the principle fore,

reasons for selecting these materials chemical

in the first place are based state, are cal-

on these same or better endered molded or molded part,

resistances and higher thermal in the uncompounded on the exposed layer

in a few cases, some of these materials, in a composite so that the compounded

side of the sheet or

side may be used for bond to anchor the resistance is exposed to the cor-

lining to the substrate while the side with better rosive environment.

DIFFUSION All

AND

ABSORPTION linings and coatings Penetration can, over a varying period of time, through be the

protective

penetrated in coatings coating

by corrosives.

occurs, of course, through

voids and holes to a greater tests for involvthat

and sheet linings, Diffusion

but it can also take place by diffusion have the characteristic is the ability of fluids to absorption. of absorption,

or sheet. All materials them,

or to a lesser degree. pass through absorption, the diffusion

and gases to diffuse or to There are ASTM Test procedures to measure

but is not identical

but at the time

of this writing,

none has been approved There

of corrosives through Cell through

sheet lining materials.

ing the use of an Atlas the rate of diffusion If, therefore,

are being studied. an object

is general agreement

is related to its density at a slower regular

and its thickness. rubber sheet

Thus, a very dense polymer hydrochloric making

is penetrated

rate than a less dense one. soft natural the rubber with will give

acid can penetrate a hard rubber, service.

l/32

/I thick at too rapid a rate to be economical, a very dense filler, If a very thin trated dered /I thick, many years of satisfactory

we can compound

which

in the same thickness

lining-say

sheet-of

a thermoplastic

resin can be peneit is penetrated. the economicriteria in

in a year to a year and a half by a corrosive, should

then the same resin, calen-

be able to serve for 8 to 12 years before system and so further material

An inner lining of brick over the sheet lining surface will create stagnant conditions at the surface of the membrane cal life of the lining. The rate of diffusion the determination through the lining is then a major of lining thickness. extend

CHEMICAL There available

AND

THERMAL

RESISTANCE available through which thedesigner can search

is no master document

in order to select the sheet lining

most suitable

for his exposure.

In fact, those

to him do not even use a common

classification

system to distinguish

Sheet Linings

95

the exposures to confuse in many

which

are economically further,

acceptable

from those which

are not. And or supplier on

matters

the tables of chemical

resistances which are available or other from resinous basewhatever pubis warthat he and suran inner

cases are based on data collected on the basic elastomer, material follow should

by the manufacturer

tests conducted fore, lished ranted tion,

thermoplastic,

not on the compounded the designer material

that has been calendered up his material with to be certain selection that the firm

into the sheet. Therethe calendered

he uses by consulting applicators, exposure.

supplying what

sheet and his licensed the reader will for limit.

he specifies documents exposure provide

for the anticipated find

In the bibliography of readily is required

at the end of this sec-

listed a number screening insulation

available

may consult face thermal masonry

his preliminary If internal into

for both chemical

in order to reduce the sur-

face temperature lining.

an acceptable

range, he can, of course,

DAMAGE

OR DEGRADATION No matter how tough, by sourcewas little in

All sheet linings are subject to damage in many ways. how strong, a lining is, it can be damaged Damage forgotten with mechanically-by abrasion, a matter and many of the been under holed, the other noticed. or by a blow. frequently However, leaks in the generated often can, however, external day

a sharp object, an external tanks

come from

by management.

Before the cutbacks of pickling this writer and required been

on janitorial has noted

services in steel mills,

damage

the present

housekeeping have appeared steel shell

major steel mills, he has learned by quiet questioning, pickling the tanks that outside-the puddles The clean from having

that as much as 75% repair have and of the on the floors under them attacked

by fumes from be kept

of waste acid accumulated exteriors-especially and painted, and the floors

bottoms

of the tank.

the underside

vessel bottoms-should Linings the chemical accept entire

should be free of all waste, dirt and puddles. can be damaged content temperature been lining lost purchased by exceeding the thermal first checking purchasing trace that limits, or by changing in fact suppliers that A sulof on of the vessel without because the acid-containing anyone to see if the lining will linings-and changed

the higher vessels-have the tank

or the new chemical.

Tank agent

and unknowingly destroyed furic good example in this period hydrofluoric problem. Failure The tained of the For

elements

of a chemical

before

realized

it was in the shipment.

of this is the switch in the late 1960s and 1970s in steel from to hydrochloric. was reclaimed acid-amounts its effect and reworked so small that acid that contained the vendor see the photos trace amounts in the section

acid pickling

Much of the acid that was sold to steel mills never thought of it as a

on a lining,

however,

Analysis. same type with benzene of problem a powerful and carried can result from solvent. the contamination of the conamounts of liquid In at least one case, small the membrane

chlorinated

in waste hydrochloric

acid caused swelling and penetration into the vessel

membrane

the acid through

96
wall,

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

eventually

holing it before

it

and

letting

the

contents

of the

vessel

into

a river,

contaminating

the leak was discovered.

REPAIRS Almost dures paired before stalled well all sheet they great. a repair enough too linings were are repairable, installed. economical to usually continued including the following linings service, the the same procebe readvice who inthe damfor

by which

Even shop-cured

can usually providing sheet himself lining bond contractor

to provide Consult contract lining,

age is not the

the manufacturer anyone, of course, a vulcanized off. a leak

of the original manufacturer sheet

giving

original lining. bear that

unless, that

installed adis so it is hole, and

the original One hesion-so difficult sheet most repair with lining

must high that

in mind

bonded

has high

to remove be burned and point not the amount adhesive that material

it in order

to apply

a different if a high outside

replacement of the tank, the to locate

it must that

Consequently, appears will true on the

vulcanized

is penetrated

probable it. This

of penetration lining produces necessarily sheet lining

of the sheet

is opposite that bond. will

and the minimum a selfcuring however, membrane

of inner which

need to be removed of sheet linings strength either a lower

is, of course,

are adhered This writer to a fluid-

believes, applied

a thick

is normally in which

to be preferred serve.

for any exposure

SOURCES

OF DATA

ON CHEMICAL and Viton@

RESISTANCE are registered industry.) Du Pont The trademarks. action, Company resistance limited the shelf you (Neoand is (Wildata life. select

Nordel@, prene now generally DE)

Hypalon@

was originally

a Du Pont on

trademark in the well such

but was lost documented as Hypalon@, equipment are

by court Du Pont

used by everyone furnishes Some with the basic materials sheet material

mington,

request linings,

corrosion mixes). have

on these three Warning: Check to turers carefully criteria.

(not on the compounded and the manufacturer in your tables

the supplier

of the lining meets

be sure that Chlorinated

installed

manufacthe Dow from

polyethylene (Plaquemines, laminate Company, of data from

resistance LA). chemical CO. PVC sheet Denver, the Dinamit for

available tables

from

Chemical

Company

Polypropylene the Gates Rubber Chemical Chemical Mannheim,

resistance and rubber

are available

resistances resistance

laminate

polypropylene NJ. is available

imported from Braas,

sheets can be obtained

Nobel,

Rockleigh,

polyisobutylene

West Germany. discussed are in general from manufacture, major and chemical sheet rubber covering them are available all of the

The rest of the materials resistance tables manufacturers.

Sheet Linings

97

BIBLIOGRAPHY
The General Chemical Resistance of Various Elastomers. See the 1979 Yearbook of the Los Angeles Rubber Group, Inc., Los Angeles, CA. Protective Linings TechnicalBulletin, Rubber Manufacturers Association, Washington, DC. The Vanderbilt Rubber Handbook, R.T. Vanderbilt Co., Norwalk, CT. Membranes Behind Brick, Walter Lee Sheppard, Jr., Chemical Engineering, May 15, 1972.

ADDENDUM
While adhered this book linings The was in its final for chemical preparation exposures with stage, two film adhered additional types of One

sheet

have come to our attention. rollers to a substrate

is a sheet with, ber-asphalt has been coated sive lap strip tary product

as the exposed with

face, a Tedlar@* primer. only Sheet

to a layer of rubsurface that with an adhepartic-

blend.

sheet is applied an adhesive applied available procedure Though resistance

edges are butted to protect

of Tedlar@ presently

over the joint from and chemical

it. This is a proprie-

one source, which will supply

ulars of the application of this basic material. best overall It is adhered can accept elastomer narrow chemical surface adhesive.

resistance tables upon request. but made entirely has probably the available sheet linings. Hala@ the use this material adhesive,

The second sheet lining

is also a fluorocarbon-Halar@,** quite with expensive, a rubber-type of any of the generally

to the substrate temperatures

and though damage,

of 300F tooled

and above without to accept

of the sheet must be limited strip is heat-sealed

to the 220F

range due to the thermal a weld strip, Full data on the material,

limit of the and then a its installa-

Joints are butted, resistance is available

over the joint.

tion and chemical

from the manufacturer.

TedlarB is a tradename, property of the E.I. duPont Company for a polyvinyl fluoride polymer which is manufactured by casting in a sheet and stretching to orient the molecules. The personnel of the Elastomers Division of that company advise that Tedlar@ has excellent resistance to most inorganic acids, bases and salts, and to many, but by no means all, organic compounds and solvents, especially in the liquid phase. However, some solvents in the vapor phase can slowly diffuse through it. The Sauereisen Cement Co., of Pittsburgh, PA, supplies this sheet under the tradename of Sauereisen #90. **Halar@ is a tradename of the Allied Corporation, Morristown, NJ, for their polytetrafluoroethylene sheet (similar material to duPonts Teflon@,). Allied markets this sheet through its own sales force.

a
Fluid-Applied Membranes

Walter

Lee Sheppard, incorporated

Jr.

C.C. R.M., Havertown,

Pennsylvania

INTRODUCTION One of the three the membrane. ture (substrate) from vital attack components by liquids of chemically-resistant f6 is to protect (or other environment) environment as one that construction to which is

The function

of a membrane

the supporting

strucit is exlife but quite

posed. A true membrane, penetration of the lining. (or gas) tight, slowly, lithic ture trated liquid provide

as used in this paper, is defined liquid chemical is defined or monolithic behind wash. only

as a total

barrier to the

of the anticipated A semi-membrane

for the economic can be penetrated, it, though

only very slowly.

The brickwork liquids

inner liner is almost never liquid through of the brick or monoextremes of heat, from to which the struc-

so that

and gases can penetrate the membrane from

and reach the membrane liner is, therefore, to protect fluid abuse, and from attacks acid contained a total or penetrate with

it. The purpose

mechanical

If the environment very slowly

is exposed sulfuric

the structure barrier.

(as, for instance, concenthen it is not vital that the one through hand, which gas or

in a carbon steel tank), A semi-membrane, very slowly, only

membrane

provide

can diffuse

may be used in such cases to if the sulfuric bedamon the steel substrate at all will quickly

a construction to 30%,

economical

life. On the other of the corrosive of the membrane a total

acid is diluted

then the attack

comes so rapid that age the substrate. is required.3 During

any penetration8r9

In such a case, a true membrane,

barrier to penetration, used true memwas used on con-

the early years of this century, Hot-applied asphalt, 98

the most frequently at least 3/4 thick,

brane was sheet rubber.

Fluid-Applied

Membranes

99

Crete floors, forced with were largely with painted

and in the lining of concrete a layer of hot-applied sulfur.4 unsuccessful or other layers, media

vessels. In the latter Applications to so smooth

case, it was reinto steel a surface and due were conducted years, a numand in sufBecause dif-

of hot asphalt

due to poor adhesion applications,

to the sag caused by cold flow of the asphalt. fluid ber of such materials ficiently fusion imum tection, material thick (permeation) recommended that have been identified, can function rates through thicknesses with different different

Many experiments which if applied

and over the intervening as true membranes.

carefully

effectively

materials

are rarely the same, either of the coatings, the minadequate proObviously, materials there is no one as we can, to-

for the attacking

or for the generic classification of application, the type of material.

in order to obtain

vary considerably is suitable

for all exposures.

The purpose of this paper is to review

for the reader as many gether with methods

types of fluid-applied and of test.

of application

METHODS The would (1)

OF APPLICATION earliest methods of applying fluids as membrane applications, as we

expect,

were: (or squeegee)-used for hot asphalt applications and

Melt and pour

some other similar materials. (2) Brush and mop application-used for hot asphalt. (3) Air spray-used for thinner or better dispersed dispersion coatings for thick paint-type coatings and

or solution The first two material became apparent

coatings. methods were preferred and with because they delivered minimum labor. today the maximum it quickly and watervary greatly

in a minimum that

time frame, mops-though satisfactory

However,

still favored

by roofers

proofers-do in thickness transmit

not deliver

results, for two coating,

reasons. They

due to the patterns found the coating the

of the mop application, which

and the strings from the strings act as wicks and are designed to act primarily for scrubto rough conto apply

mop are frequently through as a barrier against. into

in the finished

the very materials

the coatings

Brushes are better,3 thick paints. 1940s made

but are used today

bing a primer Air vinyl

surface of a substrate

or for applications 195Os, The

crete surfaces of cold-applied sprays were thickly about coatings

Mops are completely and early

prohibited. of the airless

used in the enough this time started finish.

in attempts advent

to act as membranes. more rapidly roller

spray equipment

it possible to spray

a more viscous mathan unia fin-

terial, and so to build film thicknesses In the 195Os, painters by brush or spray. form coats and smoother It is often

and with fewer coats. provides more

using rollers to apply paint more rapidly application rollers are excellent for smoothing

stated that While

ished coat, and may be satisfactory such as steel sheet, they such as concrete where the scrubbing

for application action

on a very smooth

substrate

are not as satisfactory

for application

to rough surfaces

of a brush may better fill the irreg-

100

Corrosion and Chemical Resistant Masonry Materials Handbook

ularities, or perhaps for porous surfaces such as some wood substrates where the impingement pressure of a spray may provide better wetting. Through the 19305 and early 19405, the uses of phenolic and furan mortars had become standard for "acid brick" and much experimenting was done to see if these same resins could be used as barrier coatings (membranes) .Ambient temperature curing agents were used with the mortars, but these were not as effective with resins when used as coatings, due to cure shrinkage and cracking. Glasslined vessels had been in use for some time, and the baking methods of applying glass linings were quickly adapted to phenolic resins. For a short period, furans were also applied in this manner, though such applications are no longer often noted. With the advent of fluorocarbons, this same method of heat curing of spray coatings was successfully applied to them. In the early 19505, the Hercules Powder Company (now Hercules, Inc.) developed a polyether resinous coating sold as Penton@ , that originally showed great promise (though it has since been abandoned) which was applied in this same manner . These additional variations of heat applications appeared about this time: (1) Heating the target material and immersing it in a thick suspension of the coating material, a partially cured fluid resin, or even a thick solution of the resin, so the resin would migrate to the heated object and gel on the hot surface, then be further baked or ambient cured in place. Th is is sti II a favored method of applying vinyl plastisols. (Plastisols are, however. more frequently applied by airless spray.) (2) The Schori Company pioneered hot metal ing of hot metal to the surface of another planned for melting or spraying metals, since been adapted to the application of terials, including sulfur . spraying to apply a coatmetal. Though originally this same procedure has many other coating ma-

(3) As a variation on these methods, the "fluidized bed" was developed. Here, a very finely ground powder of the resinous material is placed in a container and a small volume of air or neutral gas is blown into the bottom of the container to "lift" the powder and keep it floating. Into th is agitated bed, the heated target is inserted so that the resin particles migrate toward and agitate against the hot surface, melt, and fuse to it. This system was successfully used with Penton@ and has since been employed with other resins. We occasionally note applications of coatings by "electrostatic deposition," an approach similar to electroplating of metals, where an electric current is passed through a suspension or solution of the coating material, and the particles of the coating material become electrically charged and are drawn and migrate to the target where they deposit and adhere themselves electrostatically.

Fluid-Applied
FILLERS

Membranes

101

To apply a fluid coating, it is obvious that the material to be used must first be fluidized. This means that it must be melted, dissolved or suspended in something, or be in a partially cured or polymerized fluid state, from which it will, after coating, solidify. Of all the items on earth, only water increases in volume when it goes from the fluid to the solid state. All dissolved materials occupy less space after they have separated out of solution or suspension. All resinous materials used today for coating, as they pass from fluid to solid condition ("cure"), will shrink in varying amounts. Therefore, in all coatings, a shrinkage stress of one type or another builds up as the coatings cure, dry or harden. Various procedures to relieve these stresses, each suited to a particular type of coating, have been developed .but some residual stress will always remain . The more thick and viscous the coating is-the more heavily it is filled with an inert filler--the less will be the shrinkage, the less the stress and, therefore, the greater the resistance to cracking and the longer the life of the coating excluding chemical degradation. Fillers can also add strength-reinforcing-to the coating, and depending on the particle shape, may assist in making the coating a true barrier to fluid penetration (or permeation). Among the many types of fillers in use are: powdered silica, powdered carbon or graphite, powdered resinous material, powdered barytes, nylon and other textile fibers, carbon fibers, glass fibers, and glass flakes. The powdered materials act primarily to reduce shrinkage, though they do also add some strength just as aggregate adds strength to concrete. The fibrous materials add both tensile and flexural strength to the coating. The flakes or platelets of glass, ultrathin, tiny slices of glass, do all these things, but also increase the diffusion resistance, because as the coating is applied and cured, these flakes or platelets orient themselves parallel to the surface that is being coated, and overlap each other. After the coating is cured, for any corrosive that is applied to one surface to pass through the coating to the underside, it must follow a devious path-reaching the surface of a glass flake, following the edge of the flake, and down the edge through the coating to the flake beneath, and then along that surface to the edge of that flake and down to the next flake, and so on. Thus, a true barrier may be attained if the coating is fiakeglass-filled by using a lesser thickness of coating than if the coating is used alone or with another type of filler . Some coating materials, such as epoxies, are "self-leveling." That is, they will flow to the lowest point and end up as a dead flat surface-thick on hollow spots, thinned out over peaks. If they are to be applied to vertical surfaces, either very rapid cures or the addition of some agent to make them "thixotropic" (causing them to hang in place and to prevent running) is necessary. Thixotropy is often attained by the addition of a fumed silica (for instance, Cab-O-Sil@) or by the use of a polar solvent. Plasticizers can be added to brittle or hard resins to make the coating more flexible. Bentonite clay is added to suspensions to assist in preventing settling and/or caking. The addition of any of these filling materials, whether inert fillers, plasticizers, solvents or other modifying agents, will, of course, affect the chemical resistance of a resinous coating. The finished coating formulation does not usually have as good a resistance to certain organic materials, or to strong acids or strong alkalis, as the basic resin before it was modified. Beware of lowered chemical resistance if there is any indication that the coating materials have been modified to improve application.

102

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

Attached might neric The

are two tables to help the reader understand membrane for the liners which, accepted resistances from though use behind generally brickwork. The first methods claimed many for

the wide

variety thought

of of,

possible fluid-applied be considered types, second showing indicates

not commonly of application principal different

is a tabulation

of geof each.

the chemical for either

ones. The

materials author table plication ditions. plicator

for these tables no claim

were collected

sources, and the The application for the apand ap-

can make

completeness

or accuracy.

may serve to guide the reader to those items which

are practical

he had in mind, and the resistance chart to those best suited to his conIn all cases, the designer and user must rely on the manufacturer for specific recommendations and warranties.

Table 8-1:

Application

Data
Baked Coatings

Squeegee

CEZamiC CTFE E-CTFE FEP FEP-Amide PFA Phenolic Plastisol PPS PTFE PTFE-Ceramic substrate PVDP

F. N. Q.

S.

B - Hot Squeegee C - Brush D - Trowel E - Roller F - Air Spray G - Airless Spray II- Hot spray I - Hot Dip J - Fluidized Bed K - Electrostatic I.- Putty ussd to ~~0th H - Reinforcing used N - Primer required on Steel 0 - Primer optional P - Primer required on Concrete Q - Sa.88coat required R - Intermediate coat required S - Finish coat required T - Finish coat optional u - Ambient cure v - mat clxe

F. J. K. N, S, V F. J. K, N, S. V F. J, K. N. S. V F, v F, J, K, N. S. V C. F, G, Q. S, V F, G, I, N.
S,

F, J. K. N. S. V F, K, N. T, V F, N, T, V
F. G,

J, K, N, R, 9, V

w - Application to concrete possible

Fluid-Applied

Membranes

103

AMBIENT CURED COATINGS Acrylic Latex Asphalt Emulsion Asphalt Hot Asphalt Mastics Aliphatic Polyurethane Bituinastic Butyl Ccmentitious Chlorinated Rubber Coal Tar Epoxy EF-Y Epoxy Acrylic Epoxy Asphalt Epoxy Ester Epoxy Phenolic Epocy Phenolic Asphalt Epoxy Polysulfide Epoxy Zinc Fish Oil Based Gilsonite Asphalt High Temp. Silicone Hypalon Inorganic Zinc Silicate Linseed Oil Long Oil Neoprene Nylon Oleoresinous Oil Modified Polyurethane C. E, F, 0, U, W A, C, D. E, F. G, 0, A. A, B, C. D, M. C, D. F.
H. P. M, P. U, N, U, P, U,

W
P, U, W

C, E, F,

G, 0,

C. E, F, G. 0, P. U, W A, C, D, En G, N. P, U, W A, C, D, U, W C, En F, G. U. W A, C, E, M. U, W C, D. E, F, J, K, M, N, 0, P. U. V, W C. E, F, G, K, 0, U, W A, C, E. M, U. W C, E. F, G, K, 0, U, W C, E, F, G, 0, S, U C, E, F. G, 0, U C, D, E, N, P, U, W C, F, G, S, U C. E, F. P, U. W C, E. F. G. 0. P, U, W C. E. F, G, V C. E. F, M, N, P. U, W C, E. F, G, S, U C, E. F, C, E. V, C. E, F, G, U, W G,

u,

W M. N. 0. P. U. V, W

G, L.

I, J, K, V C, B. F. G. U. W C, E, F, G, 0, p, U. W

104

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

AMBIENT CURED COATINGS - Page 2

organic Zinc
Oxirane

C, E. F.

G, S,

polyester

C, E. F. G, U, W F, G. J.
S.

Phenolic Phenolic Alkyd Phosphate Polyester Polyester Epoxy Polyurethane Polyvinyl PVA
Red

C. E. F,

G. U. W

C. E, S. U C. D. E. F,

G,

J, K, L, M, N, 0, P, R, S, U, W

C. D, E. F, G, J, K, L, M, N, 0, P, R. S, U. W C. E. F. 0, P, U, W C, E, F, G, I, J. K. L, N, 0, P, U, V, w C, E, F, G, 0, T, U, W

Leid

C, E. F. G, S, U C. E, F, G, U, W C, E, F, G, U, w C. R. F, G, U. w C, E, F, G. U. w C, E, F, G. U, W C, E, F, G, U, w C, E. F, G, U. w C, E, F, G. U. w C, E, F, G, I, J, K. L, N, 0, P, U, V, W C, E, F, G, U, W C. E. F, G. U. w C, D. E. F, G, J, K. L. M, N, 0, P, R, S, U, W C, E. F, U, W C, E. F, G, U, w C, E, N, U C, E, S, U C. E. S, U

Silicone Acrylic Silicone Alkyd Silicone Epoxy Silicone Polyester Soya Oil Alkyd Styrene Butadiene Tug Oil

Urethane Vinyl Vinyl Acrylic Latex Vinyl Copolymer Vinyl Ester Vinyl Latex Vinyl Phenolic Viton Wash Primer Zinc Chromate

Fluid-Applied

Membranes

705

Table 8-2:

Chemical

Resistance

Guide

1 Acetic acid - 109 and less 10%

R R C

I :/c
/P
N N R R R N N R R R N N R R

I G

zz a e
r t

5 f ii E % 5

B
L

z a
P

B kT I - - - R R N N R R C R N R N R R R R N R R R R R C N R R R R N R R R N N R R R R N R R R N R R R R N R R R N N R R R R N R

r :

a E B D
R R R C C

r d

&

z R C C N N R R R R N R R R Y Y R R R N C N Y Y R R

6
I

- R R C N R R R R C R R R R N R R p. N N N N

C N N
R R C i/C N R R It N N R R N N N N

C N N
N R R

C z/w :/N N
R R R

Acetic acid - about *ccetone Acetate= of alcohols

L/N R
C C R R R R N R R R N N R R

R/C
R N R R R R R R R R N

N N
N R R R R R R R R R R R I:

R R R R R N R R R N R R R N R R N N R R N R R R N R

Aluminum chloride and 5UlfSt.S solurions Aimmnium chloride,nitrate

l/C
R R C R R R C

and sulfatesolutions AnvmniumHydroxide lvnyl alcohol imiline

Barium chloride and sulfide solutions 3arium Hydroxide Boric acid Bromi.?e water Butyric acid Calcium bisulfite, chloride and nitrate solutions Calcium hydroxide to 25% Calcium hypochlorite Carbon tetrachloride acid 10% solution

I/C
R N R R R C N R R R N C R R

L/C

N
R R R N

R C N

R R N R N

w
C N N C N N N

/N

c
R N R

N C
N

Chloracetic Chlorine Chlorine

dioxide water

/N
N N N R R R N R N N N R R R N R

c
N N N R R R I Y P R R R N R

Chlorobenzene Chloroform Chromic acid to 5% Cyanide plating copper solutions

N N R R R R N R R R C R

N N R R R R N R

N N N R R N N R

R R R R R R/C R

Cl
R R R N R

salts, solutions

Ethyl alcohol Ethylene dichloride and sulfate

2/f
N R

N
R

Ferric chloride solutions Hydrofluosilicic Formaldehyde Formic acid GaSOliIlS

acid

R R R

:/ R :/

R R R R

R R R R

R N

R R

R R

R R I( N N C

R N R

c
R R N

c
C C N

:IZNl 4 Zd
C

C/I

106

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

CHEMICAL RESISTANCE GUIDE - page 2.

Green liquor (papermills) Hexane Hydrobromic acid Hydrochloric acid Hydrofluoric acid Hydrogenperoxide .Jet fuel KerDSene lactic acid ta 20% Elagnesium salts solutions naleic acid nethyl alcohol Hethylenechloride Methyl ethyl ketone Milk Nickel salt solutions Nitric acid to 5% Nitrobenzene Oil.5 Animal oils - Mineral Oils - Vegetable Oleic and Oxalic acids Perchloric acid Phenol to 5% Phosphoric acid dilute Picric acid to 10% Wtassium cyanide Potassium hydroxideto 30% Potassium hypechlorite 3% to Potassiumsalt solutions (other sodium chromate Sodium cyanide Sodiumhydroxidetea30\
l

Fluid-Applied

Membranes

107

CHEMICAL RESISTANCE GUIDE - Page 3.

i j
0

P B

4 :: c
R R

Sodium hypochlorite 3% to Sodium salt solutions (other) Srearicacid Sugar (various solutions~ sulfiteliquor (papermills) Sulfur dioxide (vet and dry1 Sulfuricacid dilute Tall oil Tartaricacid To1Uel-M Trichloroethylene wea sOlUtions White liquor (papermills) Wine xy1ene Zinc salt solutions

B N R N R R N R N R N N R

5 i:

i ; : ;

F
N R R R N

I 9 9 c
F

!.
L
R R / R R R R R R N N R R N N R R R -

t/a
R N

c
R

c
R R

c c
R R N R */ N R

n
R R R

c
R R

21

c
R

/
N N II

c
N R R R R R

c
A

R/
R/

R N R

R N R N R R R

R N R

R/
R

NOTE: -

The information surmnarizedin this table is taken from many Sources, including manufacturers' literature. The author can not guarantee it, and suggests that

the user verify, with the manufacturer and by his own tests, the suitability of any coating hc plans to use for exposure to his anticipated environments, prior to application.

REFERENCES
1. 2. 3. 4. Membranes Behind Brick, Walter Lee Sheppard, Jr., Chemical Engineering, Vol. 79, No. 11,pp 122-126 (May 15,1972),Vol.79,No.l3,pp 110-116 (June 12.1972). Chemically ResistantMasonry, Walter Lee Sheppard, Jr., 2nd Ed., pp l-4 (1982). Chemically Resistant Masonry, Walter Lee Sheppard, Jr., cit., pp 14-16. U.S. Patent No. 2.134837, granted 1 Nov. 1938 to Claron R. Payne,on a sandwich of /r+ hot applied sulfur mortars as a reinforcing stiffener between two l/e. layers of hot-applied asphalt. This was succeeded in the 1950s by a reinforcing layer of glass fabric when that material became available. There is a mass of material on sprayed rubber, but perhaps the most useful is the Vanderbilt Rubber Handbook published by the R.T. Vanderbilt Company of New York. The author still finds handy the 9th edition of this work, published in 1948, containing 714 pages including useful tables and index. Current edition-1978.

5.

108

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

6. 7. 8. 9.

Protective Lining Performance, Byron I. Zolin, Chemical Engineering Progress, Vol. 66, No.B,pp 31-37 (August 1970). Natural Rubber Tank Linings, T.E. Saxman, Materials Performance, Vol. 4, No. 10, pp 43-115 (October 1965). The Basics of Membrane Permeation, Robert N. Rickles, Henry Z. Friedlander, Chemica/Engineering,Vol. 73, No.4.p~ 163-168 (April 25.1966). Permeability of Polymers to Gases, Vapors, and Liquids, Alexander Plastics.Vol.43,No. 3,pp 139-150.194-213 (March 1966). Leborits, Modern

Rigid Nonmetallic Membranes

Waiter

Lee Sheppard, Incorporated

Jr.

C.C.R.M., Havertown,

Pennsylvania

As early as the late 1940s. vessels with in place. since rigid structure tem, In that PVC period, there

efforts

were made to inner-line membrane nitric of

steel or concrete such a liner available and below, from that the the acid. But layer sys-

rigid liners made from concentrated was limited

rigid PVC sheet, or to fabricate system 14OF such as 30%

was no other oxidants

could withstand

or chromic This triple expansion plastic,

to service temperatures coefficient of

required

an inner acid-brick many

liner for insulation. of thermal FRP, rigid and is only

each layer of a vastly different developed kind of this

one adjacent, Liners propylene,

problems,

occasionally

seen today. such as polybeing the reto an in

have been fabricated

or even of fluorocarbon

sheets. The use of such inset, prefabricated most common floor-often adjacent

linings has continued acid-brick making there steel. In the last decade precast and preformed concretes,

off and on over the years-the surfaced continuous floor

cessing of a small stainless steel vessel in a concrete or monolithic not the membranes

area. Obviously, 45,

there are problems

in such construction,

and the best approach, 15. The procedure

even though indicated

a cure-all,

is given in Chapter

Drawing

is, of course, applicable and a half, gutters in very is quick

to all rigid inserts, and not just stainless manufacturers dimensions, have started to market which the user may note

various limited

or trench

sections of various plastics and polymer from wastes. The stated advantage of but the user should and unless the

unfortunately

assemble a trench that joints between

or gutter

to handle

chemical

the use of such materials

and easy assembly,

these components

are not always liquid-tight,

109

110

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

unit is completely

assembled on the bank prior to placement, are available or vinyl from a number

it cannot

be tested,

and the user has no assurance that it will not leak. Units of this type tured from a polyester also on the market. ran castable. flange-a shown of sources, usually manufaca few epoxy structures are a fuas of an ester resin, although items rarely

At least one vendor off-the-shelf

is casting such units to order from membrane

The standard,

have a top circumferential system, make the provision masonry, (1)

necessity if they are to be mated with an adjacent in the drawing designer joint must (or cited above, and the buyer of purchase. keep in mind that should

such a flange a condition The expansion joint,

for chemically-resistant joint), is only effective

expansion/contraction (2) bonded of material

if it is

placed over a membrane,

to or fully

pressed against the sides of the can take place without through the masonry this type totally (which asphalt opening and back

and (3) if it is composed

soft enough to compress, or designed

in such a manner that movement a passage for hot gases or liquids to the whether bed. Concrete designers expansion of asphalt materials as suitable composed

in the masonry to pass directly joint fillers. chemical

have long considered Actually, or any other

board and similar of materialunsuitable and it does not for

substance-is resistance

unacceptable. be bonded

Even if it had adequate this type of material

most exposures), of chemicals.

is not elastic, is hard to compress,cannot

to the sides of the joint,

and is not any barrier at all to the intrusion

10 Hot Asphalt

Walter

Lee Sheppard, Incorporated

Jr.

C.C.R.M.,

Haverto wn, Pennsylvania

Hot of

asphalt

applications and surfacing the

to prevent materials. in many up to to wished

chemical

attack

are probably and from refining

the oldest ponds times, then

all coatings have bottom ways, With

As a natural bring protect. were from is not should runs out

occurrence,

asphalt earliest of were

and deposits natives spread still in similar

have been found heated they

parts of the world With occurring the

asphalt similar of

it to a flowable asphalts,

consistency,

it on surfaces residues,

petroleum employed coal procif cases, not not to prishould hot asThe to ket-

to naturally coal oil

and being waste products, product-bitumen-became bitumen care asphalt asphalt formulation. manufacture, around the asphalt, instance, and hot should

less expensive coke-making Though identical,

to use. and other useful for many,

the development

essing, a similar not mix compatible them. mer, nor with For

available. be taken not before

all, of the same purposes,

and in many

in chemical

services a bitumastic

be used with

if the supply with

of hot

a job is completed, and application materials of

it be finished phalt chief prevent tles from might phalt should burn, When not

a bitumen covering primarily

Specifications are written purpose water which terproofing

selection surfacings bulk

highway vast in roofing

and the roofing

and wa-

industries, of the

in which application

of these

are used. is obviously in gas-fired

and waterproofing is melted with the mops. this type contains and spread always membrane asphalt

penetration. messy,

In such work, in buckets unpleasant

the asphalt

it is withdrawn

This is, as one of an asasphalt of work.

guess, very employed

work-with chemical the still,

possibility

but it is still the least expensive as a liquid-tight As it comes from be used.

way to handle

seal, ordinary

a lot of unsatu-

111

112

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

rated carbonaceous

compounds, products

which that

when

exposed

to oxidizing saturated molecules is attained.

chemicals asphalt.

or In

gases can react to form have as good resistance ment Light at the refinery, fractions softening

are brittle

and can crack. blown in the are driven

Neither

does it

to otherchemicals and all unsaturated solvents D-36)

as does fully bonds

order to resolve this matter,the

asphalt is oxidizedor in the mix

by an extra treateliminated. a ball standThis All asphalt off until a weight

or low boiling point (ASTM This means that

and ring

of 210-23OF

has cold flow. On vertical amount ambient selected, months shrink not 230F ing point.

even at ambient

temperatures,

ing on it will very slowly surfaces,

sink into it, extruding to cold flow point, if a material brittle, Such rise.

the asphalt under it to all sides. under its own weight.

it can sag over a period of time,

of cold flow or tendency temperatures. the asphalt as they However,

is, of course, related to the softento cold flow at point is during winter asphalt, voids and will exists. with too high a softening experienced apart,

The higher the softening we may find that become

the less the tendency

at the lower temperatures perhaps crack and pull

may become cool) system.

and (since all things, especially creating that a crack, or break in the

leaks in the membrane reseal when softening softness point,

membrane

temperatures

Experience

has shown

at the 210-

the best compromise of the asphalt matrix

between

these two extremes and related

Lastly, the asphalt should be free of any kind of filler. The tion. point following requirement and weight, (texture) is a secondary unfilled consideraby simply Although (ASTM a quite C-36) under satisfactory asphalt may be obtained

the requirements ASTM

that it be oxidized,

asphalt with softening the matrix asphalt

2 1 O-230F , some users like to add to this a penetration D5. This test is run by holding dropping the depth of penetration. upon it a needle of prescribed dimensions

at a prescribed

temperature,

and measuring

If it is desired to run this

test, the following At 115F-50 At 77F-100 At 32F--200 Percentage 75 Ibs. Experience asphalt has proven dissolved taining

are acceptable g weight g weight g weight needle, needle,

results: in 5 seconds, less than 7.0 mm in 5 seconds, 3.5-4.5 mm mm 65-

needle, in 60 seconds, 2.5-3.5 soluble in C&-not

of material

less than 97% weight/ft3,

has also shown

that

to obtain solution

an adequate The cheapest,

bond

between

hot

and the substrate,

a primer

is required.

and also the best, asphalt, or run, to The to be stock con-

to be an asphalt in a high flash and allowed

cutback-a

of the same matrix from a related

one with only a slightly a minimum

lower softening solvent to dry

point from the same or a compatible in solution. This primer is applied

fraction-preferably until

of 10% of the asphalt

the substrate hot melted strength

all the solvent fraction surface, melting

has evaporated, and joining cannot

leaving the asphalt asphalt

residue on the surface and in the pores of the substrate. is then applied yielding If properly to the primed applied, a bond to the surface much exceeding the hot asphalt coating

the residue remaining, of the asphalt. pulled off.

the tensile

Hot Asphalt

713

This type inner major injury lined repairs,

of membrane acid-brick.

is especially Tanks

effective

as a lining for concrete have served well, installation, injury

vessels, without it has alexternal In pickling in a

with

so constructed

for 20 years and more. When repairs have been required, been due to inadequate, careless or improper or to mechanical of the concrete) attempts failed hot asphalt

most always the early Without

(such as cracking with

internally.

years of this century, exception, poor such tanks installation

were also made to construct and acid-brick periods of time,

tanks of steel plate, few months, for obvious

membranes in short

inner linings. sometimes Except surof the is

by internal

acid penetration techniques, sound bond

of the hot asphalt

membrane.

these failures were due to the fact that does not offer a satisfactory Due, perhaps, the quality to the asphalt. to oils or

steel, no matter face to obtain lubricants adhesion in others, sound, phalt either

how well-cleaned a uniform,

and primed,

included lightly.

in the surface, perhaps some other factors, varies over the surface. above, cold flow increasing slight or nonexistent. As noted slowly Where

of the asphalt

In some spots, it bonds tightlyoccurs. Where the bond the bond is weak, the aspulls to

the sag is very

pulls loose or stretches, Asphalt

the drag on the tightly

anchored

areas next to them.

does not stretch very well and in a short time,

apart or cracks between make

the areas of tight bond and poor bond. Acid then penefind a hole in the steel with the user is warned tank. no membrane directly

trates to the steel at those points and burns a hole. When bricks are removed repairs, we invariably of it. Consequently, in front membrane

never to rely on a hot asphalt

to line a steel (or other metal)

SUITABLE

SUBSTRATES above, hot asphalt surface. upon. may be supplied timber, successfully masonite to concrete. or other It

As noted may board,

also be applied

to properly

prepared

cement

or any absorbent

Its bond to most plastics, as to steel, is erratic,

and should not be depended

APPLICATION Concrete (or other defined unfilled, suitable substrate) to receive a hot asphalt membrane of the same or stiff

must be clean, dry, and free of curing oils and from The primer, or a compatible, fraction, brush permit should (roller oxidized into asphalt

release compounds. in a high flash petroleum with a broom and allowed to dry to

in the first part of this paper as a cut-back dissolved the concrete surface

be scrubbed

or spray

application

is not recommended) This usually have become takes about faint.

the solvent to evaporate.

3 to 4 hours, at which If the black color coat of primer in which the

time the odor of the solvent will of the asphalt fades away, is necessary. The manufacturer or becomes

This leaves a black deposit

in the pores and on the surface of the concrete. gray, the concrete shipped

is porous, and another paper cartons

Repeat until the surface remains black. is usually in the open-end will have cast it as it was taken from the still. The cartons are laid

asphalt

114

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

on their phalt

sides, split with kettle.

an axe, and the paper cartons paper. The lumps of asphalt had previously material,

removed,

leaving the asinto or waterbefore material

without

any adhering

are then dumped cleaned

the asphalt proofer the asphalt can destroy a wood-fired ently

If the kettle molten

been used by a roofer or different

or for any other

it must be completely

is put into it. The presence of any incompatible the effectiveness of this type of membrane. overheating, kettles, asphalt with pot was used to prevent gas (or oil) heated to 390F, The temperature smoking

In the 1930s and 194Os, and fires. The presburners, are There about the middle temperature. it, keeping the pot controllable

available

satisfactory. should full,

of the melt should be controlled 36OF being a good pouring stirring

of the range 320F monitoring

be a man on the pot at all times, occasionally the temperature, be kept and making certain

that no lumps of unmelted from wind. If the asphalt

asphalt are poured out in any of the pails carried to the applicators. The pot should under cover and shielded any air from asphalt should catch fire, turn off the burners, cloths or sacking to prevent the flames. Under These will chemicals contaminate the work. the no circumstances place the cover on the pot, and apply wet reaching the asphalt. chemical thoroughly All asphalt This will smother be used. by such touched should extinguishers cleaned

and the area.

must be discarded

and all equipment

prior to prothe flames The asphalt has evapoforce and to

ceeding with

Water must not be used. It will not extinguish of water from until of water asphalt rain drops will cause foaming. all foaming into from nearby. the melting material cut from a handle stops and all water steam with explosive

and even small amounts must then be heated rated. Larger amounts melted splash hot burning Pails of the the mechanic lated who

and stirred

can flash are drawn

asphalt over anyone is to apply

pot and carried (wearing or other from

it to the concrete. usually

The mechanic masonite

insufloor cethe

gloves) or his helper board,

pours out the molten 18

on the concrete tapered

and spreads it out, ment/fiber contact contact surface. squeegee helper squeegee, the wall, in two

using a squeegee, approximately

long by 6 to 8 wide, 45 to form The molten

edges into the top on about

at the top. material

The long shiny the it up

face should also be cut to a 45angle. To apply it to a vertical the wall, surface, at the

is swept from

side to side by the squeegee until is held against towards coating very fluid

it cools and hardens, bottom where

leaving a smooth,

such as the straight wall of a tank, the it joins the floor, rapidly carries

pours the hot melt

on the center of the squeegee, and as it runs along the Melted material runs off both sides of the squeegee the mechanic puddle catchit toto coated,

the ends of the squeegee, the mechanic the surface. streams. As all the melt and toward

runs off the squeegee, the area he previously

finishes his upward ing the melt ward and sweeping solidified. running

sweep, and at once dips the squeegee into the melted down the wall, worked. from smoothing out the run, and carrying

at one side and sweeps upward, the area previously the melt upward

He repeats the movement side of the squeegee, the center from

at once, spreading and continues

the other

sweep the material He then

and toward

both sides until it has all the entire

moves to one side and repeats this process until

wall has been covered. A roofer

If the wall is curved, the squeegee should be cut to match if he tries to bid this work, or a general contrac-

the curve when held flat and level against the wall at 45. or waterproofer,

Hot Asphalt

115

tor unfamiliar absolutely squeegee without spraying

with

it, will want They properly fluid through

to use mops to make this application. shed strings into the melt, membrane from will yield a smooth, the asphalt done, cleaner

Mops are act as

prohibited. application, bubbles

invariably

which

wicks and transmit

face to back. The surface, Hot method.

pinhole-free should area. try may

or blemishes, entire/y

than any other

application

is also barred.

If mops turn

up on a site, all work or roofer to the

be stopped to bid this When be should

until they are removed Occasionally work, though this occurs, advised that and that proofing, points, of

from the site, not just the work a waterproofer always belonged

on large jobs, it has traditionally

brickmasons. contractor

if a jurisdictional such disputes Councils

dispute have always

arises, the masonry

in the past been settled acidproofing, until

in Washington,

the Trades

have agreed that melt is continued At this point,

as against waterover any high

belongs without

question

to the brickmasons. a thickness, a layer of asphalt-impregnated pressed into it using paint workers can use Experienced

Application glass fabric

of the hot

l/s has been attained. is laid over the asphalt Wrinkles

layer and carefully must be avoided.

rollers to iron it smooth. long sections of fabric, or just learning, procedure. 2 applying When asphalt should

a yard or a meter wide. Those doing it for the first time, be advised to use short pieces until they get used to the they will put wrinkles into the fabric the layers. Edges of all fabric them from coming a thickness sheets should be lapped loose or protruding. a second l/s of hot for the the of %I. For floors, this is However, be encountered,

If they do not do this carefully, small amounts tightly

and lumps into the following layers together

of hot asphalt at the laps when needed to cement glass fabric providing for is completed,

and to prevent

the layer of asphalted over the fabric, thickness and tanks, thickness finished

is applied

the accepted normally

a hot asphalt a hydrostatic

membrane. head will

lining of trenches accepted

where

is 3/s, and a second layer of glass fabric

and a third

layer of hot asphalt should be applied.

GAUGING The thickness

THICKNESS mechanic applying the hot asphalt is also responsible the required provide marked for gauging the full %I. He must with a off with a file himself

to be sure that

he actually

has applied

gauge his work

as he progresses, the point

and to do this must he has previously

gauge. The simplest along with on the melt. brane.

is a large nail that

r/s, % and 3/s from

of the nail. This he carries in his overall pocket he has applied a sufficient thickness, more hot mem(or 1/4 or 3/s, depending he must apply in the asphalt

a piece of chalk. When he thinks on which he is working)

he can sound the coating with the nail. If the fig mark layer is not covered, As he withdraws

his gauge, he leaves a hole behind uniformity, circling

He circles the hole at once with the piece of chalk, to determine with the next step-more the flame

and tests several other or perhaps the fin-

areas for thickness fore proceeding ish of the job-the torch masons trowel

the holes in each case. Be-

melt or glass fabric, to yellow.

test holes must be sealed. To do this, he takes a small propane He places the tip of his brickclose to the hole, and plays the flame of

and lights it, adjusting

against the membrane,

116

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

the torch

on the

middle

of the trowel.

As the heat travels to the tip, he carefully works the melted

it starts material

to soften the asphalt, ure of the membrane

and as this happens, and chemical

to close and seal the test hole.

Failing to perform penetration

this step will result in the fail-

of the substrate.

INSPECTION

AND

REPAIR in the surface of hot asphalt When (opened) applying the membranes hot asphalt, are not acceptthe mechanic

Blisters or bubbles able as they paths exist indicate in the

that air is in the membrane membrane. more material

and in voids, and perhaps liquid If one appears in the in the same manis applied over the inside by

should never apply surface, it should

over a blister or bubble. and the cavity If more hot liquid

be broken

repaired

ner that the gauging holes were repaired. hole without subsequent repairing

it, the air in the hole will expand this will

as it is trapped

the next hot layer, and a blister will appear at the same spot in the new layer. As layers are applied, quite likely repeat again and again, until at the finish to the substrate. If this is the in which the of eight of the application, case, the hole will gauging there exists a hole clear through and that

be too great to repair in the manner area may have to be cut-a

hole was repaired,

matter

to ten square inches-and in which the original You may wonder

each layer will have to be repaired was applied.

in the same manner

material what

the source of these bubbles or blisters may be. Blisor air. If the substrate inside the concrete, transmitted In either possible is at all portoo deep to

ters are caused by one of two things-water ous, it contains see. When causes the tle. the hot asphalt is applied,

air. Or there may be some water the heat, or the water

into the concrete, case, it tries to essource is the kethas not stirred has just useda

air to expand

to vaporize. An alternative

cape, and in doing so, causes bubbles. it all out, some foam power mixer, may have gotten

If a few drops of rain get into the kettle, is spread, a bubble by hand, membrane too much

and the pot tender formed.

into the pail the mechanic

and as this hot material into the applied

If the pot is stirred with A few random

or even vigorously hot asphalt without

the surface can trap air which can get blisif there are more than one another apand

in the same manner. trouble-but

ters can be repaired Where plication as water

per square foot this problem the bubbles of hot asphalt or air is present. with will

should be corrected again expand applications

before proceeding. in the substrate, or air in the substrate

are caused by air or water

the water

again cause blisters. terial before removing area thoroughly and there the surface with

Repeated

will continue

to cause blisters as long is to dry the

It is, therefore,

a waste of time to apply more hot maThe best procedure or both. If time does not permit, it may be possible to seal epoxy, and then in

the source of the trouble. heat or with a dessicant

is not a great deal of moisture a concrete

or air present,

sealer, such as an amide-hardened either after an injury

apply the primer In making service, or after up before

and hot asphalt over this. a repair of the membrane, removal asphalt of unsound around to the lining (blistered) membrane a torch material, to warm always flash and soften it

the cold hardened placing

the repair with

new hot material,

so that the new may blend in with the old.

Hot Asphalt

117

Always material

lap any directly and to the

new the of it.

cloth

over

the old

in the membrane. this can trap blisters. over in more

Never more Instead, the bare

pour

new hot the melt

on the new bare spot

void melt, and

area, because resulting spread

air between place the spot,

bare spot adjacent

it sideways

pushing

the air in front

LIMITATIONS Hot tection. and picked to when asphalt However, exposed asphalt floors. membranes to warm, are excellent moving, behind they contained In warm can stick it should brick or other can be damaged liquids asphalt traffic will mechanical can often in damage probe both memAs brick

even at low temperatures, the liquid. Asphalt

mechanically, rut or other-

up and contaminate floors.

weather, not

wise damage shoes and The noted floor sults especially under brane.

to shoes resulting

Consequently, for

be used as unprotected should flow. not be exceeded.

3/4 dimension hot the asphalt into if unreinforced, load

membranes membranes heavy traffic,

on floors have cold

earlier,

In thicker loads,

dimensions, This rethe load,

or standing causing around

can push the laterally. bearing

the membrane, pressure bond between However, over

it to extrude the brick brick,

in a balancing the floor. or other

vertical

upwards

and a shear stress on the to rupture Committee standing

the adjacent most

and has been known agreed by ASTM agree that not exrises. should designers

Load limitations authority. floor

have never a /4 hot

been formally experienced membrane

loads on a brick

asphalt

ceed 25 psi at ambient

temperature,

lesser pressures

as the temperature

REINFORCING In the fabric 193Os, layer hot asphalt membranes However, /s thick plasticized layers were in 1940, of usually a patent mortar decade, unreinforced. No glass and

had yet layer on From

been developed. of hot in this time to of between two

was issued on the use as a reinforcing asphalt. this design glass fabric (See the was the availhas been fabric

of a /a thick stiffening chapter one able. the fluoric most

applied book.)

sulfur

hot-applied

Sulfur frequently that

For the following in vessel linings-until except where

followed

glass fabric acid fluorides or carbon

became

the present, reinforcement In those

asphalt-impregnated a polyester reinforcement

standard

method

and hydrofiber

acid are involved.

exposures,

may be utilized.

(See the section

on membrane

for details.)

OTHER For the pipe sewer

APPLICATIONS almost 100 vitrified

OF HOT ASPHALT years, clay hot asphalt much has been employed sanitary as a joint filler for in

bell-and-spigot

pipe used to construct Waste section

sewers. The joints for clay industrial

are assembled

and poured

in the way described of this book.

lines in the

Industrial

Where used for this pur-

7 18

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

pose,

the

fabric

caulk

is usually point

waste

wool

(or

oakurn)

impregnated

with has

cresol or a similar been employed bell-and-spigot Many with vent truded weather, freeze Crete. fluid

preservative,

and the hot asphalt However, waste line. seal, poured

need be neither

an oxidized a leaking

nor a high softening joint

material.

in a few

cases, hot asphalt

as an external unfilled

in a pouch

secured around

in an industrial joints of

In such use, the higher softenfloors were frequently is recommended. expands etc. filled If exin hot shrinks can the conand

ing point oxidized years hot asphalt,

asphalt is recommended. in concrete used as a space filler in void areas to preapplications when the structure with rainwater, which

ago, expansion Neither when damage)

and it was sometimes

penetration. it stays extruded expansion

these

by the two

sides of a closing joint, the weather or with

cools off, and the structure can attack

back to its old size, leaving a void to be filled causing

(which

chemicals

In any case, the bond of hot asphalt applied even without little value. expansion or contraction

in this manner

is negligible

of the substrate,

this kind of seal is of

COLD

ASPHALT

APPLICATIONS of two water) they general types have been available brittle, coating. for decades. Asphalt As-

Asphalt

putties (with

phalt emulsions are also available solvent. engineers Coatings

have often

been used to coat the tops and outsides coatings Both with or softened under with a pertroleum brittle. where safety

of steel stacks, where

dry to a hard, often of this type

in which the asphalt is extended and putties been used as membranes

are less likely to become brickwork

types have occasionally the use of hot asphalt. The user should fied or extended tally this evaporation or cavities where tiny molecules do through coating trapped any away, with until the water

have been concerned remember, a solvent, or solvent

that there may be safety hazards connected however, present that when a barrier made from remains through material

is emulsitoand when

the coating that diffuse Further,

it does not solidify evaporates, has tiny especially

in the formulation behind

occurs, the structure the water like HCI, can slowly

pores, holes those with can not or they

or solvent was, and chemicals, if the brickwork

it-something

the dense hot asphalt.

covers this type of

or membrane in it. If water destroying

too soon, some of the water remains so that the emulsion can cause the asphalt If solvent remains,

or solvent will be blocked does not harden completely, to reemulsify

water-borne

chemicals the barrier.

and so wash

the membrane

can rather easily

be penetrated, Asphalt These include has been used as a major component epoxy-asphalts (much some of which They due to their in many coating formulations. and urethane-asphalts. are the most higher in and are howused in refineries)

Of these the urethane-asphalts, satisfactory temperature reasonably ever, they acids. Fluid substitutes good

are true copolymers, freedom from

for hot asphalt.

can be used at exposures cold flow, and solvent

than can hot asphalt barriers. can be penetrated, (cold) applied

Like the asphalt though membranes

emulsions

putties,

at a much slower

rate, by small molecule in this volume.

are discussed elsewhere

Hot Asphalt
ADDITIONAL Asphalt pharmaceutical flooring for NOTES is a culture companies drug houses, medium for many molds, especially those produced this type

719

by of

as antibiotics. the engineer Other

Therefore, should

in designing whether

and specifying

determine

drug is to be manufactured
membranes service are furan-glass Sometimes vious with rectly years ago, Robert thin containing waste. (liquid-tight) fabric

in the area under design. If the answer is yes, asphalt types of membranes (most frequently an asphalt that are suitable for this used) and PVC sheet. with an imperMore than twenty solventsoftened membranes to reinforce layer rather (Kynar@),

should be avoided. it is desirable reinforcing sheets

membrane

than glass fabric. the purpose

Pierce obtained

a patent on reinforcing

hot asphalt membranes being to handle

fluorocarbon

This design has had mixed was exposed

results. The top asphalt surface, di-

under the brick, joints

to the solvents and rather quickly For floor application,

and damaged. Therefore, quate, Where membrane free, top

The fluorocarbon

sheet is lapped at the edges rather than welded. this design is often adewet exposure. it appears imthat under a liquid head in continuously is so extensive it is fed from a subsurface by ignoring

may be penetrated.

but it is rarely acceptable moisture it, or where and then sheet, then

(or air) in the substrate be attained laying lapping laying

possible to eliminate layer of hot asphalt, plasticized of it. The PVC wrinkles

source, a satisfactory in the first thin pinholeout all on re-

can sometimes

the blisters

over this layer a 6 to 12 mil thick all edges 2 or more, another l/s thick plastic stiffer and rolling

and air bubbles,

layer of hot asphalt sheets yields mixed

use of visqueen

and other

sults due to poor bond to both asphalt and mortar, out air pockets and wrinkles. The following as a membrane derived from for its accuracy. Table 16-l: Hot Asphalt Membranes Chemical Resistance Table

and the difficulty

of working

is based on the use of hot asphalt masonry cannot inner liner. lt iS assume responsibility

when

used with

a chemically-resistant

a number

of sources and the author

Reinforced

with Glass Fabric

R = Recommended Key: C = Conditional * = Reinforce with polyester or carbon cloth, Membrane Temperature 80F 14OF C C C R R R R R R R R N R C N N R R R R R C R R N R

N = Not recommended not with glass cloth.

Chemical Acetaldehyde Acetic acid, up to 10% Acetic acid, glacial Alum Aluminum chloride Aluminum nitrate Aluminum sulfate Ammonium chloride Ammonium hydroxide Ammonium nitrate Ammonium sulfate Amy1 acetate Amyl alcohol

Chemical Aniline Aqua regia Barium chloride Barium hydroxide Barium nitrate Barium sulfide Benzene Benzenesulfonic acid, 10% Benzoic acid Boric acid Bromine water Butyl acetate

Temperature 1405 80F N N R R R C N R R R N N N N R R R N N R R R N N

120

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

Chemical Butyl alcohol Butyric acid Cadmium chloride Cadmium nitrate Cadmium sulfate Calcium bisulfite Calcium chloride Calcium hydroxide Calcium nitrate Carbon disulfide Carbon tetrachloride Chlorine dioxide, water solution Chlorine gas, dry Chlorine gas, wet Chlorine water Chloroacetic acid, 10% Chlorobenzene Chloroform Chromic acid, up to 5% Chromic acid, 10% Chromic acid, 20% Chromic acid, 50% and over Citric acid Copper chloride Copper nitrate Copper sulfate Dichloroacetic acid, 10% Dichlorobenzene Diethyl ether Ethyl acetate Ethyl alcohol Ethyl sulfate Ethylene chloride Ethylene glvcol Fluosilicic acid* Formaldehyde Formic acid Gasoline Glycerine Gold cyanide Hexane Hydrobromic acid Hydrochloric acid Hydrocyanic acid Hydrofluoric acid* Hydrofluosilicic acid* Hydrogen peroxide Hydrogen sulfide gas,

Membrane Temperature 80F 140F R N R R R R R N R R R R R C R N N N R C C N N N C C C N R R R R N N N N R N N R C C N N R R N R R R C C C R R R R R

Chemical Isopropyl ether Kerosene Lactic acid Lead acetate Lead nitrate Linseed oil Magnesium chloride Magnesium hydroxide Magnesium nitrate Magnesium sulfate Maleic acid Mercuric acetate Methyl acetate Methyl alcohol Methyl ethyl ketone Methyl sulfate Mineral oil Mineral spirits Muriatic acid Nickel chloride Nickel nitrate Nickel sulfate Nitric acid, up to 5% Nitric acid, 20% Nitric acid, 40% Nitric acid, 50% and over Nitrobenzene Oleic acid Oxalic acid Perchloric acid Phenol Phosphoric acid Phosphorous acid Phosphorous trichloride Phthalic acid Picric acid Potassium bicarbonate Potassium carbonate Potassium chloride Potassium cyanide Potassium ferricyanide and ferrocyanide Potassium hydroxide, up to 30% Potassium hydroxide, 30% and over Potassium nitrate Potassium sulfate Pyridine Rochelle salt Salicylic acid Silver nitrate Sodium acetate Sodium bicarbonate Sodium carbonate Sodium chloride

Membrane Temperature 140F 80F N N R R R N R R R R R R N R N N N N R R R A R R N N N C R N N R R R R N R R R R R R C R R N R R R R R R R N N R R R N R R R R C R N R N N N N R R R R R C N N N N R N N R R R R N R R R R R C N R R N R R R R R R R

R
R

R
N N N R R C N N N R R C N R R R R N N N N R N N R C C C N R R N R R R C C C R R R R R

dw
Hydrogen sulfide gas, wet Iron chloride Iron nitrate Iron sulfate

Hot Asphalt

121

Chemical Sodium cyanide Sodium hydroxide, up to 30% Sodium hydroxide, 30% and over Sodium hypochlorite, up to 3% Sodium hypochlorite, 15% and over Sodium nitrate Sodium sulfate Sodium sulfide Sodium sulfite Sodium thiosulfate Soya oil Stearic acid Sulfur dioxide gas,dry Sulfur dioxide gas, wet Sulfur trioxide gas, dry Sulfur trioxide gas, wet

Membrane Temperature 80F 14OF R R C C N R R C R R N C R R R R R C N C N R R C R R N N R R R R

Chemical Sulfuric acid, up to 50% Sulfuric acid, 80% Sulfuric acid, 93% Sulfuric acid, over 93% Sulfuric acid, fuming Sulfurous acid Tannic acid Tartaric acid Tin chloride Tin sulfate Toluene Trichloroethylene Trisodium phosphate Tung oil Urea Xylene Zinc chloride Zinc nitrate Zinc sulfate

Temperature 80F 14OF R C N N N R R R R R N N C N R N R R R R N N N N R R R R R N N N N R N R R R

Some with have above. viding trenches the water There membrane hot been it over

safety asphalt, many

engineers although centuries efforts to for These

have become very that few

obsessed

with

fears of safety

problems to as a there

injuries cold and

or accidents asphalt putties

have been traceable As a result, for have but hot asphalt

the several material.

it has been used industrially. their limitations such putties liquid head, are put

substitute materials floor

membrane they

been discussed usable profor all out. before

As a membrane are never pits. has dried is no system. and

installations, if asphalt they

are often in service for

subject

to a standing

less frequently be washed a hot

Remember, out real equivalent

emulsions can reemulsify

of them,

and may

or economical

replacement

asphalt

REINFORCING Since branes flooring type points tured the late

FABRICS 194Os, they

FOR

ASPHALT

MEMBRANES in asphalt brick, about memboth the in for this only

glass fabric

has been used as reinforcing in association vessels. that the the with industry glass fabric yard acid and No absolute

where

have been installed lining have of concrete been have

and in the of general with threads You with

specifications must

of glass cloth

set up within been a weight

agreement

be manufacmust then as that company be to

of a loose twist, containing

per square through

of 3 oz or less, and asphalt chemical

an open weave. saturated be used for

must be able to see light For probably

it. The fabric

a liquid complete Strength Strength

the same, or a compatible, 40 years, one major specification:

the membrane.

has used, with

success, the following with with warp fill

92 psi 64 psi

122

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

Weight Weight Thread Thread A cloth major to conform but with that

uncoated coated count gauge

1.33 oz/yd= 2.20 oz/yd= 24 per inch each way 0.0035 purchases Type fabric, inches thick a lighter Federal asphalt-impregnated Specification 4666. for chemis that It

manufacturer/supplier to ASTM D1668-73, for roofing

I, and

These are specifications ical service; turer III, phalt impregnated with is important has reported an organic

not intended problems. with upon

by the writers requirement, Type coal-tar

since the adoption no delaminations asphalt; asphalt, pitch Type and resin selected not

of this purchasing or other and agreed coal-tar, II is impregnated

the manufacpitch, and Type since as-

I material

by vendor

and purchaser.

be used as an impregnant

and coal-tar

are not always

compatible.

Here are the details Average Thread Fill Average Tensile weight strength dry weight count

of this specification: 1.4 oz/yd= (25.4 20 f 20 mm of width)

per inch

Warp threads impregnated

1 minimum
minimum both

24 _+ 1 maximum 24 + 1 maximum 3.0 oz/yd* directions the strength of the warp maximum

* 1 minimum

2.0 oz/yd2

75 psi minimum,

*May be 10 (11) to 12 (;I thread.

1 if each thread

is double

When fluorides stainless

the (such

asphalt

membrane should than

is to

be used pickling that

in an exposure solution the polyester

involving tank

acid for

as a nitric-hydrofluoric the designer rather

in a pickling fabric

steel),

specify the above

given above

be used for reinforcing

glass cloth.

11 Fired Glass and Porcelain as Membranes

Waiter

Lee Sheppard, Incorporated

Jr.

C.C. R.M., Havertown,

Pennsylvania

For much liquids

of recorded primarily

history

glass containers

have been employed sizes.

to hold

of all kinds,

chemicals,

and for by fragility

the manufacture and by available

of acids and salts. Their to fire on metal thicknesses attack surto

use has been limited

Over the past century, faces, glass and porcelain be a liquid-tight tained thermal long liquids. economical they Satisfactory age is limited ally and mild barrier to

techniques in suitable protect abuse. the

have been developed formulations the substrate from

and in adequate chemical

by con-

In such composite mechanical service could repairs to small over

structures, Reactors and years,

the glass is better have been

able to withstand have given in sizes if the damusu-

made in such a manner manufactured from glass.

larger than

have been if made entirely of damaged areas, either When damage any necessary advantages externally. and fired. of glass-lined Jacketed heating heat glass linings is extensive, repairs

have been possible, of tantalum lining the fired

by the insertion

plugs, or by the is removed,

use of resin mortars. by sandblasting, is applied One of the heat the (or cool) contained in masonry-lined efficient lined formula with glass lining

are made in the steel shell, and a new steel reactors obviously is not desired, is the ability are not circulation to of

principal the unit media while

reactors

possible The co6 and 8 thick

equipment, through

so if internal an external

exchanger

is necessary. steel

of heat transfer a fired

through

the wall of an allglass of heat transfer 98 and 123, is between

vessel is between through depending

Btu/hr/ft/F/in, and firing

the coefficient

11/16

glass lining of the glass.

on the type,

123

124

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

Though metal cept Very limit cepted best resistance

there

are many

variant chemicals.

formulations In general,

for

the glass frit types appear

used to coat to offer the vessels can acof 35OF. increases, thermal damage

surfaces,

at this

time the amorphous

borosilicate

to corrosive

such glass-lined

all acids except mild alkalis is 212F. but acceptable

HF and acid fluorides temperature water

up to a surface Thus,

temperature As alkalinity temperatures,

can also be handled Deionized limit can,

at this temperature. especially neutral at high point

maximum

decreases. near the

at pH 12, the normal

glass linings, If the borosilicate, pH ranges. glass-lined ium, gallium clean so that tamination Why,

salt solutions is shifted

of the pH scale can be acthan the amorphous in the extreme Thus, crystalline and dependsuch as selen-

up to the 35OF glass type there Higher

of acid solutions. to crystalline in chemical may, however, glass rather resistance, primarily

is a decrease temperatures

be accepted. molten glass-lined reduced

vessels can handle environmental to the

molten conditions,

salts up to the even some noted, is greatly temperature

lOOOaF range, metals,

ing on other

and zinc at temperatures other down-time with between eliminated. such excellent anyone

as high as 145OF. vessels are easy to and interbatch con-

In addition

advantages batches high

is virtually then, would

resistance lining

and fine chemivesresisperin of at 9 impact

cal resistance tance mitting strong carbon pH of fired alkalis, brick

ever want primarily

to install they of 212OF.

a brick

in a glass-lined by a blow, Further, with

sel? The answer contained

lies, of course, liquid

in the brittleness through the lining But

and poor to the steel.

glass linings. there

If unprotected, limit in front 173F.

may be damaged

to penetrate mortar

is a thermal temperature about

if we interline a surface

and furan

of the glass, the vessel can be operated while too, would having protect temperature Thus, brick that offer if the operator

12 and an internal tool into

of 235F,

on the glass lining a heavy

of only

were to drop crack-

the vessel, the carbon its integrity resistance

the glass from for mortars indicate 1 l-l for

ing or chipping-retaining Unlike tics which manufacturers figures The lined membrane, damage ply taken the chemical simply advise per year graphs

as a membrane. tables are available tables that Table and plasthe not recommended, or test,

recommended, equipment in a variety

of glass-lined from to

loss in thicka borosilicate for a glasstype of

ness of the lining glass lining. criteria except of

of exposures.

gives examples-

of one of the major in designing care when paper must

manufacturers a masonry inner with

be followed that greater fiber for

liner

vessel are basically to the fired not only

the same as those

to be observed be taken

any other masons It is normal

by the

to prevent to apbefore but Out-

glass lining ceramic plane permit

installing against

the masonry. damage when

a /B layer allow the

to the surface as the of which the brick

of the glass lining laying expands lining or grows.

proceeding, also to so that without lets. lets should

as a precaution fluorocarbon

the brick,

a shear sleeve can

movement movement

be sleeved with

sheet sleeves. Such sleeves are necessary masonry damage by deforming could the glass at the out-

causing

stresses in the masonry

Fired

Glass and Porcelain

as Membranes

125

Table

11-I

: Combinations
Showing

of Concentrations Greatest

and Temperatures

Loss in Weight

Greatest Loss at PercentageConcentration Hydrochloric acid 8 - 10% 24 - 26% 18 - 20% 20%

At LX.S/YlZU 0.1 nun 0.2 mm 0.5 mm 1.0 mm

Temperature 235OF 271'F 357'F 378OF

Boiling Point of Acid 224-F 217OF 237OF 237OF

(Temperature - % - weight loss said to be fairly typical also for hydrobromic, hydriodic and chloracetic acids) Sulfuric acid 18% 21% 370 28% 0.1 mm 0.2 mm 0.5 mm 1.0 mm 228'F 263OF 333='F 407'F 2260~ 233F 241F 237OF

(Also typical for sulphurous acid) Nitric acid 35% 31% 33% 36% 0.1 mm 0.2 mm 0.5 mm 1.0 mm 252OF 290F 360F 415='F 232OF 230F 232OF 233='F

(Also typical for nitrous acid) Phosphoric acid (minimal corrosive effect at low concentrations, more effect at high. Tests only run to 85%. Indications are that above 85%, there may

well be areas of greater attack than those noted.) 62% 74% 60% 62% Acetic acid 0.1 mm 0.2 Imu 0.5 mm 1.0 nun 19SF 245OF 298'F 35S'F 258OF 290OF 255='F 258'=F

(representative of a great number of organic acids) 30% 6.5% 7.0% 6% 0.1 mm 0.2 mm 0.5 mm 1.0 mm 0.1 mm 0.1 mm 0.2 mm 0.2 mm 0.5 mm 0.5 mm 1.0 mm 1.0 mm 292OF 342'F 410'F 442OF 230F 140'F 260F 176OF 296OF 212OF 320F 236'F 212F 212OF 212'F 212'F ___ --___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___

Sodium hydroxide

pH pH pH pH pH pH pH pH

10.0 13.6 10.0 13.6 10.0 13.6 10 13.6

(Good for pH to 14 at ambient. NaOH 4% by weight is pH 14.

Typical for alkali hydroxides.)

126

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

Greatest Loss at PercentageConcentration Sodium carbonate pH pH pH pH 12 12 12 12

At Loss/Year 0.1 Imu 0.2 mm 0.5 mm 1.0 mm

Temperature 176F 202'F 24SF 284'F

Boiling Point of Acid ___ ___ ___ ___

(Typical for basic alkali carbonates) Funmonia pH pH pH pH 13 13 13 13

0.1 mm

185OF 226*F 279OF 320'=F 310'F 345F 392OF 425OF

___ ___ --___ -__ --___ ___

0.2 mm 0.5 Irun 1.0 mm 0.1 mm 0.2 mm 0.5 mm 1.0 nun

Clean water * (de-ionized)

Thickness loss min/year Liquid phase Vapor phase Bromine Ferric chloride, 10% solution Monochloroacetic acid 20% Oxalic acid Phosphorous acid 70% Succinic acid saturated solution 15S='F Boiling less than 0.1 less than 0.1 less than 0.2 less than 0.1

Boiling

less than 0.1

less than 0.1

302OF 230F

less than 0.2 less than 0.1

______ less than 0.1

392OF

less than 0.5

less than 0.1

It may not be understood by some readers that pure, de-ionized water can penetrate many linings, and can, in some cases, cause more damage than 9 number of corrosive chemicals.

REFERENCES
1. Chemically ResistantA4asonry.W.L. Sheppard, Jr., 2nd Ed., p 213 (1982).

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Composite Engineering Laminates, edited by Albert G.H. Dietz, M.I.T. Press (Cambridge, MA), See Chapter 16, Glassed Steel by William B. Crandall, pp 317-322. Tanigawa, T. and Koizumi, K., Properties of Borosilicate Glass and Its Application to Corrosion-Resistant Apparatus, Haikan Gijustsu, Vol. 2, pp 63-70 (1983). Andrews, Andrew I ., Porcelanin Enamels; The Preparation, Application and Properties of Ename/s,Garrard Press,Champaign, IL (1961). Lorentz, R., Glass Enamel-Efficient Protection Against Corrosion, Trib. Cebedeau, Liege, Belgium, No.460,pp 111-115 (1982).

12 Lead as a Membrane

Oliver W. Siebert

Monsanto Corporation St. Louis, Missouri

Walter Lee Sheppard, Jr.

C.C. R.M., Incorporated Havertown, Pennsylvania

Chemical times called

leads (defined soft lead,

by ASTM

829

as 99.85%

minimum industry

lead),

some-

are used primarily

in the chemical protective

in environAgainst pro-

ments that form thin, surface, e.g., solutions more tection. Alloys ment by its poor timony, fatigue ture, soluble films

insoluble,

and self-reparable acetates

films over the metal lead offers little

of salts such as sulfates, carbonates or chlorides,

or phosphates.

such as nitrates, tin, calcium, properties qualities.

of antimony, structural

tellurium lead

and arsenic offer some improveprimarily is lead alloyed with 1 to 13% anforms

in the mechanical

of lead, but its usefulness is limited Hard

usually about 6 to 8%. These alloys have greatly increased tensile strength, resistance, and hardness. with Calcium in the range of 0.03 to 0.12% at room alloys lead. While these alloys age-harden alloys may be improved Tellurium temperaand stress-

age-hardening rupture of about addition which truded prove

that aging process might take 30 to 60 days. The tensile strength resistance 1.5% tin. 0.04% of the lead-calcium However, tellurium the

by the addition lead to exand inSome

this increases the aging time to 180 days. A 7% tin bearings. lead is chemical grain growth point of water. has been added. of tellurium antimony, up to about 127 In wrought, retards and especially

to lead is used to make about lead products, addition Arsenic,

creases fatigue

resistance.

and tin act to harden lead and imthe boiling

its physical

characteristics

128

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

grades of chemical hance the corrosion Lead, pansion.

lead have small percentages resistance and to improve has a low melting material poor that will room

of silver and copper its creep and fatigue

added to enresistance. of ex-

a heavy metal,

point

and a high coefficient

It is a very ductile of its relatively system.

creep under a tensile stress as low creep resistance, without lead is

as 1 MP (145 lbf/in). Because rarely ondary tion. wood temperature used as a lining support in tanks and other process equipment some secapplica-

It is possible to lead-line Unlined and maintain the tight

wood stave tanks but this is not a desirable fit of the joints. When lined with

wood tanks depend upon moisture

in the process fluid to swell the lead, the wood structo maintain

staves dry An

and shrink. steel

The hoops then have to be tightened type construction and vertical

tural integrity. open

This movement

can cause damage to the lead lining. can be used to overcome structural steel supports. while in the use of lead lined wood vessels. Sheet lead attached it may to the noted be thoroughly straps. This type of inspected

basket-frame noted with around

some of the problems straps are wrapped construction

the horizontal and weld because

The lead sheets are formed is advantageous service. Faults are apparent The most common resistant membrane a mechanical to protect Tanks After the top adjoining. After fabric tween support may barrier

and repairs easily made. is to line the steel vessel with lead as a corrosion brick or tile lining. The brick acts as and wear resistant barrier lead) or the bonded from the inside behind a ceramic

practice

for the lead as well as a thermal by either

the weak soft lead from damage. be lead-lined techniques. all weld beads, burrs, and other projections about the sheet lead is applied to the wall. It should be lapped over 4 inches over those or glass bethe loose (hung

(homogeneous) of the steel tank,

removing edge of the

vessel and each sheet extended together

The sheets should be welded material,

%6

around the entire exposed edge. is added to act as a cushion

the lead has been installed or similar the brick

and tested, a layer of asbestos, ceramic

to 1s inch thick, changes. to combine

and the lead to protect due to thermal strength lead lining is an effort structural

the lead against abrasion during expanthe corrosion or integral resistance of lead lead is a layer structure. moveof bondflux relative metallic method

sion and contraction A bonded with the superior

of steel. Effectively,

bonded

of lead bonded to the steel to form a homogeneous By effectively ment between ing includes ing, chloride materials tion after anchoring the two metals is minimized. of zinc, zinc-ammonium to the cleaned solder. heat lead/tin

the lead to steel at all points of contact, The most common Following stannous the steel is tinned. chloride, surface.

a step by which

sand or grit blastor other by a torch applica-

chloride

are applied

This is followed

of a 50/50 which will

To apply

hard or soft lead by means of a torch, long enough to melt the tin coating, Usually, three /4 inch. This same operation lead on the a portable

the heat is applied coatings

to the tinned

steel only

the torch

is applied

to the lead being applied. up to about step by using a 6% antimonial

build the lead thickness the pre-tinning thickness

can be done without first coat application. A more uniform

of lead may be achieved

by holding

Lead as a Membrane

129

dam a distance thickness and dam.

away

from

the prepared Molten

surface

corresponding repeated until

to the desired the entire vessel

of the lead lining. The dam is moved, This technique of silos.

lead is carefully

poured onto the heated wall slip-form used in the

and the operation is not unlike

is lead-lined. construction accelerated tallization, brick

that of a concrete in addition

Sheet lead linings, corrosion,

at elevated

temperatures, and/or

to being subject to not crysa at tempera-

tend to fail by some uncertain inter-granular

process, though penetration,

causing embrittlement (73C).

tures above 165F perature between

If the vessel is to be exposed to such temperatures, to provide sufficient insulation is advisable.

lining of a thickness

to bring the shell temceramic) paper of the

below this temperature

Figure 12-1 shows how such a brick to allow movement

lining may be installed. brick without

Note the layer of asbestos (now usually paper functions the lead.

the lead and the brick, which seizing or abrading

Asbostoa shoot linlmg 1: in. 0, - I*rr)

h in. no qaakr

fhaa f in.

Lhnt OTbonded kod lining

Wald ho _

Acid proof brick

hood rid. rbod cowring

Figure 12-1: When pressure is involved tesy of Lead industries Association.

brick and lead lined tank bottoms

are dished. Cour-

Lead for sulfuric type

linings

are most frequently is not indicated

found

in the process equipment beginning where is water the product soluble.

designed this

acid manufacture.

As noted

at the

of this chapter,

of membrane Figures

in exposures

of the reacof lead memlead is layer

tion between

the lead and the process chemicals 12-2 through

12-5 show the increases in the corrosion of acids as temperatures is formed. The resistance on the solubility is plotted

brane by various acids and mixtures exposed to nitric acid, lead nitrate ther attack in the nitric by the nitric

rise. When

of the lead to fur-

acid depends

of this lead nitrate in Figure 12-6.

acid, and this solubility

in turn decreases with the increase of nitric

acid concentration.

This change in solubility

130

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

PER CENT SIJLFURC ACID

Figure 12-2: Corrosion of lead by sulfuric Lead Industries Association.

acid as a function

of temperature.

Courtesy

of

toe

.ool

.Oooo

20

40

SO

80

Km

120

IA0 C.

I60

180

TEMPERATURE OF SOLUTION:

Figure 123: Association.

Effect

of temperature

on lead in sulfuric

acid. Courtesy

of Lead Industries

Leadasa

Membrane

131

:ORROSlON, N./MONlN X IO-4

CORROSION,XL/MONlN

X10-4

150 I25

150 I25

100
75 50 25

100
75 50 25

004

TEmmmJK C
Figure 124:

40

60

80

100 O

Courtesy

of Lead Industries Association.

:ORROSION, H./MONTH X 1O-2 I6

CORROSION,N./MONTH I

X lo-' I6

CORROSION OF LEAD BY MIXED ACIDS

20

I6

cm "27
PERCENTNCI

Figure 12-5: sociation.

Corrosion

of lead in mixed

H$.O~and

HCI. Courtesy

of Lead Industries

As-

132

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

PttTI

Pb (WO,,,/#o

?ttTs

W.

PAtlS Ib (MO~)2/100 ?MTS Sm. 70

__..-.-SOLlJBlLllY [fb(NO&]

OF LEAD IN NITRIC

NITRATEACID.

60 SO 40

_. --.---..----

-__

30 20

IO

20 30 40 HMO% CONC1NTRATtON. PER CENT lead nitrate in nitric

50

60

Figure 12-6: ciation.

Solubility

of

acid. Courtesy

of Lead Industries

Asso-

A brick by contained ble salts can acids seriously sulfuric

lining

has the secondary or suspended or removed Figure

effect matter.

of protecting The protective

the lead from surface film

abrasion of insoluto of a 20%

slurries affected.

be thinned

by such abrasion, any entrained

and so the resistance how the velocity

12-7 shows graphically corrosion as velocity

acid solution

at 77OF, without

solids,

passing over the face

of a lead lining
0040

can cause increasing

increases.

0035 : 8 <.cmo 3 : f . 0025

5 0020 F : t w : OOlS

a
0 .oolO K 2 / .mOS +,a xx)00o 40 I ./ / .-

A
_/

I mx n$.o. 01 2S.C

80 1 120 I6o 200 240 ! 280 320 560 ELOClTY OF SOLUTION ACROSS SURFACE - FEET/MINUTE on corrosion

400

440

Figure 12-7: Effect of velocity of Lead Industries Association.

of lead in 20% sulfuric acid at 20C. Courtesy

Lead as a Membrane

133

For chemical plications: York, careful very lead

detailed A

information the reader published

about by

lead Jinings, the Lead

their

physical

properties, Resistant Inc.,

and ApNew be or as

resistance, Guide,

is referred

to Lead for Corrosion Industries material. Association,

NY. Caution. Lead is an electrically carbon form brick where result conductive and/or the service couple, in the wasting them and The designer in contact as anode brick should with not to place will carbon-filled includes with of the the layer mortar the carbon lead. lead. fiber.

close to lead linings and carbon mortars should mortar, or other This will be placed or a thick

an electrolyte If carbon

in solution,

a galvanic

and the or carmay be insulating

lead cathodic. bon-filled barrier Teflon@ inert

are to be employed between fluorocarbon sheet,

in the same design, a thick

an electrical Such barriers

of a carbon-free,

chemically

layer of ceramic

or organic

13 Glass Fabric Reinforced Furan Membranes

Walter

Lee Sheppard, Incorporated

Jr.

C.C.R.M., Havertown,

Pennsylvania

While reinforced

it is probable built-up

that much of what follows employing other phenolic) mixed

can be applied resinous

to most glassthe furan to be used The installaStates, service exoxi-

membranes

materials,

(and perhaps occasionally in the most difficult, tions of acids and/or tion overall furans type resistance

resins are those most appropriate with organic intensive solvent materials.

high temperature alkalis is labor

services where exposures can be combinaand furan resins have the best In the United

of this kind of membrane to the are generally

majority

of such combinations. normally

the least expensive phenolics next,

of those resins used in chemical materials

and so, all things being equal, of service with otic, or possibly a vinyl

furans would

be the first choice for this are particularly

if the solvent

ester or polyester

if the corrosives are too strongly was pioneered operating under It worked

dizing for either a furan or a phenolic. The use of glass fabric-reinforced 1940s for service much in chlorinating more expensive sures at 200F, and though perience carbons) The from sures where furan membranes in the late high presout well, process equipment to install

in the presence of HCI and organic solvents. and requiring it has become (other

a higher degree of exfor use in expofluoromade

and care to install correctly, no satisfactory has been found. membrane

a standard

sheet lining

than the very expensive than are brick mortars

itself must be more

resin-rich

the same resin because if it is to wet out and penetrate must be more fluid will be more shrinkage from the stability than a mortar and strength 134 would in the finished membrane imparted

the fabric,

the resin

formulation that there

be. This, of course, means than with the morby the glass fabric, a

tars, and except

Glass Fabric

Reinforced

Fur-an Membranes

135

higher coefficient of expansion. sum of its two tainly those

of expansion. the thermal

The glass fabric expansion

itself has a very low coefficient as a whole is the

While

of the membrane

parts, the fact that the two parts vary so much in this regard cerstresses within membranes of the brick the membrane. have coefficients to which lining they or facing material Sooner of expansion over the double and may be bonded,

results in built-in

Glass fabric-reinforced probably three times that

of the steel or the concrete a high coefficient since the two coefficients the

surface

membrane. ones can be to both surand do

Sandwiching

material

between

two low coefficient is bonded

a source of real trouble, faces, especially result not have identical in rupturing must be bonded tion of bonding it. Whichever

if the high coefficient surfaces will of expansion. However,

be at different this type

temperatures of built-up

or later these stresses can membrane

membrane.

to one strong surface if it is to survive. The designer has the opit either to the substrate, or to the brick that will be placed on between the memhe may deand ushot (perFor example, between

he decides to do, he must put a bond breaker it is not to be bonded. to use a bond breaker lining directly so that tank,

brane and the surface to which cide, in lining a concrete the membrane, ing a strong asphalt with the brick membrane bonding lining. it. from the

the concrete becomes

and to lay up the brick furan bed joint,

against the membrane

the membrane

integral

This can be done by applying first on the concrete If this is done, cracking and the concrete

a glass fabric-reinforced subsequently cracks

membrane upon

YI thick

and then building

up the resin the rigid right the the

haps over a cold seam), the asphalt will provide a slip-plane resin membrane concrete, through membrane membrane entire and as well. if the membrane the the crack would concrete to cracked, protect

and prevent

had been bonded to the have telegraphed from which through

the membrane. was designed and attack

If the membrane the concrete. to anchor true with

cracks, the chemicals substrate, concrete Therefore,

can pass right

Furthermore, and attacked.

is absorbent, in lining rather

so the than to a

structure

can be penetrated prefers

a concrete

vessel, this writer the substrate.

the lining to the brickwork a steel tank.

The reverse is usually stable structure steel tank,

Here we have as a substrate membrane

of high strength.

To install

the resin glass fabric

in a

we first sandblast a high affinity

the steel to a near white for the resin-glass fabric neoprene

surface, and then apply a membrane or urethane that is to be we apper-

special adhesive primer, ity to develop

selected for the strength the membrane

of its bond to steel, and its abilandcured,

laid up on top of it. After ply a bond breaker haps /a thick, but to provide brane-from brick binder nally, mortar,

has been completed

over it, such as a liquid enough pad to prevent

coating,

not only to prevent a thick

the bonding

of the brick to the membrane, over the memto tear. of the the that

the brick-slipping

hanging up on any high points and causing the membrane of the resin is made in the same manner elsewhere in this volume, with furan, must be a resin-not is unable covered the exception

The selection

as the selection

of the membrane is, first, only

a silicate or a sulfur-and then a phenolic the chemical to handle

the order and, fia exposure,

of choice

the lowest

possible shrinkage

if one of these two fabric

vinyl ester or a polyester. The usual reinforcing

is an open weave,

light twist,

lightweight

glass

136

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

cloth. There tory.

A glass mat is not acceptable are varying specifications for

reinforcing this cloth,

because

it has no tensile by a number

strength. of differ-

suggested

ent installers

and users. The following

is one that

has been found

to be satisfac-

Minimum Average dry weight Average weight after treatment Average tensile strength (both directions) at 7OF Thread count-warp -fill* *A count of lo-12 is acceptable strength of the warp. 1.4 oz/yd2 1.6 oz/yd2 75 psi 20 20

Maximum

2.6 oz/yd2

24 24

if the fill thread has double the tensile

This specification was developed committee standards mortars. treatment. resin, formed,l able. is not handled

is ASTM concerned that

D-l 668-73, D-8 primarily with

Type

I I I (organic

resin treated) and

and This

by Committee

for roofing

and waterproofing. material,

chemically-resistant are applicable glass cloth most This Volan cannot

no other by resin a special a furan is inavailthe use rec-

by this committee ordinary

to the subject glass fabric material material synthetic

of this book.

It should

be noted fairly A

be wet very well requires

If delamination Until

is to be prevented, recently, when was specified. complex. different The silanes, be used will

glass fabric

was to be used with was, the writer is no longer resins involve

a Volan Current

treatment

a chromeorganic treatments are many results the ester. for

of glass to be used with are to be obtained. I am informed the epoxies, for that

of silanes. There one if satisfactory ommended polyesters esters, resins. but where

and it is important These are specific with epoxies,

to use the correct treatments for ones for the polywith furan in and if this guidance

glass is to

and different in contact phenolics, can supply resins. obviously whether

and vinyl not those

the ones specified

also function

No treatment

is identified be run. of the specific acid

glass to be used with for all other environment, for membranes, too

is required, If will not asphaltic, side the vent that

tests should

The glass manufacturer treatments in the cloth. (for fabric

the determination hydrofluoric serve. limits attacks is usually

is present

glass fabric resinous or are outor a sol-

In such cases, reinforcement a polyester-type fabric a carbon of polyester polyesters), is a suitable cloth

Where the service conditions high a temperature fabric: cloth may be used.

instance,

The following Dacron Nexus from

specification

for the polyester

polyester Veil

reinforcing. fabric yarn South Hackensack, 1.3 oz/yd, NJ 07606 16 mils manufactured by Burlington Industries

Style Dacron

1012 #IO6

Du Pont Barton

Source: This thick,

Plastics, woven

170 Wesley Street, fabric, coarse

is a square

open

weave.

used in 1 to 3 plys or layers. exposure to high concentrations of strong alkalies, neither

In continuous

Glass Fabric

Reinforced

Furan Membranes

137

glass nor destroy

polyester polyester

fabric fabrics.

is suitable,

or there

may

be solvents

present

that

will

In such cases, carbon Carbide

fabric

is recommended.

A suit-

able one is offered Catalog Width Weight Carbon

by the Union VCA

Corporation.

No. X2215 43-45 inches

Carbon

Cloth

per linear assay 95%

yard-O.58

lb (10 oz)

Will burn

in air at approximately

39OC

(734F)

INSTALLATION In glass fabric primer), a layer the glass fabric to the application, terial. vice, greater around elled carefully the hands soaking However, than each. over the placed until through reinforcing of the is rolled a monolithic formulation into indicated surfacing (after applying to l/s the required thick, and

topping or pressed

is spread,

3&l

it, covering reinforced

areas as large as is convenient by the manufacturer membrane leaving system, consisting of the maserspace is of areas not is trowwith resin for chemical a 2 wide

up to the size limits in applying that a furanglass

it is recommended The mortar

a checkerboard than the

3 x 3. be installed, square, the tapering flat white the other with

one square at one time, brick mortar then down surface edges,

(in a thinner

consistency)

and a square rubbed square,

of glass fabric and worked black with 2 away,

on it, rolled entire it from

over the mortar,

of the glass has become

side. Then the next the glass cloth days open minimum

is laid in to cure (14 At

the same manner. These squares of mortar undisturbed days the tared viously tapered However, three sible. The reason somewhat cure larger shrinkage for the procedure that of most over Failure in the to the as outlined other is the cure resins, procedure perhaps of stress period, this system, build-up shrinkage of the resin, this stresses in the deappliresin as it cure bethan synthetic and the fact that internal as long after in the seven days can result the furan if the end for no less than period, covered squares. the (For surface over each, are allowed temperature seven 2 this wide part at a surface strips of 70F

is at GOOF-the

cure temperature between 6 wide wide lapping the 2 the cloth

permissible). 2

of that placed

the squares strips

are mor-

and cloth

in the same manner, is extended cure is vital, from

over the preof glass cloth 2 over the

of the work,

are used,

and the mortar seven days time After 3/s2 to

bare strip, point, if this

edges of the squares.) is recommended this may at this is possible. minimum application a surface of of if down mortar, be reduced has elapsed, to an absolute a final overall

Another

days at 7OF.

the cure time l/s thick,

is trowelled

to as uniform

as pos-

continues material. due

an extended to follow membrane continuing to 3 squares

developing

in the membrane velopment cation cures. as one

of stress cracks year,

By limiting

applications

and permitting

138

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

fore putting be much less.

in place the patches between place before the patch

squares, about half of the cure shrinkis placed, and the stress build-up point favoring will

age will have taken

This cure shrinkage of this type phalt during has sufficient the 7day The designer chemical with

stress build-up over a hot to relieve

is another asphalt

the application The as-

of membrane cures. should

membrane

on concrete.

cold flow

much of the stresses in the resin squares of rigid membrane the exposure expansion is used, it will joint joints material are re-

note that membrane Therefore, either. should

if this type can accept there

be because no flexible environment.

to the anticipated

is no flexible that

that can accept this exposure such a membrane For such design, quired.

Consequently, on design

any vessel that must be lined no expansion elsewhere in this volume.

be so designed

see the section

REFERENCES 1. Source of information: Mr. Albert Ralston. 2. Source of information: Mr. Harvey Atkinson. 3. Chemically Resisrant Masonry, W.L. Sheppard, Jr., (2nd Edition) 208-212 (1982).

Marcel Dekker, pp

14 EpoxylPhenolics

Al Hendricks Wisconsin Protective Coatings

Green Bay, Wisconsin

An epoxy/phenolic resistance phenol materials

is a class of material that

that exhibits between

outstanding the reaction

chemical of a bis1 mil

due to the cross linking can be formulated

is formed

with epichlorohydrin

and the phenolic/phenol-formaldehyde to be applied at various film thicknesses

resin. These from

to % inch depending

on their end usage.

PROPERTIES Epoxy air dried. The which tion from bake systems applied polymerize 350 to 400F by heat (177 generally to 204C). requiring This type temperatures of formularanging range between phenolics can be classified into two classes of materials; bake or

is normally

by dip or spray application to produce

to a film

thickness

1 mil to 8 mils. Generally, liners.

this system produces a very hard finish although a degree of flexibility, either such as those systems or

they can be formulated used for container polyamide to obtain curing Air dry or low force brush, roller or trowel

cured systems utilize applications.

amines, amine adducts,

agents for polymerization. type

They

can be formulated

for spray,

Since these materials

do use a catalyst of sol-

curing, they will have a limited

pot life. This can vary from one-quarter and the amount generally from 60%

hour to 24 hours depending vent in the formulation.

on the type of catalyst utilized

Systems vary in their solvent content

to 0% solvents. As the solvent decreases, the pot life also decreases substantially.

139

140

Corrosion and Chemical Resistant Masonry Materials Handbook

RESIST ANCE The chemical resistance of epoxy phenolics varies with the formulation de. pending on type of resins and percentage of modification, total volume of pig. ment, and type of curing agent used . Water Resistance Excellent
ious types of

resistance is normally
water o including potable,

experienced
demineralized,

with
or

epoxy phenolics in vardeionized, at tempera-

tures up to 250 F. They also demonstrate resistance to steaming which may be required for sterilization or general cleaning. Solvents The baking systems have excellent resistance to alcohols, aromatics, hydrocarbons, aliphatics, and ketones. Special formulations with both the air dry or low force cure type materials can be produced to provide resistance to the same solvents as the high bake systems. Many of the air dry systems will be resistant to splash and fumes of the solvents mentioned . Alkalies The bake systems demonstrate excellent resistance to alkalies including sodium hydroxide at concentrations up to 73%. Generally the temperature resistance to continuous immersion is suitable up to 200F (93C). The air dry systems demonstrate excellent resistance to various concentrations of alkalies but are generally limited to a maximum temperature of 150F (66C).
Acids The would sistance acids. acids with acid to Many resistance be poor sulfuric, of epoxy phenolics Special for to continual immersion mineral acids, conditions to provide from remost and fatty

generally dilute

to fair.

formulations nonoxidizing

are available

hydrochloric, of nitric, formic,

systems

are available

resistance chromic

to spillage

and fumes

the exception

or hydrofluoric.

Temperature

Resistance

Continuous exposure to temperature conditions in excess of 300F can be detrimental to many of the formulations. Excessive temperature will normally result in cracking of the coating system. Abrasion Resistance The abrasion resistance of epoxy phenolics will vary depending on the formulation, but they generally are rated between good and excellent. Special formulations can produce films which are resistant to continual scuffing or heavy truck traffic .

Epoxy/Phenolics Weathering

141

Epoxy phenolic formulations generally show good retention of flexibility and impact when exposed to weathering, although they do have a tendency to chalk.

TOXICITY

Formulations are available that will not impart taste or odor to commodities that may be stored in direct contact with the coating systems. These systems must then meet the requirements as are outlined by the FDA, USDA or EPA.

SURFACE

PREPARATION
and intended usage. to a white metal blast. depth of profile re-

This

Surface preparation depends on coating formulation could vary on steel substrates from a commercial is also essential to obtain ultimate adhesion.

Profile

The

quired is proportional On concrete surfaces, taminants or abrasive and this can blasting.

to the total dry film thickness of the coating system. the general requirement is to remove latents and conbe accomplished by chemical preparation, scarifying

APPLICATION Formulations are available for application by dipping, spraying, brushing, rolling or troweling. The dipping application is normally limited to the baking systems since they do not require a catalyst for polymerization. The spray equipment may consist of either conventional air atomization, airless or two component mixing. Trowel applications are limited to the 100% solid flooring or lining systems.

USAGE
Bake Systems Generally denser modities Air Dry used to line tank sodium containers cars and for food and paint products-heat various concom-

tubing-railroad including Systems

storage

vessels containing solvents.

hydroxide

and various

Generally containing ages-chemical terior solvents-concrete solvents. food

used to line the commodities vessels containing floors

interior sodium devices

of railroad hydroxide, exposed exposed

tank syrup,

cars and storage wine, and other

vessels bever-

such as sugar, corn

solvents,

salt solutions-exalkal ies and alkalies and

of vessels and air moving

to fumes to spillage

of acids, of acids,

and trenches

Section IV Masonry Units

143

15 Acid Brick and Silica Brick

James P. Bennett U.S. Bureau of Mines

University, Alabama

William M. Eckert
Dow Chemical Corporation, Texas U.S.A. Freeport,

ACID BRICK Properties

(RED

SHALE AND FIRECLAY

BRICKS)

Early use of ceramics

sands of years to terra-cotta sel liners oped cept from that used for evolved day through the present

to

handle

or

store

liquids

can be traced granite

back

thouvesto

wine

vessels and sewer pipes. sandstone, brick. alkali and high their

Chemical-resistant and stoneware brick with are made Clays higher were

the use of metal, masonry for limited

red shale and fireclay and water

These acid-proof contact They exposure. forming chemical reddish brick, or other

devel-

chemically-resistant

use in direct

most acids, exprimarily structure or shales in iron a

hydrofluoric, imparts to make low

clays or shales fired

to high temperatures, give them The main membranes

a semivitreous resistance. hue, being brick are buff

absorption

red shale brick raw materials content.

and silica than and higher barrier chemical brick, they

used in fireclay

which of acid

in appearance is to provide them from nature

in alumina attack

function

to abrasion

and to shield backed

structures

under

or excessive

thermal for

exposure.

Due to the porous material. brick

of such simidry

are usually

by an impermeable

The manufacturing lar. One of three shaping

processes

red shale and fireclay is used in brick

are very extrusion,

techniques

fabrication:

144

Acid Brick and Silica Brick

145

pressing, or hand molding. The clays or shales are crushed, mixed with water in a muller-type mixer, pugged, de-aired, and extruded. A coarse, nonplastic material such as sand or a calcined raw material (grog) may be added during mixing to control shrinkage or warpage during firing. The extruded material is wire-cut to size, with surfaces occasionally scored or textured to increase mortar adhesion. After extrusion, some manufacturers re-press the brick before drying and firing to increase dimensional accuracy. Bricks are then fired in either a periodic or a tunnel kiln in an oxidizing atmosphere. Red shale is typically fired from 1800 to 2100F while fireclay may be fired as high as 23OOF. After firing, red shale usually is more vitreous and resistant to abrasion and erosion, but poorer in thermal shock resistance, than fireclay. Of the other techniques used to fabricate brick, dry pressing provides accurate dimensional control, while hand molding is generally used to fabricate small quantities of specialty shapes and can result in a more porous piece. The lower firing temperatures, higher glass content, and lower absorption generally associated with red shale brick are due to larger amounts of alkali and iron compared to fireclay, as shown in Table 15-I. Iron content averages over 6% for red shale, and combined KzO and NazO are over 4%. Also, SiOZ content is higher and A1203 lower than fireclay. The crystalline mineral phases present in red shale and fireclay brick are also listed in Table 15-l. The firing time and temperature determine the degree of conversion of the starting materials into glass and other phases that provide the desired physical properties. Both brick types contain similar amounts of quartz, mullite, and an amorphous (glass) material. The higher firing temperatures of fireclay can produce a cristobalite phase not present in red shale. Hematite and rutile exist in the red shale after firing, and both can be leached in certain process environments. Table 15-I:

Ranges of Chemical Present in Acid Brick

Composition

and Mineralogical

Phases

(Red Shale and Fireclay)

Red Shale Brick Fireclay Brick

Property Chemical SiOl

A1203 Fe203 K2O

composition,

Wt % 61.4-67.0 18.6-29.4 4.7-6.8 2.5-4.6 1 .0-l .6 0.7-l .3 0.5-0.7 0.1-0.4 Major Trace-major None Minor None-trace 56.868.6 22.9-38.7 0.8-3.0 l-3.2 l-2.8 0.1-I .2 0.2-0.5 0.01-0,8 Trace-major Minor-major None-major None-trace None-trace Minor-major

TiO2 MgO Na20 CaO Phases identified Quartz Mullite Cristobalite Hematite Rutile Amorphous

146

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

The physical along higher fireclay. H,S04 formation of elasticity with in test) plication.

properties red of shale poorer

of red shale and fireclay and mineral is slightly cold shock lower crushing resistance type phases, shale

brick,

listed

in Table the bricks density Limited

15-2, apand than in-

chemical Generally, modulus

composition rupture, brick thermal on thermal

determine and fireclay bulk

in porosity strength, than thermal

and absorption (ASTM brick.

The

red but

also has a higher conductivity,

acid resistance,

C-279l-

is available

expansion,

and modulus

and is listed Table 15-2:

for each brick Physical

in Table

15-2.

Property

Ranges of Acid Brick

(Red Shale and Fireclay)

Red Shale Fireclay Brick 5-l 3.3 l-6 136-l 50 3-10 1 ,l OO-3,500 5,000-18,000 6-l 0 2-3.5 3-10

Property Apparent porosity, pet Absorption, pet Bulk density, lb/ft3

HzS04 acid resistance (C-279), pet Modulus of rupture, psi Compressive strength, psi Thermal conductivity,* Btu .in/hr.ft.OF Thermal expansion coefficient, (75to 8OOF). in/in F x 10 Modulus of elasticity,* IO6 psi *Limited information available.

Brick 3.2-12.5
0.4-5 142-156 0.7-6 2 ,ooo-3,800 10,000-22,000 7-9 4-5.5 3.6-13.3

Some fect ceous ence brick

acid

brick during

develops Black firing,

black coring possibly in the may not

coring caused with past

during

production, oxidation kiln effect factor having C-279,

which

may

af-

properties. The core Debate that meeting

is due to incomplete by dense as to the a statement (Brick unburned carbon

of carbonaor a fast firin a low valcoring description properties hearts but and C-410 of acidand is and difto be on

material state.

stacking or iron in its test in brick black C-980

ing schedule. physical mentioning unless otherwise Volume proof clay ferent brick products. generally chemistry can occur, less than swelling permeable toured Brick

is associated C-279l

has existed ASTM coring physical (also

of black

properties. accompanied

includes

black the

be a significant of ASTM

by bloating

and lamination. requirements

may provide

acceptable expansion to

performance.) known causing to as irreversible a dimensional environment that expansion a brick designed, the of moisture growth or swelling) over time, porosity brick from observed and brick with increase

is a phenomenon Firing conditions, the amount typical

thought all affect although predicted.2 stresses system. volume

be similar

expansion can occur

in structural

exposure of swelling linear of

manufacturers.

Unrestrained expansion brick or

up to 0.2% constructed, surface strength initial

or higher or utilized, of an imof a conusually

in use has been found of the flat

If a vessel is not properly cause the backing, exceed

may

to heave off

membrane

compressive with

expansion

versus time

is parabolic,

swelling

Acid Brick and Silica Brick

147

occurring system and

early

and slowing potential

with

time.

Increases

in temperature Proposed

or pressure

of a

cause an increase temperature. specimens designing

in the rate of expansion. of a brick The to about include volume expansion

method? of steam, should

of estimatpressure, by into

ing the swelling elevated brick when heating account cially C-279, from The

the application

phenomenon

is reversible betaken

1 lOOoF. Volumeexpansion system. of acid brick C-279, C-410 performance to ASTM

an acid-proof

The chemical by published a bricks a crushed weight data,

and physical tests similar sample with the chemical brick

is evaluated

commerto lost acid. abmust no of user

and C-980.

According of weight sulfuric water

resistance after

is determined 48 hours

by the amount concentrated

in boiling of rupture

loss, along determine ones attempt when

the modulus general results, property of brick industrial to evaluate brick

and the percent of the brick. simple in ASTM might test. occur that C-279,

sorption

service

conditions

This test because

and similar be exercised one test chemical conditions chemical dict brick Some ing two nitric similar. tallic tallic moved dicating crushing

to classify

by a rapid, that

Caution

using these all physical Testing enough tests for ion

as mentioned changes brick

indicates may

in a variety simulates

environments. environments, behavior. laboratory

in an environment performance, experience

be necessary

although

for several to preof exposand in cold

has been acquired on the effects bricks changes this ion

results

have been reported4, different fireclay No significant

different strength (References

red shale and two values. to Sample weight The

to hydrochloric were noted

acid environments

110 days. weight

losses and total mathematically order of the

ion weight document removal from

losses were are to meof meamount to be reinby the the HCI the total An in by

losses throughout general

ions, salts from the

and weights in the the

are determined

the weights found

leachate.) brick

leached

was

Fe > Al > Ca > samples bond siliceous 15-1 shows during

K, Mg, Na > Ti. Silicon in the HCI or HN03 mineral no strength from with

was not

conditions

investigated,

or silicate why

phases were brick

not affected samples into

acid environment. Figure leach solution amount increase

This may explain the total from leach observed the with brick the

changes were observed.

ions removed a brick results increased

110 day exposure.

For a given acid concentration, increasing the amount of ions removed. 15-2. An

of ions removed acid total similar from ion

temperature. increase

in acid concentration

also increased

Nitric temperature a result creased

are shown When

in Figure the

at a given acid concentration to that from brick brick in HCI. decreased. highest and firing was found C-279 test 40 to 60 wt the

caused an increase however, the had the between

in ion removal the amount total

rate, of toenreon using ion

acid concentration

was in-

% at a given temperature, In both temperature to exist procedures porosity

tal ions removed vironments, moval, havior. H2S04 although No clear exposures

HCI and HNOsacid highest data also influenced and leach

chemistry ASTM

leach be-

relationship under

determined behavior

HCI or HN03. Applications Red shale sonry materials and fireclay acid brick are probably systems. Many the most widely trenches, used mafloors,

in chemically-resistant

scrubbers,

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

t-

KEY

J-

q a20 n =30

wt pet wt pet

HCI HCI

I-

3-

150
15-1:

O&O

701

70&o

74

Red shale Total

Red

shale

Fireclay samples

Figure

ions leached

from

acid brick

in 110 days of HCI exposure.

KEY
Hz40 wt

pet

HNOs HN03

I=

60

wt pet

Red Figure 15-2:

shale

Red

shale

Fireclay samples

Fireclay

Total

ions leached

from

acid brick

in 110 days of HNO3exposure.

Acid Brick and Silica Brick

and reactors well loys. have these much materials can As the as their protective materials lining. Acid brick

149
performs alof conand fire-

and costs Red shale

less than

other

ceramic

or corrosion are understood.

resistant

and fireclay their

be used very name acid

successfully brick implies,

as materials red shale Under

struction clay tions,

provided

respective

uses and limitations and most

Chemical generally

Resistance: resistant (with Fireclay

are generally fireclay

to organic

inorganic such as HF).

acids at temperatures acidic as that brick reagents. condichemiwhich is also Expoof a contained color. Acid

encountered

some exceptions, to red shale when

is preferred

discoloration product other of alkali HCI

cal is to be avoided. resistant avoided. than tration also brands peratures the acid when to chlorine, caustics that Note

does not have as high an iron content solvents, chemicals This and many chemical can specific

can leach out of red shale and so does not affect organic various is present. alone the time sure to alkali or strong concentrations For

hypochlorites be more chemical becomes

are to be aggressive concenIt should of different firing temthe an oxidizing

in combination example, why

same chemical chlorine cannot that limits

individually. determine acid with prior

is one reason serviceability brick

in all exposures. properties the same. Clays,

be noted of

chemical may vary brick

resistance

and physical are not

red shale and fireclay and kiln If time of specific Limit: it.

different permit,

manufacturers, tests should

or even with

same manufacturer. ate performance Temperature ies. Cyclic properties 16OOF practice 550F ulus of

and facilities

be set up to evalumaterials var-

to installation. use temperature physical operation, load, of these and the 18OOF. might the bricks However, at first. their physical general of There thermal strestends has less on materials

The maximum lining can thickness, For continuous

conditions, can affect fireclay limit cyclic

red shale can be used up to to a maximum seem low Also generally temperature

while should under

be used to approximately red shale and fireclay This temperature especially One is that porosity, low (6-10

both

conditions. and low when

are several reasons for this. elasticity conductivities ses can cause lack the ability to be slightly ture and glassy phase reason of the bricks silica overall are relatively damage more bonding higher to absorb lower

these materials Btu-in/h-ft2-OF). fluctuate internal shock, too mainly

have a high modthermal Fireclay usually

red shale. quickly.

As a result,

conditions to thermal together, cyclic

These

and relieve thermal

stresses effectively. Its microstructure porosity than

resistant the brick

because of its microstrucshale. Another depends crystalline the alpha increase reverse crystalline form quartz for that reaction forms in-

expansion.

and higher conditions quartz brick. results the below Alpha acid This

to avoid

temperature composition.

in some is the major At 1063F, The Other in a volume

brick

mineralogical into

in red shale and most additional

fireclay

phase can transform phase takes version and causes place when (ex.,

beta quartz.

stress within drops volume might

brickwork. 1063OF. in fireclay. which

the temperature and higher Rapid

of silica

cristobalite) problem. Effect: inside

also be present

These have lower

temperatures

expansions

can add to the cyclic with within both If the

temperature Pressure materials. the brick may pressure

pressure conditions, This rapid

changes liquid

can also cause problems permeates-into the liquid can generate the trapped critical

Under try

operating

brickwork.

a vessel decreases

suddenly, expansion

to expand.

stresses, and

150

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

cracking porous substituted actually The most Several mally, 0.16%, occurred, majority floors, fall the try out.

or slabbing material for it.

can result. carbon

If cyclic brick)

pressures

pose a problem, over

another

more or

(e.g., Growth: their

should

be veneered

the acid

brick

Irreversible increase rate rate rapid more growth

Under overall

certain dimensions, with

conditions, exhibiting usually cycle when conditions.

red shale and fireclay irreversible occurring between The brick two Wet environments within are dry. that

brick growth.

depends

on moisture

cause the years. Noris has The

of expansion, are needed growth between increases back

growth

years

if the conditions observed and production much

wet and dry. average growth growth

irreversible varies larger sufficient but

is not brands

conditions runs. Brick linings

The amount are restrained swelling.

of growth

are not pressure

uncommon. is generated with

in an arch configuration of problems trenches, Expansion proof utilize corner walls baffle

do not exhibit are associated walls, many

expansion. to inhibit that

Once minor further is not fully

brickwork into joints

restrained-

etc. The brick times expansion

can heave upwards, the system system, the

bulge or actually to accommodate point of a to it is desirable center-continuous sidewalls,

joints system. can be

must When bowed

be incorporated designing outward of straight.

growth. to

However,

can be the weak factor.

corrosion structural curve)

an acid to limit (away Towers

brick from which

the concept to corner head, The

of restraint instead

the growth

For example,

have bricked

but an unlined in compression. Dimensions: Fireclay true than (8 x 3.75 tically). supports,

should

make

use of a retaining of fireclay x 4.5 brick

ring to keep the brickwork may differ from red shales.

dimensions (9

sizes can be modular x 2.25 or 4.5).

x 2.5

or 3) tends tower

or the same as red shale shapes (domessuch as packing

Fireclay

acid brick many

to be more dimensionally of masonry intervals

red shale and is available Fireclay saddles, spargers,

in a wider

variety

is also used to fabricate

and feed boxes to name a few.

SILICA Properties The high

BRICK

use of silica to acid brick

brick cannot

in chemical-resistant requiring a h.igh degree cannot acid.

masonry

is limited, phosphoric alkaline

because

of

cost,

applications brick, to

of chemical

resistance

where or is

traditional of fluorine. to provide

be used, such as concentrated be used in strong As with acid brick, other

acid free

Silica

however, abrasion Because

exposures

any concentrations a barrier from chemical Early fractories

of hydrofluoric brick

its main function or structures

and to protect porosity

membranes

attack.

may be as high as 16%, silica brick structure. employed formation them as rehad firTypically bond these bricks at lower thermal materials

is backed

by an impermeable chemical-resistant for steel furnace additions of higher

material masonry (usually purity for

and a support

usage of silica bricks promoting

or coke oven applications. CaO),

up to 3.5% flux ing temperatures. Silica resistance brick

and improved acid-resistant

low-temperature usage. These

shock

has been developed

are man-

Acid Brick and Silica Brick

151

ufactured silica, The mixed The avoid impurities.

with

SiOs

levels

approaching quartzite, fired that and specialty fired Care must 2000F, vitreous brick AlsOs identified converted

100%.

A typical

brick into

uses high-purity to remove structure. size and is

such as the prefired with bricks

mineral

has been mined graded to the

and washed a vitreous particle

The silica is then material an organic pressing, are dried intergrain can occur analysis with

to a high temperature

is crushed binder, although and then bonding. above of

desired

water,

and in some cases, a flux. in a tunnel or periodic in firing quartz kiln and 15-3.

The mixture at about 1850F,

shaped by dry promoting formations constituent, kali. balite. Table original

shapes may be slip cast or air rammed. be taken where brick. in Table Silica 0.2% is the major the and less than diffraction an amorphous MgO or althat and in brick cristobalite usage to trans-

temperatures Chemical

about silica 0.5% brick

in the highly

is listed

less than silica

or Fe,Os into

Phases in the quartz

by X-ray

indicate

is predominately

phase and cristo-

15-3:

Ranges of Chemical

Composition

and Mineralogical

Phases Present in Silica Brick

Property Chemical SiOz
A1203 Fe203

Range wt %

composition,

98.9-99.6
0.2-0.5 0.02-0.3 0.01-0.02 0.02-0.1 0.02-0.03 0.01-0.2 None-minor None-minor Major

TiOz MgQ CaO Alkali (Na20, KzO, LizO) Phases identified Quartz Cristobalite Amorphous

The facture. crushing bricks difficult, Type ufactured standard firing that

physical Silica high

properties purity

of silica

brick,

listed

as Type and strength

1 and Type lower

2 in Table manucold The firing manduring and sev-

15-4, depend

on silica brick silica

and the manufacturing higher bond in porosity and flexural formation

process

used in their in density, during usually

is typically content makes

strength, accounting

thermal

expansion,

than acid brick. grains

between

for the low strength are for material between below called fused pressing, This although grain 800F. Type in Type suppliers slip

and high porosity. vitreous crystalline giving there silica brick silica or air ramming some may be used for nonformed its high ther-

1 properties by dry shapes.

a 98% rebonded casting contains

is located

boundaries, Currently,

the material

mal expansion eral European 99.5+% talline 800F. the pure silica The second

behavior type,

are one domestic product

manufacturers. 2, is more of a speciality made from as much crysbelow to shape rebonded silica. This material use different does not contain thermal processing

phase as found domestic

1, and has a lower and a proprietary

expansion

The two

techniques method.

material-conventional

casting

These differ-

152

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

ent processing ent physical

techniques properties. Table 154:

yield Standard

products

that

have similar

chemistry,

but differ-

and special Property

shapes can be obtained. Ranges of Silica

Type 1 12-16 5.5-7.2 116-120

Physical

Brick
Type 2 7-16 3-14 112-128 NA 500-2,000 2,000-l 2,000 4.2-8.5

Property porosity, % Absorption, % Bulk density, lb/ft3 HzS04acid resistance (C-279,* % wt loss Modulus of rupture, psi Compressive strength, psi Thermal conductivity, Btu .in/hr.ft.F Thermal expansion coefficient, in/in OF x 10% 75 to 800F 800 to 2 ,OOOF Modulus of elasticity, lo6 psi *Limited information NA = Not analyzed available

Apparent

1.4 500-800 4,500-7,000 5-8.5

2.2-2.8 0.2-0.8 1.1

0.4-O .65 0.4-0.65 3.5-5

Although acid bricks havior. formance Some ing silica trends minimal. and HN03

published chemical

tests

such as ASTM no standard

C-279

may be used to determine silica brick a bricks or to evaluate

an beper-

resistance,

test exists to predict

It is necessary in a simulated laboratory brick by leach crushing sample 15-3

to rely on personal test environment. test results

experience

have been reported6J7 environments observed after for were

on the effects 1 IO days.

of exposloss, was brick, re-

to HCI and HN03acid strength weight shows during

No significant Weight

in cold

acid exposure. from into brick Unlike solution amount

as measured

changes

or by the amount ions removed

of ions leached, samples the acid

Figure

the total

in HCI

solutions

110 days of exposure. of ions leached The total the highest All chemical that why

no definitive gardless from the brick

changes

in the quantity below

occurred,

of temperature averaged the wt

or acid concentration. 0.2 wt %. ions showed the predominant samples, this indicating may explain

of ions leached rates, while

In general, less than was not affected strength 0.06

Fe and Al %. Silicon,

ion removal constituent no trends

Ca, Mg, Na, K, and Ti ion removal leached from any

was minor.

ions were removed the siliceous

in amounts in the brick, was not

bond

by chemical

exposure;

in cold crushing

changes were observed.

Applications Chemical content silica the below usually glassy bond Resistance: 98% should phase. For acid proof construction, that earth silica brick contain oxides lower with an SiOz of in to MgO)

not be used. Materials of alkaline the bond

amounts resistance

have a concentration As a result,

(e.g., CaO,

phase will

have poor

acid which

can lead to failure

of the brick

in service.

Acid Brick and Silica Brick

153

KEY m= 50c

7ooc

F-_l=

9oc

120

20
HCI, wt

20 pet

30,

140

40

60

60

60,

HN03. ACID CONDITION

wt pet

Figure 16-3:

Total

ions leached from silica brick in 110 days of acid exposure.

In general, clay (again with Temperature the maximum is the above quartz. can take continuous 3OOOF. Thermal is difficult design might highest 2000F, place ganic solvents

silica

brick

offers

superior

acid

resistance

over resistant

red shale or fireto chlorine, factors or-

the exception other Like Limit: temperature

of HF). any for

Silica

is also very

and many

non-alkaline other cyclic is then brick maximum

chemicals. ceramic service. will cycled, material, When crystallize many affect 2000F goes and to silica products. In general,

use temperature limit the vitreous/fused

of high purity silica grains

the temperature to cristobalite is restricted

If the operating which service only,

temperature will tear the then and the

the various operation

silica inversions is approximately situations Changes The thermal that of SiOZ at temless. is far su2). Sometensile it in

apart.

When

use temperature Resistance: for the silica brick

Expansion to directly be needed

Thermal silica

Shock brick

In many

substitute to avoid operation type silica expansion Above thermal brick,

red shale or fireclay. differences. 2) is much some that silica product

subjecting because material that that silica product

to destructive less than crystalline is much (Type

or shear stresses during expansion acid (Type brick. of the The less than that vitreous 800F. the of acid

of expansion (Type which contains matches of high

specialty

1) has a thermal

closely resistance the

of acid brick materials

peratures perior to

temperature,

the expansion

As a whole,

shock

especially

specialty

154

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

times

the partially is operating on cause of the brick the

crystalline

silica brick hundred grains and the enough SiOz

has problems degrees to fracture. resulting The strength can take

in splash situations. and process on the bricks place

If the liquid sur-

material splashes face to version silica silica

at several bond between

Fahrenheit This volume

it (infrequently), crystalline and Abrasion is less than that temperature are concerned, physical

cooling

is probably change

due to inphase. of of resistance porosity types

of that higher

Strength and lower 1) is softer introduces ditions. posited stances terial rapid should purity vitreous brick,

Resistance: of acid brick. during the brick

and abrasion

This is because of both containing products with salts, Under pressure. grains purity will

firing

manufacture.

As far as the different some crystalline (Type alums, moist 2). Overall under these etc.,

materials

SiOz (Type weak strength wet/dry will conbe deweak in-

and weaker a specific process the pore

than the specialty limitation chemistry high

silica materials

If the within

contains internal Loose of high

spaces of the brick. fractured. types

conditions, bricks away

these suband ma-

can hydrate bond

and exert is easily Both excessive.

The silica be washed

tergranular Pressure

loss can become Effects: pressure Irreversible Cost:

silica materials changes is not of

seem to tolerate large magnitude with high of the is beto acid

changes. Growth:

However, Irreversible

frequent, brick

rapid growth (Type

be avoided

as it should

be with

any ceramic. a problem

silica materials The cost silica brick purity

as it is with of the fused which types and higher contains

red shale or fireclay. silica product manufacturing 2) is more than that phase (Type 1). This more. When compared some crystalline

cause of higher

costs.

the cost of both

of silica is at least triple

and usually

REFERENCES
1. American Society for Testing and Materials, Standard Specifications for ChemicalResistant Masonry Units. C-279-79 in 1984 Annual Book of ASTM Standards: Section 4, Construction; Vol. 4.05, Chemical-Resistant Materials; Vitrified Clay, Concrete, Fiber-Cement Products; Mortars, Masonry, pp 170-I 72 (I 984). American Society for Testing and Materials, Standard Specifications for Industrial Chimney Lining Brick. C-98082 in 1984 Annual Book of ASTM Standards: Section 4, Construction; Vol. 4.05, Chemical-Resistant Materials; Vitrified Clay, Concrete, Fiber-Cement Products; Mortars, Masonry, pp 743-745 (1984). Ritchie, T., Moisture Expansion of Clay Bricks and Brickwork, National Research Council of Canada, Division of Building Research, Ottawa, Building Research Note No. 103 (October 1975). Lomax, J. and Ford, R.W., Investigations Into a Method for Assessing the Long Term Moisture Expansion of Clay Bricks, Transactions and Journal of the British Ceramic Society,Vol.82,No.3,pp79-82 (1983). American Society for Testing and Materials, Standard Specifications for industrial Floor Brick. C41OSO in 1984 Annual Book of ASTM Standards: Section 4, Construction: Vol. 4.05, Chemical-Resistant Materials; Vitrified Clay, Concrete, FiberCement Products; Mortars, Masonry, pp 264-265 (1984). Bennett, James P., Corrosion Resistance of Ceramic Materials to Hydrochloric Acid, Bureau of Mines RI 8807 (1983). Bennett, James P., Corrosion Resistance of Selected Ceramic Materials to Nitric Acid, Bureau of Mines RI 8851 (1984).

2.

3.

4.

5.

6. 7.

16 Carbon Brick

Walter

Lee Sheppard, Incorporated

Jr.

C.C.R.M.,

Haverto wn, Pennsylvania

Carbon which cannot nor is nearly insulation

bricks readily

are that

used

in

chemical-resistant by other kinds and they their

construction of brick. Inasmuch provide selection

in

exposures cost as much by only

be handled

as their

10 times

of shale or fireclay, to mechanical

not nearly is dictated four into

resistance

abuse,

the most compelling (1) Where ject where when caustic (2) (3) to

reasons.

These reasons may be divided will be present

categories: in exsub50 ppm

HF or acid fluorides parts per million followed to heat, spillage

in concentrations conditions or on floors, of in excess be exposure

cess of 1,500

in wet/dry or in floors there

by washdown, or where

used in a vessel lining, subjected alkalis. thermal shock

continually will

wet, especially to strong

Where extreme Where there

is anticipated. for the release of compressive

are design

requirements lining. linings

stresses in the masonry (4) As a facing for brick

in a high pressure

vessel where

sudden

loss of pressures The first category

may be anticipated. is self-explanatory. Carbon-filled materials are every-

where indicated under conditions involving HF and strong carbon or graphite are, at this time, the only construction stand units these explains chemicals. The relatively their high ability than porosity any other with to a large degree is perhaps is put into to withstand types 9

alkalis. Brick made of units which can withbrick and other and to The acid units. thermal shock

of carbon

dissipate Take brick that

compressive

stresses better a pressure service

of masonry

last category

the most difficult and brought

for the reader to visualize. of shale or fireclay conditions, up to operating say, 100

as an example

vessel lined

155

156

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

psi internal hours. linings tion under the more of The

pressure, vapors suddenly liquids

and and

18OF,

then which

held Now

under

those that

conditions the operator

for

24 to 48 the at the end in a fracor the brick Because of cycling, of a dense includwill has often laid with lining, can but it and

liquids

are in the vessel will suppose drops

have permeated

and stabilized a second. the pressure, This very

at this opens result have

pressure.

of a cycle gases and

a valve and the pressure is an almost condensed brick from them

to atmospheric push for into

The that

instantaneous

the vapors

and absorbed

to leave the

and return of the brick leaving standing the

to the vessel interior. face. With the joints, additional if made pattern. conditions,

of the density brick. and more

of the brick results face material who action

these pressures spalls away, material,

are restrained

by the face materials

in the spalling

resinous

low absorption

out in a waffle down

To the viewer ing the operators look fluids. preserve good brick been misdiagnosed The cure, the bed and side joints

has not been briefed in bringing chemically, presence

on the operating and in fact of hydrofluoric

pressure

so fast,

the surface

as if it had been attacked as due to the however, the will is the brick. permit the

the condition of carbon brick, brick

acid in the contained

same. A face course The carbon the rapid brick, bleed-out with

of resin mortar,

over the face of the existing

rest of strength, reinforcing

far greater brick

porosity from behind

tensile while

of the vapors

the acid

surface

of the shale or fireclay

preventing

spalling. manufactured in the western hemisphere by only volume of its product goes into steel millsand into of this writing brick.) All been manufactured modules. The tolerances one other Because standard manufacturer sizes-in has primathe soaps, carbon it is employed shapes-splits,

Carbon brick is currently one company and the greatest other started 9 are: Length: Width + l/s and thickness: Scoring lowing is available f l/16 only metallurgical production x 2.5

uses. (At the time of an acceptable service, or 9 it has always x 4.5 x 3 available.

rily in refractory x 4.5 arches,

in refractory in manufacture

keys and wedges-are

and supply

Deviation

from

plane:

l/16 maximum l/s maximum

Out-of-square, on the

any dimension: not

basic straights,

on the shapes. The fol-

are the physical

properties. Table 16-1: Properties of U.S. Bricks

1.55 gr/cm3 77.3 kg/cm2 527.3 kg/cm2 175.7 kg/cm2 0.119 x lo6 kg/cm2 0.012 Cal/cm2/*/sec/oC

Density Tensile strength Compressive strength Flexural strength Modulus of Elasticity Thermal conductivity (K-factor) Mean coefficient of expansion (7O'F to 212F)

96.7 lb/ft3 1100 lb/in' 7500 lb/in2 2500 lb/in2 1.7 x IO6 lb/in2 36 BTu/ft2/in/hr/"F -6 1.5 x 10

Carbon

Brick

157

The thermal hind

reader

will

note

that where

domestic such

carbon

brick,

with

a high coefficient (if there is one) a considerable

of be-

conductivity, therefore, brick

gives little must

insulation insulation Note half two

to a membrane is required, also that of that of brick

it and,

thickhalf of thermal many the were carbon

ness of these expansion that struction change, agents United also brick, physical of fireclay.

be employed. brick is less than these designer, brick until

the coefficient together

of thermal

of domestic Thus, is difficult

of shale and about

mating for the

types

in a single con-

and in the areas of considerable in this hemisphere carbon through brick

close to impossible. carbon though, is available source recently, and distributors. Kingdom, There The major are no ASTM select data supplied of imported German that and is from brick

European-made

Polish-made

offered.

standards by the

or specifications manufacturer.

covering

so the user must and chemical figures 16-2:

the brick

he plans to use on the basis of the Tables 16-2 and 16-3

give comparative

for these materials. Properties of British Bricks, Two Suppliers

Table

Primary Supplier Density Tensile Compressive Elasticity Thermal conductivity at ZOOOF Expansion Apparent porosity Ash 93 lb/ft3 1000 lb/in2 9000 lb/in' 1.49 gr/cm3 70.5 kg/cm2 630 kg/cm2 1.06 x 10

secondary supplier 96.9 lb/ft' 1.55 gr/cm3

8960 lb/in'

630 kg/cm2

3.6 x lo6 lb/in2

20.0 Buu/ft'/in/hr/"F 2.5 x lo3 k cal/m/hr/DC 3.6 x lS-6/oF 21% 6.5% (also a 0.7% low ash) 8.0 x 10-6/oC

41.6 5.2 x 10 k cal/m/hr/C BTuft24in/hr/OF 8.3 x 1o+/.=c 18% 6-7% (also a 1% low ash)

Table

16-3:

Properties

of German
GERW.N

Brick
BRICK

(No Longer

Available)

and Polish

Brick

POLISH BRICK English Units only 97 lb/ft3 1150 lb/in3 10,000 lb/in2 1500 lb/in' 1.6 x lo6 BTU/ft'/in/hr/"F 3.6 x 10-6/oF

Metric units Only Density Tensile Compressive Elasticity Thermal conductivity Coefficient of Expansion Apparent Porosity Ash 1.45 kp/l 60-70 kp/cm' 300-350 kp/cm' 0.9-1.0 x 102kp/cm2 2.1-2.3 x 10' k cal/m/h/C 4 to 5 x lo-5/Y 25% 6-8 (also a 1% ash)

5%

The residue, be attacked though sources major for low ash (under most

after

burning,

(the ash) is the only for chemical either alumina are similar

portion

of the brick caustic. economical oxide-may

that

can a The the

by exposures 1%) brick chemical of the

to hydrofluoric is better exposures, brick ash-silica,

acid or to strong will provide world-wide,

Therefore, ash brick, life. not

service than the higher

of the carbon components

used for

and therefore,

and ferric

be ex-

158
petted turer that

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

to states

vary that

greatly not

though

the proportions the same.

may The

be different North The German

and the minor manufacstates it. producer data.

constituents

may

be necessarily but

American

he has never manufacturers, Table

run an ash analysis. it is privileged, however, 16-4:

he has run an ash analysis, British

and he refuses to disclose the following

The two

have supplied of Ash*

Analysis

Major Supplier Si02 A12o3 Fe2o3 ng0 Ti02 CaO Kz" Na20 Only the two British suppliers 34.70 24.0% 20.4% 1.0% 0.8% 1.5% 0.2% 0.99 have supplied this

Minor Supplier 39.029

37.27% 17.7% trace trace

trace trace
trace

The carbon The manufacturers normal

will,

of course, are all pretty only

burn well

if exposed agreed it can of about

to heat and a source of oxygen. that carbon brick can be used in in a reducas high as (340C), though

atmospheres

to a limit of oxygen)

660F

ing atmosphere 5OOOF (2760%). Since all brick

(absence linings

be used at temperatures to abrasion,

in vessels are subjected

the degree dependin comparC704, the fol-

ing on the contents commonly using lowing the the standard results,

of the vessel, at least one user has been interested brick. brick three 16-5: Employing with samples 1,000 the standard grams British abrasion

ing the abrasion resistance of a standard fireclay acid brick with that of the most
used British blasting fireclay testing Table for test, ASTM yielded technique,

(+ 5 grams) of silicon
carbon brick

carbide,

and the standard of each.

Comparative and Carbon

Results Brick

of Abrasion (ASTM C704)

Test

Fireclay

Fireclay brick a loss of weight 6.04 1

Carbon brick % loss of weight 5.46

1
8.24 1 average 6.74%
5.94 1 1

) 1
)

10.00 ) average 7.69% 7.6 )

If the two outside measurements are omitted, the following are the averages. 5:999 6.538

From ent sures masonry

the above, internals,

it would from

appear

that plates strong

the carbon brick. alkalis, and packed

brick

is not greatly construction yet stringers

differrequires

in abrasion include

resistance such hydrofluoric

the fireclay or

Where beams,

as support acid

scrubbers,

the expoand plates

Carbon Brick

159

made of carbon the crystalline ment ical Dictionary). their physical

or graphite allotropic Graphite from

are substituted of carbon, soft have parallel from

for the ceramic characterized

materials.

Graphite

is

form

by a hexagonal feel (Condensed and physical brick. Plastic, directly carbon to the

arrangeChemand and a strengths.

of the atoms.

It is relatively blocks both closely the

and has a greasy similar those chemical

These are available, cal properties graphite Caution: lead lining metals metals breaker will

United

States and British of the carbon the manufacturer. brick

manufacturers, carbon

properties are readily Do not

These physi-

available

packings

are also available. place carbon stainless steel. cell with or graphite Direct the or blocks between cathodic avoid the against and many carbon, between units.
see the

or against

contact metal

set up a galvanic of the metal. carbon-filled be inserted

and such

cause the wasting and the should

For the same reason, mortars used to join them.

For fuller

contact

carbon

A voltage
section

between

discussion,

on Design.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Working, L.C., Formed Carbon and Graphite in Industry, Ceramic Bulletin, Vol. 32, No. 2, pp 4044 (1953). Raub, H.S. and Miller, J.L., Designing with Carbon and Graphite, Chemical Engineering, Vol. 72, No. 11, pp 97-102 (May 24, 1965); Vol. 72, No. 13, pp 119-126 (June 21, 1965). Schley, John R., Impervious Graphite for Process Equipment, Chemical Engineering Vol. 81, No. 4, pp 144-150 (February 18, 1974); Vol. 81, No. 6, pp 102-110 (March 18, 1974). Sheppard, Walter L., Jr., Chemical ResistantMasonry, 2nd Edition, pp 8,9,35,36.

17 Closed Cell Foamed Borosilicate Glass Block Lining System

Mary

Lou Schmidt

Penn walt Corporation Philadelphia, Pennsylvania

A foamed in inorganic, composed is lighter bustion. cells and cut than Table

borosilicate acid/corrosion

glass block resistant glass foamed providing of linings,

lining lining

system materials chemical

is the first with

major

innovation It is closed It com-

in over half a century. completely support and thermal and does not resistance.

of borosilicate into blocks types other

to 12 lb/f?

density

excellent

easy to install composition

17-1 lists the chemical 17-I

of the block. Borosilicate

Table

: Chemical

Composition Glass Block

of Foamed

Silica
Boric oxide Potassium oxide

80%
18% 2%

The from waste to posures

lining

system

may be used to protect by both chemicals processing, metallurgical,

metal,

concrete

or FRP substrates Applicable pulp to exand paper, or-

deterioration incineration

caused

and temperature. petrochemical, among

in the chemical or to augment

and power

generation

industries, masonry

others,

it can be used monolithic

replace

conventional

or cementitious

ganic linings.
*Throughout this paper, when mention tion, in order to shorten the title, only block is referred to. There are available fect, and blocks of foamed glass that are block made of borosilicare glass, foamed form, will meet the physical and chemical is made of glass block or other similar designathe subject closed cell foamed borosilicate glass plain blocks of glass which have no insulating efnor closed cell, or are not borosilicates. Only those in a closed ce// (and, hence, liquid and gas-tight) standards of the subject material.

160

Closed

Cell Foamed

Borosilicate

Glass Block

Lining

System

161

Some such quench chimneys of molten installed block with tion tions, lining as wet

specific

applications flue and inlet/outlet

have

been

in air pollution (FGD) carbon linings for steel tanks;

control scrubbers, liners

equipment baghouses, of concrete covers furglass at

limestone

gas desulfurization ductwork; linings;

chambers sulfur

and breechings; pits, linings;

FRP stack tanks

steel or concrete petrochemical borosilicate internal of corrosion a lesser overall into nozzles, the are:

pickling

and acid storage material, or

nace and heater

and acid process vessel linings. the foamed monolithic and hot face temperatures masonry a unique little may block added also providing with up to 960F. combination weight be fabricated system one. It may also be used linings proteclining T-secdesired glass It is

alone

as a semi-refractory

withstands above The

refractory, and heat

chemical-resistant 960F conservation foamed liner

temperatures thickness. This properties block

glass block glass lining

elbows,

inserts and other borosilicate of other

custom

shapes. lining into combines Its features foamed all inorganic alkalies. renders results it rarely it virtucapillarin surface will come to permeability,

foamed

of a number

systems

Chemical not resistant ally ity

Resistance-The to weak to hydrofluoric Structure-The to penetration

completely bases, all organic closed-cell of harsh zero,

closedcell, and almost

borosilicate acids.

is resistant Closed-Cell impermeable

acid, acid fluorides

or strong of with With

nature chemicals. contact

the block liquids behind

and

absorption of the contact block with acid

at practically lining only. the operating Range-The condensates above among with of

wetting in direct

Since the membrane chemicals, block and process corrosive materials fluctuating lining

its life is extended. system chemicals organic has high resistance and the thermal lining materials. resisThis to condiex-

Wide tance

Temperature

low-temperature to withstand densates be used tions. Low pansion peratures thermal Low therefore of brick, conditions. ture at the it provides

high-temperature lining widely

gases or concentrated and allows such a block

acid conlining

at temperatures is unique in applications Coefficient of without shock can protects Thermal the of 2

the limits

of most

characteristic

temperatures low upset lining from coefficient

and acidic

Thermal allows

Expansion-A the block to itself inches of 2%

of thermal operations and the

1.6 x lO%/F spalling.

to withstand

the wide

range of temwhere insulation glass block brick; 12 costs 17-1 several the of about

It is resistant or destroy structure

or bypass materials

damage

other

the support insulation

such damage. borosilicate equivalent acidic lining, reduces reduces life. acid-resistant liquid

Conductivity-Two. power block provides the longest results

of foamed of conventional insulation

has 5.7 times

the thermal exposures in a thinner giving

even under

to completely overall longer can and substantially

operating

This attribute surface of the gradient vessels, brick. abrasion cases, the

energy Figure for

to keep a vessel at a required shows the thermal In process courses block at the block. of acid against face In both

temperature membrane for various foamed facing

the tempera-

membrane

thicknesses glass block over abuse over

of the block. be substituted serves both lower exceed the to protect

the from

A brick when block

the block temperatures

mechanical operating installed

and to

temperature of the brick re-

of the block

the limits

a membrane

and beneath

162

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

duces the ternal

amount

of brick usually

required

and thereby power, by high

cuts installation eliminates cooler maintenance remains

time costs,

and costs. on process

Due to its excellent insulation, equipment. are minimized. The outside

insulating surface

the block

the need for exand heat losses

accompanied

of the equipment

(Based on 75O F Ambient.

10 mph wind)

1S PENNGUARD

5OF. > 2OOF. 3OOF. 4OOF. 500F. 6OOF. 7OOF. OF. of foamed borosilicate glass 8OOF. 9OOF

HOT FACE TEMPERATURE Figure block. 17-1: Temperature gradient for various thicknesses

Low installed support structural tures.

Density thickness structure. support

and

installed

Thickness-Low increases

density

of 12 Ib/ft3 adds only reduces

and a thin to the struc-

relative

to acid-resistant

brickwork, design flexibility,

3 lb/f?

This feature

steel shell and

costs and permits

the construction

of tall,

free-standing

INSTALLATION The material Typically, sistant pliers 2% block integrity used but

METHODS of any lining system quality depends of the not only actual on the quality of the an

also on the contractor contractor

installation. a high-quality

Therefore, installation.

experienced

specialty a masonry

is required experienced will

to ensure

in the special

handling

of acid-resup-

brickwork application to meet the for

construction instructions. 9

have the expertise

to follow

the block I%,

Blocks

are normally a particular temperature. or substrate

x 6 and supplied of a variety thermal not for is determined gradient experience a high-quality

in thicknesses by the hot is calculated temperatures lining system

of I,

2 and of the or the that

requirements application The does

of applications.

The thickness to ensure

face temperature beyond

operating membrane mended

its recompre-

limit. requirement is a properly

The primary

Closed

Cell Foamed

Borosilicate

Glass Block

Lining

System

163

pared or the full

substrate. roundness

First,

the

uniformity substrate

of the flatness should

of a rectangular Small the deviation a near-white

substrate can and ensure metal finish such as

of a curved

be verified.

irregularities

be marked contact Carbon (SSPC-SPIO during blow

and the block of the block. steel

can be easily cut to minimize must be sandblasted must to

substrates #2) Concrete

or NACE

and maintained surfaces Old concrete

at least 5F above the acid dewpoint be free of any imperfections must be free of oil, grease or chemibe clean and dry and mainof alloy supplier. steel, FRP or or-

installation.

holes or honeycombing. Both carbon 5OF

cal contamination. steel and concrete during the must be specified substrates must tained above installation. Preparation by the block

ganic-coated Bonding

surfaces

Systems are two different bonding systems employed inorganic with the block: mortar. a ureThe

There thane choice

asphalt depends

adhesive/membrane on mechanical Asphalt which or the

or a special considerations

silica-based

and on the chemical A urethane asphalt

and thermal serves alloy and

environment. Urethane as both nent steel, material concrete Generally, acids, (within tant bases and the Adhesive/Membrane: and a membrane bonds other barrier salts the organic blocks linings elastomer steel, an adhesive to protect and the substrate. also functions the block to It is a two-compoas a moisture and the substrate. and inorganic on and temperatures is not resisby itself

to each other between

and to carbon

chemical-resistant

(or membrane) in solution range).

adhesive/membrane

is resistant chemical

organic

at various The actual

concentrations

recommended environment to them.

resistance though mortar that the

may depend

the specific is resistant ical and It

of the application.

The adhesive/membrane compounds

to strong

acids or petroleum-derived In such exposures, forms relieving and stress

the block

the compatible by

must be used. serves as a mechanvibration and of behind as high any lining as the the

The adhesive/membrane thermal of remains stresses cracks. 180F block. At through designed, at 18OF the top continuous the joint. or below of the block operating Because expansion

an elastomeric mechanism thus of the

bond

absorbing as low

contraction hot face

reducing

probability to line

elastomeric at the

at temperatures

as -40F

continuous

adhesive/membrane above the block 180F will and

temperatures between blocks of the

up to 400F.

adhesive/membrane the bottom

in the joints of the joint and remain lining. is frozen

char to different conductivity, char that portion that as a membrane, forms

depths will be the the the subl/16 block

low thermal

if properly retains

and back joint, chemical being

serving

elastomeric. In place

The glasslike charred

integrity of the

It also retains

resistance created on is then

and, although of the joint, would crack

at the

small block block. To strates, thickness

size prevents the block

large stresses from with

install the with

adhesive/membrane is applied to the he

properly troweled

prepared

adhesive/membrane a trowel.

substrate thickness.

at a minimum The coated

The adhesive/membrane also at a minimum

on the back,

sides and end of the block

764

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

is moved place between component mal brane and

back

and l/s

forth

against

the adhesive

on the substrate removes

as it is slid into may form is a twothe therIts thermal block. The

forming Inorganic

side and back joints. and the substrate. Mortar:

This action

voids that mortar when

the block

Silica-Based silica-based

The completely exceed the shock

compatible the block of the

mortar

used to bed and bond capabilities

chemical and

environments vibration chemical

adhesive/mem-

and where

and thermal resistance

are not serious to that

factors. of the 22.)

characteristics cured joints by usual The mortar tumastic, a system

are identical resistant. An prepared

are rigid,

dense and abrasion bricklaying ester of

(See Chapter concrete epoxy, the behind mortar with

may be applied or vinyl

to properly methods. membrane joints,

or steel substrates asphalt, bithe block joints paper, of lining to enmust syswith and next FRP. to alsupa

acid-resistant polyester protection

urethane

is required Because filled

sure corrosion be designed tems those pensive abrasion have

the substrate.

are rigid,

of expansion/contraction to prevent been cracks. Linings developed materials. high-cost

usually

ceramic

Combination of other than better

Incorporating that combine steels These layered stainless heat

Glass Block: the features ceramic and

A number of the They

glass block linings resist acids

and refractory alloys. energy.

are less ex-

other

and reduce is the proper

losses, saving installed limit with

In all cases, the layer conditions. over its resistance of the block FRP cannot conditions, and

to the substrate Figure The block fire, port layer loys for the of

membrane

selected of FRP

for the operating its adhesive/membrane and enhances low density reinforcing, The

17-2 shows the block extends type the temperature and pickup of design paper may

chemicals this

of static because,

electricity. without

heavy

load of other, ceramic for their

heavier

linings.

Depending be placed

on the thermal between the block of thermal

have to

FRP to

compensate

large difference

in coefficients

expansion.

Figure 17-2: Foamed borosilicate fiberglass reinforced plastic.

glass block and urethane

asphalt adhesive/membrane

over

Closed Cell Foamed

Borosilicate

Glass Block

Lining System

165

Figure the limit limit, placed distort

17-3 shows At block than on the

a steel vessel lined block for to 800F the lining block

with

block

under brick

insulating thickness

firebrick reduces This load

and acid brick. temperature for the lower

high operating under the

temperatures, or any material

a proper other

or below. alone,

The maximum organic lining is necessary

temperature is 800F. the

brickwork

960F

because

on the block at temperatures

by another

may cause the block

to creep and

above 800F.

1 1 300F

Acid-resistant fireclay

brick
membrane borosilicate glass block reduces

Figure 173: Combination lining incorporating foamed borosilicate glass block courses of brick required to lower temperature to acceptable level at the membrane.

The block the temperature sult is a thinner closed-cell Linings In heaters corrosives, perature are not too well! point ceramic blanket A densing eliminates

takes

the place lining

of additional with added resistant

courses of brick chemical

in further because the

reducing of the are

at the hot overall

face of the membrane

to an acceptable resistance over

level. The re-

nature using

of the block. high-temperature as above: used for the combustion ceramic The fiber blankets itself blanket is not of wastes or other are used to reduce chemical-resistant range, drops and, blanket below because behind potential the tembut bemonolithics block

based on the same principles and furnaces insulating steel to acids shell. temperatures highly on the thought

cause operating

are in the behind steel the

1800-2OOOF the often

acid condensates does its job the acid dewthe the it is wet, the

be a problem. to condense The ability.

However, blanket on and becomes the

insulating

The temperature fiber blanket. which

causing

attack

the steel shell and saturate

corroded

loses its insulating design this problem.

incorporates The block

foamed power

glass block the acids from

blanket and con-

prevents

reaching

on the steel and adds insulating

of its own to the lining.

166

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

The brane brief system

block

lining, or other

installed organic

with

either

its urethane

asphalt

adhesive/memare lining

or inorganic expalantions is particularly

mortar, of those

affords

a number linings

of improvements applications. the foamed where

over conventional The following glass block

acid brickwork

in many

environments

suitable. Systems by the combustion may of before coal and petroleum venting coke are acid

Flue Gas Desulfurization Stack high mosphere. condensates glass block of gases generated oxides and high that A lining

in sulfur

must

be removed system

the gases to the atThe borosilicate resistance materials withsilialre-

in an FGD temperature

be subject that

to low temperature intervals. the thermal

gases at alternating systems acid to fluctuate calcium resistance

is one of the few lining materials, shock the resistance like they

combines between

semi-refractory

of chemical-resistant the two

and the thermal out harm. Inorganic cate high and

conditions sodium flue

monolithics silicate Because

aluminate,

calcium

silicate, the dry

potassium

gunites

are able

to withstand and tend

gases at they may

temperatures. Organic linings

are porous vinyl

to crack,

however,

low acid vapors sist wet peratures An rating than only in online acid

to reach the substrate such as polyesters, at low condensates testing The many

and condense. esters or fluoroelastomers but will not accept higher tem-

temperatures is needed.

where

a semi-refractory after block

independent FGD

laboratory an Atlas lining

gave the block is expected

its highest

performance longer service after

of 10 in FGD systems systems. linings alternative

test cell program

and test installations

to give much

of which

have failed

in the same environment

a year or less.

Waste Incineration The potential phosphorus taminant is variable incineration corrosives and sulfur is almost and they 1100 the of liquid present. oxides always must to and solid Usually wastes produces fluoride, gases with a variety of of congases may

they chloride. one

are some

combination composition Before from before the they pollutants.

nitrogen,

and some hydrogen in any

but the primary incineration incinerator enter above

hydrogen be scrubbed

The exact

oftentimes

unpredictable on the

incinerator. offgases the to 600F

can be vented, Depending range ber. from While chamber dewpoint are cyclic inlet ation. Foamed is a good wide the range

of these noxious

particular 2100F.

operation, Typically, to 500 will

gases are sent

to a conditioning a scrubthe acid in the deterior-

to lower

the temperature problems with frequent ductwork laid may

incinerator

is in operation, periods during

the gases may of idleness, shutdowns mortar

remain

and corrosion operations scrubber

be minimal.

But because most

incinerators

gas condensation can cause serious over a suitable

and outlet

glass block for of acid that

in its silica-based these the areas. During block condense

membrane to the When

choice

lining

shutdowns,

it is resistant

on the surfaces can withstand

of the ductwork.

incinerator

is operating,

the high

gas temperatures

Closed Cell Foamed

Borosilicate

Glass Block

Lining

System

167

coming tance cracking.

from allows

the the

conditioning lining to

chamber alternate may

and

scrubber. the two

Its thermal environments precipitators is required chamber inevitably for

shock

resis-

between

without in conjuncIf if it some a it. But

Waste tion with

incineration a scrubber.

systems The

use electrostatic may come no special before lining process The

precipitator usually with acid barrier

or after the scrubber.

it comes after precedes itator cooling hot

the scrubber,

the scrubber, and

the gases from

the conditioning This

enter the precipproduces lining provides insulation

and are saturated consequently acid-resistant

vapor.

condensates. and eliminates

glass block

lightweight,

the need for external

on the precipitator. Smelting Operations gases in the most 600-900F range are carried primarily scrubbing. by a scrubber through is not ducts to a scrubbefore exiting operais an 100%; therefore,

Smelter ber to remove through tion may

of the contaminants, of removal after present

sulfur Because

oxides,

a stack.

The efficiency are still

some corrosives normally form

the scrubbing This

lowers

the temperature ducts leading

to the 125-18OF from the scrubbers glass block.

range, acid condensates to the stack.

in the exit

ideal area to install dewpoint during (generally shutdowns

the borosilicate a reheater 350-4500F) affecting the scrubber

In some smelters, the gas without tack from against need for support,

is installed so the acid

to raise the exit remains ducts Even with

gas above the acid and exits to chemical protection the with ata reheater, however,

as a vapor are subject

adversely

the ductwork. and exit glass block outer little added

entry

acid condensates. of the foamed (2) lower (3) insulation, provide: weight (1) chemical that which condensates, shell temperature installation eliminates

The capabilities acid external

saves on structural and easy repairs.

and (4) a quick

and relatively

inexpensive

Baghouses Baghouses verted them. contents other cloth into The flow In certain acids that with these corrosives processes, dewpoint are large rectangular collect steel structures to allow stream containing the filter contain However, acids an array bags to drop sulfuric of intheir

filter

bags that is interrupted

particulates

in flue gases flowing

up through

periodically the exhaust

hoppers. applications, can be highly frequent glass block may acid and corrosive. At operating and with startups, temperatures these fall above 450F, in intermittent below their both walls.

are in the gas phase and not a problem. shutdowns condensation bonded eats away

and corrosive

the steel baghouse

Borosilicate the high operating for external Tall Stacks Along tall stacks. eliminated with

its adhesive/membrane is eliminated.

can handle

temperatures

and the acid condensates.

Once again, the need

insulation

on the baghouse

all its other

features,

the blocks structural

lightweight support

lends itself

to lining or

Because

it adds only

3 Ib/ft2,

can be minimized

on tall stacks.

168

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

Even though safe from ture iar problem causes lining block sition Pickle from point Tanks tanks may drop

the gases entering point lining of view, materials. the dewpoint and forces to top, specify

a stack

may be above the acid dewpoint is tall (>200 ft), This presents

and

a corrosion below failure bottom and then to many

if the stack

the temperaa familglass

once it reaches the top. The wet condition maintenance. materials designer

at the top of the stack the tran-

frequent

With the borosilicate of the stack.

the stack different

need not try to determine for each section

Pickle acids brick

can be continuous temperatures pickle tanks to are lined

or batch condition with mortar needed

processes that and clean

use sulfuric metals

or other products. More than to the deallows for is a

at elevated

basic

Conventionally one course The a thinner is not bonded course

two over

or more courses a rubber

of acid-resistant

set in a suitable of brickwork

acid-resistant is usually

membrane. stability. tanks where and

to reduce

the temperature

sired level at the hot face of the membrane insulating lining over power The tank with brick and chemical membrane is first its urethane lined and better that

and to provide resistance with for pickle

of the glass block membrane, is placed

protection asphalt

stability finally

a concern.

the rubber mortar

the block over the block less brick

adhesive/membrane

of acid-resistant

laid in acid-resistant

for mechanical The foamed less installation serving brane heat, against

protection. glass block time. and the saves costs at the outset long-term costs effects by giving of strong by requiring energy protection and It also yields savings in: (I) better costs by conto the memThe serviceable years longer than

(2) maintenance deteriorating is expected lining alone.

acid and heat. as 30 years-10

life of a block the typical

lining

to be as long

acid brick

Vessel Covers The glass block and its lightweight, ties prevent Since been proper solved the used the 17% of energy costs. the linings foamed borosilicate glass block In most In some failed. only well. lining system has with have cases, in the the handled metal alloys processes be found. applicat.ions other mentioned. lining where exposures, cases, they In other system, is perfectly because suited of its resistance to lining to acid liquids and vapors properas

vessel lids.

Its insulative

loss of process heat through

the cover thereby

saving as much

the mid-1970s, extensively

installation, a corrosion lining

are performing

problem

in which

systems previously

block

an environment have worked. change

considerably to the

more expensive As industrial corrosion foamed must

and new ones are developed, to be adapted is providing system

new solutions solutions.

As it continues lining

to new applications, one of those

borosilicate

glass block

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Pierce, Robert R. and Semler, Charles E., Ceramic and Refractory tion-Part I, Chemical Engineering,81-84 (December 12.1983). linings for acid condensa-

Closed Cell Foamed

Borosilicate

Glass Block

Lining System

169

Pierce, Robert R. and Semler, Charles E., Ceramic and refractory linings for acid condensation-Part II, Chemical Engineering, 102-104 (January 23, 1984). Carpenter, W. Graham and Pierce, Robert R., Sulfuric and phosphoric acid plant lining systems, Chemical Engineering Progress, 57-61 (March 1982). Rittenhouse, R.C., Protective coatings for power plants, Power Engineering, 30-38 (December 1982). Berger, Dean M., Trewella, Robert J. and Wummer, Carl J., Evaluating linings for power plant SOI?scrubbers,Power Engineering, 71-74 (November 1980). Sheppard, Walter Lee, Using chemical-resistant masonry in air pollution control equipment, Chemical Engineering, 203-210 (November 20,1978).

18

Refractory

and Insulating

Firebrick

Paul E. Schlett Exxon Research Florham and Engineering Go.

Park, New Jersey

INTRODUCTION
From time to time it becomes necessary to design process equipment in the chemicals industry to contain high temperature reactions or to incinerate or process toxic chemicals to more inert substances. These conditions are corrosive and erosive to metals and require the use of protective barriers to prevent failure of the equipment. For low temperature 300F) conditions, various types of organic membrane linings provide corrosion resistance or special metal alloys may be used. Certain inorganic monolithic lining materials are also used at intermediate temperatures (600-1000F). These techniques for protecting against shell corrosion are discussed extensively in other chapters of this volume. However, when temperatures exceed the maximum service I imit of these types of I inings, it becomes necessary to consider materials which will either protect the chemically-resistant membrane from heat so that it will continue to protect against metal shell corrosion, or to design high temperature linings which of themselves will provide corrosion protection. These materials are normally refractories and are primarily brick, refractory concretes or other chemically-resistant masonry. This chapter provides the equipment designer with a basic discussion of various types of refractory brick linings which can be used to 3300F, depending on the process .

A number of factors affect the selection of refractories 170

for use in corrosive

Refractory

and Insulating Firebrick

171

DESIGN PARAMETERS SELECTION

WHICH AFFECT

REFRACTORY

LINING

A number of factors affect the selection of refractories

applications. be considered. This section lists and briefly it should discusses those At the outset, be remembered lining system system. Often parts type already that

for use in corrosive

which should are the refractories

factors

most vulnerable part of a h igh temperature to protect other permanent parts of the signed a result, lection tact will with the thought followed thicknesses design that the permanent be designed, lining by a decision requires suppliers

since they are designed times, systems are deshould to lining metal first sevesconwhich Because own earlier rein last as costly or should prior and the be used. As

of the equipment of lining been fixed

as to what set internal

have sometimes

since process

dimensions,

sel has already fit

been engineered refractory established taken to fit

and, in some cases, purchased. who are expected protect equipment, into the metal, unit and they last, small, linings have had they future

At this point, linings provide their do not

is made with the already

to provide

the neces-

sary thermal refractories quirements, the project. Occasions changed or reduce ment some erating formance provide to lining have, former terials tion step. ent protect may had

insulation, are often are made as well Early also

and last as long as all other consideration are too have, could areas that

components. despite often

long or perform

as they

been considered may also minimize costs. new with

consideration in a project arise when

of refractory and reduce companies

design changes later current

maintenance developed yields,

processes new products, existing

operating

conditions

to increase unsafe

provide

generation

of environmentally

by-products

equip-

in an effort to reduce costs. Because these changes virtually always provide kind of a competitive advantage, companies are very hesitant to discuss opconditions only half perform complete with the people needed for lining only outside information a fraction information for their own company. When refractory owners peroften new the changes very radically their new formulations operation due to process changes, to refractory and processes. been equipment consultants as well

in an effort as it could from of feed masimula-

Once again, given,

the resulting

as long or a fraction examination,

used samples or samples in laboratory work between

refractory

been provided

been provided tests. Enlisting

for comparative consultants which appear

performance early to

analyses design

refractory all of

in process be equal

is a very wise vastly differConse-

The designer approaches,

is frequently

faced with

early decisions in their

effectiveness.

quently, the least expensive route is selected in an effort to keep costs down. Where refractory linings are involved, a seemingly insignificant decision may have quite an impact on refractory discussion performance and subsequent process that re-

liability. It is hoped consideration temperature scribed most and honest be provided listed timization

the above

has led the reader to understand

early

of refractory lining process design work. satisfactorily to the refractory of refractory lining a description

design is important in all corrosive and/or high Since customized refractory linings can be prerequirements, The following what as complete should are parameters conditions/requirements in knowing as possible is important

to meet the performance of operating consultant/supplier. performance.

as a guide

to assist the designer

for the op-

172
A

Corrosion and Chemical Resistant Masonry Materials Handbook

variety of refractory materials are available which provide for a wide

Temperature

range of service temperatures from ambient to 3300F. When designing linings for use at certain temperatures, one should note the performance criteria for the lining (i.e., to contain chemically inert or active gaseous atmospheres, to contain molten corrosive liquids, to protect a metal shell from impact/abrasion/erosion by high temperature solid materials, to thermally insulate for process efficiency, to accept without damage any fluids which may condense when the unit is idle, or to withstand stresses due to rapid temperature cycling) . Maximum use temperatures are reported on refractory data sheets in terms of pyrometric cone equivalent (pce). In essence, this pce defines the temperature at which a small standard sized cone of the material slumps due to softening. Table 18-1 lists the pce numbers with the corresponding temperature limits and generic types of brick which fall within the various pce ranges. These reported pce's indicate a refractory's maximum use limit when exposed to a gas-fired environment; however, they may actually soften at much lower temperatures due to reactions with the atmosphere they are containing. Table 18-1: Approximate Pyrometric Cone Equivalent (PCE) Values of Generic Classes of Fireclay and High Alumina Refractory Brick Refractory Brick
Pyrometric Cone Number 12 13 14 15 ----16 17 18 19 20 23 26 27 End C -Points OF Brick Types

1335 2440 1345 2460 1400 2550 1430 2605 ,_-_---------2715 1490 1510 2755 1520 2770 1540 2805 1565 2845 1605 2905 1620 2950 1640 2985 29 1660 3020 31____-----------_____ _____l_s!h_-3!S.!J-__________ 31'h 1700 3090 32 1715 3125 33___ __174z.__3_1LO_____________ 34 1765 3205 35 1785 3245 36 1805 3280 37 _____1&2I?__~~P________-----38 _____l65Q__Q3_Q________________ 39 1865 3390

I .E 2 a S 8

I ._
a 8
E 2

Fi .E
3

a 8 8

39.L___M~__Q3S!___________________
40 1885 3425

41_____1_97____3580 .__1

______________-____

42 _____3J15___36~~_____________________

Refractory

and Insulating

Firebrick

773

For tories

pure

thermal

insulation

in very

clean

atmospheres, very

insulating lightweight

refracand

may be used. These types as brick

of refractories

are normally or refractory above

can be purchased amic fiber. When design layer lowing quality hottest actual their operating

shapes, as castables are very layers at that above

concretes,

and as cerbest to The those The folat their the at it is fail

temperatures of

high,

28OOF, refractory

it is often products. itself. limit to withstand

linings exposed

composed and strength not

several enough behind

of different temperature their hottest back-up

to the hot gases should

have a pee high enough

temperatures

to support service will

layers of refractories and should faces lining hot which hot and

the hot face layer layer

may be of lesser refractory of refractory shrink heat toward and melt through that

be operated In these

maximum layers

are against either cause

the next cases, the lining so that service

face.

faces

failure limit,

or excessive there

losses. If a hot the lining

face layer will soften Proper tures enough when and signing turers ance mortar the in

has been over-insulated its maximum and . design above of multicomponent their maximum and heated potential slump

the temperature overhead, linings the

gradient

level and approaching catastrophically involves

is a danger

on side walls

or sag when refractory

and eventually

to resist high are not exposed hot face layer

temperato temis strong creep

being sure the hot faces of all components limits, and that the weight and stresses imposed to its limit. from refractory also

peratures

to support highly test data those

on it by the rest of the lining on high temperature manufacturers to assist in deto manufacallowbe from aggressive,

insulated

Figures

load Proper

are available allowance Heat-setting

around published inert joints

problems. should be made according the mortars parts kinds who often provide necessary more

expansion data.

atmospheres; are the most that

however, vulnerable expansion These specialists

as atmospheres of the lining allowances of lining

become

and must, should

therefore, be thoroughly

minimized. discussed lining Rapid are very where ter Such not cling. not cling tening, rapid

This requires atmospheres. refractory with

be made in areas away details experience linings

aggressive design.

have had extensive harmful in most to refractory facilities,

in brick since they wareare cyhas sofcyto it for are

temperature Although face of cooling hot

cycling not the of refractory

is very expected linings

brittle.

there

have been cases by spraying lining cycling lining where

have been performed the metal extreme led to such complete

on the

lining

or. against have by found

shell of the equipment. refractory temperature the refractory limit,

attempts common, Where been

at rapid problems inert

inspections caused are often

placement.

Although

failures

on a smaller and when

scale due to thermal

atmospheres

are involved, may

exposed

to temperatures and shrinkage extreme against swings which corrosive than chemical should perform as compared

approaching occur, very where

its maximum

densification can be more temperature linings

ranges and speed of thermal products which are to be exposed Suffice desirable which are not refractories

dense low porosity Linings for

are be-

ing used to protect extreme to high say that

attack. well

be designed in cyclic

such conditions. shock-resistant

operation

temperature

applications.

Thermal

refractories

normally

are very weak

to corrosion-resistant

174

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

very

strong To this

and dense and, therefore, must moderate form of point, in the

more thermal into

shock lining

prone. details

At times, for inert

howatmosbeing the per-

ever, these properties pheres

be compromised When impurities products or altered. reducing

one product.

and high temperature of combustion rather than

have been discussed. are oxidizing

are added to the atmospheres or feed inert, stocks, refractory lining

contained atmospheres formance Atmospheric When ture pounds fluorides, pheres, duced tassium, fractories, sion results formed low of the glassy material volves form and, posed dium alpha Beta of

or when

can be radically Composition refractory sodium, chlorides, refractories

linings having lithium, sulfides, perform

are intended products potassium, phosphates in their differently

to contain vanadium along design. with

moderate or reaction and titanium the usual

to high temperacontaining and combromides, atmosrepore-

environments

of combustion

COZ, CO, Hz, and corrosive

02, extreme

care must

be taken

In these highly materials containing metals flux lining.

than

they lining

do in clean environments. may be drastically sodium, lithium, mostfireclay-type erosion

The service when they

life of hot and/or

face refractory titanium.

are exposed

to environments These alkali point of a refractory high temperature

vanadium, thus from

reducing wear point, often

the melting by particulates freezes to form

of the lining,

and so reduce Rapid

the effecand abrato bezone the face into exsothe and,

tive maximum

service temperature face during spalls

of the fluid-softened operation, a glass. The frozen in thermal by little, Little

hot face. The liquid when cooled surface or reacted between hot linings hot brick

on the hot lining surface

its melting

due to differences lining. erosion attack

expansion

and the unaffected by either metal form of alkali

the complete

can be attacked their

or spalling various

due to melting. components to bloat of the brick on their

Another expansive

on the hot faces of refractory with cause brick about melt form than

high temperature crystalline erode form

reaction phases which

faces

subsequently, to does phase alumina When sodium not of

or spall.

An example from to

is the case of alumina 1700F with beta the to 3OOOF. sodium bond alumina, alumina, very eventual refractory the thermal

at temperatures a low alumina, corundum, greater bonding

Although

temperature volume

it reacts with

aluminate. failure.

has a much the brick metals

dense corundum service

therefore, pected the hot tion lining and ture tory

disrupts alkali inert hot metal data of over face.

matrix,

causing for any

are present lining

in processes,

reduced

life can be exused on selecin the

atmosphere brick

performance performance as cool

material by judicious gradient

However, face

can be optimized

of the Alkali a good

composition

and designing as possible. by a number When

to keep the hot face brick attack

has been studied to these help have been in alkali

of refractory with the high one should

companies temperarefracBased on general

base has been established. refractories their tests which alkali

faced

exposure suppliers and

metals,

contact

and enlist

in optimizing conducted,

refractory following

selection.

experience guidelines

are some

for refractory

selection

environments.

Refractory

and Insulating

Firebrick

175

Alkalies

will

react with

fireclay the

and high alumina is that

brick. and melting

In the case of fireclay, the brick. In the tion. High fired, low for porosity, case of alumina,

reaction

of fluxing

the

reaction

involves

a mineralogical

reac-

high

purity

super duty into the brick

fireclay surface Li,O,

bricks

are

suggested penetration limits means within the the

alkali

services to 2OOOOF. The low porosity vapors with of reaction These the brick would attack. matrix.

minimizes and thus purity the and K,O with High

of the alkaline amount brick

minimizing

levels of TiO,, matrix.

Fe,O,, impurities

CaO, MgO,

combine

impurities Sixty to The duty ture from From the the

in the atmosphere alumina brick

to accelerate

percent

seems to perform range. These

best in the 2OOOF bricks brick should also be above. temperabrick protected is mentioned service

2400F

service

temperature

high fired,

low porosity afforded bricks silica

and low in the impurities by the 60% alumina above mullite, of the alumina to form reaction. plus alumina will occur, to brick mentioned is a higher and

advantage fireclay limit. with

over the super

The majority

in a 60% alumina is therefore

combined

the alkali/alumina 2400F alkali/alumina alumina brick up, 88%

is suggested. that the lining

Although of does not

reaction service

the higher

refractoriness exposure. at 24OOF well

is necessary

ensure

soften Another above alkali Refractory services sium having shock evaluate to alkali These other due shown ies, the tween commonly and good to aluminate damage. relative test

and sag during alternative

in the high temperature brick

to the 88% plus alumina brick which to thermal to evaluate for composition slags; however, a lining of different developed vapor lining. available Unit contain which types for attack shock.

and

is aluminachrome but is very companies develop spine1 When refractory susceptible continue new to alkali designing

performs

very

against

refractory has recently will

performance been

in these A magneas

products

improved

performance.

refractory

identified to thermal

resistance

it is also susceptible be exposed

to alkali by exposing

at high tests to them are

temperatures,

manufacturers at temperatures initially alkali in the Variations

have the capability of refractories those iron and the approximating of these tests An example through operation

to perform expected steel

performance

compositions procedures, called

in service.

industry,

slag tests. concerning gradients 18-I. knowledge

have been made to answer of alkali cup penetration slag test is of a typical research

questions to thermal in Figure best various In spite

and depth

of the types

current

tests and studpredictions bethe ser-

information

can only which

provide

relative

performance variables

of refractories. linings

also affect

vice life of refractory

these corrosive

atmospheres.

176

Corrosion and Chemical Resistant Masonry Materials Handbook

Figure AI2O3 Caprio tesy of

18-1: (Upper) Cup slag test on 42% AI2O3 brick. (Lower) Cup slag test on 60% brick. From Refractories for Hazardou s Waste Incineration" An Overview, James A. and H. Edward Wolfe, 1982 National Waste Processing Conference, page 148. Courthe Harbison-Walker Refractories Co.

High temperature atmospheres containing fluorides, chlorides, sulfides and phosphates also affect lining performance. Of these, fluorides are the most detrimental. Very little information is available for use in predicting service life of refractories exposed to this very corrosive halogen which, while in the liquid or gaseous state, reacts with refractories to form soluble salts of the bonding matrix and virtually disintegrates the lining. High temperature fiuoride-containing atmospheres may be experienced when incinerating many toxic chemicals. Fluoride levels in the range of very few parts per million may reduce refractory service life to months or even days. No effort is made here to suggest acceptable fluoride levels or to recommend a specific type of refractories for the service. Con-

Refractory

and Insulating

Firebrick

177

sultants perature they form they silica.

are available fluorides. not

who

provide when

additional

guidance.

Suffice both

it to say that

spe-

cial assistance Although contact soluble do not This

is required

designing

units to handle chlorides

high and low temperformance Chlorides material when also though for use

as severe as fluorides, in both most glassy service performs the components materials. where well

also reduce and liquid

refractories salts with react with

gaseous of

states.

a refractory

composition

An excellent

refractory

in chloridecontaining refractory

temperatures in exposures

do not exceed to chlorides

19OOF is fused because of its vitby

reous or glassy morphology. Performance measuring ified into ASTM the relative C279 of refractories performance acid solubility performance and sulfides of may exposed to chlorides refractory can best be determined types in actual properties. brick lining below of different compositions various also types service A mod-

using small test panels of different relative

and physical of refractory

test using an HCI solution

can also give insights in chloride performance, are norshell. One lining so by and lining or the for an and not be done the gaseous vametal the may for

containing but mally por that method

environments. influence form. refractory detrimental by sulfates only limits of the attack lining in the liquid portion Consequently, refractories

Phosphates are only attacked dewpoint which all parts

and phosphates by these are above when units as operating insulation is no good closed

at temperatures of the lining liquids dewpoint. exceed

in the cooler

near the This

corrosive the vapor are operating

is to design

using external temperatures. shell, becomes inside. unsafe

insulation However,

at relatively

low pressures design

temperatures to limit through, cell foamed

the metal

the use of external since there shell section 17). the (Chapter

condensation either from

in a refractory the outside

means to observe

the shell for hot spots or glass block

areas where alternative phosphates only With lining gradient to the this

has corroded on

See the

borosilicate

The condensation refractory

of aqueous lining but to lining lining,

solutions toward the also will both

of fluorides, metal severely

chlorides, carbon

sulfides

in a refractory in mind,

shell can be detrimental corrode alternate temperatures

steel shells.

it becomes as related a refractory

necessary

to consider operating

designs to improve and the thermal

performance through

system.

OPTIMIZED LINING As stated shell from excessive tories; the tains limit shell metal A hot

THERMAL

GRADIENT

DESIGN

THROUGH

A REFRACTORY

earlier,

the function and overheating. as the most when designed

of a refractory One normally significant lining high above. the system Two

lining

is to protect protection characteristic also effectively process

the metal against of refracprotect conused to

corrosion temperature against

considers may

protective temperature lining shell designs.

however, corrosive

a properly corrosion materials refractory

gas stream

mentioned lining

designs commonly with lining

shell corrosion shell

are hot and cold

has been constructed

thicknesses

178

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

proportioned temperature dense, there condense. Hot where the

in a manner above will But be no attack

which

allows

the

metal

shell

to be maintained liquids which corrosion.

at a would the

the vapor

dewpoint

of the process. components high

If none of the gases conof the process temperature sulfates low for attack

of the metal the gaseous in

shell by corrosive

in cases where designs are

steel shell, a hot shell design would shell used than high, perhaps stream. the hot shell greater They shell. refractory lining the

not be effective particularly 0.5 wt %, sulfides however,

in minimizing and/or

applications are present required the shell memone conin proc-

process

are impractical, In these lining

temperature to insulate

esses such as 12OOF or less due to limitations to achieve externally A cold brane structs ditions metal brane. forming Otherwise, protection. Other conserve minimize high especially pected, able, using shell. the shell Care to raise its temperature above

in materials

and thickness

cases, it is not uncommon the dewpoint. to protect will is designed

an impermeable In this design, be resistant enough

on the shell from refractory within should the kinds energy experienced

deterioration so the hot

to heat exposure. face material range the environment that

to the conto keep the memof per-

in the operating effective be taken will

and thick of the design lining

temperature

impermeable is capable

to ensure

effectively

at the maximum

temperatures

anticipated

in the equipment. no corrosion efforts through to to the is exexpanby

membrane of and hot failures

be damaged

thermally the result Three liner limit

and provide of overzealous measures gradient lining

are sometimes unit efficiency.

improve

can be taken

the possibility if the

of such a failure. face refractory of higher lining use temperature

First,

the thermal should of the service

temperature,

brick

be as steep as possible, material temperature support back is not availthe brick

maximum the of

and if a refractory design creating refractory the

maximum

Second,

in such a manner and metal

as to allow Third, supports

for thermal

sion without Since

excessive brick

stresses in the lining. ledge are very different

a combination

refractory often physical linings

to the metal the same comfor assistance measdurto entheir

even within suppliers

positional in obtaining ures. IFBs ing high sure that maximum Brick

classes, the designer necessary

should

contact properties

refractory

and in applying to shrinkage

the above and melting design exceeding

used as back-up temperature the back-up use limit.

are also subject Care should exposed

operation. linings

be taken

in gradient

are not

to temperatures

Shapes When designing a refractory available custom-made brick lining, one should lining consider fit into using brick sound manu-

shapes which lining. volves facture. into brick brick.

are readily

and which to allow to fit

provide onto

the most structurally power presses for brick brick normally

To have bricks the costly Other special

a precise

a vessel in-

fabrication molds

of molds and firing. times

shape alternatives dimension,

involve

air ramming method quality

compositions results in costly pressed to those for

wooden/metal Special

The latter but of inferior are often

shapes of proper shapes.

to the machine

shape delivery

very

long as compared

standard

Refractory

and Insulating

Firebrick

179

Bricks

are

commonly

made

in standard blocks, assistance

configurations in selection sound should

known

as straights, from shapes brick

arches, refractory

keys,

wedges,

rotary which

kiln provide

etc. Numerous

guides are available of standard linings. carefully

suppliers

and combinations With the above sition, used, spelled analysis and select

required and for

to provide of the for brick

structurally brick that

guidelines, physicals use those

the designer

examine in which

the compofor use is to be

of all manufacturers fit the description

offered

in the thermal

ranges required

the processes

the equipment

and requirements

out above.

REFERENCES
1, Caprio, view, Mech. Modern J.A. and Wolfe, H.E., Refractories for hazardous waste incineration, an over1982 National Waste Processing Conference (Book No. 100150). Am. Sot. of Engrs., New York, NY. Refractory Practice, Harbison-Walker Refractories Co., Pittsburgh, PA,

2.

19

Specialties

PART A PORCELAIN BRICK

Walter

Lee Sheppard, Incorporated

Jr.

C.C.R.M., Havertown,

Pennsylvania

Porcelain marily dye purity they for (1)

brick

are used as linings cleaning, there brick (2) all in combination

very product with

occasionally purity,

where (3) high

the wear

need is priresistance, In the and batches so

ease of

and (4) high strength, industry, of colors. visible. Chemical clay clay,

(5) best chemical inter-batch residues so that

resistance. contamination earlier

in particular, Porcelain They

is concern are white, porosity,

about

from

are easily The of baked fined burning most alumina, blends stitute the plasticity, aluminum of

have zero

and the surfaces as ceramic clay;

are glass smooth, wear made Kaolin clay). point

may be easily cleaned. Dictionary coated white clay; defines or glazed bole; porcelain with largely is de(kaolin) which, a fusible has a high substance. white fusion

as (china refractory In the the

argilla; purity,

porcelain

A whiteand is the (40%

due to its great plus impurities of chemical (a mixture as a general power, high product

of all clays.

It gives the composition and water. and electrical of kaolin form term for

as mainly porcelain,

kaolinite

55% silica) together body strong silicate porcelains

manufacture of the

the manufacturer and spar to conas defined in that possess good to a white hydrated pure,

sand, clay Dictionary bonding product.

and ball clay) and fire. those clays

he will

Ball clay,

Chemical

refractories,

and which relatively

burn

or cream-colored

These clays are fine grained,

. .

. used as bonding and plasticizing agents or chief ingredients a sodium and po. ., floor and wall tile. Spar is primarily
180

Specialties

181

tassium purer higher ucts

silicate the must

and

is used as a flux, and the higher temperature. used to form manner analyses vary, they from of the but

and to lower the percentage that

the firing of alumina are fired

temperature. in the mix,

The the

ingredients the mix in this to chemical will What

be the firing

Because terials, basic relative content, only son with tory acid trated will the

the bodies naturally bodies from

to produce not

the prodmafrom of the or The only

are made

occurring to year,

mixed as the

or quarried deposits

varies considerably, can only be indicated

manufacturer materials terms. and other

manufacturer,

year

and compositions do determine data is based with

in general phases.

is the crystalline on the identity brick porcelain blocks make

phases of the mineral of these (or tile) in comparilaboraacid, concen-

all analytical that forms chemists and and for of fired know,

characteristic As most equipment, fluorides, alkalis slowly etch

is an absolute

chemical-resistant glass and porcelain Some but they strong halogen

is zero porosity. very except (other satisfactory hydrofluoric as hot than such

resistant fused boiling

to almost alkalis. them,

all harsh chemicals acids

corrosives,

concentrated

hydrofluoric)

or attack the

can still serve, even in such exposures, (other (A1203) than a regular body) for a

economically specific tor. For high increases,

long periods. particular of alumina point (38-40% a 95-98% scale vary 9 at 98-99% are fired body, porcelain of alumina increases, with the percentage present is a determining must facalso

In selecting service,

As the percentage the softening example, strength

the hardness less than be fired is fired

of the end product 15% alumina, at about

rises, and the firing probably will body alumina) body from 6-7

temperature

be increased. up to a 2200Hardfor a high those for for shale,

a regular body and Mohs to

at approximately (1600-1700C). body, and 7-7.5 figures with

2400F

(1200-13OOC).

An 85% alumina

2700-28OOF

(1500-155OC) nesses on the strength acid brick body, which

at 2900-3100F for a regular Compare these

alumina.

in the ranges 1900-195OF the alumina the cost of very content, regular high

(1040-1070C)

and 2 1 OO-2200F Obviously, brick lining. a vessel will and except mated

(11 50-1 2OOC) for f ireclay. the higher body brick there of the cost of a porcelain brick for lining class, porcelain (which will

the higher For example, be roughly

10% of that involving of the firing

for porcelain temperature),

of the 85% alumina be little

for

services

temperatures

can be approxidifference and body and

as a percentage

in the performance The following mineralogical (3840%) mixing Pressing ufacturers, more by W.D. ing and Ames, porcelain them, may brick is zero

of the materials. table provides a comparison of the after may regular body brick. selecting

the physical high

properties strength

composition

and the

In manufacturing, be done

the raw materials, prior to firing, either but whatever

and proportioning by casting system

be formed, Any may (John Jones

or pressing. the man-

in a number

of ways, number

is used, the end from

requirement detailed

porosity.

of shapes are available glazed or unglazed. to either Berard Introduction State

and in a variety information M.I.T. by G.T. Kingrey, Testing,

of thicknesses, be referred Wiley and M.F.

The reader desiring to Ceramics, ProcessPress, Industrial University

and Sons), or Ceramics: (Iowa

Iowa).

182

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

BODY PROPERTIES Regular FIRED DENSITY HAP.DNE?& POROSITY (Mh Scale) Dye Test) Zero at 100,000 100,000 5,000 (Unglazed) (Glazed) 10.4 3.2 Section) Section) 10,500 15,000 SPECIFIC GRAVITY .087 2.41 lbs/cu.in 6-7 lbs/sq.in. psi psi psi psi 17.0 3.7 Zero at 100,000 psi psi psi psi psi in/in/OF lbs/sq.in. Body High Strength 2.80 .lO lbs/cu.in. eody

(Fuchsine

COMPRESSION TENSILE

STP.EXGTH

140,000 8,000 20,000 25,000 x lo6 x 10m6 ____ 400

STRENGTH

MODULUS OF RUPTIJFE MODULUS MODULUS LINEAR PUNCTURE OF RUPTURE OF ELASTICITY THERMAL

x lo6 psi x 10-6 400 in/in/OF

EXPANSION (3/S" (l/SM

STRENGTH

kv/in. -___ 5.6 0.89

kv/in 6.9 0.63%

DIELECTRIC
POWER

CONSTANT (1 mc)

(1 mc)

FACTOR

THERMAL

CONDUCTIVITY

8.4

BTU/sq.ft./in/hr/'F

approximately

10.0

COHPOSITION

(Fired) 75.0% 15.0% 10.0% 50.00 10.0% 2.0% 38.00 100.0% 100.0%

GLASSPHASE HULLITE QUARTZ ALUMINA (3A120j*2Si02) (SiO,) (A1203)

The designer least expensive with an acid similar. brick

may note that lining, lining,

if he requires feasible

the most cleanable to mate porcelain of thermal

surface, brick

yet the are quite

it is entirely since their

as a facing

coefficients

expansion

The author wishes to thank Mr. Zoltan Szilagyi, of the Lapp Insulator LeRoy, NY, for his assistance in preparing the above paper.

Company,

Specialties

183

PART B BASALT BRICKS

Hans J. Hoffmann Abresist Corporation Indiana

Urbana,

WHAT

IS RAW BASALT? deposits can be found and mineralogical veins. is usually for column shaped. only These columns and augite stand appear surface. Generally, these rare. olivine in many parts of the world For rock and occur with varying the raw

Raw basalt external basalt deposits

characteristics

compositions.

example,

out of the tertiary plugs or bedded face of basalt

era are subvolcanic

in the form

of cylindrical at right augite

The cleavage as phenocrysts.

angles to the cooling and magnetite;

The base materials

basalts are composed

of plagioclase

glass is relatively

MANUFACTURE Dense, of fused The poured to two material with made mm mold select

OF FUSED basalt with

CAST uniform

BASALT structure and is required melted material crystalline for the manufacture (125OOC) and

cast basalt. raw into days basalt where to is mined, molds. a uniform temperature hardness crushed, is raised at 2300F is placed in a specific structure. flat surfaces for pipe for sand or iron achieve The solidified and fine in the annealrange, for up This gives the can be lined systems the are 21

ing furnace,

and lowered

its extreme or

and resistance. shapes. Standard flat to tiles. procedures. standard casting Thicker Cylinders

Fused square for

cast basalt

is cast in many

rectangular or centrifugal spun and tiles.

in static

Wall thickness thickness

ranges from

centrifugal

cast cylinders

30 mm

statically

cast cylinders

liners can also be made.

CHEMICAL

ANALYSIS composition of basalt SiOz

A203

The average analytical

Name

is:
Amount -45-48% -14-16% -12-14% -lO-12% -8% -6% -2% Trace I

Formula

Silica Alumina
Iron oxides Calcium oxide Magnesium oxide Potassium and sodium oxides Titanium oxide Manganese and sulfur

Fez03and CaO

Fe0

MgO K,O and NazO TiOg Mn and S

184

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

About cates

45% of the (primarily

iron

is as magnetite

compound,

Fe304, and about

55% in sili-

augite).

THE

USE OF FUSED The manufacture ago.

CAST BASALT
of the Fused fused cast cast basalt also was pioneered known under from in West Germany the registered the destructive to: tradeforces chutes, is used world-

about mark wide

60 years ABRESIST, in virtually Typical

basalt,

is abrasion all industries that

and corrosion to protect may be lined tanks, under

resistant. equipment include,

The material

of wear. equipment but are not limited separators, mixers, pressure head. under provide hoppers, or under service flumes, gravity life. conveyors, conditions. it may be said that basalt linings long-maintenance-free vessels, cyclones, a liquid etc. or vacuum

Pipe systems In general,

can be operated

PROPERTIES

OF FUSED CAST BASALT

About 8 175 lb/ft3 0% by weight 71,000 lb/in2 4.2 x b3 lb/in 14-17 x 1061b/in2 4 x IO-in/in OF 8 Btu/in/ft2/hrloF About 7OOF 10,000 ohms

Hardness Mohs scale (diamond = IO) Density Water absorption Compressive strength Bending strength Modulus of elasticity Linear thermal expansion (at 2OOF) Thermal conductivity (at 200F) Operating temperature limit Electrical resistance (tested at 3 volts and 1 mm distance)

CHEMICAL
Fused times. cific are shown

RESISTANCE
cast basalt does

OF FUSED CAST BASALT

not degrade and maintains is very a smooth good. Typical surface test at all results spe-

The chemical chemicals

resistance

of the material

on the following at specific

pages. Though temperatures

chemical under

resistance his own

data to many specific

has been determined, and the operating

the user is advised conditions. may retemperature

to run his own tests to be certain Varying concentrations influences Material for will sult in different Choice of Setting

of resistance

of the chemicals on the lining.

Another chemical type sulfur conditions. of mortar

consideration is the required

proper choice

application of

of fused cast basalt tile under and setting mortars, material. silicates, The resins, and the operating

attack

proper

the bonding hydraulic

vary may

depending include:

on the exposure

Setting

materials

or mastics.

Specialties

185

Type

of Tile Construction Plain (nonplug conditions. type) tile for installation system with a mortar head.This through is recommended Mechanically under attached hole,
cast

chemical tile

A membrane

may be required.

is generally attack

not recommended The fluids

for

under a liquid resulting

tile

holds true under chema bolt or welded failure

be other. it fused of the lining.

ical situations. causing

This basalt, holds true

or moisture
of

will penetrate

of the base material,and

all types ceramics,

in premature lining materials, or any

ceramic

high alumina

silicon-carbide

ceramics,

RESISTANCE The

OF FUSED tests

CAST were

BASALT

TO BASES the resistance of the fused

following

made

to demonstrate

cast basalt to various

bases. The values cited

are average values.

Base Potash lye (25% KOH) hot, flowing Potash lye (10% KOH) stationary

Test Temperature 175F

Resistance I%) 100 Test Procedure Operational test; no weight loss after 112 days. Material Testing Institute, Neuwied, W. Germany; no weight loss after 30 days. Operational test; weight loss of 0.6% after 9 months. Materials Testing Institute, Neuwied, W. Germany, 0.9% weight loss after 30 days. Materials Testing Institute, Neuwied, W. Germany, 0.2% weight loss after 30 days. Operational test; no weight loss after 25 days.

70F

100

Soda lye (25% NaOH) hot, flowing Soda lye (10% NaOH)

175F

Almost

lOO*

70F

Almost

lOO*

Soda solution

(5% Na,C03)

7OF

Almost

lOO*

Calcium chloride (CaCl2) pasty and flowing stationary *Plate test.

7OF

RESISTANCE The

OF FUSED tests

CAST BASALT TO ACIDS

were made to demonstrate the resistance of the fused

following

cast basalt to various

acids:

186

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

Acid Hydrochloric acid (25% HCI), flowing

Test Temperature 60F

Resistance (%) Almost 100 Test Procedure Operational test up to 41 days, weight loss less than 0.2%; weak bleaching of surface. Materials Testing Institute, W. Germany; 0.6% weight loss after 30 days. Operational test; no weight loss after 60 days. Materials Testing Institute, Neuwied, W. Germany; 0.4% weight loss after 30 days. 0.003% weight loss after 7 days (19 Dec. 1968). Materials Testing Institute, Neuwied, W. Germany; no weight loss after 30 days. Operational test; 0.5 mm was etched away at surface after 20 days Materials Testing Institute, Neuwied, W. Germany; 22.8% weight loss after 30 days. Materials Testing Institute, Neuwied, W. Germany; no weight loss after 30 days. Tests by many dairies and the Kiel Testing Institute, W. Germany; no weight loss after 3 years.

Protective Layer Hydrochloric acid (38% HCI), stationary 60F Almost 100

Sulfuric acid (40% H$OQ), stationary Sulfuric acid (94% H,S04), stationary

60F

100

60F

Almost

100

Sulfuric

acid (HzSOa)

60F

Almost

lOO*

Nitric acid (65% HN03). stationary

60F

loo*

Hydrofluoric (20% HF)

acid

60F

Limited resistance*

Hydrofluoric (40% HF)

acid

60F

Limited resistance*

Propionic acid, stationary

60F

Lactic acid (8%) flowing, stationary

60F

*Plate test,

CONCLUSION Fused masonry. combined cast basalt These with linings has an established will work action place in the field well when hard particles. of chemically the chemical Worldwide, resistant attack many is in-

particularly of sharp,

the abrasive

Specialties

187

stallations

operate

under

such conditions.

U.S. installations

include

pickling

lines,

desulfurization

vessels, etc.
Acknowledgement

Technical data was taken from the Handbook of Abrasion and Corrosion ResistantABRESlST Linings by Abresist Corp., S.R. 13 North, Urbana, Indiana 46990, a subsidiary of Schmelzbasaltwerk, 5461 Kalenborn, West Germany.

PART C CORROSION OF SILICON CARBIDE PRODUCTS

John

A. Bonar Division Materials York Co.

Refractories Sohio Engineered Niagara

Falls, New

INTRODUCTION Silicon chemically ponents. range systems. carbide inert Refractories systems is a man-made made while from mineral silicon which carbide has high hardness, of refractories can be obtained is generally with a wide of bond

and can be obtained

in the form

and special com-

of bond

specialized

components

have a few types

BOND

SYSTEMS systems carbides, are generally will perform the key as: silicate glass) in assessing how any refractory, with a corrodent. Permeable includsilicon

Bond ing silicon carbide

in contact

refractories bonded (silicon

can be classified (SiOz, A120sSi02, oxynitride) nitride). refractories

Oxide Si20Nz

Si3N4 (silicon All high of these

are permeable system

to gasses and liquids. to be readily attacked

The relatively if it is suscepti-

surface

area allows

the bond

ble to dissolution

by the corrodent.

188

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

Several silicon ance components. Reaction Sintered All formed peratures They

carbides

are available

as fine grained

impermeable

high toler-

These products

can be classified as: residual Si) aid). is

Bonded

(Sic bond with

(either alpha or beta SiC bond with a sintering SIC refractories forming

permeable by standard

start with alpha silicon carbide grain which such as pressing, tamping, vibrating

methods

or cast-

ing into shapes with Reaction are then available

binders added in the mixing stage. After firing at elevated temthe desired final bond phase is formed, by all of the above techniques. of silicon a silicon metal is part to form carbide where large amounts silicon carbides are formed in the compacted

in either air or nitrogen, bonded fired

in an atmosphere carbon Residual

to react with

bond at high temperatures. after firing. Sintered as standard silicon plastic carbides forming with to form

silicon is left in the pores of these products by all the traditional such as injection of additives methods as well comin

are formed techniques

molding.

These

pacts are sintered inert atmospheres Table carbides.lA4

small amounts essentially

at very high temperatures and impermeable

a single phase silicon carbide structure. of permeable silicon

19-1 details typical

properties

Table

19-1:

Typical

Physical Properties

of Commonly

Used Silicon SIC Reaction Bond

Carbide

Al2%

Property Modulus of rupture (psi at 70F) Density (g/cm3) Porosity (%) Thermal expansion coefficient (mean) (in/in/OF) x 10 Thermal conductivity (Btuin/hr/F/ft2) Specific heat (mean cal/g/C) Permeability (cc of air/min/in2/in in H20 pressure) Chemical analysis SIC SiO;?
A1203

SiO2 Bond

SiO2 Bond

SisN4 Bond

SisN, Si20N2 Bond

SIC Sintered Alpha

3,000 2.57 14

3,500 2.58 14

6,200 2.62 15

6,200 2.60 15

47,000 3.09 0.0

80,000 3.10 0.0

2.6 109 0.28

2.6 109 0.28

2.6 113 0.28

2.6 113 0 28

2.8 174 0.34

2.2 170 0.22

3.5 90.0 8.5 0.7

3.2 88 .o 9.6 1 .6

3 .O 75.0 0.5 0.3 23.5

3.8 86.0 0.6 0.3 13.0 -

imp. 92.0

Imp. 100.0 -

SisN, Si,ONs Si

8.0

Specialties

189

CORROSION In general, phases present Permeable to their

MECHANISMS corrosion refractories There resistance are thus is determined generally more which The by the stability susceptible would of the various to corrosion phase exposed the general then significantly due to attack mechremoved

and the surface

area available

to attack. area of bond is attacked,

porosity

and the consequent are very in an aqueous exposing

high surface If Sic

the corrodent. SIC by dissolution anism as a reaction

few corrodents medium.

is one of oxidation product

of the SIC to SiO*. fresh

SiOz is usually

SIC surfaces

to corrosion.

ACIDIC

SOLUTIONS or corrosion concerned Even then, carbides below oxide, with of the permeable corrosion silicon in contact long periods carbides with
in aqueous media is

Attack generally ally, fluoric. generally Mixed resistant nitride 19-2

of the commonly up to 200 to 400 for

used bond

phases. Generhydrosafely are

SiO;? bond

phases are the most stable concentrations bonded A12036i02, low silicon common Typical carbides acidic by SiOl bond

all acids except

ppm can be handled of time if temperatures

by silicon

200-250C, phases are generally of HF. Silicon similarly strength the next nitride for oxide most corrosion and silicon bonds. these oxyTable quantities perform solutions

to acids including bonded typical with 19-2: weight

to mixed values

shows

loss and retained

products shown.6

in contact Table

for the times

and temperatures

Corrosion

Resistance of Permeable
Weight Change % -0.6 -1 .o wo.05 -2 .oo -0.6 -0.3 -0.4 -0.4 0.4 -0.1 -0.2 -0.3 -0.4 -0.2 -0.1 +0.1 +0.2 -0.1 -0.1 +0.3 % Initial Strength Retained 65 74 96 74 84 82 81 91 85 85 78 99 100 81 71 85 74 63 74 91

Silicon Carbides

Bond Phase SiO, Al,03-SiO, Si3N4 Si3N&i,ON, SiO;! Al203-Si0, Si3N4 Si3N&i,ON, SiOz Al203-Si02 Si3N4 Si3N&i,ON, SiO, Al,03-SiO, Si3N4 Si3N,-Si,ON2 SiOl A1203-SiO, Si3N4 Si3N4-Si20Ns

Corrodent 10% 10% 10% 10% 10% 10% 10% 10% 10% 10% 10% 10% 40% 40% 40% 40% 99% 99% 99% 99% NaOH NaOH NaOH NaOH HCI HCI HCI HCI HN03 HN03 HN03 HN03 H,S04 HzS04 H,S04 H$O, H,S04 H,S04 H,S04 H,S04

T, C 96 96 96 96 96

Time of Test, hr 336 336 336 336 336 336 336 336 336 336 336 336 336 336 336 336 100 100 100 100 (continued)

96
96 96 105 105 105 105 110 110 110 110 220 220 220 220

190

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

Table

19-2:

(continued)

. .30ppmHF . Weight Strength

. IOOppmHF. Weight Strength

Change %
-0.3

. .200ppmHF. Weight Strength

Change %
-0.02

. .

Bond Phase SiOs SisN4 SisN4SisONs

Corrodent

Change %
-0.3

Retained %
93

Retained %
100

Retained %
91

80%

HzS04 0.5% HN03

80%

H,S04 0.5% HN03

+o .7

97

+0.6

95

+0.2

73

80% H$04 0.5% HN03

+4.4

100

+2.4

a5

+2 .a

93

T=150C,t=200hours. Samples were 3/4 x 3/4 x 4X bars.

impermeable perform 19-3?f6 temperature Si3N4 able for generally Both or Si20N, reaction for

silicon better longer bonded reaction

carbides than periods the and bonded

of both sintered

types,

sintered refractories can weight of their

and

reaction

bonded, in Table to higher area avail-

permeable with

as shown be exposed surface bond

products lower

of time relative

loss than the oxide, phases.

refractories.

This

is due to the inertness

lower

and to the greater

Table

19:3

Typical

Resistance of Impermeable Corrosion Rate (mils/yr)

Silicon

Carbides

Corrodent 25% NaOH 50% NaOH

Reaction Bonded 73

Time of Tests
Sintered (hr)

2.5

10% 10% 20% 37% 70% 30% 50% 70% 70% 60% 95% 95% 40% 60% 85% 85% 40%

80%

10%

53%

Nay303 NasS04 HCI HCI HCI HN03 HNOs HN03 H NO3 HsSO, H2S04 H *SO4 H$SO4 H ,PO; HsP04 H3P04 HjP04 HF/lO% HF/57% HF

0.0 0.2 0.1 0.0 0.2 0.2 4.0 1.0-I .9 0.2 0 .o 0 .o 1 .2 0.0 0 .o 2.3 0.2 HNOq HNOj 100 0.2 0.2

I .a

Boiling 100 100 100 Boiling Boiling 100 Boiling 200 200-225 100 200 Boiling 225 100 Boiling Boiling Boiling 100 60 25 25

144 144 1,000 288 1,000 144 144 144 144 144 144 144 144 144 125-300 144 144 144 144 576 100 100

Specialties

191

BASIC SOLUTIONS
Silicate, well acids. 100C. fractories in contact suffer In general, Sintered products Si3N4 and with large products Na&Os Si20N, bonded weight NH40H permeable Even the acceptably solutions refractories reaction to their attack do not perform in

sodium relative

hydroxide.

bonded

and sintered up to about of these re-

losses compared

performance any

do perform and point

in this environment do not solutions.

up to the boiling

of even high concentration

DIFFUSION
All diffusion reaction increase away

REACTIONS
reactions

CONTROL
in acidic through

CORROSION
are generally existing usually products controlled increase by surthe

of the

and basic solutions the boundry Elevated carbides layer

of the reactant rate. Thus,

on the exposed velocities

faces of the aggregate the corrosion the active

or bond elevated surface

phase.

temperatures as the corrosion

temperatures sites.

and high local fluid

tend to are swept

rate of silicon

from

CHOOSING
When preferable terial ment of

SILICON
evaluating to look

CARBIDES
silicon

FOR for

CORROSIVE potential after

SERVICE use in corrosive before service, it is

carbides weight

at both

and strength screening phase study

changes exposure Retained important

deciding

on a maenviron-

of construction. developed exposures of whether may inside the

Retained is the the

strength

to the operating published strength attack

by a laboratory bond This

or from

information is an excellent extensive surrefractories by imvolprodoc-

actual

preferred

criteria.7

indicator the attack where faces. posing

has undergone to the corrodent

and how

have been. of the part strength factor

is especially can then strength

in permeable as well from

is exposed

as the outer purposes tests.

Retained a safety

information data

be used for design level found weight selection

on the retained strength

Where ume change For ucts, true cur only able phase original ways for to

retained affects

is unavailable,

loss and, if possible, criteria. and sintered generally

should

be used as general

impermeable corrosion on the surface check by for weight

materials

such as the reaction be calculated,

bonded

rates can usually of the parts. of the microstructure reaction deposits deposits be for

as the reactions after of testing

Examination detected

of the material in pores, or initiation initiation

is also desirnot to the due from

of phase alterations microcracking different

loss measurements, having

alteration products.

reaction generally for

physical

properties

Data should cubation ceptibility of parts, periods especially

a test conducted hours with or more. bond

for as long as practical Short time might differ

but alin sussurfaces

a minimum to corrosion

of 300-500 attack

tests may mask in-

on interior

phases which bonded

as compared

the bond

phases of the outer products.

in Si3N4, Si,0N2

and reaction

192
DESIGN

Corrosion and Chemical Resistant Masonry Materials Handbook

Silicon carbide brick are dimensionally stable and thus do not shrink or grow during service unless significant amounts of reaction products are present. Reaction products generally are of a lower density than the silicon carbides and may cause swelling or cracking depending on their concentration and the strength of the silicon carbide shape and the lining design. Lining design using suitable and compatible mortars is necessary for proper performance.8 The most superior performing lining is doomed to fail if the mortar is attacked, the mortar reacts with the brick, or the lining is not allowed to expand and contract freely during service.

REFERENCES
1. Advanced Refractories, Form A-2380, Niagara Falls, N .Y ., Sohio Engineered Materials

Company (1981 ). 2. Hexoloy High Performance Engineered Silicon Carbide, Form A-12024, p 23, Niagara Falls, N.Y ., Sohio Engineered Materials Company (1981) . 3. Cast Refrax Silicon Nitride Bonded Silicon Carbide, Form A-2379, Niagara Falls, N.Y ., Sohio Engineered Materials Company (1981 ). 4. Treseder, R.S., NACE Corrosion Engineers Reference Book, pp 217-220, Houston, TX, National Association of Corrosion Engineers (1980). 5. Kingery, W .D ., Introduction to Ceramics, pp 332-335 and 614-618, New York, N .Y ., John Wiley & Sons, Inc. (1967). 6. Chemical Resistance of Carborundum Refractories, Form A-2587, Niagara Falls, N.Y ., Sohio Engineered Materials Company (1981). 7. Fontana, M.G., and Greene, N.D., Corrosion Engineering, New York, N.Y., McGrawHill, Inc. (1967). 8 Sheppard, W.L., Jr., A Handbook of Chemically Resistant Masonry, Havertown, PA., C.C.R.M. Inc. (1977) , 2nd edition (1982) Marcel Dekker, N .Y .C. 9. Corrosion of KT Silicon Carbide in Acids, Form A-12003, Niagara Falls, N.Y., Sohio Engineered Materials Company (1979).

PART D GRANITE AS CHEMICALL y RESISTANT MASONRY

Dorothy

A. Richter

Salem,

GEOSS New Hampshire

INTRODUCTION
Granite is a naturally occurring, chemically resistant masonry. The silicate

minerals comprising granitic rocks are not soluble in many commonly used industrial solutions and the rock has desirable physical properties such as high

Specialties

193

strength, low permeability and low thermal expansion. Granite is a cost effective material for many industrial applications because the manufacturing process requires only the shaping of components by sawing and lapping. A further advantage is its availability in large slabs and blocks for particular industrial requirements.

DEFINITION

OF GRANITE

Granite is a natural rock that crystallized from a silicate fluid within the earth's crust and consists of visibly interlocking crystals of quartz and two feldspars with lesser amounts of minerals such as micas, amphiboles or pyroxenes. The term granite as used commercially includes a much wider range of mineral compositions than the term granite used by geologists. However, most commercial granites used in applications where resistance to chemical deterioration is important are from the quartz-rich end of the range of igneous rock compositions. They may be geologically defined by such terms as granite, quartz monzonite or granodiorite. The so-called "black granites" are chemically and mineralogically very different from quartz-rich granites and are not considered here.

INDUSTRIAL

USES OF GRANITE

Granite is most commonly used in applications where physical stability, durability and strength in a mildly acid environment are required. Historical uses of granite as a chemically resistant masonry include its use as flooring in places where "oil of vitriol" (sulfuric acid) was made. In the nineteenth century, granite blocks hollowed out to form tubs were employed by steel wire companies to hold dilute HCI baths for pickling off mill scale from the wire. Some of these tubs are still in use today. There are currently three main areas of granite use in industry, could be used more widely. Granite Surface Plates Precision ground flat slabs of granite are used in a variety of industries as inspection surfaces and machine bases. Surface plates range in size from a few square inches of surface to single plates weighing 60 tons. The surfaces can be ground to tolerances of a few 100 thousandths of an inch per square foot of surface. Granite is specified for surface plates because of its stable physical properties, resistance to corrosion and abrasion, and its availability in large homogeneous slabs. Granite Press Rolls Cylinders of granite are used in pressing pulp webs in the manufacturing of newsprint. The granite rolls range in size from 5 feet long by 2 feet diameter to 30 feet by 6 feet. The temperatur~ in the newsprint making machines range from although it

794

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

ambient sulfuric rolls desirable Granite

to around and of

175OF and the acids its resistance to

pH may pulp.

be as low Granite under web from

as 5.5 from those

the release of pulp press and the

phosphoric

by the

is used to make conditions the granite Lines

because

deterioration

release characteristics Skid Caps and Tank is used to form

of the pulp

surface.

Liners in Steel Pickling tank liners (bottoms,

Granite and skid and for

walls and covers) acid pickling solutions

and skid caps

bars in and between or Fe,(SO&

tanks

in continuous of about

lines for the deof HCI or HzS04, selected are re-

scaling of steel. The acid baths are commonly FeCi3 at temperatures and impact wear use as skid caps and tank

IO-15%

200F. quartz-rich

The granites because they

liners are generally

sistant

to the abrasive

of the sliding

steel as well

as the corro-

sion from

the acid baths.

PROPERTIES In Tables masonry gray range in values granite,

OF GRANITE 194 for and granite 19-5, the chemical vary granite. together and greatly with physical from the values properties granite for Barre, of granite the

are given.

Because

the values is given

to granite,
given

Vermont in TaIt is

a widely that

used industrial but for

The ranges of values granite be obtained

ble 19-5 are not recommended ated before

absolute

are a guide resistant

to possible masonry.

values for all granites.

the properties

a particular

and evalu-

using it as chemically 19-4: Chemical

Table

and Mineralogical

Composition

of Granites

Chemical

Composition SiO;? Ti02

A1203 Fez03

Range for Granites 66.0-72.0 0.2-0.5 13.2-17.0 0.2-l .5 1 .2-2.7 0.0-0.1 0.7-l .7 1 .8-3.8 3.5-3.8 2.7-6.0 0.5-0.9 0.2-0.7 0.0-I .o Mineral Composition

Barre, VT Granite3 68.1 0.3 16.5 0.3 1 .3 tr 0.8 2.4 3.6 5.3 0.6 tr 0.7

Fe0 MnO MgO CaO Na20

K2O Hz0 p205 co2

Mineral

Name

Chemical

Composition

Range for Granites IO-40 15-50 15-50 O-18 o-15 O-25 O-25

Barre, VT Granite 26.5 15.2 43.1 9.3 5.5

Quartz Microline Plagioclase Biotite Muscovite Amphibole Pyroxene

SiO2 KAISi30, NaAISi30&aAl2Si20S K(Mg,Fe)3(AiSi,0,,)(OH)2 KA13Si~OI~(OH)2 (Na,Ca)~(Mg,Fe,Al)~(Al,Si)~O~~~OH)~ (Ca,Mg,Fe)&06

Specialties

195

Table

19-5:

Physical Properties

of Granites
Barre, VT Granite6 0.23 0.5 10% 165 89 28.6 x lo3 4,632 2,484 3.8 x IO 2

Range for Granites45 Absorption (%) Porosity (%) Permeability (darcies) Density (lb/ft3) Shore hardness Compressive strength (psi) Shear strength (psi) Modulus of rupture (psi) average Coef. of thermal expansion (in/in/OF) Thermal conductivity (Btu/hr-ft-F) *From Reference 7 0.1-0.4 0.4-2.0 Not available 157-170 70-l 00 14-47 x lo3 3,700-4,800 1,430-3,060 3-5 x 10% l-3

The properties are its naturally as that feldspar soluble. avoided caicite the erals in dilute

that

make

granite

an attractive expansion

chemically

resistant

masonry minquartz,

low permeability, HCI and H2S04. the major with selecting (Fe&) of these a fine the area.

thermal Hydrofluoric

(in generally

the same range

of acid-brick), and mica, Contact when (CaC03)

high strength

and the insolubility acid is the only of most be avoided. quantities

of its component acid in which granites, minerals minerals

constituents

industrial of certain

are easily should be

HF must therefore more than trace a granite are soluble minerals grain There for (FeC03)

Granites

containing

industrial are highly

use. Carbonate soluble affect

such as minerals fillings, industrial

and siderite

in HCI. Sulfide in veins and crack the life of the in an industrial

such as pyrite presence In general, tals product.

in HzS04.

If present

can significantly mm)

size (<5 physical

is desirable chemical of granite almost and/or rift,

granite mineral

becrys-

cause it evens out in a smaller The physical anisotropy physical varies properties graphic

varying

properties

of the individual changes below and

are no major of granite granites

no crystallo(573OC). of causin is the plates The degree of bodies

phase changes in the major components properties in different from grains

1063F

are generally

not isotropic. of granite and

0 to 30%. The anisotropy the microcracks grain

is due to the differing to mineral directions in splitiing oriented

stress histories

ing a preferred ite. The three order strongest properties

orientation principal difficulty

in the gran-

are called

headgrain in surface

of increasing direction, in Table

the stone. in the vertical

Because the headgrain direction

it is usually

and skid caps and oriented that are a function

on the end of paper rolls. orientation.

The values of the physical for those properties

19-5 are perpendicular of specimen

to the headgrain

GRANITE Granites tions of the

FABRICATION can be quarried

AND

LIMITATIONS weighing up to 100 tons. smaller into The size limitacapacity shape. components

in blocks fractures In most

are controlled quarry The

by natural rough

in the quarry

and in the lifting granite the desired

equipment.

cases, however,

are acceptable.

blocks

are sawed

and ground

196

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

Granite

can be finished maintenance

to desired is required

surface

roughness

by lapping. other

Precision than

grind-

ing can produce Little Worn surfaces

surfaces flat to within can be reground

25 millionths of granite

inch per square foot

surface. cleaning.

components

if necessary.

REFERENCES
1. 2. 3. 4. Smithells, C.J. Ied), Metals Reference Book, 5th ed., London: Butterworths & Co., Ltd. (1976). LeMaitre, R.W., The chemical variability of some common igneous rocks,J. Petrology, 17:589-637 (1976). Murthy, V.R., Bedrock Geology of the East Barre Area, Vermont., Vermont Geological Survey Bulletin 10,121 p (1957). Kessler, D.W., Insley, H., and Sligh,W.H., Physical mineralogical and durability studies on building and monumental granites of the United States, National Bureau of Standards, Research Paper 1320 (1940). Clark, S.P. (ed), Handbook of Physical Constants, Geological Society of American Memoir 97 (1966). Krech, W.W., Henderson, F.A., Hjelmstad, K.E., A standard rock suite for rapid excavation research,U.S. Bureau of Mines RI 7865 (1974). Kranz, R.L., Frankel, A.F., Engelder, T., and Scholz, C.H.,The permeability of whole and jointed Barre granite, Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci. & Geomech. Abstr., 16:225234 (1979).

5. 6. 7.

PART PORTLAND

E BRICK

CEMENT/AGGREGATE

Larry

C. Stephans New York

Rochester,

Portland ticularly chemical in lined carbon erate dred mixes tageous The those kraft brick under degrees

cement with

exhibits a basic

good pH. linings

resistance chemical of pulp grout

to attack

by some chemicals, allows vessels. Kraft mill

par-

This cement

resistance

its use in the For example, the opdigesters

resistant lining very

masonry

and paper

digesters, alkaline Because

portland

is used in the mortar for these linings.

mix for setting

and in the backing conditions of the

and at temperatures low

as high

as several hunof caustic be advanbe-

farenheit.

It is also used in vessels storing relatively resistance mortar to media with

concentrations

as high

as 40%.

cost of portland lining. lining concrete

cement/aggregate

and the corrosion if this type use of not a portland bond

a basic pH, it would applied

of mix could

be used for an entire as a trowel A structural

is impractical tank

cause it will

to a steel substrate.

is also im-

Specialties

197

practical

for containing tight

a highly tank

alkaline and the The

liquid

because of the difficulty that would of containing a liquid

of build-

ing a liquid tank

concrete

problems ground lining brick.

be caused by leakin a concrete are hot. mix A is cement

age of an aggressive are compounded method for practical

chemical. creating cement brick

problems is above

if the tank

and the chemicals using a portland and

a complete aggregate is being

to make dense portland Portland alkali 19.37 brick resistant cement

manufactured are composed cement cm (9 inches) brick

used to line some cement cm (2.5 available

pulp

and paper mill vessels. These bricks aggregate. inches) density. (138-145 percent. are manufactured controlled conditions relatively lime slaker, They, cm (7.625 of optimum g/cc by 22.86 for

of portland presently by 6.35

and a highly measures The a brick is apinches).

The portland

aggregate is 2.2-2.3 proximately

is specially

selected

its alkaline

resistance

and is sized to produce available brick of these

The density lb/ft3). kg/cm

achieved

in the currently strength psi) with

The compressive (6,000-8,000 by combining proportions. to form frequent They

4,220-5,625

a cold water cement, are then brick

absorption aggregate, pressed which and is ex-

of 4-6 weight The bricks and water cured cellent under

the portland The bricks cement

in carefully controlled use. find the

a portland

for lining media tank,

These bricks of alkaline the smelt caustic tion,

use in Kraft

mills because of the amount regeneration storage material application tanks, industry systems, and the corhaving

encountered.

are used in the liquor the liquor resistant can be used in any

the causticizer, any corrosion

storage

tanks.

of course,

rosive alkaline proper brick. cement

conditions. care must

As with be exercised

of construcof portland

to insure the proper

20 Ceramic Tile

William Department College Rutgers Piscataway,

H. Bauer of Ceramics

of Engineering University New Jersey

Ceramic types glazed ticular with where of tile interest

tile are:

is made glazed

from wall tile;

nonmetallic

minerals

which quarry tile.

are thermally properties. tile; purpose traffic

proc-

essed at high temperatures ceramic mosaic tile;

to attain decorative

the desired thin tile

engineering and special

The basic tile. Of parbricks

glazed and unglazed

glazed and un-

in industrial similar thickness

applications to that of tile (1 3/s-41h)

is slip resistant is required.

In addition,

compositions the greater

are used in heavy

applications

GLAZED

WALL

TILE is 5~6 thick, and scored required 4% x 4% designs. Many ANSI should tile finish. an impervious interior glaze over a nonvitreous amount of this type (absorbof tile use. A small 198 types foot A137.1 suitable or larger; it is available in various findefines also and of tile

This tile generally sizes, backs glazed for and for wall with tile plain as not ishes, in hand to freezing flooring, decorated

surfaces, or expected

in bright,

matte

and crystalline standard impact tile

and sculptured conditions.

The governing of glazed does not for flooring

to withstand traffic,

or be subject residential

and thawing

are suitable

in areas subject

to moderate

as in most

some commercial manufacturers the intended a matte wall tile

areas. However, specifications exposure. Glazed or crystalline is made with for

cover this type usually

be relied

on to determine

suitability has a heavier

glaze, with Most ent) body

and is intended

Ceramic Tile

199

also is made with an impervious or vitreous body suitable for more demanding exposure to moisture and/or freezing. All wall tile is glazed, the majority with a bright (shiny) or matte (dull) finish. Some tile is made with a crystalline (crinkly texture) glaze, which is more abrasion-resistant than either the bright or matte glazed tile.

MOSAIC

TILE

Mosaic tile is available in two body types-porcelain and natural clay-and is generally about Y4" thick, with a surface area of less than 6 square inches and usually is made in relatively small sizes, 2" x 2" and smaller. Typical sizes are 1 II x 1 II , 1 II x 2 " and 2 II x 2 II , and may be .. many Irregu Iar sh apes. Th e ti .1e may In be either glazed or unglazed; unglazed tile can have a wide range of natural earth colors that extend throughout the body of each tile. Additives can be mixed in with the other components for special effects: abrasives for slip-resistant tile and carbon black for conductive tile. Individual tiles generally are face- or back-mounted to form larger units in order to facilitate handling and to speed installation. Back-mounted tile has perforated paper, fiber, resin adhesive or other suitable bonding material permanently attached to the back and/or edges of the tile so that a portion of each tile is exposed to the mortar or adhesive. Face-mounted tile has a layer of kraft paper applied to the face of the tile, usually with water-soluble adhesives, so that it can be easily removed prior to grouting of joints. Unglazed Porcelain (frostproof) tile is made by firing refined ceramic materials, resulting in a vitreous or impervious tile that is dense, smooth, highly stain- and wear-resistant. Its appearance is characterized by clear, luminous colors or granular blends. It is also available with a non-slip abrasive surface in 1" x 1" squares only, in certain colors. Glazed Porcelain (frostproof) tile has the same body as unglazed porcelain tile with one of the following glazes applied to the surface: a clear (transparent) glaze, ceramic glaze, textured glaze, metallic or special decorator glaze. Unglazed Natural Clay (frostproof or nonfrostproof) tile is made from unwashed clays which produce a dense, abrasion-resistant body having a rugged and slightly textured surface; the face is tough enough to minimize slipping, yet is easily cleaned. This tile also is furnished with a slip-resistant face in 1" x 1" squares only, in limited colors. Glazed Natural Clay (frostproof or nonfrostproof) has the same body as unglazed natural clay tile with one of the following glazes applied to the surface: clear, ceramic, metallic or decorator. Conductive Tile is an impervious ceramic tile with additives which minimize electrostatic build-up and explosion hazard in rooms where explosive gas mixtures are used-hospitaJ rooms and laboratories. Both the tile and the installation should comply with the National Fire Protection Association Bulletin No. 56A.

QUARRY This

TILE is an unglazed tile, with a surface area of 9 square inches or more, Y2"

200

Corrosion and Chemical Resistant Masonry Materials Handbook

available in %'1 thickness. Tile thicker than %", the same process, is termed packing house tile, brick.

made of the same materials by or "packing house" or "dairy"

PAVER

TILE

As the name implies, pavers are used primarily for floors and are similar in appearance to quarry tile. (In the usual parlance of chemical resistant masonry, II Pavers," whether brick or tile, are considered to be units 1" or more in thickness.) They are similar to mosaic tile in composition and physical properties, but are relatively thicker (Y2" typical) and larger (6 square inches or more). Typical ..II tile sizes are 4 x 6 II , 6" x 6 II an d8 " x 4" . A summary of the common tile products is given in Table 20-1. However, it should be noted that large sized units of wall tile up to 12" x 12" and floor tile up to 24" x 24" are now being commercially manufactured. A listing of common ceramic tile definitions is provided at the end of the chapter . Fired ceramic products-tile, brick, etc.-are inherently chemically resistant to most acids and bases. However, successful utilization in severe chemical environments requires a combination of physical and chemical characteristics. Such factors as flatness, regularity, and h igh strength to resist traffic (floors) and movement of substrate surfaces; good bonding of mortar and grout; hardness; and resistance to freezing and thawing are all important for many applications. The manufacturing process for tile and other structural ceramic products involves: proportioning and mixing of suitable raw materials; forming into required shapes; drying and firing to the proper temperature to develop the required properties. Two forming techniques are commercially used in the ceramic tile industry. Most tile is formed by the dry press method which involves the preparation of granular particles, either totally dry or with up to 7% moisture, which is forced under high pressures into the proper shape and dimensions in metal dies. Other tile, quarry and pavers, and brick are formed by the continuous extrusion of a plastic clay mixture through a properly shaped die, with the clay column being cut into the required dimensions. Tiles have been successfully made from a wide variety of materials, including inorganic industrial wastes. However, there are two basic types of commercial tile compositions: porcelain and talc/pyrophyllite. In porcelain, the mixture usually consists of several types of clays to provide the required forming characteristics; fluxing materials, primarily feldspar, to develop the low melting glass for densification and strength, and flint-silica to establish a structural skeleton. There are clay materials found in nature which contain a sufficient mixture of minerals to provide these functions with little or no additions. Talc tile compositions were developed in the United States to provide MgO which is beneficial in retarding or preventing the moisture expansion of the tile structure which leads to crazing (cracking) of the glaze during service. Because of the softness and slipperyness caused by its crystalline morphology, talc is very beneficial in the dry press forming operation. Pyrophyllite, although differing chemically from talc has similar physjcal characteristics. and is used in dry press-

Table 20-I
Tile and Description Glazed Wall Tile Nonvitreous body, matte or bright glaz Nonvitreous body crystallineglaze Vitreousbodv, matte or bright glaz Mosaic Tile Porcelain body, unglazed Porcelain body, glazed Natural clay body, unglazed Natural clay body, glazed Conductive

: Summary

of Ceramic

Tile Products
Nominal Sizes (inches)

Suitable Uses All interior walls, in residential, commercial and institutiona buildings. All interior walls, as well as light duty residential floors and countertops. Interior walls,countertops, refrigerator and chemical-tank linings and exterior areas subject to freezing. All uses, interior or exterior, floors and walls; especially suitable for bathrooms, kitchens and swimming pools. Interior or exterior walls in residential, commercial and institutional buildings: decorative inserts with above Swimming pool Iunways; floors of porches, entrances and game rooms in the home; floors and walls of commercial, institutional and industrial buildings. Walls in residential,commercial and institutional buildings: decorative inserts with above tile. Hospital operating rooms and adjoining areas, where required to safely dissipate dangerous charges of static electricity. Exterior or interior; from moderate to extra heavy duty floors in all types of construction.

Limitations Not suitable for floors or areas subject to freezing. Not suitable for areas subject to freezing. Not suitable for floors.

/16

thick: 4Xx4%,6x4%,6x6

None except limitations imposed by installation method and grout Not suitable for floors. Exterior use requires special frostproof body. Exterior use requires special frostproof body. Requires special installation procedures according to NFPA No. 56A. None

Xthick: 2x2

1 x I,2

x 1.

Quarry Tile

Paver Tile

Same as quarry tile.

None

X thick: 3 x 3,4 x 4,6 x 3,6 x 6, 8x4 3/4 thick: 6 x 6.8 x 2%,8 x 4.9 x 6, 9x9 3/,thick: 4 x4 /thick: 4x4.6x6.8x4

Sizes shown are those considered typical by the governing industry Standard, ANSI A137.1; many more sizes and shapes are produced by tile manufacturers. Special purpose tile which combine properties of several of the above types also are produced.

202

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

ing tile quire bodies from

by

some

manufacturers. mixtures, with of feldspar 40-60% natural part

These clays talc

tile added

compositions for workability.

are primarily

talc

or re-

talc/pyrophyllite can range

Some mixtures mixtures

a small amount from 6% tale/61% Whether

to reach the desired while to 38% talc/l2% low melting materials

degree of vitrification.

Talc

talc/pyrophyllite pyrophyllite.

can vary processing ingredibemechanism existed

pyrophyllite develops i.e., the agent

porcelain, reacts with

clay or talc compositions,

the thermal the

of these ceramics ents for tween which densification; the grains bonding

a relatively removal for

glass from

the fluxing

of the other ware. the final

and provides this liquid

of most

of the pore

space which forms

of the formed of densification and its particle

On cooling, product.

a glass which parameters; The miIn it is many acces-

acts as the the sory

The amount

of glass formation cycle.

and the degree composition minerals there to tile Because difficult porcelain crostructure addition,

is determined object surface will show

in part by the forming and the firing quartz pores. unaffected and isolated found products. for final

size distribution,

of such a fired embedded of the provide bodies, large may be both chemical excluding

and other

in a matrix variations

of glass and fine-grained connected in compositions

mullite

crystals.

commercially, However,

composition

glaze if any, will

SiOz
A1203

be found

in these ranges:

KNaO CaOlMgO Fez03 TiOz

68-74% la-22% l-3% 0.25-l% 0.25-l% 0.25-l%

Natural paver tile,

clay would

tile

compositions,

as might range:

be found

in typical

red quarry

or

be in the following
SiO*
A1203

KNaO Fe203 Fe0 Ti02 CaOlMgO

65-70% 13-18% 2-4% 3-5% 2-3% 0.25-l % 0.25-2%

As noted However,

previously,

talc

and talc/pyrophyIlite would show:

compositions

vary

widely.

an estimate

of the compositions
SiO*
A2o3

MgO KNao
Fe203

Ti02

60-75% 15-25% 2-20% 0.25-2% 0.5-l% O-0.5%

It should composition. tics and any been cific little chemical

be noted Normal tile composition

here that meeting

tile

is not usually primarily the

specified deal with

or sold by chemical physical characterisThere for tile has speis

specifications those toward

specifications development

is satisfactory. of compositions

research

directed With

resistance.

the exception

of hydrofluoric

acid, ceramic

Ceramic

Tile

203

a highly facturers isfactory

chemical-resistant and products for certain with types

material. physical

Most

installers

have evolved characteristics

a list of manuwhich are sat-

and chemical

of applications.

TILE

STANDARDS Two standards National and The organizations Standards American PA 19103). testing and There installation (TCA) Society ANSI labeling standards are only Standard Individual and they 3 feet. permissible 137.1 These Tile are utilized (ANSI, for Testing 137.1 of ceramic two in the ceramic 1430 Broadway, and Materials tile. tile industry. New York, 1916 standard the ANSI The NY Race for 108

American 10018)

Institute

(ASTM, industry

St., Philadelphia, manufacturers Series contains als such Council standard practicable they may distance defects required shown procedures installation There Standard describes HCI may and of

is the recognized

In addition,

and the ANSI grades National

118 Series deals with of tile recognized Standards Institute in color,

materi(ANSI): although from a blemthe are

as adhesives. of America to vary

by the Tile

and the American tiles

grade and seconds. manufacture. in shade, than not ANSI

grade tile

is as perfect

as it is commercially visible

are harmonious as seconds grades, tile deal but may

are free from graded in standard

spots and defects

more

have minor which

ishes and defects or cracks. test in Table

is free from uninstalled

structural tile

lists the ASTM standards,

standards with destructive

describe

methods. 20-2.

which both

These tests encompass in Tables additional 20-3 and 20-4. relating ASTM Resistance for room specifications

and nondestructive

as shown are three Method a test 10% time Method

Tables to tile. of

20-5 and 20-6 list the ANSI interest. ASTM C-650-83 Substances, of tile in 10% tile conC627 a four Tile

and material

standards of Ceramic

of Test for procedure solutions chemical

Tile to Chemical immersion

involving

temperature In addition, except

KOH in any for

24 hours.

it also states that acid, at any ASTM requires The

be tested

solutions, Floor of the an annual

hydrofluoric

centration, Standard foot which Council square

and temperature Evaluating specimen publishes for tile

it may be expected Tile Installation installation Handbook (Tile Council Specification of chemically other ASTM for into

to encounter. Systems, to

facsimile

be evaluated. the design for

of America

for Ceramic regarding of America, resistant

Tile Installation and writP.O. Box 326, clay and shale physical acid is deex-

gives suggestions NJ 08542). Units, of The the In addition the test brick,

and detailed installation for a test sulfuric for tile, C279-79

information

ing of specifications Princeton, Masonry type properties scribed. posing loss. Writers that all units conjunction nonmetallic named of with bricks.

Standard evaluation procedure acid for

Chemical-Resistant covering

is designed

to specifying crushing

standards approximately

solubility

in sulfuric

involves to hot

the brick

/4 grains,

grains

48 hours

and determining masonry

the weight require in resistant is often

specifications including Committees ASTM

chemically (on brick) covering

resistant

usually

used,

also meet the appropriate acid-brick, tile floors

standards

written

C-15 C-279

and C-3 (on chemically for instance, in chemical

materials).

as the specification

to meet for quarry

plants.

204

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

Table 20-2:
ASTM Designation C373-72

ASTM

Standards

Title Standard Method of Test for Water Absorption, Bulk Density, Apparent Porosity, and Apparent Specific Gravity of Fired Porous Whiteware Products. Standard Method of Test for Crazing Resistance of Fired Glazed Whitewares by Autoclave Treatment. Standard Method of Test for Bond Strength Ceramic Tile to Portland Cement Mortar. Standard Method of Test for Electrical Resistance of Conductive Ceramic Tile. Standard Method of Test for Thermal Resistance of Glazed Ceramic Tile. Standard Method Ceramic Tile. for Measuring Shock of

C42460 (1975)

C48268 (1976) C48366 (1975) C48466 (1975) C48573

Warpage of

C499 66 (1975)

Standard Method of Test for Determining Facial Dimensions and Thickness of Flat, Rectangular Wall and Floor Tile. Standard Method of Test for Relative Resistance to Wear of Unglazed Ceramic Tile by the Taber Abraser. Standard Method of Test for Wedging of Flat, Rectangular Ceramic Wall and Floor Tile. Standard Method for Measurement of Small Color Differences between Ceramic Wall or Floor Tile. Standard Method of Ceramic Tile. of Test for Breaking Strength

C50166 (1976) C502 66

C60967 (1977) C648 -7 1 (1976)

Table 20-3:

Non-Destructive
Flat Ceramic Mosaic Tile X X X X X

Tests

Flat Glazed Wall Tile Thickness Facial dimensions Spacers Warpage Wedging Color uniformity Electrical properties (when applicable) X X X X X X

Flat Quarry Tile X X X X

Flat Paver Tile X X X X

Ceramic

Tile

205

Table 204:
Flat Glazed Well Tile Water absorption Crazing Thermal shock Bond strength Breaking strength Abrasive hardness *Glazed tile only.

Destructive
Flat Ceramic Mosaic Tile X X X X X X

Tests

Flat Quarry Tile X X X X X X

Flat Paver Tile X X* X X X X

Table 20-5:
A108.1-1976

ANSI

Installation

Specifications

Glazed Wall Tile, Ceramic Mosaic Tile, Quarry Tile and Paver Tile Installed with Portland Cement Mortar. Ceramic Tile Installed with Water-Resistant Organic Adhesives. Ceramic Tile Installed with Dry-Set Portland Cement Mortar or Latex-Portland Cement Mortar. Ceramic Tile Installed with Chemical-Resistant, Water Cleanable Tile-Setting and -Grouting Epoxy. Electrically Conductive Ceramic Tile Installed with Conductive Dry-Set Portland Cement Mortar.

A108.4-1976

A108.5.1976

A108.6-1976

A108.7-1967 (R1976)

Table 20-6:
Al 18.1-1976 Al 18.2-1976 (R1976) A118.3-1976

ANSI
Dry-Set

Material
Portland

Specifications
Cement Mortar, Cement Mortar

Conductive

Dry -Set Portland

Chemical-Resistant, Water-Cleanable Setting and -Grouting Epoxy. Latex-Portland Cement Mortar.

Tile

A118.4-1973 (R1976) A136.1.1967 (R1972) A137.1-1980

Organic Adhesives for Installation Tile. Ceramic Tile,

of Ceramic

206

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

CERAMIC Backing. Balanced tiles. Beating called Body.

TILE Material

DEFINITIONS used as a base over which at the perimeter a finished tile is to be installed. will not take full

Cuts. Cuts of tile

of an area which

Also the same size cuts on each side of a miter. installed above the floor tiles (See Cove). in a flat plant. Method is Block. beating Term A wooden in. portion of a ceramic product and to the material top of immediwhich tile with it is made. a convex of a bond radius corner. coat to the back of the ceramic tile on one side. Used for finishing block used to embed

Base. One or more rows of tile

refers to structural from

or mixture Bullnose. wainscot Buttering. ately Cement

A trim

or turning tile

of an outside

The spreading is placed.

before Body

Cap, See Bullnose. Tile. Tiles with The surface materials. Tile. Made from of of tile. Method of installing ceramic tile with portland a junction tensile cebea special electrical body composition while or by methods retaining other resulting normal properties conductivity a structure made from with a mixture cement, of sand and portspheroids, marland cement. ble or other Conductive in specific physical ment Cove, tween Conventional mortar. A trim tile with wall one edge a concave course and the floor in fired tile. or excised detracts on the wear surface. surface which is readily appearance observed or serfrom the esthetic facial decoration occurs a ceramic in relief and which tile. radius. Used to form critical the bottom or to form an inside corner. stresses. can be finished portland

properties

Installation.

Crazing. The cracking Decorative fdgebonded Embossed. Facial Defect.

which

glazed or other

Tile. Tile with A decoration That

on the surface.

Tile. See Pregrouted portion

of the tiles

to be nonconforming viceability Faience Tile. Features gives a handcrafted, plastic Feature Field trim. process with Strip. A narrow

of the installed

characteristic variations in the face, edges and glaze which nonmechanical, decorative effect. Generally made by the glazed or unglazed strip of tile with a wall covering tile. contrasting or floor. color, Most texture often or design. by tile bordered

Tile. An area of tile

Fire, Bisque. The process of kiln-firing Fire, Fire, firing. velop Floating. Frostproof ditions Decorating. Sing/e. The The process tile. of maturing of firing surface of glazed ceramic process operation. the manufacture through pulling, of aligning dragging, Product mortar

ceramic

ware prior

to glazing. decorations body a kiln on the in

ceramic an unfired of ceramic with float

or metallic ceramic using

and its glaze or furnace

one firing

A step during desired A method Tile. occur.

to de-

properties

controlled rodding for

heat treatment. strips or screeds using a straightfreezing and thawing conor off. use where

edge. Also called

manufactured

Ceramic

Tile

207

G/ass Mosaic thick, Glaze.

Tiles.

Made

of

glass, usually

in sizes not

over 12

square ceramic

and /4 prod-

mounted A ceramic

on sheets of paper. coating matured

Sheets are usually from which color. crystals. fluxing

x 12. is made.

to the glassy state on a formed the coating color. with or without

uct. Also Bright

refers to the material Glaze A highglass Transparent Contains

or mixture coating with

C/ear Glaze Crystalline Fritted Opaque Raw Mat Glaze Glaze -

or without

Glaze -

microscopic

G/aze Glaze -

Uses all or part of prefused glaze with primarily finish A nontransparent coating

constituents. color. and contains color. stains of conceramic materials vitreous

A lowgloss Compounded materials.

or without with

color. or without

of raw constituents with or without or ceramic of

no prefused Semimat Speckled trasting Glazed fused Grout. Heavy lent. merits. Impervious latex cement latex ment. Marble Medium Mexican texture hexagon, types Mosaic natural Mounted mounted, attached exposed tile, Monocottura Tile. 3/s thick Tile. Duty Paver fleur Tile. to the

Glaze Glaze colors. A fused -

A medium-gloss Features impervious

granules facial

of oxides finish

composed

body

of the tile which setting for

may be nonvitreous, mix for filling with test grout. heavy

semivitreous,

or impervious. A cement Duty or chemically suitable to meet tile joints. pedestrian traffic is prevaGrouting. The process of filling Tile. Tile tile joints higher

areas where

Can be specified

values

as determined

by job require-

Tile. Has water Cement to make Cement

absorption a less rigid,

of 0.5% or less. portland cement grout grout than with regular a special portland less permeable

Latex-Portland additive grout.

Grout.

Combines

Latex-Port/and additives,

Mortar.

A mixture tile 12

of portland

cement,

sand and special than portland ce-

used for cut

bonding into tiles

to back-up x 12 polished, these tile

is less rigid

Marble

or less, usually honed dwellings

/2 to faced.

!4 thick.

Available

in various Tile.

finishes,

including for entryways

and split tiles

Tile. Suitable

in multiple

and lobbys. vary with in color, elongated various octagon,

Used mainly

on floors, up to 12

hand-made in hexagon,

and appearance. of sealers to provide Formed by

The terracotta-like a wearing either surface.

de Iis, squares

and other

shapes. Coated

Tile. See Fire, single. dust-pressed or with units material or plastic method, mixture back handling. material usually throughout. mounted or face Back mounted permanently YI to or with a facial area of less than in plain into mesh, by suitable fiber and/or coat. six square or sheets, inches. either suitable Made of porcelain

clay composition, Tile. Tile and bonded paper, back bond to the to the

an abrasive to facilitate a portion has paper

assembled

has perforated

resin or other

edges so that Face mounted adhesive

of the back of each tile is applied removed to the face of the prior to grouting

usually

by water-soluble

so it is easily

of the joints.

208

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

Mud. Natural

A slang term Clay Made Sizes. Tile. abrasive surface Tile.

for mortar. mosaic or paver tile made by dust-pressed with a distinctive, or plastic slightly reference admixnatural clays that produce a dense body

Tile. A ceramic from

method. textured Nominal Non-Slip ture, non-skid Nonvitreous tile Paver expressed

appearance. Approximate Tile with facial greater grooves size or thickness of tile for general in inches or fractions particles, Has water Tar paper of an inch. non-slip or characteristics in surface 7%. lath are used as a backing formed for due to abrasive or because of patterns

characteristics. absorption and wire or mosaic six square of more than mesh or metal natural tile clay tile

Paper and Wire. installation. Tile.

Unglazed Similar thicker

porcelain with

by the dust-pressed properties area.

method. Pinholes. Porcelain method, with Pregrouted bonded pletely partially perimeter the joint designate completely Quarry shale. Reducer. other Sculptured

to ceramic

in composition body

and physical of glaze.

but relatively

inches or more of facial of a ceramic generally

Imperfections Tile. A ceramic of

in the surface mosaic that formed unit

or paver tile, produces face. consisting (grout)

made by the dust-pressed fine gained tile tile, comor The of

a composition and sharply Tile. A surfacing

a dense, of

impervious,

smooth

an assembly fill the joint

of ceramic which completely of the tiles. or none

together seals the and may

at the edges by a material joints. cover factory of The material all, part or none

(generally may

elastomeric)

of the back surfaces include tile the front inches edgebonded having

of these between a type exposed.

pregrouted The term tile

sheets may sheet

all, part

the sheets. pregrouted tile that

is sometimes and back or more from

used to surfaces

Tile.

Unglazed

is usually

six square

in surface clay or

area and /2 to 3/4 thick. A trim Tile. Tile. Tile. Tile. unit

Made

by the extrusion the radius

process

natural

used to shorten a decorative lugs,

of a bullnose

or a cove to aninto

radius or to a square. Tile with Tile with design of high and low areas molded or of protuberances more than on the not face. spacers sides which more due than to an in space the tile for grout Has water Tile having absorption greater particles joints. 3%, but

the finished Se/f-Spacing automatically Semivitreous 7%. Slip-Resistant abrasive Spacers. rate tile 1/2. Special physical color sheets; the surface.

slip-resistance in the surface, they

characteristics or grooves

admixture,

abrasive

or patterns

Cross, tee-shaped on walls

and y-shaped, Manufactured or unglazed

are used

in installation from

to sepa%G

and floors. Glazed keys

in various tile

thicknesses

to

Purpose design special

Tile.

made to meet such

or to have special shape, or physiassemblies shock,

or appearance resistance

characteristics frost,

as: size, thickness, acids, thermal

or decoration;

or lugs on backs of friction.

or sides; pregrouted

to staining,

alkalies,

cal impact

or high coefficient

Ceramic

Tile

209

Straight Structural esthetic Substrate. Thin-Set. thick. Tile.

Joint.

The style of tile Cracks and/or of tile unit,

installation

which

features

all joints which

in alignment. from the

Defects.

or laminations structural with

in the tile body soundness tile

detract

appearances The bonding

of the installation. installation. applied approximately to facial l/s area, or to a

The underlayment

for the ceramic suitable

materials thin

A ceramic from clay face

surfacing and is fired

usually

relatively

in relation material.

made

or a mixture high

of clay and other above red heat to produce specific

ceramic

Has glazed

unglazed temperature acteristics. Trim sary sign. Unglazed color Vertical for half Vitreous Wall Tile. to freezing Units. to

in the course physical

of manufacture properties

sufficiently Various

and char-

shapes of bases, caps, corners, of the desired of uniform of which installation

mouldings, and/or

angles, etc. necesarchitectural de-

achieve Tile. Broken

an installation dense tile Ceramic

sanitary composition the body featuring 0.5%,

A hard, from Joint.

throughout, is made. each vertical

deriving row offset 3%.

and texture its length.

the materials tile

Tile. Has water Glazed tile required or thawing

absorption a body nor expected conditions.

of more than suitable to withstand

but not more than use. Usually impact

with

for interior

nonvitreous, or be subject

it is neither

excessive

Section V Mortars and Grouts (for Tile)

277

Silicate Mortars and Grouts (for Tile)

Robert Horseshoe

L. Trinklein Bend, Arkansas

SODIUM

AND

POTASSIUM

SI LIGATES containing varying proportions of an alkali metal and

Silicates silica (SiO,). Sodium

are systems Sodium silicates

and potassium

are the most commercially metal sulfate The

available silicates. fusion takes

have been produced commercially

for many years by fusion followed silicate by dissolving glass is comBoth

or pure sand with

soda ash or alkali

and carbon. This sodium in water.

place in a large open hearth furnace at high temperatures of the glass in water monly called soluble silicates Soluble before or after cooling. silicate because it is soluble are distinguished

can be produced over a wide range of compositions. silicates For sodium

the sodium and potassium of silica to alkali to the mol ratio. Sodium silicates

from each other by the ratio

(Si02/M20).

silicates the weight ratio is quite close in the form of glasses, crystalOnly a

are commercially powders silicates (hydrated

produced

line and amorphous aqueous solutions The hydrated

and anhydrous)

and solutions.

few types of potassium most important amorphous

are commercially powders. of sodium solubility

available today in the form of silicate glasses and solution rate departiclesize.Glasses rapidly dissolve in hot or cold slowly even in

and amorphous property powders

and potassium

is their

in water. The

pends primarily more alkaline water. sure. hot water. However, Potassium

on theratio,concentration,temperature,and than a silica to alkali mol ratio of 2 dissolve glasses more siliceous the siliceous than the disilicate must be dissolved silicates

Usually,

by steam under presmore rapidly The rate of solution

silicate glasses are more hydroscopic

and dissolve

in water than sodium silicates under comparable conditions. 212

Silicate

Mortars

and Grouts

(for Tile)

273

is greatly with soluble ity

increased

by

prehydration silicate

of highly powders

siliceous

systems

as is the case of

hydrous silicate The silicate

amorphous solutions. liquids most from

usually by weight properties of view

produced ratios

by spraydrying and viscosity. silicate viscosity ratios

can be identified important physical point ratio, type,

Viscossolutions. of these A 0 to silifrom

is one of the

of soluble to consider of varying viscosities with

It is important solutions comparison ceous tration sodium than

an application of the for sodium

as a function of viscosities of silicate do those solids Na20

concentration, solutions that more

and temperature. of the more increasing

silicate

4 as a function

concentration rise much alkaline sodium change solutions the sodium when

shows

solutions for

rapidly at varying ratio rapidly with mol

concenthere than

of the more

products.

Comparisons ratios of 2SiO,:Na,?O. with sodium ratios

of viscosities show that Viscosities solutions silicate very so-

at constant of potassium do viscosities that shows lutions solutions viscosity plays always cate ferent cate midity icate tion, ratio solve cation silicates, which systems solubilized gels. Hydrated form tion. tion a solid

contents solutions

silicates percent even more of similar silicate in many displayed

is a pronounced of

minimum silicate sodium viscous property form

near a weight silicates.

concentration silicate Sodium become applications.

A comparison

potassium more This which

silicate than ratios,

and concentrations sticky Silicate of high silicates action are silidifsilihusil-

are much and tacky.

counterparts. to a gum, adhesive

of intermediate

concentrated

is important

a structure bond by little obtained

such as a gel formation strengths by simply tack, indicating produced drying that

are an example by using soluble

with

the absence of tackiness evaluating produced bonds silicate setting

by the gums. This consideration through they sodium a gelling

a role when Bonds than weaker from The films films

as binders. solutions

the silicate

the silicate.

Potassium

possess very sodium

are structurally and potassium varying relative of sodium

solutions. of water loss from temperatures It was found of potassium function will of water. silicate rehydrate only and gradually by chemical all form diswhich is not sufficient to obtain modifiinsoluble that and under that silicate

rate of drying at ambient is more water retaining

and extent and elevated than

conditions and the silicates Dry films because

have been studied. complete retention

the drying

of similar

composithe higher

is a direct

of the alkalinity,

the least amount or potassium nature latter with

of sodium of the very The

of these bonds multi.valent with

complete

insolubility.

can be accomplished metal acids, etc.

such as by reaction form acidic materials with films,

ions which

or by gelation-treatment include amides, amines, metal when having silicates

acid salts, or organic medium. silicates can Soluble

compounds The organic also be in-

on hydrolysis acetates, powders suddenly depends

in an alkaline

by reaction silicate

such as aluminum exposed largely to heat, on their

and zinc to form will intumesce to

mass of bubbles of soluble work

30 to 50 times the original compounds silicate upon

volume. pH and concentraof the polyas affected by ra-

The stability The addition of silica

of acids and acid-forming has been done reactions of gelation is dependent

gives rise to the formasolutions

gels. Much The time

on the mechanization

merizationdepolymerization pH changes.

in soluble

the silica concentration

214

Corrosion and Chemical Resistant Masonry Materials Handbook

tio of the silicate and type of gelling agent. Soluble alkali metal silicate solutions are not compatible with most organic solvents. A few organic systems, particularly polyols such as glycols, glycerins, sugars, and polyethylene glycols, are compatible and miscible with alkali metal silicate solutions. Sodium silicates are widely used in all types of applications such as detergents, cleaning compounds, deflocculants, adhesives, and cements. Our interest is with cements, where soluble silicates have a long history.

SI LICA TE CEMENTS

A distinction between adhesives and cements is that the former are applied as a thin film to unite surfaces in contact, whereas the latter are viscous or plastic mixes with other materials which react chemically or physically with the silicates to form masses having strong bonding properties. Sodium and potassium silicates are important bonding agents in a large variety of ceramic cement and refractory applications because of their heat stability and resistance to chemicals. These cements are usually made in two ways: by mixing filler material with one of the soluble silicate solutions to form a plastic cement and by mixing dry filler with a powdered silicate and adding water just before use. Set occurs by loss of water or by interaction with chemical setting agents included in the formulations. The selection of sodium or potassium silicate depends on the performance requirements. Potassium silicate glasses have higher softening and flow points than sodium silicates of the same mol ratio, and potassium silicates are manufactured at more siliceous mol ratios than sodium silicates. As previously discussed, sodium silicates possess much more tack than potassium silicates. In gunning compounds, this tackiness of sodium silicates becomes important. On the other hand, potassium silicates do not effloresce as readily which is the result of reactions with carbon dioxide or sulfuric acid and moisture. Efflorescence of sodium silicates through reaction with sulfuric acid and moisture results in the formation of the hydrated salt Na2SO4.10H2O which is accompanied by volume expansion and a possible weakening of the bonding cement if these salts permeate it. Potassium does not form hydrated salts under the same conditions. Water-resistant bonds are obtained by heating the compositions to form a glassy bond or by chemical setting. Almost any acidic or heavy metal compound will react with soluble silicate to cause a chemical set. Generally, these reactions are instantaneous so these compounds must be applied as an aftertreatment. Then, only the surface film is insolubilized leaving the rest of the mass soluble. To overcome this problem slowly soluble setting agents are used to provide better insolubility as well as better pot life or working life of the complete mixture. The development of mixes utilizing various proprietory setting agents and fillers is the basis for the various chemical-resistant mortars and grouts on the market today. CHEMICAL
There

RESISTANT
are different

MORTARS
types

AND GROUTS
resistant mortars and grouts with in

of chemical

dividual characteristics designed to meet specific service requirements. Basically, these fall into four broad categories as 1) silicate mortars and grouts-air drying

Silicate Mortars and Grouts (for Tile)

215

type, silicate

2) sodium mortars

silicate

mortars

and grouts-chemical setting type,

setting

type,

3) potassium silicate mor-

and grouts-chemical

and 4) modified

tars and grouts .

Silicate Mortars and Grouts-Air

Drying

This type of mortar and grout was the first silicate mortar and grout developed and was simply a mixture of sodium silicate solution with extenders like pure silica flour, clay, silica aggregate, barytes, etc. It hardens by loss of water and requires exposure to air or heat to set. The production of brick linings with this type of mortar and grout is slow because the fluid mixture squeezes out of the thin joints if more than four or five courses of brick are laid in the same period. Also , careful drying is necessary, and usually a 30-day period is required before putting the structures into service. Because of these problems air-drying mortars and grouts are hardly ever used anymore for brick linings.
Sodium Silicate Mortars were utilizing and Grouts-Chemical first used in the Setting late teens or early 1920s when certain of reacmaterials to harden

These methods tions either into ethyl

mortars

to insolubilize

the silicate that medium.

gels were developed. agent. will decompose The reaction or grout. fluosilicate,

These consisted The setting acidic

and gelations

acid salts as a setting

agent may be

an acid or a compound in the alkaline insoluble glyceral and and other mortars sodium a strong acetate, These bonding

and liberate Typical setting

on hydrolysis

causes the mixture metallic

mortar sodium may

agents used are polyphosphates,

diacetate, amines grouts

formamide, the type setting liquid

and amides. be the and the two-component filler; with initial take or they water types may when consisting of be the one-part used. Chemical

silicate

solution

consisting sodium

entirely silicate

of powder mortars

to be mixed

and grouts

sets in 20 to 45 minutes

and final sets in 24 to 96 hours or longer depending on the temperature. continuous bricklaying is possible with these mortars because they do not require exposure tion, to air or heat to set. Because faster under their set is dependent on a chemical mortars reacand sets are generally all conditions sodium than the air-drying silicate mortars

grouts. Large quantities in industry ployed in many types

of chemical-setting of acid service. Resistant became

have been used are still em-

for the past 45 years, and mortars

and grouts

of this type

Potassium

Silicate-Chemical silicates previously. silicates

Mortars

and Grouts available in the early 19505. As siliin

Potassium was discussed cate. which they sult,

commercially

in some cases these offer mortars were substituted mortars

an advantage and grouts have better mortars easily

over sodium were developed

Consequently, potassium These they potassium do not

new chem ical-setting silicate stick

for the sodium silicate

silicates. workability and grouts. applied. Also, because As a reas dis-

and grouts

do not have the tackiness

of the sodium

to the trowel

and are more

216

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

cussed previously, ture changes brickwork. strong another

the viscosity these silicate as well

of potassium mortar and silicate

silicate grouts mortars

is not affected to flow are more and grouts out possess greater

by temperathe joints resistance of to Still do

so that Potassium

mortars

have less tendency and they

acid solutions special feature

as to sulfation, as do sodium silicate of silicate inorganic used. agents Properties

refractory. is that they

of potassium potassium

not intumesce component grouts termined strength, increasing to dissolve strength. gain more agents they ganic agents days do not

or effloresce systems

silicates. mortars solution setting and grouts and filler are supplied powder. setting as two and deagents, Mortars

Chemical-setting are available by the

consisting which setting

utilize agent setting

agents, organic like

or a combination shrinkage, porosity when Mortars

of the two. absorption,

of these mortars These burn out properties at higher setting resulting in the and

are to a large extent water of setting are more a longer state for inorganic resistance. conditions somewhat inorganic

resistance, agent. thereby prone time three to or and lower

etc. are affected Also, organic they Mortars and show temperatures. mortars without organic setting

by the choice agents

As an example,

organic exposed and strength

temperatures in shrinkage

and absorption. grouts with

to excessive because

moisture remain

agents take plastic with moisture dry grouts

significant

at normal burn setting out

temperatures. faster setting at higher

setting Also, orover setting slipping mor-

are generally setting permit 21-1

improved Under

curing with of

agents improve agents; continuous compares

the strength however, construction the properties

and porosity

of mortars

the inorganic out of line. Table tars.

and grouts danger

brickwork

of sodium

and potassium

silicate

Table

21-1:

Comparison

of Typical

Physical

Properties

of

Sodium

and Potassium

Silicate

Mortars Potassium 4500 1250 425 2% 6.7 x lO-6 9 .o 1.5 x 106 1 .7% 115

Sodium Compressive strength, 28 days, psi Flexural strength, 7 days, psi Tensile strength, 28 days, psi
Absorption Coefficient of thermal expansion, in/in/F Thermal conductivity, Btu/ft2/hr/0F/in Modulus of elasticity, psi Cure shrinkage Density (wet), lb/ft3

3600 921 560 1% 7.5 x 10-6

7.25 1.4x 2% 130

106

Modified

Silicate

Mortars

and Grouts and grouts in the powder available in cost chemical for but are higher or two-part silicate mortars form well provide setting utilize which require mixThese not and alumi-

Modified ing with one-part available grouts. water

silicate mortars and grouts in the one

have been commercially

over

a decade. mortars

mortars before These

characteristics silicate condensed

new modified

and grouts

Silicate

Mortars

and Grouts

(for Tile)

217

nut-n phosphates available The adhesion, resistance with major high

for

setting

agents. agent.

Both of

sodium mortar

and

potassium

silicates

are

this type

of setting to

advantages resistance

of this

type

and grout resistance to

include most

excellent acids, and

sulfation

blooming,

to alkalies Note: salt) and

over a pH range of 0 to 9.0, and in some cases higher. Sulfation reaction picks disruptive blooming of sodium of reaction. up water

Editork (Glaubers then to

IS the formation
silicate hydration 24 Nov. with then 1959 sulfuric

of

sodium acid,

sulfate salt

by the

which

crystallizes in U.S. Corp.

swelling

and growing, S. Mercer, Walter use of inhibiif water of in the

150% of its size-a

A good description in Chemical/y inhibits

of this process will to Robert that Masonry,

be found Pennwalt phosphate reaction tion under time,

Patent (1982)

2,914,413, pages mortars. into

granted 179-181. Tests,

See also the discussion Jr.

Resistant shown this

Lee Sheppard,

It has been however,

hardeners, in sodium

at least to some degree, silicate patentee the mortar the following 1964

sulfation-hydration long term that the editor Those

to support

are lacking pressure leach out

and the most recent can penetrate the phosphate

has advised or castable the

it can, over a period interested

and terminate

inhibition.

the literature 3,138,471 (Indiana). 3,450,548 diana). 4,030,939 search 4,221,597 search One domestic cate mortar

on this may consult granted 23 June

U.S. Patents. F. Wygant, Standard Oil

to James

granted

17 June

1969

to John

J. Petkus,

Standard

Oil (In-

granted Institute. granted Institute.

21 June

1977

to William

A. Mallow,

Southwest

Re-

9 Sept.

1980

to William

A. Mallow,

Southwest

Re-

manufacturer and castable

is currently to the

producing,

under

license,

a sodium

sili-

formulations

covered

by the

last two

patents.

22 Silica Mortars

Joseph

J. Spisak

Penn wait Corporation Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania

As noted to sulfuric picking used. ent, the them this from

elsewhere react 150% sulfate, acid, silicate the

in this

volume, sodium of water in similar a growth survive or silicate

sodium sulfate, internal

silicate

mortars, can grow with

when

exposed init is siliif in in

acid,

to form

a salt that

by hydration, in which

up as much Potassium sulfuric

as 10 mols formed is not mortars or iron, potassium of sulfuric in the

of crystallization manner very well

a consequent of potassium acid alone However, is present alums

crease in size of cates with magnesium,

and so creating

stress in structures by reaction sulfuric in such of these will form alums will then,

salt, so where

is pres-

potassium environment,

service. metals complex grow

aluminum

a combination mortars way, mortars

with

in the presence growth In 1958, problem Robert year mortars quartz

acid, and those The only

by hydration completely these

the same manner the mortars.

as sodium

sulfate.

to eliminate

use of silicate found

is to eliminate

metals for, and a silica salt. concentanks. acid,

L. Mercer filler,

a way to do just that. on a mortar acid resistant process for use in hot or cement brick the formation

He applied made from in acid storage of any growth

the following sol and crushed Silica trators, They especially in weak acid

obtained,

a patent

thus eliminating chemical

are used to bond stacks, magnesium (pH 5.5-7.0) recommended

linings

absorbers, iron,

vessels and acid concentrated salts are present. because between

are particularly where acid conditions

sulfuric They

and aluminum

are used

and up to 2OOOOF. component of contact it dries irreversibly on the strength the macroscopic for powders depends

Colloidal to insoluble materials of the gel that being

silica finds silica. is formed bonded.

use as a mortar around

its usefulness

as a binder the points

218

Silica Mortars

219

Silica silica phous

mortars

consist

of graded is a stable particles, silica

quartz dispersion highly

fillers

in combination

with particles

a colloidal of amorspheres of

binder. silica.

The binder The colloidal concentrated

or sol of discrete hydrated 1 and 100 nm. or settling

dense nonporous

SiOz, occupy Stable of several lized ticles erally against so that

a range of diameters became available siloxane

between

sols that

resist gelling by either

out for a period charge on pargen-

years

in the 1940s. bonding material by charge

Concentrated repulsion which groups. with

silica sols are stabi-

interparticle particles that

(1) an ionic separates

are kept layer percentage than about direct

apart

or (2) an adsorbed,

monomolecular, the larger

of inert

the silica surfaces in the sysamount sodium of and

to an extent tem. Particles

prevents

contact of soluble

of silanol

The larger the particle an optimum lithium,

size the greater base. Stabilizing ammonium. small, that of to so there If the silica the particle than there smaller

silica that

can be included

5 nm are stabilized the hydroxides hydroxide

bases include is no possibility growth. content

of potassium, needed of sodium IO-15%

The amount

of sodium

to stabilize

the sol is quite

of the formation

salts in quantities of magnitude are IO 50 from about

can cause disruptive

of the sol is more than visually

the order

size can be judged about 7 nm in diameter is white anions with cations sodium is a characteristic

by the turbidity. or translucence; surface layer.

If the particles above

the sol is almost

as clear as water;

30 nm

opalescence

nm, the appearance The adsorbed cloud monly stituted, with is desired. The sufficiently bonds concentration area of silica of concentration equivalent basic low step of surrounding stabilized the desired

and milky. on the colloidal form hydroxide, in mixed particle and then anioncation and the accompanying sols are most combases are to be subwhere silica pure silica with a double The

if other

the sols are deionized base. Ammonium

resin beds and restabilized

stabilized

sols are employed of two together.

in gel formation on the surface the The diameter holding interrelated. present particle

is the collision that rate they come irreversibly of gelling

particles

charge are

in contact is proportional

so that Particle

siloxane size and

are formed, surface to

particles

to the total the same ratio Thus, under to gel at of sol (b) particle evapofactors.

in a given volume

of sol. Sols having might

gel at about 10 nm particles to dried branched at their

the same rate.

conditions,

a 10% sol of

be expected

the same rate as a 20% sol of 20 nm particles. The stages by which to a threedimensional of and strengthening coalescence, rates. Among Gel these sol is converted gel network of bonds silica gel are (a) solidification chains points by of of silica contact particles, by of

particle-particle (c) shrinkage particle in colloidal

of the threedimensional is influenced concentration, size and (silica they

network

as water

formation are pH, liquids as the

a number

the presence powder

of electro(quartz) are

lytes and organic As long separate, nothing

and temperature. binder When sol) and the filler are mixed, mortar amounts a chemically use, lower of alkali setting mortar

liquid

happens.

is formed. In the pH region a decreasing tion charge of electrolytes

of interest (such as very

in silica hence small

pH values represent rate. The addias a true catametals

on the particles,

an increase

in gelling

220

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

lyst, lation proton much

in the powder and gelling producing

filler)

also reduces as in the cation involves of water

the

net repulsion Hardening silicate

effect agents

and both are not but

coaguto have include

are greatly substances

accelerated. sources.

limited liquids

case with Water

solutions, organic the constant

borosilicate is reduced. increases Since unfilled like when tance cracks hard, the residue dried

glass and similar Since with the of aggregation

miscible

the same effect,

presumably

because the dielectric a kinetic from a silica

of the medium rate of gelling by shrinkage, fibrous or hairfilm the disa sol and a

phenomenon,

temperature. evaporation crack silica larger the gel is accompanied leaving not a fragile, form sol may in the direction gel. Although particles. of drying

gel will

a continuous can bridge that soft. when

alone,

it can nevertheless is dried

act as a strong as a thin film

gel that

between less than smooth

As an example, particles, particles, was about density The

it has been found on a surface, is still is obtained by mixing Such a film further

of particles

100 nm in diameter a sol of smaller finer silica film.

it shrinks that

but the film a mixture alone but 70%,

By adding in which

series of progressively continuous volume the drying packing

dries to a

100 nm film

gave a soft film

of the silica silica packing

74% of 100 nm was obare filled tension does not craze

particles, tained or crack by smaller forces.

11.9% in which upon ones,

of 22 nm, 2.3% of IO nm and 2.8% of 7 nm, a hard film was 80.4%. because the spaces between be compressed larger, the larger particles by surface

and the

mass cannot particles to remain setting mixed

In mortar space filling Silica taking cates, mortar settle which to phase but during

use, filler tend set. over

are much fluid short mix for

but the principle period

of optimum of time before silithe can Sols solid

continues mortars occurs

to work Indeed,

against

cracking

and shrinking. an extended after periodic precipitation and progressive a period agitation during Large or heavy glycol as with which fillers

an initial resembles

is not gradual time

a relatively life of the stabilized cycles

its newly

state in consistency. making by the addition without to a third cycle without

the early two

important. The

have been freeze will generally

of diethylene cycle.

are able sols are in their

survive

freeze-thaw separate mortars

occurring. Unstabilized limitations precipitation.

if subjected must

not able to withstand Users of silica use. (I) Unlike restored colloidal taken (2) The

a single freeze-thaw

bear in mind

the following

silicate

mortars, once must storing

in which a silica

the liquid

silicate

binder

can be the be it cannot

to use after solution, and

freezing

by vigorous

stirring

to reestablish great care must

sol is broken Therefore,

by freezing, freezing. catalyst,

be restored

be discarded. and handling

in shipping, filler (powder)

to prevent the catalyst the gelling

component, Any the change

containing in the can affect

must

be that

monitored can take mortar. storage (3)

carefully. place Check with

component (curing) any timing

due to ageing

of the or

manufacturer

to determine

limitations. of the curing dry to any (gelling) mason process of this mortar, to it-too the dry

Due to the nature mix will feel very

not accustomed

Silica

Mortars

221

to handle-and Under liquid no beyond

he will want the

to add some liquid this instructions or failure state.

binder to the mix. Adding excess as to proportions

circumstances

should

be permitted.

manufacturers

will result in a very weak mortar (4) This mortar has a long green or very weak

to cure at all. after placement, work-

If disturbed

loss of bond manship The following

bond

can be expected.

Careful

and close control are typical

is vital. properties.
132 Ib/ft3 500 psi (ASTM C-307) 3,750 psi (ASTM C-396) 1,000 psi (ASTM C453) 100 psi (min) (ASTM 125 psi (min) (ASTM 10.5% (ASTM C413) 4.04.5 x 10e6 in/i&F C-321) C-321)

physical

Mortar density (wet) Tensile strength Compressive strength Flexural strength Adhesion to matte surface Brick (14 days) Adhesion to wire cut Brick (14 days) Water absorption Coefficient of expansion

BIBLIOGRAPHY
A New Inorganic Cement Mortar for Sulfuric Acid Service, Robert S. Mercer. Paper presented 14th Annual Conference, National Association of Corrosion Engineers, San Francisco, Calif., 17-21 (March 1958). U.S. Patent 2914,413,granted 24 Nov. 1959 to Robert S. Mercer. Ralph K. Iler, The Chemistry of Silica, John Wiley & Sons, NY (1979).

Sulfur Mortars

Walter

Lee Sheppard, Incorporated

Jr.

C.C. R.M., Havertown,

Pennsylvania

This chapter is based upon and enlarges on a paper published by the author in the Sulfur lnstirufe Journal, Volume 11, No. 3-4, Fall-Winter 1975.

The times. tubing, (under

use of sulfur with

as a hot-melt or natural

bonding asphalt,

agent and sealer, used alone or in has been known blocks. worked For since prehistoric low-temperature in ceramic and clay

combination

pitch

In the manufacture as vessel stoppers, 2OOF) applications,

of acids it was used to seal joints and between sulfur masonry combinations exposures. a pourable sulfur mortar

very well, and they are became widely is unknown, used but in

still used today as a replacement cast iron water the 1930s linas in which When

in specific chemical for poured

In the first half of this century

and caulked ancient

lead in making joints

in bell-and-spigot in the Caro-

pipes. The date of the first such application the joints were discovered

a long-abandoned

cast iron main was unearthed

to be poured with sulfur. The line was cast iron pipe, sulfur compositions

believed to have been laid shortly used as a joint have several advantages over lead: (1)

after the War of the Revolution.

for bell-and-spigot

The cost of sulfur is less than lead on a pound for pound basis, and the joints of lead. require only one pound of sulfur to replace five pounds

(2)

Lead joints acts slowly

require with the

caulking. iron

Sulfur

joints

do not, since sulfur point, forming

re-

at the contact 222

insoluble

Sulfur

Mortars

223

ferrous

sulfide

bonded slowly

tightly

to

both

iron

pipe

and sulfur

joint,

and increasing (3) If the pipe

in size until

the joint

is sealed (Fe + S+ the joints Sulfur without also be the

FeS). will start re-

is disturbed same manner reseating plug, then

by ground lead joints that

movements, must initially, If they as will

to leak.

At such time

be recaulked.

will

seal in the will piece require

it sealed separated.

attention, they case if a by they late of a N.J., the were leaked,

unless the joints of the joint

are actually and is knocked

are separated, accident. main, the

repouring, out

by a major again.

The writer flattened joints at first, In the in the

has seen a fire an automobile line from resealed 193Os, viaduct leaving creek water erected

set in a sulfur-jointed straightened without

water Though

the distribution themselves in Absecon a 12 except

main to the fire plug leaked repouring Creek water of main cast joints. iron or recaulking. out near pipe Though while the washed

a flood carrying five service under unsupported

supports over

inch

Pleasantville, hanging the joints new supports

16 foot continued

sections

by their If the joints into

uninterrupted

the main.

had been lead, the main would the creek.lfzrH handling with chemical sulfur and sanitary on filling cesuch The at With occurs. the sulfur

have pulled (4) Terra unlike ment pipe, alkaline cotta that pipe

apart

and collapsed clay) pipe,

(vitrified in iron

pipe

wastes can also be successfully is not the void. However, can NOT concrete though in the very pipe soluble

joined

mortar.

The joint,

chemical, joined

and relies only primarily with reacts reaction with sulfur.

pipe and other slow, chemical

hydraulic

be successfully

an adverse, material

very slowly sulfides

the interface

to produce

and sulfates.

2CaCOs + O2 + 2S + The sulfur In the for 1920s. filler sulfur types: with linings of in the joint mortars

CaS + CaS04 + 2C02 loose, is bypassed,or the same formulation pickling tanks fallsout. were marketed The de-

becomes of much inside

the construction

of brick

linings

for steel mills.

sign was one of two (I) Steel tected (2)

vessels against

rubber work with

or asphalt poured with

composition sulfur joints. brick

pro-

abuse by brick lined,

Concrete

vessels, asphalt combination and absorption) filler,

protected

a similar

lining. and density of approxiblack. coke as and

The optimum (lowest mately breeze, mortars strength The porosity silica

of handling were

characteristics, with

strength,

obtained with

a formulation and 0.5% carbon as for acid.

40% to 45% silicate may to give a strong falling fillers, or joint

55% to 60% sulfur, replaced inert to hydrofluoric general However, they

be completely mortar into into

carbon,

instance

Compositions in service.

the above

range were widely showed

employed of sulfur

the 1930s.

continuous

loss of

This was determined

to be due to crystallization

224

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

consequent occurs additives found in warmer

dimensional and/or to inhibit cycling

changes

which

disrupt Several

the mortar. manufacturers

This crystallization rates with or keepit was the Instiinexperimented the mortar, 1920s. well

naturally

and gradually and control

at ambient this

temperatures,

and at increasing

conditions.

process-plasticizing condition. did partially was

ing the sulfur that tion, and 1930s. tute

in an amorphous embodying

or plastic this

In the middle inhibit marketed

the addition a product

of up to 3% naphthalene plasticizer Gulf

crystallizainto

In a study, to determine joint and pipe vestigated sulfur efficient subjected ter. Other time tance proof of

financed the materials, number

by the Texas most effective of state, in the

Sulphur for and C.R.

Company, plasticizing Payne, their

at Mellon sulfur among ability others,

materials

mortars

Drs. W.W. Duecker admixtures prevent mix.

a large

to determine crystallization were immersion effect

to stabilize the coand mixes

in the amorphous expansion shock were to thermal

and also to reduce cast of the various in boiling over water sulfur

Samples

shock

by alternate

and ice wamortars.) period with of resisacid-

(Thermal samples at regular data The brick.s,6

has a destructive permitted Duecker information

on nonplasticized also published

to age, and tested and Payne

a considerable mortars

intervals.11~2

chemical

and construction

on the use of sulfur

most successful

and useful

of the additives

was determined

to be an ole-

fin polysulfide (Thiokol only for its use, but for tributing the total sulfur Carbide Some today it into weight to floor plant of the .20*21 The ling tanks in laying downtime. solidify ing hot course the possible months with hours. In the acid-proof usually stallations of acid-proof joint between prolonged brick brick in Canada, hot cure largest for market mixes the mix.

were sought and obtained, not A) and patents5r78fg the methods of dissolving this difficult material and disProportions were as brick 1933 of 0.6% found mortar and 1 .2%, respectively, suitable for respectively. based on The first at a Union Payne. in service of pickmortar mortar as will poura face it to be most with plasticizing

of the mix, be used

and pipe joints

acid-proof

to be laid experimentally in about by Utley laid in the 1930s with for sulfur mortars

this mix was installed the assistance is said to be still

Wedge with this mixture today with a hot

of Dr.

brick

is in the construction Sulfur mortars a resin or a silicate in the use of sulfur sulfur joint, of brick, time the structures, behind

the finishing brick, a few into construction.

of steel products.lg or in conjunction The minutes chief of pouring of the mortar, into

can be used alone is short-

acid-proof Within sulfur of the to

a combination

advantage

and the structure mortar resin slow the unit laid up with place the

may be put in service. the joints

In combination

rear course

a resin or silicate or silicate, structure curing may quickly at low may be fully

the heat of the sulfur setting so that when service.13*14 but

accelerates mor-

greatly

decreasing

and making in winter

Resin and silicate downtime

tars are extremely during sulfur,

temperatures, cured

construction

be excessive;

used in combination in a matter of is in-

and ready

for service

brick

lining

of manholes, temperature. by pouring

the cure time However, hot sulfur

of resin mortars even in winter

due to low

ground

it has been possible lining.

to cure the resin-mortared mortar

face course into the back

in such manholes and membrane

Sulfur

Mortars

225

The may and the found

sulfur

in the eaten had

joints out

of cast iron by these and

water

pipe joined After to this by

with

sulfur

mortars areas, of of losses

be attacked eventually phenomenon that the to the pressure

by sulfur-oxidizing occurred of

bacteria been

present attributed Institute sodium

in the soil in certain a number source, Dr. Duecker. (among to protect

bacteria.31023f25

of water

a study

was undertaken addition mix up to provided

at Mellon 1.2% of adequate

It was other sulfur

silicofluoride action

additives) mortars.6

bactericidal

A federal based tifying without mal jointing two shock)

specification materials for of sulfur

was written bell-and-spigot joints, II for type either

to embody cast iron hot

the requirements pipe, only (No.

for sulfuridenshock) inthe as it and

SS-C-609)

types

I for cold water This with

(no thermal (could

plasticizer, requiring

and type

or cold water

receive therdoes not From but

1 .2% Thiokol of a bactericide. sulfur

plasticizing. varies greatly becomes highly

specification the temperature. flows

clude the provision The viscosity melting is heated molten brickwork. In 1955, of sulfur 1.0% by The patent the viscosity addition and ilarly tance. carbon noted tured did 180C not point sulfur beyond (about pours

of molten 23OF) badly

up to about and tends

3OOF, sulfur to trap

like water,

3OOF the liquid

viscous.

At this high viscosity, in joints

air and cause voids a patent to the mix covering sulfur

Seymour and of

and Pascoe170btained pipe jointing materials among 30 part change sulfur Since

the modification of from at 140C 0.01 to

mortars weight

by the addition examples, the viscosity the mixture other complex of alkyl offered both without that

2-mercaptobenzothiazole sulfur

in the composition. (184F) the to simresis-

gives test data showing, of a 70 part show the

other carbon

was 350 cps, but with dropped was further mercaptans disulfides today heated will

of 0.1% (365OF). affect Another atoms in sulfur either

of 2-mercaptobenzothiazole appreciable viscosity of when that mortars 1957, It has since been shown

to 120 cps,

impairing

chemical

patent mortar

covers the use of a number compositions. Those being

of 8 to 14 have been are now in

as plasticizers. to the Duecker

no changes patent,

of consequence of which plasticizer completely was offered

are manufac-

or to the Seymour possible the addition ground, ingots

the public mortar

domain. to make form, mix the of Thiokol and thus chips, to sulfur avoid the for patcryogenically and casting and Neff.22

A procedure in powder step of melting ent in 1974,

or making

by Stump0

CHARACTERISTICS The does not fur form. which tacked use of sulfur exceed 203F a phase

AND

USE is limited for very from to applications brief the periods). rhombic where to the volume chemicals. the temperature sulcrystal rhombic, it is atand

mortars (except transition form mortar to attack

At this temperature, monoclinic than the

undergoes The Sulfur

monoclinic is resistant

occupies

a 3% greater industrial

causes the sulfur or dissolved

to crumble. by many However, sulfuric, oxidizing agents (concentrated nitric,

by strong

226

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

chromic tions, to form Sulfur

acids, and

sodium

hypochlorite), chemicals solutions which

strong (carbon

alkalis

(pH>lO), of metals

polysulfide and (copper,

soluothers). and rup-

certain

organic sulfides,

disulfide, mortars

phenols

also reacts with

of a number in sulfur

beryllium)

insoluble mortars

remain

and can grow

ture the joint. Sulfur are in use today sulfur mortars in a number of low temperature materials applications for laying soone, expomorsulin the chemical Carbon-filled carbon lutions agents may brick for industry linings and in steel mills. are still involving stainless tanks the best structural nitric-hydrofluoric steel. They this where mixture, acid pickling or a similar acid pickling sulfur mains,

in exposures under such

such as are used in cleaning brick floors It is common a shale brick to provide use as jointing cotta They for into

are also used as bonding

be spilled.

practice floor,

in nitric-hydrofluoric leaving

sures to overpour tar over the surface Besides their fur mortars used to seal terra cast iron ing wheels hardware) concrete latter used soil pipe. and and floors.

a layer of carbon-filled for the shale brick. pressure water fillers carrying to hold media

some protection materials joint pipe inserts They

for cast iron

are employed

as backup and stoneware metal arrestors. streets,

in place the caulking and for sealing of grind(pole used to anchors line set in for centers insulators and similar mortars

acid wastes,

are also employed

as casting into are still

cementing lightning in city

electrical bolts Sulfur

occasionally and concrete,

poles of parking applications by testing The monolithic uses of

meters

and machine between concrete coating tight.

Due to the slow reaction do not remain laboratories sulfur to cap

sulfur

these two

permanently

are regularly

test cylinders, and

and occasionally resistant

are employed

to prove or concrete

iron and steel molds. as a hot are subjects sprayed as a chemically of later chapters in this book.

HANDLING Sulfur not always, mortars boxed are supplied in 50 pound bags. If ingots commercially cardboard are supplied, either as cast ingots, usually, but in a of a

cartons,

or as broken the broken cast iron,

chips supplied by hand since that slowly with type over

50 to 100 pound hammer if chips pot level. wood, heats when more

these are broken

the time uniformly

comes to use them, and retains

and then

pieces (or chips

are supplied) oil or gas heater

are placed

in a par, preferably its heat. be taken A wood

The pot to prevent

is heated too

to melt the mortar.

fire gives about rapid to foam, thicken,

the best heat heating fire. to or fitting and and give off

If gas or oil either fumes. mortar Remove

is used, care should of which catches If overheated, fire, the heat should under

overheating, excessive put it out. If the steel cover

can cause the sulfur the contents do not if possible, If no cover be kept use water

of the pot may also catch or a chemical the fire with

extinguisher a tight sacking

and smother is available, the entry handy

if one is available. which be kept should

use wet burlap of rain.

wet old blankets, the pot should A workman every two

for such an emergency.Obviously, (at least once

cover to prevent

be assigned

to the pot to stir it frequently into

or three

minutes)

and to ladle out the mortar

the pails to be car-

Sulfur

Mortars

227

ried to the mechanics. building difficult

Failure

to keep agitating

the mix will result in the settling a filler-poor and weak mortar, for use. is between and and it of the pot. This will temperature make

of the filler to the bottom up an insulation to melt the mortar will melt

of the pot, creating of filler at 234F; is too

on the bottom the proper it will

or to keep it at a proper temperature pouring entrap

The mortar 255OF and 29OF. too thick. If the

If it is too hot, viscosity can become too high and the mortar mortar thick, air and cause bubbles or a pipe joint. To cool it, add solid material to the melted by the mortar manufacturer and, if cor-

voids in the brickwork material Spacing the mortar chips,

in the pot which will reduce the heat. Keep stirring. /4 thick, are provided is to be used to lay brick, they are normally of the opposite is poured shipped as 3% of the or-

der. The bricks are set on the chips, three to a brick, spaced at two adjacent ners and at the mid-point leaving the joint into the joint Pouring brick, ing until open. The mortar into the vertical joints, void.

side, and the bricks are laid /4 apart It flows down all the of it. the chips, filling air in front

and into the space under the brick, around to bring the level of the fluid

space under the brick and rising in the adjacent is continued all the joints

expelling to XI from

the top of the the pourThe main the the

then the mason moves a few feet along the joint and continues the mortar to the first in the first joints area poured poured should be solidified.

of all the bricks in the floor are filled to L from the top. and pours the balance adjoining of the joints

By this time, son returns same manner joints lowed, cooling fies, the

until all joints are completely shrinks about

full and the mortar

has overfilled

and flowed mortar there will

over the surface of the brick be voids or cavities of the mortar,

the joint. from

As it solidiis not fol-

5% to 6%, so that in the joints

if this procedure resulting

the sequential of the joints,

and solidifying

first on the sides and bottom joints

accompanied

by the sucking

in of air into the center of the joint to fill the void in bell and spigot so that this sucking in open joints on the all

left by the shrinkage.

For this same reason, in pouring

pipe, a pouring gate is used above the top of the joint of air takes place in the gate and not in the joint. To solution, lay a wall which The using this type of mortar,

the exposed

sides of the wall are sealed by using stiff paper or cloth dipped paper or cloth silicate is then plastered mortar after over the brick this open joints. acts as an adhesive to hold it flows behind

in sodium silicate face bridging on the brick

dam

face and to help chill the sulfur masons wear asbestos or ceramic from the joint due to the weight the mason starts to run out, per gels. After Iu kewarm Floors utilitarian pour until

up against the paper. The it, when back the hot mortar his against the paremoved using

gloves and if the paper or cloth dam pulls away of the mortar pushes the dam into place with

simply

gloved hand and holds it there for a few seconds until the mortar the mortar brick is set, the paper or cloth can be readily and sulfur mortar in the manner practice will the floor be trapped approach, being careful water. laid with but

described to allow become

above are the overBut surfaces as may be resur-

not things of beauty. does wear off, is not with a brick

It is common will

to wear off under traffic the overpour by chipping If this

and in time fluid

smooth.

on the brick the overpour

small puddles. moved the hammer

an acceptable hammer,

to use the chisel edge of sufficient

crosswise

of the joint,

not parallel

to it. Alternatively,

228

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

plus mortar fur mortar, under is laid in this that much broken

may

be overpoured using

to cover the entire squeegee to protect pickle sulfur mortar, sulfur

surface

of the floor it evenly. from

with

sulor

perhaps

a wooden steel pickier, filled of bond

to spread

If the floor dripping to overpour

a stainless with

the concrete

carryout or fireclay, there

of a nitric-hydrofluoric manner will carbon be destroyed strength will require

solution,

it is customary It should

since otherwise, acid. mortar

brick, be kept

if shale in mind face, so

by the hydrofluoric between regular bond maintenance to smooth

is little

and the brick

overpour

to replace

pieces of mortar sulfur mortar surfaces mortar will is on bond. the

out by traffic. surfaces-where scored pipe, or wire the sulfur the contact brick, the brick in bell should a rough be ordered surface clay scratched

For the same reason-poor used with contact When interior smooth surfaces to provide

to which

used as a joint hard fired

and spigot

(e.g., the

of the bell and the end of the spigot) surfaces prior to assembling

should the joint.

be sanded

to remove

SPECIFICATIONS Sulfur mortars

AND

STANDARDS

FOR SULFUR Standard

MORTARS C-287. Recommended prac-

are covered

by ASTM

tices for their C-190 C-267 C-321

use are covered strength

in C-38. Testing (figure

is covered

by the following:

for tensile for chemical for bond

8 briquette)

resistance

strength

C-41 3 for absorption C-531 C-579 C-580 Occasionally more frequently for coefficient for compressive for flexural C-307 of thermal strength and modules for determining of elasticity tensile strength, though C-190 is expansion

strength is used

followed.

REFERENCES
WorksandSewerage,87:15 (1940). 1. Anon., Sixty feet of dependability,Warer Beckett, H., Experiences with cast iron, steel and reinforced concrete water mains, J. Am. Water Works Assoc., 30: 1782-l 783 (1938). 3. Beckwith, T.D., The bacterial corrosion of iron and steel, J. Am. Water Works Assoc., 33:147-165 (1941). 4. Duecker, W.W., Admixtures improve properties of sulfur cements, Chem. & Merallurgical Eng., 41:583-586 (1934). of sulfur, U.S. Pat. No. 2,039,070, Texas Gulf Sulfur Co. 5. Duecker, W.W., Treatment (1935). 6. Duecker, W.W., Estep, J.W., Mayberry, M.G., and Schwab, J.W., Studies of properties of jointing compounds,l Am. Water WorksAssoc.,40:715-750 (1948). Texas Gulf 7. Duecker, W.W., and Payne, CR., Plastic body, US. Pat. No. 2,046,871, Sulfur Co. (1936).

2.

Sulfur

Mortars

229

8. 9. IO. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25.

Hamor, W.A., co. (1932). Hamor, W.A.,

and Duecker, and Duecker,

W.W.,

Plastics,

US. US.

Pat. No. 1959,026,Texas

Gulf

Sulfur Sulfur

W.W., Plastics,

Pat. No. 1,981 ,232, Texas Gulf

co. (1932). Parker, C.D., Species of sulfur bacteria associated with the corrosion of concrete,l\lature, 159:-439 (1947). Payne, CR., Jointing compounds, Pennsylvania Water Works Operators Assoc. Proc., pp 85-90 (1935). Payne, CR., Tegul: A new sulfur jointing compound for bell and spigot pipe, Wafer Works&Sewerage,82:317-318 (1935). Payne, CR., Method of building walls and floors, US. Pat. No. 2227,228,Atlas Mineral Products Co. (1939). Payne, CR., Protective coating, U.S. Pat. No. 2,134,837, Atlas Mineral Products Co. (1937). Payne, C.R., and Duecker, W.W., Resistance of sulfur cements, Chem. & Metallurgical Eng.,48 (12):-766-770 (1939). Payne, C.R., and Duecker, W.W.,Construction with sulfur cements,Chem. & Metallurgical Eng. 47 (1):20-21 (1940). Seymour, R.B., Pascoe, W.R., Sulfur composition, U.S. Pat. No. 2,707,685, Atlas Mineral Products Co. (1955). Seymour, R.B., Steiner, R.H., and Pascoe, W.R., Jointing composition, U.S. Pat. No, 2.799.593,Atlas Mineral Products Co. (1957). Sheppard, W.L., Jr., Materials of construction for pickling tanks, Blast furnace & Steel P/ant 56 (I 1):967-980 (1968). Sheppard, W.L., Jr., Solving floor corrosion problems of the meat packer, National Provisioner 115:20-21.40 (1946). Sheppard, W.L., Jr., Better floors for food plants with acidproof brick or tile, Food Industries 19:1656-1659 (1947). Stumpo,A.,and Neff, D.,U.S. Pat. No.3,898,191,Pennwalt Corp. (1975). Taylor, C.B., and Hutchinson, G.H., Corrosion of concrete caused by sulfur oxidizing bacteria,J. Sot. Chem. Ind. 66:54 (1947). Wertz, C.F., Part of a panel discussion on cement joints, J. Am. Wafer Works Assoc. 41:658-659 (1949). Tatnall, Robt. E., Fundamentals of Bacteria Induced Corrosion,Mareria/s Performance, Vol.20.No.9,pp 32-38 (Sept. 1981).

24 Phenolic Resins

Kurt

Goltz

Penn walt Corporation King of Prussia, Pennsylvania

Early These riety twenties, of

in this inert

century, mainly hardeners improvement

chemical

resistant

mortars baryte,

came

into

wider

usage.

mortars

were

based on water sands, clays, introduced in many industry New in their today complex. for were

glass solutions etc.) to these fields. worldwide, were

as binders as fillers. which

and a vaIn the midresulted

materials

(quartz

chemical

products

in a considerable After idly, theses ment work, ondly, lution grew and water Firstly, they Therefore, condensate, ine. At that could tion pretty paints, 187Os, gen, and that of inert good The World more

performance.

Such water

glass based morrap-

tars are still used successfully and more which

War I, the chemical

besides expanding invented

processes

and new synof the equipresistant brick Secpoor. so-

introduced, apparatus water in the

led to greater just could

demands

on the resistance In chemical to alkaline tensile requirements.

necessary

manufacturing. not fulfill resistant their

glass mortars are fairly

all those

glass mortars porous, binder. late twenties,

are not work

environments. is rather polymeric

and thirdly, This solution resin.

strength

was started

using an organic

as the mortar The selection time, be cured

was based on a phenol-formaldehyde was really without phenolic not too hard to imagpolymer around that the need for air oxystage to make the addiresins already compounds. to the early He probhad a for use in coatings,

i.e., a socalled there

phenolic

of a phenolic

resin as a binder any other viscosity temperatures Furthermore, fluids,

was hardly enough

thermosetting

catalytically had a low dilutants

at room

in the uncured

unnecessary. impregnating Baeyer tried

track

record, wood von

since the beginning

of this century, reaction

adhesives, discovery when

and also for molding phenolic

of the phenol-formaldehyde

goes back

Adolf

to synthesize 230

alcohols.

Phenolic

Resins

231

ably of

was not

very

interested In fact,

in the dark sticky no chemist during Experiments later

gunk those resulting on. In the

that early

had formed times

in some were in-

his experiments. failures. more

was interested

in amorphous considered soluble nolic Blumer of expand lysts to However, phenolic resin

polymeric

products.

in such products late patent were

research The

was done first

188Os, the first concerning sold by the

resin was obtained. issued. made react 1900s. public

In 1899,

the first products

a pheLouis start to as cataof ina is quite

was

commercial But not before in 1909,

Co., in the early in earnest. will

the comprehensive

investigations

Leo Baekeland, Phenol form

did the phenolic using structure catalyzed molecule, either

resin industry acids or alkalis on the There

with

formaldehyde their

polymeric

products,

depending products.

ratio

gredients, difference Phenol and para). hyde are unstable the active

and on the temperature between Initially has three phenolic and will active

and duration

of the reaction.

the acid and the alkali sites on the each of these alcohols react with phenol. ether

sites 2, 4, and 6, (i.e., ortho with one molecule or the phenol of formaldealcohols on is formed; of water are behind. molecular are bridges methylol These phenolic bridge

sites can react (i.e., phenol either bridge. In the first

to form

methylol).

the hydrogen In both

site of another a dimethyl Under They phenol can will split

case, a methylene reactions,

in the second, is generated. not stable. Since network conducive crosslinking, alyzed literature known The tained These by for acid

one molecule the ether bridge

the conditions active

of the resin syntheses, leaving sites, a complete formaldehyde

off formaldehyde, if sufficient reaction.

a methylene

has three

threedimensional

be formed,

is used and conditions are sufficient for

to a complete and in fact, although type this

Theoretically, synthesis,

1 .5 molecules that ratios

of formaldehyde the ratio between Products

a complete catare

is about

which

is used in the alkaline (alkaline) of phenolic method

1 and 3 are mentioned made by this

in the patent mortars. ob-

of synthesis. are theones syntheses thermoplastic No complete

as resols and they catalyzed of phenol.

used in the preparation use less than crosslinking and soluble Nevertheless,

one molecule is obtained. in a variety novolacs making Because

of formaldehyde The products of organic solvents. react un-

per molecule products

are, therefore, a special heat cured agent phenolics, again

are known curing of heat phenolic while to the

as novolacs. agent

can be crosslinked which them will useful as binto add as

using

(hexamethylenetetramine) and coatings. described

der the influence ders for a curing two-stage phenolics. Referring materials, product the

by releasing.formaldehyde, paints in an extra

it is necessary

to the novolacs

step, these materials

are also known

the previously resols,

resols are known when

as one-stage these the end In-

it is obvious

that,

manufacturing since solvents.

reaction

cannot

be allowed and completely

to go to completion, insoluble in organic

is hard,

unmeltable,

stead, the reaction is stopped at an early stage. To prepare a batch of resol, phenol and formaldehyde in the specified droxide) Since this proportions and the in a reactor reactor process vessel, caustic slightly. solution Soon is added, is heated

are mixed the reaction

together hycoolstarts.

(e.g., sodium outside

is an exothermic

the heat is shut off and in fact,

232

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

ing might fied the degree batch stopped

be necessary by cooling with short the

in certain batch,

cases. When the reaction by a check off the alkali no more than groups shelf with eight

batch water dark

reaches a specithe reaction and neutralizing product. units It conon avresols must be is

of polymerization,

as judged washing

on viscosity,

an acid. The result chained phenol reactive and will

is a more or less viscous, It is called

sists of fairly erage, are not stored added B the C Because

polymers, methylol react

monomer an A

plus unreacted of the highly very under with stable

and formaldehyde. further with and still

stage resin. they

on the polymer Therefore, life is limited.

molecules,

on storage.

refrigeration. the fillers),

Even here, their and the resin

Later

on in usage, resols are mixed the resin is rubbery

acid catalysts rapidly, somewhat insoluble in the phenol been

(which going soluble,

are normally through and ending the in The or

is crosslinked resin,

stage, where

stage, the completely consist Part of this resins

crosslinked water may

and unmeltable. for a long time

cross linkages in the reaction.

of methylene

and of dibenzyl remain from have

ether bridges. mortar and

Water is formed

even permanently. Most scribed decades. phenols extra eight nol) addition, storability), phenolic modified In these, such as cresols methyl times groups faster. m-cresol are prepared resins straight phenols) result times the formaldehyde, (chemical in the as deresistance, last three The In reacts resorciare, to our mortar of usecatapreviously. To improve phenolic of the (methyl parts on some of their phenol properties introduced (dimethyl of the phenol,

can be replaced

by substituted phenols). resin matrix.

and xylenols reactivity of

probably However, phenols,

in a densification (e.g.,

has three

3,5-xylenol

polyhydroxyphenols although importance

hydroquinone, aldehydes of phenolic

and heterocyclic

able to react with for the production resin

knowledge, resins. Another formaldehyde ful, because lyzed.

of no commercial method it forms to very with

modify aldehyde. dense phenolic

a phenolic resinous resin, it will

is the partial has been found products resin matrix alkalis. present with

replacement especially when

by another

Here, furfural reaction a denser

by itself,

In connection Because phenol

can be expected Since the phenolic and free to react, this deficiency, groups. Epiin the resin a curing less is these

because of additional hydroxyl the some patent alkali groups

cross linkages. is a weak acid, react with phenolic chemicals resin are still is limited. that will

in a standard with

resistance and another resin, resol

of such a product dichloropropanol

To overcome react

resins are modified literature.

chlorohydrin Still neutralized agent The mixed resol. All The type liquid with

are two is aimed a trimer that

of the materials poor the storability of

mentioned of phenolic

modification here is trioxan, but used because will

at the under can,

ins. The additive and will

of formaldehyde. influence is available

Trioxan

is stable

decompose a product Also,

an acidic

release formaldehyde in such agent. additional

for additional when

crosslinking. with resin the

therefore,

be prepared

formaldehyde,

formaldehyde trioxan with

is formed

the curing

is said to reduce acid catalysts

the viscosity

of the

phenolic and the

mortars amount

are cured of curing

at ambient on the

temperatures. type of resin

agent

used depends

Phenolic

Resins

233

fillers,

pot

life,

and might

even be adjusted resol in the

somewhat is a true

for different process, is not but

ambient

tem-

peratures. ing agent tion Any purposes, and that since agents making would the

The curing

of a phenolic present

catalytic

i.e., the cur-

acts by being acidic

resin mixture, will on the

used for formafor or too practical slowly,

of linkages

in the resin matrix. or acid-producing are selected will minimal, remain they material agents way, compound that will effects not work. too integrity Most However, quickly commonly A acids liquid react

materials curing a phenolic

have no, or only agent In this

of the resin matrix, used curing (fillers), agent curing powders

in the mortar. can be added necessary. are aryl

are solids.

to the mortar product.

mortar curing chlorides). most

a two-component

make a three-package Commonly used acid,

sulfonic

and their sulfates

chlorides acids are the inare the much acid

(p-toluenesulfonic and their organic aryl respective compounds

benzenesulfonic Sulfamic often will

acid,

1,5naphthalenedisulfonic reacting acid The compounds is, of course, of the

acid and acid alkali by hydrolysis reacting. two

used. The strongest break down acid. faster Hydrochloric of water

acid chlorides sulfonic stronger chlorides

because they and,

to form hydrolysis

the particular

acid and hydrochloric therefore,

in acidity is caused mortar

by the small amounts products the fillers added The of the are either

present

in any resol solution. packages, mixture In most consisting the is called according cases, a usage, make resismentioned,

Phenolic catalysts the mortar to the

or three

part

of the resol solution, are usually powder. stirrer specification

and the catalysts.

As previously This

to the fillers supplier.

by the supplier. stirring powder will mix. resin

user has to add the powder Good

to the solution

is essential. depend

motorized

is necessary. used in a mortar the cured not least, cost. of the mortar than should the on the intended the fillers are more them that mortar be exposed The ratio matrix to, the workability of fillers to solution together

The types at installation, up from tant to

of fillers

i.e., the environment

and last but

Depending

on type, selected holding

50 to 80% by weight corrosive it would the single environments filler particles with

has to be a compromise Therefore, Ideally, all, would when prove laying bricks other very would between a whole portland binder.

in any case. Generally,

the fillers

be advantageous resin.

to keep the amount just touch Such a mixture,

of resin to a minimum. and the interstitial be put together into at

each other if it could

spaces should Trowability

be filled

be impossible

to trowel. criterion However, the weight from that to mix which coarser it could of has to be taken rounded slow filler down of the account will imof The Somewhat particles

is an important a mortar. possibility squeeze would out that

formulating the by the would extreme good not wet

ease of application.

the speed of brick installed lower courses courses.

subsequently

the mortar but facts is hard into

the joints Also, could

be a mortar

is very thixotropic. be impaired.

Such a mix has a of the bricks Most commeras a compromise mortars as mortar, of the such as resinous

strength, these

install.

the wetting

be as good and, therefore, take application because of and wet

adhesion account strength.

cial products

and are formulated In any and the

ease of cement,

case, resinous stickiness

can never be installed

as rapidly the

and easily as a hydraulic

viscosity

234

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

Depending used: sulfate, Quartz should fluoride form fillers, tacks. coke tiny down sential the membrane. quartz but filled any

on the anticipated sand and flour, other fillers. mortars inert They material

exposure, would

the following powder, too. with for be suitable, resistance

fillers Quartz many

are commonly and barium sands are the silicas. mortars in an acid lead would the atwith of applications. filled

coke flour,

anthracite

graphite,

least expensive One exception be used. sive weight.

can be made thixotropic chemical with is rarely filled as any acid fluorides. used because mortar inorganic and, thus, to the

clays or fumed

have sufficient sulfate A carbon as soon best

is an environment Barium It is the choice element is the

Here, carbon

of its high cost and excesa lead membrane with corrode. against the

in the case of vessels with

environment. a galvanic The graphite

in contact would

acid solution

had reached corrosive

lead would

be anodic in respect

Of the carbon

performance but

It is also one of the most expensive. it is seldom The that reason overlap its chemical the diffusion filler flour. flakes for the excellent is the fluids will not

For this reason and also for improved is stretched or replaced performance of graphite Graphite Graphite in a mortar, consists slow

trowability, besides

used as the sole filler, shape into mortar,

inertness, of corrosive mortar Since should only

of its crystals. compound resin matrix. will satisfactorily should the

each other prestressable

in the mortar

and, therefore, later.

is the esat or

in a special phenolic site.

which

be discussed as portland At the start, viscosity. be left for not

The slaked turers visor tion dock, when should the yond adding under water lower must into ported

best

perform personnel

if it is misused cement the

construction lime should should large speed 70F, mortar, specifications

it is not

as easy to apply followed. and should

experienced

be used. The manufacsuperThe soluespecially in viscosity, behas by Even pace. time, of its

be scrupulously the resin solution cool in transit,

make sure that have been kept installations of which

has the correct

on a loading

especially

in the sun. If the product are involved, to keep Failure increases where

is not used up immediately, storage result in an increase mix.

refrigerated it cool will with

the resin solution in temperature Such a solution viscous storage solution life. mortar.

be provided. to a point

geometrically it is unusable never attempt would reaction by mortar

an increase

for a mortar result

to be discarded. organic As started Although will

One should solvents. earlier,

to salvage a too solution has limited

Such a binder a phenolic will

in a very weak

refrigeration, the viscosity

the crosslinking stay within formed will float mix.

proceeds

at a slow but steady range for a reasonable reaction. Water must Because liquid.

an acceptable th.e condensation

be generated, the water off to

density, or added that

to the top It would

of the resinous the cure mortar

This water the the

be skimmed

before

using the resin solution. impair be weak must will than or uncured

never be stirred It has been reto extend ratio

a mortar

by decomposing joints.

acid catalysts.

The result workers

would

sometimes

add water change

intentionally the in any specified

in order mix

pot life of a mix. Sometimes, higher handling stalled would amounts mix. mortar

Such a practice a brickmason of resin should solution

never be tolerated. by adding an easier the intherthere prescribed, properties is contained per unit because case. Not (strength, he wants only would powder, with

This

be discouraged physical

have different percentage

heat resistance,

mal expansion)

but because the catalyst

in the mortar of solution,

be a lower

of it available

a resulting

Phenolic

Resins

235

slower time occur.

set time and

and

possible mix,

incomplete a squeezeout it is customary

cure. from that

Also,

because

of this

slower

set

less viscous

the joints

(leaving mixes

voids)

might

In a normal batches mixed chain cation furan That winter tions, stored should tering because reaction in the mortar Most means the

installation, the would reaction start although should resin the

one worker Relatively would

the mortar are and a

for several masons,

using a motorized is exothermic. with the the result reaction

mixer.

small batches overheat

A large batch of too short is not quite

a pot life or even solidifias violent i.e., as in similar about 70F. In be installashould container from enmixes

mixer, mixes.

products the

be installed should

at room be warmed site must

temperature, up be heated, tent. Also, installations, cooling the to prevent

solution

if it was refrigerated. For outside the bricks mixing water the mortar

installations, site should cool, inside this tent. be kept the mix.

construction

be enclosed Conversely, i.e., by using

in a heated in hot summer ice water being

for

and the unopened Phenolic set time In Europe, Phenolic must face aging direct not and in the mortars mortar /4 joints

cans of resin mixes

binder,

careful life of %

usually

have a pot States,

1 to 2 hours joints

and an initial are customary. However, they surdamIf a be

of 8 to 15 hours. mortars will will

In the United bond contact to most with

mortar

are used. ceramic tiles and bricks. walls. steel or concrete a complete which a primer under The acid catalysts by the alkaline faces, damage. could a fluid-tight All bricks are

come

in direct slowly bond

bleed to the surface, and prevent to the substrate, is required, equipment etc. in corrosion true for vinyl, lining holds in the

be neutralized

so consumed,

cure at the contact can cause corrosion running conditions,

the adhesive bond

to the substrate environment polyester, of course, and sooner cases, a brick This, porous

has to be used, which,

depend-

ing on the phenolic, membrane. somewhat the apparatus Phenolic isobutylene, only pending In most

epoxy,

service liquid

is laid against mortars, would too.

phenolic

or later

a corrosive with natural

reach the shell of rubber, poly-

to be protected. mortars polyvinyl are compatible chloride, chemical phenolic product guideline. laboratory almost rubber and butyl material are among and fluorocarbons. any other mortars data Most tests suitable environment. as a group the best corroorganic resisfrom than in severe environments, (mechanical by the figures strength, manufacturers, published sample short, especially temperature should shapes. For Lead membranes are used

occasionally. As previously

Of course, stated, The

can be used, de-

on the expected products

sion resistant solvent tance, carefully reasons, the tory stallation Fortunately, to supply erations. ered only

for installations as supplied

materials. chemical

resistance)

be considpractical of an inlaborayears of op-

as a general controlled the duration service after

have been derived at least much the performance based on limited over the last fifty for many types shorter

on standard

of the tests has to be kept life of an installation. time periods, mortar good

expected

To judge

extended

extrapolations has been installed performance

tests are usually enough industry

made, or the user may install phenolic a fairly

and observe record

test installations.

with

236

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

Performance tailed. Often, they of chemical An

tables,

as supplied suitable exposures, is that While to some this

by the resin or they phenolic might might

suppliers,

are seldom for the different

very for

delimto

list only

and non-suitable

types

and physical of this

also add a column are listed

ited suitability. example mortars be true (98%) as resistant concentrated the exposure nent nolic comes dants certain limits erate never stead, before continuous mortar will The reason than Another of with there sulfuric is limited contact eventually for this the agent. only is to acid. for floor installations where permaa pheacid beof oxiare

to occasional fail--life above While

spills and splashes, sulfuric depending higher expectancy 70 percent chemicals much request

in a vessel with acid or oleum, on temperature. sulfuric strong given concentration to

concentrated

is that

concentration, resistant

an oxidizing furan, halocarbons. mistake exact will

phenolics

accept

organic place the too

oxidants

reliance

on the

temperature like to opthere apart. is Ineven or not to

a mortar.

Since customers numbers), at a specific

such a figure furnishes a mortar

(engineers falls

mortar

supplier

it. However,

a case where the given

temperature,

suddenly

be a slow temperature For

acceleration limit,

of the deterioration and/or joints permissible brickwork, to a limit That repointing

of the mortar, Whether depends it would

or in some cases, a suffering.

the expected lar installation. allow ter only limit form the sure partly water the boil, that able data matrix, under a slow the very of which

exposure receding joints

is economical instance, of the could exposed

on the particube feasible safe, af-

in multicourse be repointed. mortars

still

considered might

be necessary temperature will not perHowever, atmosphere at the presThe reathis the in the resin, pressure, disrupt weakening does not

infrequently 18OC.

(2 to 5 years). on the market has a nominal the mortar environment. in a moist is higher in the bound at low steam from the manufacturer even the the higher boiling that

One of the indefinitely same mortar pressure, of the

best phenolic We know at that will providing

temperature that than water

in a dry oxidizing temperatures point partly

tolerate

of water molecular

operation,

operating

temperature atmosphere flash into

vessel.

son here is the residual absorbed will but slowly If if the structure. boil

in the mortar, Heated voids

in the fillers. out, rapidly

in a dry it may

leaving overheated,

in the matrix a pressure

and generally and that the mortar

vessel operates impossible with be too supplier for

at such a supplier to

the resin is not disrupted. It is, of course, could to him with sheet. come might the to test the thousands mortar; together of chemicals a product inhas the exthe best maare subject influence to in contact a phenolic and even the test data availwith of a particular

voluminous beforehand. staff

be supplied A reputable

Therefore,

it is wise

to discuss the

requirements

stallation perience terial.

manufacturer in choosing

and the technical based on but

to assist the customer resins, will such shrink

Mortars shrinkage. fillers nitely that

condensation most this solid type

as phenolics, under the

Of course,

objects

of fallselecting it indefishrink-

ing temperatures, by absorption.

of shrinkage

is reversible very slowly

by carefully or even retain irreversible

release the water

of condensation

Here we are talking resin mortars.

about

the (usually)

age of condensation

Phenolic

Resins

237

As explained sists of formation the time links place time resin for matrix

in an earlier in a thoroughly

paragraph, cured of the

the curing is very

of a phenolic dense, it will

mortar take

conSince a long be

of cross linkages

accompanied mortar mortar),

by the

release of water. (which

such a mortar

to lose all this water.

This loss of water plus the formation

could

in excess of 5% of the volume is the in the first few hours will

of new cross takes

main reason for the shrinkage. of cure, shrinkage go on for

The largest

part of the shrinkage down

i.e., in the semisoft a long time, slowing

B-stage of the resin. The on an exponential it still does not seem bond strength can exof a high, brickit

remaining

scale, sometimes Phenolic mortars

in steps; adhere

but even after to ceramic bricks. than that far

several years, bricks. of brick. the The the

to stop completely. well higher psi, ceed the phenolic tensile mortar strength is generally shrinkage after 8,000-10,000 of the Furthermore, has completely exceeding the elastic tensile strength are very of

The tensile hardened tensile limits

stresses caused

by the mortar approximately work. will crack.

the mortar exceeds

strength

If the amount Manufacturers

of shrinkage of phenolic could

of the brickwork, problem

mortars

are well by excessive

aware of the shrinkage shrinkage. the shrinkage. in volume, in many strength,

and the damages that been developed product ing conditions. in the brick Ceramic strength. variations. tion Very The that can even lining

be caused

New products One widely under certain

have used cur-

minimized

or even stopped

be made to swell, of reactor have vessels.

i.e., to increase

Such a mortar bricks often, tensile

can be of great advantage good reactor generated compressive in the

cases, especially but a low tensile contracif the deunder the the

a fairly

a chemical stresses cycle

vessel is subjected brickwork large enough

to large temperature by thermal

at the cooldown stresses. times, the inside a mortar brickwork and

can become

to cause damages

sign was improper. constant steel That, work. Having place the In earlier shell of

It is, therefore, and even

advantageous today, during process

to have the brick this was done the brick because,

lining

sometimes the outside

by heating

vessel from is a very

lining

installation.

of course,

cumbersome

at the same time,

brickmasons

the vessel have to be kept that under strains is able to swell compressive

cool enough the right

to be able to do their curing conditions will

under

stresses without vessel linings mortar these A very fir elaborate

the necessity can be very to by

of expandThe prothem mortar En73-83 would cer-

ing the steel shell thermally. Stresses manufacturer gram about gineer (1981), exceed to assist and Verlag the in multilayer complex. advise Diploma 12, paper of this his particular customers installation swelling Chemie, study of [published GmbH, of this expandable in calculating and curing. resinous in Zeitschrift D-6940 paper. To mortars has devised stresses and written interesting a computer

the correct Jan Duck

paper about

shrinkages

has been

Werkstofftechnik, West Germany] on Mr. Ducks for

Weinheim,

. We highly

recommend Although tain safety

the realms of this chapter. phenolic resin mortars must be taken. have been applied safely decades, precautions

238

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

As amounts fural.

explained of free

previously, phenol contain certain care exceeding area should air safe. breathing the mortar safety and/or

an A-stage cresols,

phenolic formaldehyde,

resin

still

contains

certain

and

in some cases, furchemicals and local

The powders are harmful above governmental The

acid type threshold must

materials. limits

Because

some of these by federal that fans

(as specified installation with

rules),

be taken be aerated

during

no one is exif necessary, to

posed to amounts working keep the breathing even a self-contained When tion, Contact material tion which gravate quantities a physician Phenolic erate within around chemical safety phenolic handling protective of skin should and

these limits. sufficiently, spaces might a dust In confined apparatus powder, the mortar Phenolic not washed be used for penetration off this (e.g., manholes) be required. mask should be worn. for every In addiworker. irritaa fume mask or

clothing,

glasses and gloves are essential solution, rapidly. purpose, never the powder, mortar compounds

and eyes with be avoided. when should soap

and the mixed

can cause skin an organic into

and inflammation Water

solvent, large and toland or

can cause a deeper the effects. of water should mortar odors, limits. for

of mortar with should

chemicals

the skin and agimmediately,

In case of contact at least be consulted. mixes Others have

the eyes, flushing be initiated Some

the eye with

15 minutes

a disagreeable the amount should

smell. of fumes not

people

do not

even when

in the air is minute slightest to work with

are extremely

allergic

to even the be employed

amount

of phenolic

compounds.

Such persons

resin mortars.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Martin, R.W., The Chemistry of Phenolic Resins, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. (1956). Encyclopedia of Polymer Science and Technology, Vol. 10, Interscience Publishers, Div. of John Wiley & Son, Inc. (1969). Kirk-Cthmer, Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology, Third Ed., Vol. 17, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. (1982). Ullmans EncyklopSdie der technischen Chemie, Third Ed., Vols. 9 & 13, Urban and Schwarzenberg, Munchen, (1962). Sheppard, W.L., Jr., A Handbook of Chemically Resistant Masonry, 2nd edition, Marcel Dekker, New York, NY (1982). Kleines Handbuch des S%reschufzbaues, Verlag Chemie GmbH Weinheim, Bergstr. (1966). Duck, Jan, Schwindund Quellverhalten reaktionshartender Kunstharzkitte fur den Saureschutzbau, Zeitschrift ftir Werkstofftechnik 12, 73-83, Verlag Chemie GmbH, Weinheim, Bergstr. (1981 1. U.S. Patents 1,996,859 2,103,768 2.252.331 2,489,336 2,521,911 2.623.865 2,655,490 2.670.338 3,313,766 April 9,1935 December 28,1937 August 12,1941 November 29,1949 September 12,195O December 30,1952 October 13, 1953 February 23, 1954 April 11,1967 Pen-Chlor Inc. PenChlor Inc. Atlas Mineral Products Borden Co. Devoe & Reynolds Co. Farbwerke Hoechst AG Dow Chemical Co, Dow Chemical Co. Farbwerke Hoechst AG

8.

Phenolic

Resins

239

9.

10.

Product Data Sheets of the ATA-AN Department of Farbwerke Hoechst AG, Frankfurt, Germany, and the Corrosion Engineering Department of Pennwalt Corporation in Philadelphia, PA. Personal communication with the following people: Mr. Mr. Mr. Dr. Dr. Mr. Walter Lee Sheppard, C.C.R.M., Inc. Havertown, PA Robert Fi. Pierce, Ohio State University, Columbus, OH G. Raymond Leah, Pennwalt Corporation, Pittsburgh, PA Guido Lorentz, Farbwerke Hoechst AG, Frankfurt, Germany Klaus Rauhut, Farbwerke Hoechst AG, Frankfurt, Germany Jan Duck, Farbwerke Hoechst AG, Frankfurt, Germany

25 Furan Resins

Joseph

M. Walters

J. M. Walters Company
Chester Springs, Pennsylvania

INTRODUCTION Furan are superior resin mortars

TO FURAN

RESIN

MATERIALS since the late 1940s. resin the mortars, major resin They mortar

resin mortars in many

have been used commercially to the phenol-formaldehyde time. They quickly masonry rapid

ways

the only

in use at that of chemically contributed

became

used in the field

resistant to their

construction.

Several factors (1) Furan rans before fur tars. tant were (2) Furan the resins and

acceptance: resistance. mortars resin mortars, Fusulmorall

mortars resist most

had a very acids, of furan

broad

range of chemical The litharge phenolic and for

alkalies silicate

and solvents. mortars,

available

the advent Although

resins were were resistant

mortars,

sodium

glycerine mortars,

all of these conditions, to furans

to acids, none were resisthe silicate

to alkaline inferior

and except

in resistance

to solvents. to a low viscosity at this cannot stage. Thus, be completely and eventually this in hot increase liquid and The

monomers are stable

can be polymerized can of be arrested and resins in storage phenolic increase a large they On

polymerization

the furan arrested, become continued weather,

do not

in viscosity.

polymerization on storage High unusable. the phenolic (3) Phenolic

in viscosity construction

ambient

temperature

accelerates project

polymerization.

resin may gel before have a history 240

it can be used. of sensitizing a small percentage

resins

Furan

Resins

241

of

those

who

work

with

them

causing

dermatitis.

Furan

resins

generally (4) The other

do not cause problems available drawbacks. mortars, Sulfur pots

of this kind. sulfur mortars working mortars mortars must with and silicate mortars site. In material to water. is as

have major requires addition a hazard well They

be melted

for use. This

large melting to this to the

and burners

at the construction the 250F if exposed are sensitive or steam.

inconvenience, masons. conditions, deteriorated Silicate

to neutral

as alkaline are rapidly mortars

and will

deteriorate

by hot water

These other perior to furans. resin applications. A furan ran ring other hyde). most today furfuryl flowing the

are still used, as there furan has become which materials contains the furfuryl alcohol

are special cases where the standard resin mortar

each is sufor most fuor aldewhich

However,

is a polymer Furan by

the heterocyclic from to furfural

unsaturated corncobs, (furfuryl from

in its structure. matter This in turn

are derived pentosans alcohol,

oat hulls,

vegetable furan

converting

is used to make furfuryl These point insoluble, been grouts have a filler

the monomer and grouts or aldehyde

resins are made. unmodified polymers. resin mortars, resins with (at which

Most of the furan liquid

mortars polymers,

on the market modified to a freeis used as are further The first as the binpolymeriza-

are either alcohol liquid for furan

monomers

are polymerized is arrested) which In use, they over the

polymerization thermoset available

binder Other

and polymer used

concretes. solid.

polymerized furan der. tion mortar took Other furfuryl another most

to an infusible, to become

commercially a catalyst

years.

commercially

used furfuryl

alcohol

It was mixed

containing

and the entire

place in the mortar. furan aldehyde made from with resins. it would from resins on the and acetonyl the reaction an alkaline This as well cure which meant

This in situ polymerization market included forming aldehyde bond metals Both rather one made

is still used in polymer from a copolymer resin, required of and for

concretes. acetone of furfuryl catalyst, that it could a furfural ketone

and acetaldehyde.3 directly without to alkaline Other

The latmaterials furans are disprod-

ter was cured furan

than the acid catalyst

such as concrete, In addition sensitive appeared to water

as to acid-sensitive in the inhibit presence the cure.

the use of a primer. eventually a uniform

of, or under,

water.

of these materials in manufacturing

the market reactions. of furan resin.

due to difficulties resins to brick Several high

uct and allergic tants tensile made curred. tween in the strength The it crack A well brick bricks furan the

The adhesion liquid

can be increased bond fur-an to the brick combined floor, strength.

by the use of surfacwere marketed than the strength still

OC-

materials

some years ago. The adhesion of the cure brick. side effect. elastomeric cause the high bond

of these mortars of the mortar

was stronger with its high cracks

In use, the mortars

were found

to have an unusual by installing stresses, bebeof

shrinkage Attempts joints brick does not

the brick.4 designed itself

were made to solve this problem in the but the is never exposed of great significance, to tensile

expansion

in intervals installation is not

have high tensile

Thus, the adhesion and the number

and the mortar mortars

on the market

has decreased.

242

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

From claimed extremely Standard confirmed Additional

time

to time,

new furan shrinkage. for Shrinkage from that

materials furan Laboratory

have appeared

on the market

which claimed C531

properties

superior

to existing

resins. One such material tests were made by ASTM Mortars was marketed

low or zero Test Method

of Chemical-Resistant This material

and the tests for several difficulties. only at

the claims for low shrinkage. the market the tests showed 14OF. normal furan for

years and was removed temperatures A flexible a heavy adhere cracking peared age. An earlier could heavily turned material colors. vated with coating to the upon under

because of manufacturing characteristic

nonshrinking

applied

When the material in 1976.

was exposed to a higher temperaThis material was recommended that as

ture, it exhibited

furan cure shrinkage. On steel, it was reported it would disap-

was marketed

steel and concrete. Sometime to became

steel, even when exposure

the steel was subject to a sharp bend, without later it was found elevated that the flexibility At temperatures. and cracked temperature

or losing bond. the coating

moderately

over 14OF

hard and brittle in 1947. a variety

due to cure shrinkwhich

case was reported and retain dioxide). cured,

A furan coating was developed of colors, including white

be pigmented titanium jet black when

(pigmented of this

This was most unusual, regardless of pigmentation. this as a coating required

since all previous furans The developers for counter tops where that ele-

had high hopes for marketing resistance were this coating or contact Fortunately,

heat and chemical temperatures

along with a range of light decorator as it was found the completion acid turned of the

was never marketed, the pigmenting that

with

a drop of strong hydrochloric inhibited by heat or strong acid. some modifications thermoset exposed

the light color black. Apparently cure which was reinitiated The above discussion cured

and completed indicates

of a furan resin can properties of a fully cured catalyst,

arrest the cure at a stage where stage is stable for a long time, the cure continues normally expected from furan

it seems to have the physical the final but when resins.

resin, but has not reached

stage. This partially brittleness

to heat or additional

and the resin exhibits

cure shrinkage,

and the color

FURAN

RESIN

FORMULATIONS and grouts furan is a powder are supplied and is generally containing as two-component packaged filler and the catalyst in a water ratio. materials. which One causes in mapackreto

Furan component second drum terials

mortars

is the liquid

in five gallon cans. The resistant fiber Speciality are often

component

the resin to harden. each package

This component

is usually packaged

or plastic lined bag. When practical, is in proportion monolithic such as furan

the weight of the liquid and powder mixing concretes

to the recommended

surfacings and polymer component

aged as three components, The inert filler sistance. binations The most of carbon

with the filler and catalyst fillers are ground

as separate components. is chosen for its chemical silica or barytes. Com-

used in the powder common and silica are often

carbon,

used. Silica fillers are not resistant

strong alkalies or acid fluorides,

and carbon

is used for this service. Carbon fillers

Furan

Resins

243

are

electrically corrosion

conductive

and

must Barytes

be avoided processes

where

electrical

conductivity (elecdedurto the Morof 1% parts about are present in a well shrinkage resin.

is undesirable, trolytic if conductivity signed filler. combination ing the economy tars powder cure

such as in electrolytic of the lead). must of good and good mixed Grouts be avoided. of particle physical They in the for working

or adjacent size is very which cure. application,

to a lead lining important will low

is used where

acid fluorides

The particle

A gradation

sizes is required during after

give the optimum contribute or three usually

properties properties

Fillers

of the mortar. by weight. mortars working brick. At the

are inexpensive ratio tile are mixed are formulated is different Mortars they the must mortar support with and fill

compared with

to the furan

are normally

of one part

resin to two less powder, similar

parts powder Furan Since for the joint brick forcing flow of air. physical enough different trowel. without it into It must

per part of liquid. and grouts of application properties. mixed, out floor same time, When from for trowel must the resins and powders. must be formulated on the surcurling to stay behind in the of by to each, they easily be stiff weight

the method

are applied

by trowelling without enough A grout

face of the

running it while an open not

and to joint

of additional It must without be fluid trapping

courses is applied enough

laid above

it is in the process

of hardening.

a flat trowel. it completely it will shrink that

to the bottom properties

of the joint be so low when cure cured.

pockets

in filler

excessively

or have poor must be strong of use. At time before the during was acto vary

The selection the same time, the mortar catalyst tical tually cold weather used.

of the catalyst

is also important. resin under to allow manufacturers hot weather. system

The catalyst normal

to cause full it must becomes

of the furan Some

conditions working

be slow enough unusable.

a reasonable

have attempted using a stronger This was found when where the catalyst of catalyst error

depending

upon

the season of the year, one during had no control component

catalyst

and a weaker

to be impracis the third can be varied for Since a batch have disThe or mortars mix.

as the manufacturer

over the time Here the amount

the material

The use of a three upon the conditions are mixed

component depending mortars mortars may batch grouts, asterous

has also been considered. and grouts as it introduces catalyst components concretes

of use. This was also found a source of serious in small batches, the possibility furan

to be impractical in the would for exists that

and grouts results. size for

receive

insufficient Three polymer

or even no catalyst are used with is usually error much

at all which polymer than larger

concretes.

and the probability

of a mixing

is reduced.

It still exists and the catresins. These include acid, acid, sulfamic acid, maleic

alyst component must be measured with extreme Many acids and acid salts are used as catalysts p-toluenesulfonic acid, urea nitrate, phosphoric acid, ptoluenesulfonyl bisulfate, and many chloride, aluminum others. sodium

care. for furan sulfate,

ethylsulfuric oxalic

acid, zinc chloride

Epoxy resins are hardened comes a part of the solidified mer vary is a true cured vided that with the type resin sufficient catalyst. It promotes catalyst

with a material which reacts with the resin and bepolymer. The properties of the cured epoxy polyagent. The acid used to polymerize but does not enter into of the type of acid catalyst furan resins the reaction, was present it. Thus the used, pro-

of curing

furan

is the same, regardless

to cause full cure.

244 Most catalysts. working

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

furan

mortars reaction

and grouts include going for

are cured cure.

with If too

a combination much strong are low. with

of two

or more

These usually life will

a strong to full

acid to initiate

the reaction

and a weaker

acid to keep the

acid is used, the

be too short

practical is not most

use. If no strong if temperatures a requirement furan acid. concretes and filler

acid is used, the cure furan polymer with concon-

will take too long or even stop altogether The use of multiple cretes. strong cretes tars. down The literature catalyst contain The high such a larger reached catalysts that indicates

are cured

a single do mor-

as p-toluenesulfonic proportion

The difference

here is that

of aggregate reaction.

to resin than

heat capacity

of the aggregate of the mass drops, going.

serves as a heat sink and moderates When the reaction begins to slow becomes the heat in the aggregate

the temperature available

in the initial

and the temperature to keep the reaction

CHEMICAL Furan

AND

HEAT

RESISTANCE to nonoxidizing most solvents, mineral acids and alkalies such as nitricand wet chlorine chemical in most Fuchromic

resins are resistant They by strong

concentrations. rans are attacked acid, and sulfuric dioxide. The their found Jr.7 Where not found Standard Volume pared they

also resist

acid salts, and organic

acids.

oxidizing

acid and alkalies, hypochlorite, publish Second

acid over 78%, sodium of furan An mortars

and chlorine tables may of be

manufacturers

resistance table

particular

formulations. Resistant

extensive

chemical Edition

resistance by Walter of a mortar refer

in Chemically

Masonry,

Lee Sheppard, to a chemical C267-77 in

it is necessary in the tables, Test Method test method,

to determine or in mixtures Book 1 inch

the resistance of chemicals, Standards. by 1 inch

to ASTM

for Chemical-Resistance of ASTM diameter After

of Mortars. high

This may be found right cylinders

4.05 of the Annual of the mortar

In this

are preis deone of

to be tested.

the specimens strength 14,28,56, liquid is immersed

are properly

conditioned, at the de-

are weighed The

and the compressive of the specimens each of 1,7, from the After strength

of one set of the specimens in the test liquid in weight, After noted. and 84 days of immersion, and change the completion

termined.

balance

sired temperature. set of specimens and compressive Furan manufacturers A recently There mortar. years cally, 428F continuous

is removed

appearance,

are determined

and recorded. for service

the tests, the evaluation

is made on the basis of the changes recommended resin6 for short or test for are usually claims bursts. the maximum a proposed resistance of the mortar maximum service temperatures a maximum

resins are generally have shown developed and 482F data furan

up to 36OF. from service service method 35OF

Different to 380F. of of a Some Basi-

temperature temperature

is no definition Committee method and then

The published ago ASTM the test

based on case history

information. mortars.

C-3 developed specimens

for a test to give

comparative temperatures

values for the high temperature exposed determined

of different strength.

to a series of elevated The drop in com-

the compressive

Furan

Resins

245

pressive perature posure

strength exposure. All

was a measure The method laboratories at which decided that the turned

of the degradation was submitted spalling even though under test

resulting robin

from

the high temby several during exbe-

to round

testing

laboratories.

reported mortar

of the test had given

specimens satisfactory

to the elevated

temperatures,

the temperatures

were well

low temperatures The committee of reaction In service, pressure the mortar.

service. the water specimen. damage to has

the discrepancy between test

was due to the fact that the unrestrained it is joining, dissipates for measuring without this

in the mortar the mortar not spall

to steam and spalled the brick gradually method

is confined no suitable

and the internal property

does

it. The pressure

To

date,

been proposed.

INSTALLATION Mortars Mortars method. cent joint. joint. contain for brick, With

OF MORTARS

AND

GROUTS

are used to install mortar the for l/s. The brick

chemically

resistant

masonry

by the bricklayers in a thickness the adjaa Uniform l/8 thick joints, and may Standard dimenmay be is against

The furan extruding

is trowelled mortar resin joints not from

on the surfaces the entire usually joint

of a brick to

of approximately Specifications

is laid into masonry

place and pressed

maintain

furan thin

call for a nominal to be better consistently ASTM joint

resin mortars of less than They

are considered are difficult C-279, floors,

l/s

than thick

but joints

l/s thickness Masonry

to obtain allows joint joints

voids.

should plant

be recommended. Units,

The current a variation a slightly with

Chemical-Resistant In food cosmetic in joint for

in any

sion of 3%. specified specified, The ran method, is then of furan membrane brane cized ture, must must In stalled, exposed of locking from much heat

and laboratory to maintain of installing maximum

thicker a
3/16

reasons. thickness. method

If a nominal

maximum

it makes bricklayers

it possible

straight

and does not emphasize masonry with With futhis

the variation mortars

chemically applied and asphalt.

resistant

is used where over

chemical with

resistance

is required.

an impervious applied mortar.

membrane

is usually sumps

to the substrate. tanks made

The brick the

the membrane hot natural applied, The and is not provide particularly mortars

a bed or back joint

as well as side joints of concrete, tanks, the mem-

On floors,

trenches, or synthetic choice

is usually often

o,xidized

On metal depends depends

is most polyvinyl mechanical the

rubber, thickness the

or plastic

sheet upon upon will

such as plastithe chemical the temperaIn tank is inthose is the which thickness

chloride. abuse, wall to

of membrane

exposure vessels,

and the temperature. brick

The brick bonded must where

stress to which a stable wall. more

structure wall,

be exposed. brick in the brick except

to the tank

and the

be sufficient be considered hot poured the the brick than molten vessel linings, to the sooner

Temperature than one

change course of

and allowance sulfur

be made for the resulting

stresses.

are sometimes This dual by itself as the sulfur

used in all joints construction cools would harden. of the resin

contents the

of the tank. as soon cement mortar furan

has the advantage which In addition mortar,

in place sulfur

and hardens,

speeds the cure

246

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

action

is particularly However, less than in materials

helpful over that cost.

when the

working years the

under cost mortar with

cold, of

damp

conditions. than mortar

In the all furan is still must is there

past, the dual construction. relative considerably be 1/4 wide, no saving jobs

construction cost.

was considered Although of furan, Dual

to be more economical sulfur is denser is required. sulfur time mortar per pound of sulfur

has increased

to the furan

the cost sulfur

and the joints As a result

so more than twice in a limited

as much amount

material of down

construction

mortar

is used where the installation

have to be done

or where

must be made under Grouts The open setting vation term grout

low temperature

or wet conditions.

in this brick

case refers or tile which not after

to

a fluid

material with

which

is applied grouts

to

joints

between under position.

have been applied be confused grout

to a substrate

using a which elein

bed or adhesive. heavy and leveled.

It should equipment

machinery the equipment

are poured its proper method. of epoxy portland The tiles off flush

it has been shimmed hardens, grouts concrete

to its desired is fixed

When the machinery brick

The method resin

of installing or other

or tile with a sloped or a flat between grout

is known substrate,

as the tilesetters using a thin a thick the desired minimum. mortar layer bed of slope. Af-

The tile are set on either adhesive; joints cement-sand are set with with mortar open

concrete

slab, using /4 wide

of varying

thickness them, is applied

to provide usually

ter the bed has hardened, the surface inhibit they with for the bed, care must tar as it will fore rosive ment spilled sides of the tile, proceeding Tile floors wet areas where

the furan that

to the open joints cement-sand of the mortar

and struck is used

of the tile.

When portland If traces muriatic grout.

be taken must

the sides of the tile are kept with

free of the mordo get on the to dry becorIn cerooms,

the cure application

of the grout. be treated of the furan bed with

acid and allowed

set in an epoxy

furan

side joints kitchens

are used in mildly and sugar refineries.

conditions

in breweries, conditions In normally used.

canneries,

the corrosive

are less severe, dry areas where used. by

a bed of latex-portland corrosives and control of

is sometimes

are occasionally

and are cleaned cement-sand floors materials a more bottling possible.

up immediately, bed is sometimes in their thickness than appearance, and kitchens. are available

such as laboratories usefulness the grout. and The wider the lack

the portland Tile membrane, bedding senting plants, joints mentary Mixing

are limited reduced

an impermeable and by the use of of prefood uniform

by the

of the ceramic They

element, for make

less resistant pleasing plants Also tile

have the advantage laboratories, straight,

are preferred joints selection

in a wide

of colors

and comple-

shapes for cove base and bullnose Mortars and Grouts and grouts are not Furans

top curbs.

Furan tars over mixed and

mortars grouts.

handled

like conventional mortars A typical reaction furan

cement

morbe

A large batch batches of about

of conventional

can be mixed material

and used will have

a period life

of several hours.

set by an exothermic at 7OF when mixed

and must

in small

and used immediately. 30 minutes

a working

in a batch

of several

Furan

Resins

247

pounds. fore very

The working to store

life will

vary

with

the temperature in a cool to keep the It is usually of the direct is thoroughly in thin layers

of the components of the direct

be-

mixing, hot

the ambient it may to mixing

temperature, the components be necessary is kept and not out

and the size of the batch. place out

In hot weather sun. In storage, should be

it is necessary or cool portion done moved it prior only, from

weather

resin in refrigerated sufficient mixed, in metal sun. The mixing

in an ice bath. as a batch placed

to cool the resin it should cover be re-

if the powder the The mortar brick box

in the shade

and, as soon should the

pans and used and ven-

immediately. tilation. In cold mortars. ing point. This will the weight cured, should should blown they With slow of

be stored of furan necessary

in the sun without mortars differs from

weather the With furan

handling it is only low

conventional for days. it has they can be that brick

latter

to keep the mortar can retard longer In cold so that hot take to stiffen

above the freezenough before indoors, a heater so hot warm to bear

mortars, as the above laid

temperatures will Also

the cure

the work brick may

mortar it.

if it is exposed

to water weather air from brick

the cure be stored

be prevented

completely. fashion should

the components

in a heated them. The touch.

area. If it is not possible brick brick. not

to store

be stacked through feel hot

in checkerboard

be allowed brick

to become process to blow there

to the when the

Warming In addition

of the it may

is a slow

due to the hot air over no

large heat capacity are available the completed Although problem becomes discarded. to soften Most the When

of the needed. above

It is necessary

to plan ahead so that be necessary to grouts,

brickwork. precautions of the tile so stiff also apply installations that it cannot properly, is generally easily, or grout are made indoors. be trowelled the mortar liquid or a grout must be material While di-

since the majority a mortar so thick It is not it for use. manufacturers are not be followed common becomes

it does not fill the joints permissible

to add additional mixing as with Variation

resin to a mixed in parts which ratio

give their as critical closely. longer is more error

instructions properties,

by weight. must will

proportions must

some epoxies, in the mixing

be mixed cause poor

in stoichiometric rections workability material. softer. increase Since

proportions

to get optimum cure time expensive considerably

the manufacturers strength making component, affect

of the mix, The most the resin

and even reduced liquid, than the powder

of the cured the mortar this can cost

is to use too much

the cost of the mortar

and seriously

the overall

of an installation. Cleaning Brick and Tile After Installation resin is that with it is black when cured. If furan impos-

One of the properties mortar sible the to or grout remove. is allowed floor on furan linings considered with

of furan

to cure on the face of brick practice portland the grout muriatic acid after floors,

or tile, cement

it becomes grouts

The common resins.

is to wash

completed On tank

has set. This treatment staining other of the than and brick surcare-

has no effect face ful is not

and industrial objectionable

some minor food

and no precautions In laboratory,

normal,

workmanship

are necessary.

plant

pharmaceutical

248

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

plant will

floors generally

where

a neat,

sanitary

appearance practice

is at a premium, for a clean

a stain-free finished After floor surface.

floor is to This

be specified.

A common a coat of wax brick

use brick is applied has been moved

or tile to which at the factory installed

has been applied and tile it with the wax hot

to the top

by many

manufacturers. water.

the floor melts, and imare it is

and the furan the floor the furan be applied of the wax Some stain

has cured, is removed. to the top During not enter

and any furan waxed

stains are re-

by steaming may surface the solidifies. by may hot

or flooding to the tile tile.

The wax

the wax along with able, the wax portance the cools mortars blocked removed that bonding and

If factory surface cleaning only,

tile are not availnone gets on the wax, not could drains when which them

at the job site. the

If so, it is of utmost and that block operation

the wax

is applied does

so that

them furnish waxes,

as it could

manufacturers emulsifiable

an emulsifiable the drains. should which and they available wet cloth

water,

but does not these

harden

and block

Some

furan

penetrate furan the

be used be reand be in unop-

unless recommended Several moved terials carried or cloth desirable prevent eration washable from contain away is not its set. furans brick

by the mortar mortars or tile, agent prior

manufacturer. have caused been to cure, with or sponge. care. These ma-

and grouts which must

a wetting

the furan

resin to emulsify resulting

by the water. used properly, Also, stains

They

be used with

extreme into

If the sponge resin and water

it may drag grout if the grout still from occur

out of the joints

low joints. has started,

excess water may

can be absorbed on the brick.

the furan

In hot weather have disappeared

begins to cure before Many

the cleaning of these

the market.

FURAN

RESIN

MEMBRANES resistant prevents masonry any tank linings are installed that over an impervious the brickare natural chloride. All materisolfor

Chemically membrane work and of from which

corrosive asphalt to many lining

material and

gets through polyvinyl

attacking rubber,

the substrate. oxidized are resistant where the

The commonly acids,

used membranes

synthetic these

plasticized

materials

salts and other to both construction system

corrosive

als, but all are attacked In environments vents, the normal In the early

by solvents

to some degree. is subject masonry furan acids and organic was developed of nonoxidizing as well as conthe stresses al(or applied. layer bond have is not satisfactory.

chemically under

resistant brick

195Os, a glass reinforced This system are applied them is applied over

membrane

use as the membrane crete tanks, These resulting ternate Before between Brick been used floors,

linings

to resist combinations to steel tanks,

acids and most solvents. membranes from sections the brick shrinkage sheathing

can be applied

trenches

and sumps. by methods resin. over to cure. developed is usually to reduce done This the by applying

of the furan

and allowing is installed

Alternate

sections

are then

membrane,

a separatory of the brick.

bond-breaker) lined for

the furan

membrane. furan

This prevents membranes

a rigid

the furan

membrane services

and the furan glass reinforced involving

back or bedjoint and acids.

vessels with many

as described

solvents

Typical

uses include

Furan

Resins

249

the well of

production benzene to

of ethyl produce

chlorohydrin of ethylene ethylbenzene in the above lining have that over

by oxide used

the

wet

chlorination acid; manufacture of many as well years of

of ethylene, the alkylation of styrene;

as the

as by the reaction of ethyl floors with

and hydrochloric in the

production been plants There where

chloride; areas this are exposed

and the production operations, many to solvents. given failed

dyestuffs.

It has also

used on floor Reactors

as in pharmaceutical satisfactory service. more than have containis injected and is repair, for reactor

(See Chapter are still

13.) in use after

are documented

cases where Reactors, from

such reactors

20 years of service. been successfully ing a grease fitting through brick hoping so well The cally for this type returned the fitting lining to that is filled service. a major

by perforation of the the void in the shell. as the furan was first tried shutdown.

of the steel shell, Furan mortar the

repaired with with This

the outside the hole until As soon of repair scheduled

vessel. A steel patch behind

is welded

a grease gun, mortar. type the next of repair. in the furan

the membrane

has cured, In many

as an emergency kept

it would

last until type used

cases it worked in service

repair

was postponed

and vessels were should

years with

no other materials this of lining.

membranes be taken

be formulated

specifiof

use and great

care must

in the design

and installation

FURAN

MONOLITHIC furan

SURFACINGS of monolithic in greater described brick for concrete which trapped of the surfacings thickness-from above in that the ap-

Some plied concretes

resins are used in the formulation substrates, materials inches. from used the furan membranes with in conjunction usually but in a thickness they are applied

to concrete

of l/s or I&. Furan

polymer

are similar differ always

one inch up to several Monolithics membranes may floors, water time are

sheathing.

Monolithics such as of resin

be used alone, trenches at every Furan

most

commonly

as protection reaction becomes out or longer. of elasticity, cure by

surfaces,

and sumps. by a condensation of reaction solid. take eventually as the This water six months material do liquid not produces progresses a molecule and the point polymerization

resins cure a thermoset process may

becomes age. This duces terials have ever, takes duces place Early job

in the cured

mass. As

passes, the water

permeates

resin and creates shrinkhas hardened shrinkage reaction, state. proMaalso How-

Since the resin this delayed

and developed a high such a high

a relatively tensile shrinkage the as polyesters from

high modulus which the

stress in the

and eventually

leads to cracking. cured

a condensation

resin

state to the final or low modulus but

since there place while little after cracks

is no water material

trapped resin. takes

in the resin, a large portion Of course stress, place

of the shrinkage does take to cause of the by the

is in the fluid is some

gel state and it pro-

stress in the cured hardening, the cracking present usually

some of the shrinkage if it is sufficient rather

so there

cracking,

in days,

than weeks or months. for the quality inexpensively

get attention,

since the inspectors can usually

responsible be repaired

are still

and the cracks

250

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

crew layed

that

installed Acids may

the job. may take get into

Cracks place the

in a furan after

installation

resulting

from

the deare not resultIf the

shrinkage,

long

the job is complete the concrete

and often substrate, failure.

noticed. cracks one.

cracks and attack early,

ing in loss of bond

in a large area and eventually and repaired

in a catastrophic would

had been noticed furan

the failure

have been a minor structures, drives stress. out which be of little dethe is

When water not

resins are used with to postcure Although without would bonded shrinkage the tensile the this

glass reinforced structure still with

self-supporting heat which of excessive a structure would

it is common restrained since

practice can the

of condensation.

causes shrinkage, surface, result postcuring

shrink

the either

introduction

In the

case of a monolithic, benefit pending on whether

to a concrete strength

in cracking

or loss of bond,

of the monolithic resulting selection from of the important,

or the shear strength can be strength of exor bond are un-

of the bond In furan reduced of the which pansion failure. Furan changed and after an acid, the cure adhesion substrate by

was the greater. monolithics, proper of the a material the problems The strength comes will particle which the cure shrinkage particle as are tensile in coefficient formulation. and its bond of the substrate size of the filler

and the gradation monolithic produces to that

size are very

to the substrate

in shear. A formulation

as close as possible

also be less likely with

to fail by cracking Since which catalysts will

resins are usually by the cure. reaction If a furan they

cured

an acid catalyst. remains to a substrate

cause, the acid is applied the catalyst bond a furan,

in the furan

resin during react with and on the a satisfactory provide shrinkage, used

material

such as steel or concrete, is inhibited to such which will and a strong materials prevent with

at the interface

is neutralized

does not develop. it is necessary of the acid of very

To obtain catalyst low

to use a primer and initial

neutralization

surface to which the furan will Epoxy based monolithics contain only no water their of condensation superior to concrete where and steel surfaces.

adhere. have the advantage to cause delayed Consequently, resistance furan

shrinkage, monolithics

and adhere strongly are usually

chemical

is required.

STANDARDS The ASTM materials. be found standards These or uses furan has published standards materials. They a number of standards who by ASTM which apply to furan resin tests,

are useful

to anyone

specifies, 4.05.

purchases,

were developed

Committee

C-3 and may The applicable

in the Annual are given below.

Book of ASTM

Standards,

Volume

Specifications C 395-80 C 658-74 C 722-26 Chemical-Resistant (1980) (1980) Resin Mortars Grouts Surfacings

Resin Chemical-Resistant Chemical-Resistant

Monolithic

Furan

Resins

251

Test Methods C 413-80 Absorption of Chemical-Resistant, Nonmetallic Mortars,

Grouts, C 905-79 Monolithic C 321-77 C 267-77 C

and Monolithic Apparent Surfacings Bond Strength

Surfacings Density of Chemical-Resistant Mortars, Grouts, and

of Chemical-Resistant of Mortars of

Mortars

Chemical

Resistance

579-75

Compressive Surfacings (1978) Flexural

Strength

Chemical-Resistant

Mortars

and

Monolithic C 580-74

Strength

and Modulus

of Elasticity

of Chem-

ical-Resistant C 53181

Mortars, Linear

Grouts,

and Monolithic and Coefficient

Surfacings of Thermal Expansion of

Shrinkage Mortars, Strength and

Chemical-Resistant C 307-77 C 308-77 Mortars Practices C 399-74 C723-76 C 811-81 Resistant (1980) (1980) Surface Tensile

Grouts,

and Monolithic

Surfacings Resin Mortars

of Chemical-Resistant Setting Times of

Working

Chemical-Resistant

Resin

Use of Chemical-Resistant Use of Chemical-Resistant Preparation of Concrete

Resin Mortars Tile or Brick for Application Grouts of Chemical-

Resin Monolithic

Surfacings

REFERENCES
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Payne, CR. and Seymour, R.B., US. Patent 2,366,049, assigned to Atlas Mineral Products Co. (December 26, 1944). Harvey, M.T. and Caplan,S., U.S. Patent 2,516,317,assigned to Harvel Research Corp. (July 25,195O). Walters, J.M. and Lantr, W.K., U.S. Patent 2,660,573, assigned to Electra Chemical Engineering and Manufacturing Co. (November 24, 1953). Sheppard, W.L.,Jr.,FoodEngineeringMagazine,Vol.44,pp91-104 (Dec. 1972);Vol. 45,pp 93-102 (Jan. 1973);Vol. 46,~ 84 (Sept. 1974). Sheppard, W.L., Jr., Chemically Resistant Masonry, Second Ed., Marcel Dekker, Inc. New York, pp 202,203 and 205 (1982). Ibid., p 194. Ibid., pp 270-279.

26 Epoxy Resin Chemically Resistant Mortars

C.V. Wittenwyler
Shell Development Westhollow Houston, Company Center Texas Research

EPOXY RESINS
Epoxy the early States resins were 1950s. introduced they pounds weight 100,000. as commercial, have grown per year. petroleum derived member products in

Since then, 300,000,000 a molecular of over

to an annual The major family.

usage in the

United liqfor resins are sur-

of over

of the epoxy includes resins with

class of resins is the uid resins with molecular the and used facings major weights

bisphenol-epichlorohydrin While resistant as surface

This family solid liquid

in the range of 375, through low viscosity mortars coatings The and grouts, to provide

resins account some solid protection of epoxy of epoxy

share of the chemically solution from surfaces

are also used in solvent concrete annually

to steel

corrosion. applications.

About

10,000,000 chemical

pounds

in flooring

resistance

has been widely

recognized

since the mid-1950s.1f2f3

CHEMISTRY
Epoxy cure standing

OF EPOXIES
resins are numbered temperature to most among the any few thermoset to polymers They a broad either that variety self-leveling will of

at ambient adhesion

without surfaces, combination resistance

application resistance strength

of heat.

have outAdvan-

chemical of high

compounds, tage is taken or trowellable

and a unique of their types, grouts,

and toughness.

chemical

to prepare

floorings,

and adhesives. 252

Epoxy

Resin Chemically

Resistant

Mortars

253

While but mers. polymer Since grouts mally erated used tion Table curing specific very

they reactive

are called chemical starting as broad all

resins, material

the liquid

epoxies in the with

are really as wide

not

end products polyof curing

intermediates a range of curing of amines

preparation

of thermoset a variety

No other

can be cured

agents or under nearly

conditions

or give as large a span of epoxy floorings and accelare a in against descripis given

properties. applications at ambient aliphatic special types polymer group chemically resistant resins. fluoride example, grouting require aromatic curing temperature and conditions, boron for for the curing curing resistance A general materials between group agents noragents

used are either in situations chemical 26-I. For optimum of the different with

or polyamide

Occasionally,

amines,

polymercaptans, or to obtain of curing performance, is usually

requirements, agents

environment

a very fast curing.

a chemical

balance

resin and

agent functionality

required.

The functional

of the epoxy

resin is the epoxide

/\
-CH--CH2

The epoxide ide group. 185-215.

content

of an epoxide of epoxide.

resin

is the weight

of resin required

to proper epox-

vide one equivalent

This is abbreviated used for floorings

as WPE, for weight and grouts

The resins normally group

have WPE values of moiety and is reagent agent

The functional expressed quires resin. needed To one equivalent simplify is customarily

for amines curing this

and polyamides Chemically ratio, resin. the

I is the -N-H balanced amount

as the amine

equivalent of amine

weight. mixing

cure normally of curing

agent for each equivalent

(WPE) of epoxy

expressing given

by the manufacturer of epoxy

in phr, or parts of curing

used per hundred

parts by weight

PHYSICAL Epoxy not resoften

PROPERTIES resins with cure

OF CURED to thermosetting

EPOXY

RESINS Once they the curing 10% after formation harden, they do sys-

polymers. During of about provides

the application the application a volumetric the

of h.eat as thermoplastics of heat. shrinkage likelihood cycling. of over thermoset

do. Many process, gelation; when polymers.

epoxy

tems cure without resins shrink polyesters show posite filling about show

the epoxy epoxies

but to a lesser degree than other 3% shrinkage. and reduces tensile Epoxy being service The low shrinkage

For example, stress in comused in gap the strongadhepolyolefins, resistance and brick

less residual

systems with

of crack Epoxy 10,000 a high

applications

or on thermal strengths polymers brittle. them in plants This

polymers psi. They degree epoxy

are among

est known

show excellent of chemical floorings

sion to most and polyimide. to most mers structures without

surfaces,

the exceptions They

being

silicone,

fluorocarbons,

also show toughness

chemicals bonded

and solvents. with

can also be formulated enables areas. chemical resistance

to give hard polyand absorb the im-

to provide

pact and rough

and processing

Table 26-l:

Curing Agents for Epoxy

Resins

Chemical Class 1) Aliphatic Amine Polyamide Example Diethylenetriamine Eq. 21 Wt. Mix Ratio, II phr phra) Useable 20 Life Cure 24 Time Hr. Resistance Good

Min.

2)

EPON CURINGb) ACENTe V-40 Ancaminec) LO Capcure Ancaflex Catalystc) 2-Et-&Me Imidazolee) 3-XOOd) 1532

75

100

phr

40

Min.

24

Hr.

Good

3)

Accelerated Aromatic Amine Polymercaptan Boron Fluoride

94

50 phr

4 Hr.

24

Hr.

V. Good

4) 5)

100 50

phr phr

2 Min.

7 Min. 5 hlin.

Fair Fair

Min.

6)

Imidazole

3-10

phr

8 Hr.

24 Hr.f)

Good

a) b) c) d) e) f)

phr - parts of resin used with 100 Made by Shell Chemical Company. Made by Pacific Anchor Co. blade by Diamond Shamrock Co. Made by BASF \Vyandotte Co. Requires heat for best properties.

parts

by weight

of

a liquid

epoxy

with

an equivalent

weight

of

185-195.

Epoxy

Resin Chemically

Resistant

Mortars

255

CURE

OF EPOXIES resins resins. acids, are usually Actually, anhydrides, thought they salts, of as another more than amines, of polymers member that aromatic with of the family since they amines, widely may different of be

Epoxy thermoset cured amides, properties. Epoxy at room application will advance The mately 4OOF mine, uid epoxy with

are much aliphatic variety

poly-

and catalysts resins may

to give a broad be cured stage where in proportion properties. epoxy resins with

or without

the application essentially reached.

of heat. Curing advances Further stops.4

temperatures

does not complete

the polymerization reaction

but rather

it to the vitrification the cure of reacts.

the curing

of heat, for example,

on a hot summer

day or by using a space heater, As the cure adApproxig) of liqas high as after will mixact of the to be can

to the temperature and curing for agents

vances so do polymer reaction 22,000 that (200C) calories

is exothermic. (188 temperatures minutes

of heat

are produced

each equivalent

This amount exotherm

of heat can develop a fast curing occur in about will

in a confined must and the

mass. With

agent like triethylenetetratwenty The time

an uncontrollable sink the

ing and which as a heat sand, coated the occur tions, (25C). The and tunity nomena water. but is prolonged exotherm

be avoided. temperature of mixing. usable

The addition reached life) is to buildup. cure, usually agents, salts will will still layer,

of the sand to the system be reduced exists. the mix

to moderate possibility prolong after avoiding same

and delay

the exotherm.

to peak exotherm by the addition of avoiding

an exotherm In a thin

One way

(or to promptly

pour

on the surface

heat is lost both While an exotherm occurs sixteen

to the air and to and cure hours applicaat 77F

substrate in twenty for the

a temperature isothermal will system

minutes,

as normally require

in flooring

about

aliphatic react

amine with Such process.

curing polar The

such as triethylenetetramine, in the air to form amine be formed This cure at the air interface the greater or blush

are strong carbonates of resins the opporphe-

bases and will during the cure for

the carbon lower formation.

dioxide

bicarbonates. amine and

the cure temperature, sweat-out

carbonate affect

is a surface be rinsed

doesnt

the overall

of the resin system. It can usually when exposed

It does affect off with to traffic.

the gloss and leaves a greasy feel on the surface. Excessive sweatout will increase,dirt

collection

EPOXY

MORTARS resins are useful brick where usually cure curing low in making at room systems shrinkage, resistance They difficult chemically lime may based resistant hydraulic but variety Epoxy cure, mortars mortars mortars for use with would fail. environments, have the adand chemicals resistance high cost, in some

Epoxy refractory Such elevated vantage over to they mortars

conventional

temperature, to a broad

for extreme of solvents

temperature of high and

be used.

adhesion, impact. more use.

a broad

pH range,

fast (overnight)

and good irritation

abrasion

have the disadvantages to apply,

of moderately

are somewhat repeated

and cause a skin

cases after

256

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

A typical

epoxy

mortar

consists

of:
Parts by Weight 100 75 35 220 615 Shell Chemical Company.

Component Epon@ Resin 828 Epon Curing Agent@ V-40 Silica Flour, 325 Mesh Silica Sand, 100 Mesh Silica Sand, 50 Mesh *Polyamide curing agent from

This on cure. After forty-five mortar vice, week. but

highly

filled filler the

(83%)

system

has very

little

flow

and very

low

shrinkage and tends

The high mixing minutes it will

loading resin for to and

also contributes in large masses. curing agent, too

to abrasion the system

resistance must

to moderate

the cure exotherm

be used within When the resin serfor It will if exis low locally, lmida resistance

or the resin will continue will

become hours

viscous

to handle.

has been in place

sixteen increase

at 75F,

it may be used for light and chemical

in strength

The mortar resist Acetic inorganic

have good concentrations with

resistance will silica;

to most solvents this

and chemicals. especially Silica

acids except

oxidizing

acids at moderate also soften other fillers

to high concentrations. mortar,

acid at high mortar chemically

posed at high temperatures. This in cost, was filled resistant, could be used. has good wear resistance, could is widely available

and has a low coefficient of expansion. Other curing agents than polyamides azole
cured

be used to make a mortar. resistance to eight in Table

curing for

agents provide results.

a high degree of chemical of liquid epoxy

but must be heat Parts by 26-2.

best

lmidazoles parts

are used at a level of three resins, as shown Epoxy Resins

weight

to one hundred

Table 26-2:

Liquid

WPEa) DGEBA DCEBA DGEBA DCEBA a) b) c) (Diglycidyl + Dodecyl + Dodecyl + Butyl Ether Glycidyl Glycidyl of Bisphenol Ether Ether Ether A) 185-192 180-195 195-215 175-195

Visc.b) Poises, 250C I IO-150 45-60 5-7 5-7

Colorc) Gard., hlax. 3 4 4 5

Pounds/Gal. 9.7 9.7 9.2 9.5

Glycidyl

ASTM - D-1652. ASTL1 - D-445. ASThl - D-1544.

Ideally, 300F, gauge curing of

imidazole polymer

mortars

would is its

give their deflection resin

best

performance

if cured results.

at

however,

cures at 160 to 2OOF will performance for below: a liquid epoxy

provide

satisfactory temperature cured with

A good D-648).

(ASTM several

Deflection

temperature

classes of

agents are given

Epoxy

Resin Chemically

Resistant

Mortars

257

Curing Agent Aliphatic amine Polyamide Accelerated aromatic amine Polymercaptan Boron fluoride Imidazole, RT cure Imidarole, 300F cure Aromatic amine, 300F cure

Deflection

Temperature, 120 100 65 100 110 90 160 155

SELF-LEVELING Epoxy formulated portant easily dairies, of A timed permeable sample flow

EPOXIES as opposed Self-leveling for system surfacing a fixed the system. from resin systems Epoxy diluted with Filler reactive loadings or unup to floorTrowellable to make of:
Parts by Weight 100 20 250 5 5 25 2.16

resin compounds, to have low floors. surface

to hydraulic floors

cement

systems,

may

be

viscosity

and a high degree of flow. use in areas where plants, is allowed time sample kitchens, to drain diameter, may be measured interval,

This property is essential,

is imi.e.,

in self-leveling cleaned floor bakeries, amount surface,

are used to provide cleanliness and hospitals. using an efflux from the the diameter higher

a smooth, The degree viscometer. a nonof

breweries, in a floor of floor The

canning

self-leveling

the cup onto

and after floor

of the flooring the degree

is measured.

larger

of the self-leveling Self-leveling floors diluents poises

are made

reactive of IO-40

(see under is needed would

Floorings). floorings. floors.

A base resin viscosity self-leveling

self-leveling

60% by weight ing composition

may be used with consist Component

self-leveling

A typical

Epon@ Resin 828* Mod-Epox** Silica flour Titanium dioxide Brown iron oxide Epon Curing Agent@ U*** Filler/Binder Ratio

*Bisphenol-epichlorohydrin resin from Shell Chemical Company, Houston, Texas. **Triphenylphosphite from Monsanto Chemical Co., St. Louis, Missouri. Aliphatic amine adduct curing agent from Shell Chemical Company, Houston, Texas.

Using this able. case means utes or minimum Other ing for half of colder the

curing

agent, that the

a limited small Since

useable batches

life, about be p!aced curing

thirty

minutes, used. Small fifteen

is availin this mina

As a consequence quantity the full agents

of this, life.

are normally type

can conveniently use of a fast setting

in about of floor agent

useable could

the self-leveling setting for this composition

requires faster

trowelling, conditions

is appropriate. curof conditions

curing

be selected or slower

to provide

in the case of warmer

application.

258

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

Self-leveling filled cally quire epoxy resistant, a primer provide not systems cool and While coal tar roadbeds, sooner chloride.

floors easily when

may or hole

be applied filling decorative so that

directly surface. a primer for

over While

concrete many

or over a smooth

highly chemirelow

trowelling

compositions

to provide

cleaned,

epoxy with

systems their

used over bare concrete, wetting considered the top

self-leveling

systems

viscosity

adequate ordinarily both from

is normally resistant bridges. In cool with

not needed. application, unlike they prevents epoxysurface freeze salt

a chemically overlays and more bottom. coating of

are used to make are salted skid

Bridges, weather,

consequently

frequently

sodium tar

or calcium

A waterproof,

resistant

epoxy

coal

and freeze-thaw damage to the portland cement bridge decks. Such coatings are applied in a sixty mil coating over the cleaned deck. Excess sand is added and the to resin allowed traffic and about the to cure. five Triborough with The excess sand is swept after Bridge starting in New the York off and the roadway San City are examples opened Bay hours operation. Franciscos

Bridge which

of bridges

have been treated

such epoxy

systems.

TROWELLABLE Trowellable sand, tive, which for resin a liquid are often determines or for decorative

EPOXY epoxy epoxy added effects

FLOORINGS are formulated agent. Diluents, Color stickiness may from either a filler, usually silica

resin floorings to control the

resin, and a curing

reactive may may

or unreacof the resin be added

or handleability pigments

the application application

characteristics. temperatures.

and accelerators

be included

to speed the cure of the be incorposurfaces. resin is be glytriFura reacof If a to vertical

use at low flow

Thixotropes of 1 IO-150 with glycidyl glycidyl alcohol,

rated where 188. This

must be controlled epoxy is too added. The high Modified diluents phenyl for

as in the application good trowellability reactive cresyl may

The base liquid viscosity 26-2). used or diluents (see Table butyl cidyl resin phenyl fury1 tive strong strong ether, with alcohol diluent acids glycidyl

resin has a viscosity

poises and a WPE of 5-40 poise viscosities and may dodecyl alcohol,

and a modified ethers ether, benzyl

resins are offered are usually ether, Formulators as furfuryl substituted for epoxy Furfuryl

ether,

glycidyl ester. phthalate, such

or a CI1 glycidyl nonreactive is unique under dibutyl

also dilute

the base epoxy or others.

diluents as a diluent

phosphate,

naphthalenes, will

resins since alcohol with

it can become

some conditions.

cure in the presence polymer. alcohol, agents diluent. aliphatic

(i.e., hydrochloric Such

and phosphoric) resin diluted result are cured functions application aromatic with

to give a complex furfuryl fluoride basic curing are usually amines epoxy

acid is used to cure an epoxy result. a cure would when furfuryl this ambient which adducts, epoxies alcohol curing may accelerated However,

a copoly-

mer will ing agent. agents phatic mides. phenyl

if boron

were used as the cur(i.e., amines The curing amines, or phenol, alitripolya-

and polyamides), used for amine

as a nonreactive

, amidoamines,
resins include salicylic

Accelerators phosphite, ureas. resinous

be used with

tris(dimethylaminomethyi)phenol, binder accounts for about 12-16%

acid, and aromatic (about 27% by

substituted The

by weight

Epoxy

Resin Chemically

Resistant

Mortars

259

volume) sand, Since than finer particle of filler ume.6 flooring,

of the flooring epoxy floors the

system.

The remainder may require applied mesh of

is the filler fillers

which

is usually /I, the fillers

silica less

but special

requirements are normally of 20-300

other

(see section of about As the filler Sieve), 26-l).

on Fillers). size becomes compressive as the range volmore The in the are the

at a thickness are needed. (U.S. Standard (see Figure Neither

1/4 in diameter over range of the particle Since this,

(or largest dimension) system difficulty IO-300 amount with increases mesh.

strength

composite the size is from

However, The usual

size decreases,

application

increases. extreme

of mesh size should to make a nonporous 26-2). usually

be used by itself. a filler

The void content or a greater composition

of sand usually of resin, void higher a fine filler formed a low

is in the range of 28-38% makes the system

is needed content strength with when packing

economical, void fine content particles the ratio packed mix. After a primer ensure terface

less permeable, is minimized parts to tend fill of two coarse

and provides by blending the interstices 26-3). mobility

(see Figure a coarse filler, the coarse

and one part fine filler. Such dense

In such a combination, particles to densify requires trowelling a low

together

(see Figure

viscosity

resin binder

to provide the substrate

particle

and effective

has been prepared of the topping

and large holes or irregularities The purpose of the primer substrates to the substrate. Porous

filled, is to can

is applied the lasting

to the area to be resurfaced. adhesion

absorb some of the binder

and a low adhesive

content
bond.

of the flooring

mix causing a starved, dry in-

18,000

15,000 -

3,000 -

0' 0

I
100

I 200

Sand Size, ASTM Mesh

Figure 26-l: Effect of send size on compressive strength of epoxy floorings (20%~ resin).

260

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

14,000

12,000

'Z P

10,000

2 f

6,000

4,000

10

15

20

25

Binder Content, Figure 26-2: mesh sand). Effect of binder content on compressive

%W strength of epoxy flooring (4080

Fine

Sand Blend Composition

sand
100%

Figure 26-3:

Void content

of blended sands.

Epoxy

Resin Chemically

Resistant

Mortars

267

The room scrubbed imizing usually used for employed. sibility pleted, quired from After teen

primer into

is usually curing the surface,

a low agent.

viscosity, After

100% solids the primer is applied over a good agent

epoxy the still

system on, bond uncured

utilizing rolled primer.

a or

temperature then

is squeegeed adhesive

the flooring

The system

cures monolithically, stresses. The feet, until or, for are mixed smaller

providing first,

and minfloor area,

shrinkage 15-50 this

resin and curing

for

a specified amount

square purpose

then the required A concrete a five reduced. gallon

of blended may be may be

sand added

and mixed

homogeneous.

or plaster

mixer

quantities, is greatly be prompt, should

can mixer

Once the sand is added exotherm onto should is poured in thick light

to the resin,

it acts as a heat sink and the posWhen the mixing and trowelled resin binder to cure binder is comreover the

of an uncontrolled the mix the filler trowelling hours will duty before require epoxy service, service. marble with This area. The trowelling is complete,

the primed leading

substrate

since the

may drain at least sixtraffic is Lower temfloor differmarble terrazzo chips. De-

layers traffic

to inconsistent and three curing

level and porosity. heavy

the system is permitted

be allowed

days before

allowed. perature for heavy

is assuming

the temperature longer flooring epoxy the

is in the 65O-75OF range. times. installed floorings terrazzo instead is normally terrazzo random

correspondingly terrazzo Conventional chips to provide is vulnerable basalt, standards Association,

Although in corrosive ent colored (calcium is colored Terrazzo

as a decorative terrazzos depend pattern. upon Since

in some cases, specially

formulated

may be used

carbonate)

to acid attack, or other for epoxy Inc. materials terrazzo

the chemically are available

resistant from

granite,

of the marble

sign and application and Mosaic

the National

FILLERS Before functions The tem.

FOR

EPOXY

MATERIALS it would affect type be well to reflect the chemical on just what function or systo

we discuss fillers, the filler performs filler will of

in chemically-resistant whiting, fillers limestone)

mixes. resistance will of a composite resistance resistance. of a filled Forhave poor

choice

Calcium The filler

carbonate usually

(marble, accounts cost

acids. The oxide flooring tunately, traffic wear tered, dum as well system. a wide

and silicate Hence, selection as measured (quartz, fillers For

have generally a dominant inexpensive

good chemical percent in filler

for well over half of the weight becomes factor fillers

selection.

of relatively silica)

is available. particularly loads in heavy good are encounresistance performagent usually ratio, binbe until of 7 and generally sliding hardness the

Hardness, resistance. even (Mohs

by the Mobs heavy

scale, is important hardness (Mobs However, cost. of the or where better

areas. Sand harder

has a Mobs traffic Emery

areas of

are available.

= 8) and corun-

hardness

= 9) give successively coefficient higher is primarily binder, The binder of friction. material

wear

and abrasion improved

as an improved

ance carries der fects system. with

a correspondingly strength a given fillers. strength. For

Compressive gained harder

a function content, strength

resin/curing strength may

improved

compressive

or the filler/binder of a composite 26-2.

also af-

compressive

Compressive as shown

increases

all the voids

in the filler

are filled

in Figure

262

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

Filler flooring strength flooring Such anced unit difficult systems filler enough void

particle formulation.

size has a significant The finer the 26-l. in Figure provide more high resin.

effect particle

on the compressive size, the greater very but more fine this the be preferred that strength have to make in this

strength

of a a

compressive be used. be balarea per sticky a filler and floor or

as was shown system for would handling and adsorb

It would
truck, fillers

in formulating fillers must surface

a steel-wheeled qualities.

forklift Fine sized

a filler against weight with

compressive This tends

the mixture

to trowel. blend with

This emphasizes particles

the role of the formulator to ensure adequate two 31% different

in providing

the best balance

of properties,

case, by offering compressive

small enough to blend is about

but large filler. The

to provide of filler, shape of

good trowellability. practice filler sizes of a given By blending 15% volume a single the void by volume.6 to about a coarse through and

It is a common content and a fine a denser The density Minnesota) the trowel encountered and require

content particle

can be reduced plays shape. a role The sand. than

packing

arrangement. of the filler in the ease of application formation offer systems particles resin composite. spherical Silica from the St. Peters round Epoxy hydraulic subangular (Illinois, less drag on as are sticky

an epoxy and make somewhat

has an almost in crushed

the application more effort

easier than to trowel

or sharp particles cement mortars.

or manufactured

WEAR

RESISTANCE sand is the widely applications, crushing where or more blends

OF EPOXY most

FLOORINGS used filler for epoxy trucks can occur. that emery, Wear are given flooring which systems. create It

Silica demanding point

commonly

is economical, loadings, This grit,

available,

chemically

resistant forklift filler to debris example, result.

and wear resistant.

In more high

such as steel-wheeled and wear wear of the silica is exposed fillers, epoxy for will of the epoxy

This degradation than the silthe silica granite, for several

is accelerated ica filler. with or fillers iron harder

the flooring malleable wear in a typical

is harder

leads to rapid improved

flooring.

By replacing corundum, below. on loss values

resistance

and filler

flooring After

Loss of Epoxy

Flooring

500 Revolutions

Cast Iron Wear Plate

Filler Silica Silica Silica Silica Granite Basalt Alumina Iron grit Silica/iron Silica/iron Filler/Binder, 5/l 6/l w/w

Volume Loss, % 2.6 2.9 3.4 3.8

1 .I 1.2 2.1 0.4 0.4 0.6

J/1 8/I 511

5/l 5/l 15/l grit, l/l grit, 2/l 8/l 1312

Epoxy Resin Chemically

Resistant Mortars

263

CHEMICAL

RESISTANCE

OF EPOXY

FLOORINGS

The chemical resistance of epoxy resins to most materials is very good. This is attributed to the ether and amine linkages that form to make the cured epoxy molecule. Chemical resistance embraces a broad spectrum of pH, from the strong acids to the strong bases, oxidizing and reducing conditions, aqueous and nonaqueous environments and high and low temperatures. Basic exposure testing in the laboratories shows that the choice of curing agent plays a major role in determining the chemical resistance of the cured epoxy resin system. A summary of the six major classes of curing agents for epoxy flooring systems is given in Table 26-3. These exposure tests were done at ambient temperatures. Different results would be expected at higher or lower temperatures. Generally, the aliphatic amine and resin-amine adduct exhibit good chemical resistance to this list of reagents with the exception of nitric acid, an oxidizing acid, and methyl ethyl ketone, a pretty good paint remover. Methyl ethyl ketone is quite aggressive with the adduct, but the aliphatic amine shows good resistance to this strong solvent. The modified polyamine is generally satisfactory with these reagents but shows comparatively lowered resistance to acetic and nitric acids. The polyamide curing agent shows reduced resistance to solvents, i .e., the chlorinated solvent, 1,1, 1-trichloroethylene, methyl ethyl ketone, ethylene glycol monomethyl ether , and xylene. This is partly due to its lower glass transition temperature (Tg) which is a result of the lower crosslink density of this polymer. The amido-amine curing agent is vulnerable to the same solvents but, in addition, 10% acetic acid, ethyl alcohol, and xylene severely attack this polymer. The aromatic amine is severely attacked by methyl ethyl ketone, ethylene glycol monomethyl ether , and to a slight degree, by 70% sulfuric acid . When used as floor surfacings in the food industries, i.e., bakeries, dairies, canneries, and processing plants, cleanliness and sterility become important considerations. Such floors may be exposed to live steam in routine cleaning processes. Epoxy resins can be formulated to have glass transition temperatures above 212F but such systems usually require some heat cure to achieve that degree of heat resistance. Cycloaliphatic amine curing agents have been used in conjunction with accelerators to provide a high degree of resistance to steam in applications requiring resistance to steam cleaning. Some degree of flexibility must be built into floor compositions designed for use in such broad ranges of service temperatures. The thermal coefficient of expansion for many epoxy flooring systems is about 38 x 10-6(C (21 x 10""6(F) depending upon aggregate grading and resin content while that of portland cement concrete is 12 x 10-6(C (6.3 x 10-6/F). That differential causes sufficient stress during thermal changes to rupture the concrete substrate. Such failure can be avoided by adding fiexibilizers to lower the Young's modulus of the epoxy polymer and accommodate the stresses.

Table 26-3: Weight Gain of Epoxy Resin Systems1f2

Reagent/Curing Acids

Agent

Aliphatic Amine 2.4 0.0 2.0 2.9 2.5 I.2 0.4 3.0 I.2

Resin Amine Adduct 2.4 0.8 I.4 D3) 0.3 0.0 0.3 17.8 1.2 0.5

Modified Polyamine 4.8 I.0 3.3 9.7 4.7 0.6 0.6 0.2 1.3 1.5 2.4 12.5 10.8 0.3 0.4 0.9 0.6

Polyamide I.8 1.9 I.1 1.9 2.0 0.7 0.7 20.9 D 16.4 6.4

AmidoAmine 2.5 0.9 12.9 1.9 0.7 3;:: D D 10.2

Aromatic Amine 0.9 3.6 0.9 0.7 1.0 0.0 0.6 D 24.0 4.3

Bases Solvents

10% Sulfuric 70% Sulfuric 10% Hydrochloric 10% Acetic 20% Nitric 10% Sodium Hydroxide 50% Sodium Hydroxide I,l,l-Trichloroethane Methyl Ethyl Ketone Ethylene Glycol Monomethyl Ethyl Alcohol Gasohol Methyl Alcohol Toluene Xylene Water 5% Detergent

Ether

2.7

0.6 0.6 1.5

12.9 0.8 1.6

D 0.9 0.8

0.2 0.1 0.7 0.7

I) 2) 3)

Immersed three weeks at room temperature. Pacific Anchor Chemical Corporation, Chemical D = disintegrated.

Resistance

of

Ancaminee

Epoxy

Curing

Agents.

Epoxy Resin Chemically Resistant Mortars

265

SUBSTRATE

PREPARATION

Normally, epoxy floor surfacings are applied over portland cement concrete substrates. They have been successfully used to resurface brick, steel, wood, and even asphaltic surfaces. With any surface, the substrate must be sound, clean, and dry before application of the topping. Several cleaning methods are available and their choice will depend both on the nature of the contaminant and the type of substrate. Dirt removal may be accomplished by dissolving, dispersing, etching, mechanical removal, or a combination of methods. Vehicular traffic areas normally have an accumulation of water-insoluble oil and grime. Food processing plants and dairies have sugars and other fermentable material which are water soluble. Manufacturing and paint plants will have polymeric deposits unaffected by acid etching or aqueous detergents. Each surface must be prepared with an optimized procedure. In the case of vehicular traffic soil, heavy deposits must be mechanically removed. This may be accomplished with a detergent solution and a mechanical scrubber or by using a steam generator to blast off surface accumulations. In the case of light oil deposits on portland cement concrete, removal may be done by a simple dilute hydrochloric (muriatic) acid etch. Commercial concentrated acid (37%) is diluted by mixing one part acid with two parts water. The dilute acid is then applied at a rate of one pint per square yard of surface. The acid begins to react immediately with the carbonates present liberating carbon dioxide gas. After the bubbling has subsided, usually in about five minutes, the acid, dissolved salts, and oil may be flushed off with flowing water. Once the acid has been applied, it must not be allowed to dry or the oil that has been lifted off the surface will be redeposited on the concrete. After the fresh water rinse has dried, the surface should be swept to remove any loose sand or dust present. The above acid etching procedure is also recommended on new, unsoiled, portland cement concrete. In this case, the laitence or uncured oxides on the surface of the cement are removed. While the epoxy would bond to the laitence layer, the laitence layer is not well bonded to sound concrete and subsequent failure would be likely. Unglazed brick is cleaned in the same way as portland cement. Layers of grime are first mechanically removed, then the acid etch is applied to prepare the brick and mortar surfaces. Glazed brick is not affected by hydrochloric acid , and other cleaning methods must be used. Steam cleaning or detergent scrubbing are normally preferred . Steel surfaces are best cleaned by sandblasting if possible. However, the dust problem associated with sandblasting limits its use in food processing and other dust sensitive plants. Mechanical scrubbers are used to remove light soil from steel ramps and floor areas. When epoxies are used over wood surfaces, they should be applied over new or freshly sanded surfaces. Oil soaked wood cannot be cleaned adequately. If heavy oil deposits are present, it is usually preferable to resurface the wood with a new layer of plywood nailed over the old flooring. Asphalt concrete surfaces are best cleaned using an alkaline detergent and scrubbing, taking care to ensure that all strong alkali, which may act as a release agent, is thorough Iy flushed away with fresh water. The surface should be allowed to thoroughly dry before the epoxy surfacing is begun. Solvent type cleaners are to be avoided since they would attack and destroy the asphaltic cement.

266

Corrosion

and

Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

HANDLING Both health with ards people velop (ANSI) with from people the istration, and pounds epoxy

OF EPOXY epoxy for resins, reactivity resins those

MONOLITHICS and who the should with curing with and epoxy when to epoxy them. system to to

AND agents them

MORTARS used with them are potential working in adminhealth millions hazof Some Institute associated classes run that and them

hazards

work

improperly. to provide procedures. exist, procedures National the relative them.8

For those controls While of

programs hazards used sensitized to a rating

be developed personal resins proper

engineering, have may been become

operations, safely

hundreds prolonged

are followed. Standards hazards The ANSI with

resins, and after to evaluate used with 6 (suspected Suppliers

use, may de-

an allergic epoxy

reaction

The American

has developed 1 (practically handling

resins and the curing nonirritating) precautions products such systems

agents

carcinogen). associated and

It is vital

be advised take.

of the hazards

recommended

manufacturers

of epoxy

resins and formulated

can provide

such information.

REFERENCES
1. 2. 3. 4. Guide Specification for Fine Aggregate Epoxy Floors, National Terrazzo and Mosaic Association, Inc., 716 Church Street, Alexandria, Virginia. Sheppard, W.L., Jr., Chemically Resistant Masonry, Marcel Dekker, pp 25,38 (1982). Guide for the Protection of Concrete Against Chemical Attack by Means of Coatings, American Concrete Institute,Committee 515 Report, (December 1966). Gillham, Polym. Eng. Sci., 19,676 (1979). Bell, et al, Journal of Applied Polymer Science, 21, 1095 (1977). American Society for Testing and Materials, Method C-29. Epon@/Eponot@/EponexTM Resins/Epon Curing Agents@, Recommendedations for Handling, SC:106-82, Shell Chemical Company, Houston, Texas 77001. American National Standards Institute Classifications, SC:64-81, Shell Chemical Company, Houston, Texas 77001,

5.
6. 7. 8.

27 Polyester and Vinyl Ester Resins

Kenneth Ashland

A. Poss Company Ohio

Chemical

Columbus,

INTRODUCTION In recent creasingly traditional cellent facings, floor may chemical years unsaturated polyester grout and vinyl This filled mortars, ester resins have become formulations handling grouts 1950s cements and resistant more than is due primarily improved systems, to their inexsur-

more

important to oxidizing cure. tile Their grouts,

in certain

and mortar low cost,

other

resins such as epoxides resistance quarry

and furans.

chemicals,

characterand steel and grouts new and resins, their

istics and rapid plate

use in formulated acid-proof industries. common brick significantly chemical

e.g., monolithic

machinery

cements, process

has grown for

since the early formulated environments of corrosion become

in the food, also

and paper

Specially

be recommended mixtures and availability

ever-changing development Ever-changing sulted ties. bined the superior saturated types

thereof.

The selection testing, to not

environmental resins

has also only

sophisticated. has repossibiliUntil unproperties,

of raw materials in respect properties with

and expertise corrosion enhancing quite excellent ester these

in resin synthesis resistance application their

in improved Vinyl ester

but also physical resiliency development chemical resulted

and mechanical resin in particular and impact resistance Any

has become

important chemical highly into

due to its comresistance. crosslinked more mid-1960s, resilient tempera-

resistance could attempt both their only to

and commercialization

of vinyl be found modify

resins in the resins

in rigid,

polyesters.

in lowering

chemical

resistance

and elevated

ture service.

267

268

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

RESIN

TYPES generic were Later polyester resistance resins. type thermosetting and the 195Os, polyester orthophthalic bisphenol made available selective resins selected polyesters A fumerate which for mortars, commercialized and chlorendic generally to their type, through into the but the isophthalic grouts in acid better or chemand rereferred glycol polyresins or

First and the 1940s.

cements

isophthalic in the

unsaturated chemical istry taining to change were orthophthalic

resins were and higher Shortly

offered either

temperature thereafter,

service than

modifications

made to make to good polyesters structure. resins acrylic

new less rigid chemical and achieve

resins of the same generic their degree acid of flexibility incorporated called

moderate

resistance. dibasic

These resins are generally

as resilient

and the amount ester by type may 27-1

of unsaturated are not and what

mer backbone Vinyl characterized novolac rigid and Table and resilient Table corrosion

are generally of either a later

polyesters, These

termination represent twice

bisphenol development.

A epichlorohydrin resiliency properties

epoxies,

resins are not of rigid of rigid

be said to exhibit polyesters. compares typical

the tensile and

elongation physical

resistant

mechanical

polyester 27-1:

and vinyl

ester resin castings. of Cast Rigid Ester Resins

Vinyl ester Bisphenol A fumerate polyester Rigid 35 6,500 44818 0.44 3.03 2 .o 14,000 96,530 0.49 3.38 132

Typical

Properties and Vinyl

and Resilient

Polyester

TVP~

Class Barcol hardness Tensile strength psi kPa Tensile modulus psi x IO6 kPa x IO6 Elongation, percent Flexural strength psi kPa Flexural modulus psi x IO6 kPa x IO6 Heat deflection temperature, C

lsophthalic polyester Resilient 40 11,200 77,224 0.52 3.59 5.5 21,500 148,243 0.50 3.45 78

lsophthalic polyester Rigid 49 8,600 59,297 0.50 3.45 1 .9 20,500 143,193 0.55 3.79 121

Resilient 35 11,400 78,603 0.45 3.10 5.5 19,400 133,763 0.46 3.17 99

USES Chemical 27-1 tect flake existing resistant structures chemical resins similar in many and substrates. resistant process glass reinforced in structure to contain Among pultruded their equipment, to those corrosive many fiberglass shapes, represented chemicals applications reinforced monolithic in Figure and proare glass linings, surfacings,

have been utilized

modes

reinforced

glass coatings,

Polyester

and Vinyl Ester Resins

269

z
II

20
OSU

c
0

o=u
0 I I 0 I 0-u 0 I I * * *

*
4:

u
I OZ 0

8--o
0

OZ
1

u u-u-u

0 I

0-u

u-u
0

u
0

O=U

0I
u-u-u
0

I\ 0
I OC

3 0
+

u
I

6--u

u--u-u v-u
I OS 0-u I

u --I

u-u
I

*
+t

&

0 1

tn

u-\ /

270

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

polymer This ments modified monolithic brick.

concrete, chapter brick with steel and

brick focuses

and tile grouting Essentially, and used chemically

cements these for

and acid proof

brick

mortars. ceof products

on the development

and characteristics are formulated embedding quarry storage and waste and pulp, steel tile

of grouting resinous and jointing

mortars. inert plate fillers

grouting, resistant trenches,

floors,

and acid resistant pickling and

Typical plating Examples electronic, and metal tanks, of

application reaction industries

areas are floors, vessels, that municipal, stacks, power are served

tanks, food and

scrubbers are paper

treatment metal

facilities. working

and beverage,

chemical, refining.

generation,

PROPERTIES Although formulated inert fillers, and physical amount adhesion, corrosion from their resistant grouts, cements and mortars are essentially cases the same characteriestics by the types, like thixotropy, however, with, under are have ambiIn of

the same corrosion use dictates of fillers strength, different

resistant

resins and in most in handling brought about

requirements are usually into

properties.

These changes incorporated color

and ratio cleaning,

the resin. Properties

and working

life of the wet mix,

achieved with various additives which will be discussed later. Generally, grouts, cements and mortars must all be easy to work high ent order compressive temperature to meet require strengths, conditions the criteria low and shrinkage offer and exotherm, to superior cure fully chemical good

resistance. these type

and be competitive formulating

in the marketplace, chemist.

products

an experienced

CHEMICAL The vinyl resistant broad plied on testing cific

RESISTANCE most resin. important

PROPERTIES consideration cements not to first exist resistant which upon and to be given and grouts that resins, .they in formulating polyester corrosion chemiin the supor

ester resinous Most of will

mortars, chemical chemicals rely

is selecting

the proper

A resin does

is the panacea however, may this

for all corrosive do overlap others

cal problems. spectrum by the fiberglass formulator

be resistant. corrosion

An experienced data developed laboratory After maka spefor-

usually

published clear the resin from

resistance through

resin

manufacturers. laminates actual

However, case histories

type

of data is often installations. generate

reinforced judgement chemical

castings field

or is based upon or general This

ing a reasonable independent mulations. General generally tance and

in selecting condition,

best resin candidate should grout, mortar

to meet and cement

the formulator data on finished

and supply used in

corrosion

resistance

is particularly polyester

important resins for

since the fillers

and additives

such formulations are not

are also affected utilized

by the chemical based upon since they service

environment. orthophthalic have limited (120F), acid chemistry chemical though resisthey

purpose can only

in formulating

be considered

up to 50C

Polyester and Vinyl Ester Resins

271

may be suitable for intermittent exposure to mild chemicals like nonoxidizing acids and exposure to distilled water and seawater . Isophthalic polyester resins offer significantly better chemical resistance than the orthophthalic resins and their rigid versions may be considered for service up to 82C (180F). Resilient isophthalic polyesters are generally not recommended above 54C ( 150F) .These resins exhibit good resistance to mild acids, salts and selective nonpolar solvents . Bisphenol A fumarate polyesters have resistance to dilute to moderately strong caustics, weak oxidizing acids, salts and many bleach solutions. These types of resins may be used in wet chemical service up to 120C (250F) and gases up to 150C (300F). Chlorendic acid polyesters have exceptional chemical resistance to strong oxidizing mineral acids and selective solvents and bleaches. They are not recommended for caustic service. Their upper temperature service limit is generally considered 129C (265F) for wet service and 177C (350F) for continuous gas exposure . Vinyl ester resins are generally utilized for chemical environments more severe than those for which isophthalic resins are recommended, but less severe than those for which bisphenol A fumarate and chlorendic acid polyesters are recommended. They do, however, exhibit better resistance to oxidants and bleach chemicals and may be considered a second choice to bisphenol A fumarate resins in caustic service. The bisphenol A epichlorohydrin epoxy type vinyl ester resin has an upper temperature limit of 100C (212F) and the novolac type 120 C (250 F). One of the most frequently employed criteria in judging the chemical resistance performance of cements, grouts and mortars is comparing compressive strength retentions after chemical immersion. Generally, cast cement cylinders are totally immersed in chemical media at a uniform temperature for a specific period that may extend up to twelve months and samples are withdrawn at regular prescribed intervals and tested. Published data should be based upon the ASTM C267 test method which should include besides compressive strength retention, the change in specimen appearance, weight and the appearance of the test medium. As with all other materials used in corrosion service, the performance of polyester or vinyl ester cements, mortars and grouts is related to the concentration of chemicals and temperature conditions. Although there are exceptions, many chemical resistance tables available from suppliers generally list exposures to liquid media up to 70C (160F). It is important to remember that the performance of cements, mortars and grouts in chemical service is directly related not only to the resin, but also to the filler selection as well as to the degree of cure, the quality of the application, and the nature and preparation of the substrate. FORMULA
Resins Unsaturated polyesters are polymers formed from repeating units of dihy.

COMPONENTS

dric alcohols (glycols) ~nd dicarboxylic (dibasic) acids that form esters via condensation. One or more of the acids must contain double bonds for crosslinking

272

Corrosion and Chemical Resistant Masonry Materials Handbook

and thermosetting. An unsaturated reactive monomer such as styrene is also necessary to provide crosslinking units to unite the polyester chain three-dimensionally. Vinyl ester resins derive their unsaturation from acrylic units and must also be dissolved in a reactive monomer like styrene for crosslinking and thermosetting. Other reactive monomers such as methyl methacrylate, vinyltoluene, diallyl phthalate, alpha-methylstyrene and divinylbenzene may be used for modification of properties along with styrene. Styrene, however, is generally used alone because of its low cost, excellent solvent characteristics, abundant availability and, most important, it readily reacts with both polyester and vinyl ester resins. These resins are available to the formulating chemist as solids and as low viscosity, styrenated liquids, both unpromoted and prepromoted.

Catalysts In order for resinous cements, mortars and grouts to cure properly at ambient temperatures, e.g., 15.5C (60F) to 38C (100F), they must incorporate two essential components, a promoter and an initiator. Organic peroxides are initiators that provide free radicals in the presence of a promoter to form a solid, rigid, infusible, thermoset mass. These free radicals are attracted to the points of unsaturation (carbon-carbon double bonds) in the monomer to initiate the copolymerization reaction. This is referred to as addition polymerization. Methyl ethyl ketone peroxide, benzoyl peroxide and cumene hydroperoxide are three of the most commonly used catalysts for affecting ambient curing. They are generally low in cost and most efficient to use in controlling gelation and cure times. Promoters and Cure Systems Promoters, sometimes referred to as accelerators, cleave the oxygen to oxygen bond of a peroxide to form free radicals. These are generally metal compounds and amines that may be used singularly or in combination depending upon the initiator to affect ambient cures. Cobalt naphthenate or cobalt octoate by itself or in combination with an amine like dimethylaniline (DMA) or diethylaniline (DEA) for instance are generally used with methyl ethyl ketone peroxide to cure both polyester and vinyl ester resins. At low temperatures, it is generally necessary to utilize a dual promoter system to cure vinyl ester resins. Use of a cobalt promoter and DMA may also be used with cumene hydroperoxide to cure a vinyl ester resin. The gel to cure times are generally shorter. Use of a manganese naphthenate-cumene hydroperoxide system is an effective means to establ ish long polyester resin gel times and obtain excellent cure. However, this system is not generally recommended for vinyl ester resins due to poor cure development. Benzoyl peroxide catalysts require an amine promoter such as dimethyl- or diethylaniline to effectively cure both polyester and vinyl ester resins at ambient temperatures. Metal promoters are not required. Caution should be taken to insure that initiators (peroxides) and promoters (accelerators) are never mixed directly together and then added to the resin. To do so would precipitate a violent decomposition of the peroxide that may result in fire or injury.

Polyester

and Vinyl

Ester Resins

273

inhibitors Inhibitors corporated vent formulator working generally formation are not necessary to cure polyester the reaction during rate. Selective monomer condensation and vinyl ester resins, but may inhibitors by their have already manufacturers been into preThe the are

be useful to control premature may reducing

into the resin and styrene gelation find it necessary

polymerization inhibitors atom

and storage. to prolong Inhibitors

to use stabilizing hydrogen They

life of grouts and mortars and whose effect

and shelf life of the product. to their concentration.

agents whose donated is proportional

suppresses free radical Once they are in lowering in Table

used up, the reaction the peak exotherm trations. 27-2. Table 27-2: Twa Some typical

rate increases rapidly. inhibitors

are also effective

of the reaction

and generally

used in 50 to 500 ppm concenmay be found

and their characteristics

Inhibitors

for Polyester Abbreviation

HO MTBHQ DTBHQ

and Vinyl

Ester Resins Major Uses

Hydroquinone Mono-tertbutylhydroquinone Di-tertbutylhydroquinone

p-Benzoquinone Toluhydroquinone tert-Butyl catechol Reference: Inhibitors for Unsaturated March 1967,

PBQ THQ TBC

Prolong RT storage Lower peak exotherm, prolongs cure time and RT storage Moderately effective storage inhibitor; little effect on the cure rate Less effective for prolong RT storage Similar to MTBHQ performance Similar to HO performance

Polyesters, L.P. Foster & S.B.Miller,ModernP/astics,

Fillers Generally, ments, ency, 200 chemical thracite) fluosilicic where mortars particle mesh), fillers are selected for incorporation into corrosion must resistant ce-

and grouts based upon their compatibility, size, and cost effectiveness. and carbon (as graphite, solutions Each filler Quartz petroleum can only (calcium environment.

inertness and absorbbe selected for its silica, silica flour (140hydrofluoric, by mortars Unacceptand retard

resistance to the particular barytes are the usual selections. acids and strong kaolin

coke flour or crushed anbe handled are employed. carbonate)

Some chemicals graphite

such asfluoboric,

caustic

fillers,

such as coke flour,

and barytes

able for use are talc, and iron oxides cure. Additives Special ify polyester ing surface

clays, limestone

and aluminum

and salts. The latter may complex

with the promoter

vinyl terminated and vinyl tension)

silane coupling

agents are sometimes formulations They enhancing

used to modtheir wetting and

ester resins in filled

of and adhesion

to both base fillers and substrates. as air release agents and flow

may also act (by reducCompressive

modifiers.

274

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

tensile though to

strengths expensive, loading

of properly the silane

filled

systems

are generally

increased dilution

10 to 20%. Alat 0.1 of resin cost by silane coupthixotropy these resins.

coupling

agents

are generally

recommended

1 .O% based upon

the weight

of the resin. Considering the expense may is not significant. agent be necessary mortars it from into

the high

of the low cost fillers, of fumed properties of the from silica

of incorporating in creating made flowing with will

ling agents into the resin binder The addition and under prevent silica ploying when to the anti-sagging must the weight the bricks additive Coke flour they type of The mortar bricklayer

in acid-proof brick. Thixotropy the binder brick especially

brick built when

be so formulated buttering sliding,

as to prevent

out of the joints also aid the and will emand Due ceof the joints,

the mortar

in properly

surfaces

and filling effective thixotropic not

set on an incline.

Use of a fumed

up to 5% of the and graphite application, for

is especially

in formulations characteristics not necessary. in bedding surfaces tile.

a silica filler. fillers have inherently is generally and in grouts may be cleaned formulation the first are employed, the use of fumed thixotropy many years they silica is generally for quarry with so that method

required

ments for paver brick Standard quarry ment porate with ployed special tiles practice and bricks epoxy and

and steel plate, so that grouts burlap

has been to wax cases with

the exposed steam. they furans

A later developmay far be cleaned been embelow.) For are avail-

used with proprietary hot Black water with

and in a few in the cloth. esters. pigmented Only

has been to incor-

emulsifiers and vinyl accepted however,

has thus grouts

polyesters is generally

(See the section for mortars, pastes

on Limitations, binder

as the color

and cements.

applications,

in a polyester

able in most any color.

FORMULATIONS Polyester formulated binder. cure binder This system into and vinyl is best by ester resinous with DMA peroxide There cure grouts, the cements dimethyl with and mortars aniline-benzoyl other additives however, resinous are generally and liquid peroxide in the powder where develop binder e.g., resin state it is into

to be twocomponent accomplished the The benzoyl filler systems cements 4:l binder incorporating

systems

consisting along

of a dry powder

component. the to select

initiator systems.

in the 98% solid These generally mix,

is mixed necessary

component. consisting incorporate up to 9:l.

are exceptions,

one of the other

three-component uid peroxide. Grouts ratios course, with graded, particles. consistency. may a filler All and

of the powder with larger

and liq10 to factor, 80 of is

size particles, to liquid usually Their as well spacing filler important

mesh sand, than the mortars range from to liquid filler is the polymer generally

and for this reason, A second Mortars

the filler

binder

weight

governing

viscosity. ratio

by comparison to 3:l. of powder to reduce follow.

are formulated component particles larger

range of 2:l

containing components

an amount filler

as somewhat between

are graded

in the mix,

to obtain Examples

the highest of suggested

to resin ratio,

and to obtain

the desired

formulations

Polyester

and

Vinyl

Ester

Resins

275

Grout
Liquid Rigid polyester resin 96.6 0.4 3 .o 100.0 Pounds Powder Silica sand, 20-50 mesh Silica sand, 60-60 mesh Benzoyl peroxide powder Silica flour, 120-200 mesh 60.00 30.00 0.25 9.75 100.00 Pounds

500-I ,000 cp viscosity Dimethyl aniline Pigmented paste

Mixing Cement

ratio-4

parts powder/l

part liquid.

Liquid Resilient vinyl ester resin, 150-400 cp viscosity Dimethyl aniline Pigmented paste

Pounds

Powder Silica sand, 20-50 mesh Silica sand, 60-80 mesh Benzoyl peroxide Silica flour, 120-200 mesh

Pounds

50.00 44.88 0.12 5 .oo 100.00

96.6 0.4 3 .o 100.0

Mixing Mortar

ratio-8

parts powder/l

part liquid.

Liquid Rigid polyester resin, 500-I ,000 cp viscosity Dimethyl aniline

Pounds

Powder Silica flour, 120-200 mesh Coke flour Benzoyl peroxide powder

Pounds

99.6 0.4 100.0

50.0 49.5 0.5 100.0

Mixing

ratio-2 27-3

parts lists

powder/l some of

part

liquid. properties that can be expected from

Table polyester

the typical mortars,

and vinyl

ester type

grouts

and cements.

SUBSTRATE Quarry usually proper

PREPARATION tile and steel plate floors whereas brick between two are normally laid directly upon primed cona tile

crete substrates, or steel plate

construction, the concrete important laitance

as a rule,

incorporates

a liquid-tight, to establish by me-

soft membrane over bonding.

and the bed joint. steps must first structure must

When laying be removed

concrete,

be taken

The weak

portland

276

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

Table 27-3:

Typical

Properties

of Polyester

and Vinyl

Ester

Cements,
Density, Ib/ft3 ASTM D-71

Grouts and Mortars

kg/m3 Tensile strength, ASTM C-307 psi kPa Flexural strength, ASTM C-580 psi kPa Flexural modulus, ASTM C-580 psi kPa Compressive strength, ASTM C-579 psi kPa Bond strength, ASTM C-321 psi kPa Setting time, ASTM C-308 minutes Water absorption, ASTM C413 percent Coefficient of thermal expansion, ASTM C-531 in/ir$F mm/mm/C Shrinkage, ASTM C-531 percent

100-I 25 1,602 -2,002.5 2 ,ooo-2,500 13.790-17238 4,ooos,ooo 27580-34,475 1-2x 106 6.895-13.79 10,000-15,000 68950-103,425 150-300 1,034.3 -2,068.5 10-30 <0.4

x IO6

12-20 x 10-e 21.6-36 x 1 O-6 <3

chanical important low primers cement. into grout normal to shrinkage penetrating to prevent

scarification, polyester the grout full

abrasive resin

sandblasting or vinyl level ester used

or an acid etching formulated is preferred. is less than peroxide allow being cement will Besides bedding primer. The the substrate

process. properties

Equally of such

is the application assist in resisting Generally, and recommended establish stresses into air from ester

of a specially stresses built

Use of a resilient, and embedding incorporated is kept at the or of by and Polyand cement

viscosity

up between while the

promoter formulations level. cure This before

normally initiator the bedding

cement

technique the primer bed.

cures and lessens the amount adhesion and grout to monitor promoters joints. coverage help to seal the surface,

developing the concrete being primers

in the surface,

these primers

trapped

in the bond

ester and vinyl a silane coupling

may incorporate

pigments

agent to enhance

development.

USEFULNESS Corrosion gineer many construction. resistant advantages Concrete mortars, when floors, cements used walls, with sumps, and grouts offer the tile industrial and bricks enfor

corrosion tanks

resistant and pump

bases are perman-

Polyester

and

Vinyl

Ester

Resins

277

ently time, terials easily kept

protected. are easily Steel plate cleaned, germ-free

Such repaired floors resistant meeting

engineered and corrosion to FDA severe

systems

offer

quick

installation, to more

low expensive

downmaare

an inexpensive problems. in cement cleaning

alternative and grouted chemicals Properly

and ways of solving

embedded

tile and brick and bacteria, they heavy

floors

and can be offer exceitraffic.

requirements.

installed, very

lent abrasion

resistance

and the strength

to withstand

wheeled

LIMITATIONS In all corrosion of the lowing ensuring ship and installation preparation resistant will depend cement to surface directions systems, the performance upon the by reliable is an absolute to ensure not be the and service proper design craftsmen. requirement workmanas life and Folin

a major

degree

of the substrate performance long may service well

and installation to the letter necessary bidder may

the manufacturers installers life. require

expectations. are absolutely The lowest repair and vinyl below substrate prior quality that least expensive

Experienced his work perienced cure tile,

or replacement

years before

of a more exwill not

contractor. polyester when kept ester resins and formulated (6OF). They must warm and kept until to that products cured. 15.5% must be brought up to that All brick, tem-

Generally, properly minimum perature ture.

temperature before

to installation

steel plates,

and the application.

also be warmed

minimum

The cure of polyesters It is, therefore, with until in contact possible dewpoint, which Consult at installations the job. these mortars

and vinyl that

esters is inhibited tools be absolutely sound may bonding

by the presence that dry before, during

of moisand afcure imthe

essential the cure

substrate,

and all objects

may come

and grouts is well good,

ter installation

advanced. that

This problem have moisture

makes full below

or precludes

establishing to the surface

to steel that

is below

or to a concrete the manufacturer

substrate

the surface

may be drawn

as soon as the surface of service prior

is sealed by the mortar. conditions of environment the materials for

and discuss anticipated

as well as conditions

to selecting

RAW MATERIAL Additives-Wetting, Byk-Mallinckrodt, 06492 Cavedon 02895 Dow Corning Hercules, Kay-Fries Kenrich Chemical

SUPPLIERS Air P.O. Release and Adhesion Box 5670, P.O. 524 Box 1767, Promoters Cherry Street, Wallingford, CT RI

South 329,

Company,

26 Avenue

C., Woonsocket,

Corporation,

P.O. Box

Midland, DE 19899 Montvale,

Ml 48640 NJ 07645 Bayonne, NJ 07002

Inc., Hercules Chemical, Petrochemicals,

Plaza, Wilmington, Avenue, Inc., Foot

200 Summit

of East 22nd

Street,

278

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

PCR, Union bury

inc.,

Gainesville, 2731

FL 32601 Bartram CT 06817 Road, Bristol, PA 19007 & Plastics Division, Old RidgeSpecialty Chemicals

Petrarch

Systems, Carbide Road,

Corporation, Danbury,

Catalysts Aztec Chinook Canada Lucidol 14240 The Norac Noury Witco

(Initiators) Division, Dart Industries, Limited, Tiernan, Inc., P.O. Box 756, 11 King Street Inc., Motor #78, 1740 Avenue, Burt, Avenue, Austin, Elyria, OH 44035 1, Ontario, Buffalo, NY

Chemicals

Chemicals Division,

Corporation Wallace &

W, Toronto Road,

Military Azusa,

Company,

Inc., 405 South Route

CA 91702 CA 94804

Chemical Chemical

Corporation, Corporation, Inc.,

NY 14028 Richmond, TX 78766

850 Morton P.O. Box 9405,

Reichhold Fillers Great Illinois Martin 60008 Ottawa Tamms Inhibitors American North, Crown Eastman Pigments Ferro PDI, Pfizer

Chemicals,

Lakes Foundry Mineral Marietta Silica

Sand Company, 2035 Two

2855

Coolidge, Avenue,

Troy, Cairo,

Ml 48048 IL 62914 Rolling Meadows, IL

Company, Aggregates, Company,

Washington Crossroads

of Commerce, Ottawa,

Boyce

Memorial Ardmore

Drive,

IL 61350

Pennsylvania

Glass Sand Company, Company, 1222

Berkeley

Springs, Drawer

WV 25411 Box C, Itasca,

Industries

IL 60143

Hoechst Sommerville,

Corporation, NJ 08876 Corporation, 2020 Products,

Industrial Chemical Dow

Chemical Products

Division,

Route

202-206

Zellerbach Chemical

Division, Kingsport,

Camas, WA 98607 TN 37662

Dow Chemical

Company,

Center,

Midland,

Ml 48640

Inc., P.O. Box 431,

Corporation, Inc.,54 Kellogg NY Minerals,

Color Pigments 10017

Division, & Metals

4150,East Division,

56th Edison, Dept.

Street, 7CX,

Cleveland, 235

OH 44105 Street,

Court,

P.O. Box 412,

NJ 08817 East 42nd

New York, Plasticolors, Promoters Allied

Inc., P.O. Box 816, (Accelerators) Corporation, NJ 07960 Company,

Ashtabula,

OH 44004

Chemical

Specialty Polymer

Chemicals

Division, Dept.,

P.O. Bound

Box

1087R, NJ

Morristown, American 08805 Interstab Mooney

Cyanamid Chemicals, Chemicals,

& Chemicals

Brook,

Inc., 500 Jersey Inc., 2301

Avenue, Road,

New Brunswick, Cleveland,

NJ 08903

Scranton

OH 44113

Polyester

and

Vinyl

Ester

Resins

279

Tenneco Witco

Chemicals,

Turner

Place, P.O. Box 365, Organics Division,

Piscataway, 850 Morton

NJ 08854 Avenue, Richmond,

Chemical

Corporation,

CA 94804 Resins Ashland Chemical Company, Columbus, OH 43216 The Dow Interplastic Minneapolis, Koppers Reichhold PA 15230 Chemical Inc., Company, Route ICI Americas, Division of Ashland Oil, Inc., P.O. Box 2219,

P.O. Box 4269, Resins Building,

Houston, Division,

TX 77210 DE 19897 N.E. Broadway, 2015

202 & New Murphy Commercial 1900 US. Koppers Steel

Road, Wilmington,

Corporation, MN 55413 inc., Company, Chemicals,

Pittsburgh, 600 Grant

PA 15219 FL 32245 Street, Pittsburgh,

Inc., P.O. Box

19129,

Jacksonville,

USS Chemicals

Division,

Corporation,

28 Acrylic Polymer Mortars and Concretes

W.O. Eisenhut Adhesive Engineering Company

San Carlos, California

GENERAL In bleaches, ditionally paints tensive many or on walls many industrial Protection such protection corrosion and steps floors of the of facilities fluids steam, routinely harsh come chemicals, in contact resistant acids, with fats, sugars,

oils and processing

concrete,steel specialty and labor grouting. tile inIn

and asphalt.

of such structures is provided metals. industrial placement, resistant

is necessary

to avoid deterioration.Tramasonry, brick resistant and joint

by chemical involves or tile chemical

Use of chemical brick setting

plants

the time-consuming, resistance with these

mortar

situations, Advances

cost of providing are allowed particularly the of furan

materials

is too high and the structures in chemistry, polyesters), introduction forces tion (acrylics,

to deteriorate. the discovery of and epoxy industrial of free radical chemistry polymeriza(polyurealternaisocyanate

development

thanes)

and the

resins have provided environmental are:

tives to the traditional Primary driving

ways of providing

protection.

for the acceptance

of these new materials

Cost efficiency Convenience Sanitary Versatility, Decorative in application consideration in repair

(bacterial)

particularly appearance

280

Acrylic

Polymer

Mortars

and Concretes

281

Acrylics market which have found cause they application, environmental pearance. (beverage ees working tile lithic trowel aration. to formed adjoining product dairies, and cold Acrylic little (vinyl) or brick which finish.

and wide

urethane acceptance

modified particularly with can color important

acrylics

have

recently segment

made

inroads

in a beafter ap-

was dominated

by epoxy

and furan in the repair

resin formulations. within with exposed effect

Acrylics

of this market 3 hours

can be applied protection is particularly

great ease, cure fast, usually retention. for In many industries be achieved hand-in-hand psychological combines screed allow

and have excellent This

applications

of acrylics, traffic

a decorative to visitor

industries)

and can have a positive formulations grouting or

on the employsteps of possibly of painters are not the placed of seams growth. relatively radical a

in such facilities. of acrylic setting may usually require the traditional placement and those coving floors. repair and joint in one operation: of a monoprep-

Placement

be self-leveling required the

application range from

Adjustments In place

of such compositions to place products state are well provide the

and wainscot Cold joints

The skills because cured breweries, joints mortars heat

these materials seamless binders if selective suited

masons.

in the uncured product, Acrylics

tend

to dissolve

or soften

an advantage,

of previously The absence bacterial layers, effect).3 during blends

is necessary.

for use in wet processing plants. protection for bedding even against in thick

industries,

and other

beverage-producing excellent acrylics because

in floors to other

provides products on cure

have been used extensively

and setting mechanism, inclusion starved

tile floors. free

Contrary

develop, the feature

(exotherm) of acrylic

reaction

polymerization, and finishing must

has a self-limiting products is inhibited affect operations can adversely provide by floating the

(Trommsdorff

Cure placement ishing

by air. Air cure

blending, with fillers, Fincure.

and use of binder a closed surface

sands, and aggregates techniques

and lead to weak barrier amount

products.

to assure proper of fine filler systems in storage cases, dome

This can be accomplished der to the surface To low the achieve which coarse Acrylics application. of drying 3%. Suitability by adhesion tative thick surface sition soluble tests substrates for high

an adequate content

and binmust and be in to

or by adding strength special of the

wax to the formulations. moisture itself in acrylic adhesion during manufacture, extreme require

requires particles

precautions documents filler modified concrete to reduce for execution adhesion show requires system.

use. Presence voids above

of moisture such particles and urethane Water saturated be provided of any tests which indicating thin

in inferior In some generally be allowed miscrosopic

of the binder

shaped for

can be seen upon acrylics must

examination. a dry substrate content should to dry or artificial means

must

the surface should strength values effect a higher

moisture reveal

to less than be established Quanticoncrete of psi). in the partly

substrate upon tensile

application

of acrylics

substrate

failure. Suitable

are preferred. substrate

monolithics concrete

in excess of 200 psi. Application strength may related (>240 of air which be trapped cross-linked,

layers of polymer To overcome layer to the

the cure-inhibiting primers of the surfacing

of a substrate, binder monomers

are used which material,

are usually are lightly

in compo-

in acrylic

and have a long active

life (open time)

for bonding.

282

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

Primers fied) which larly binder place.4 tions and tion

which

become

insoluble short

in acrylic

monomers

on cure

(isocyanate used.

modi-

have a relatively The liquid presents in the From food the

open time of acrylic fire hazard

and are less frequently formulations during To which generally application. in indoor these

component a potential odor have

has a low flash point In addition, application in the acrylic acrylics particunew marketformula-

have a distinctive systems

which been

can be objectionable industry.

processing potential

counteract are now point

disadvantages,

developed health

appearing most

hazard

of view, binder with

in the uncured In the curing mortars binder fraction. in the little liquid of fillers,

and cured

state are relatively of any liquid is associated by volume. reduces binder this

free of risk. of monolithics,grouts, On cure the addito their place and is (thick70 to Onsome shrinkage. in proportion network) changes until

step the conversion to a solid 9-13% on shrink

or concretes systems

acrylic volume largely

In a given formulation shrinkage shrinkage

sand and aggregates Depending state (low consequence state shrinkage liquid

composition, density

can take

crosslink with

of the polymer of dimensional this time exotherm, rate. the

of relatively ness). The age, with flow

the exception place. During

in such formulations has taken of a disturbance is inhibited temperature shrinkage,

appears by a possible

to be maintained

80% of the total

rate of shrinkis constant. In the gel state, network on perTo overchosen, is kept low to a

the exception product results changing of cure

set of the gel state of the in content and shrinkage formance come binder practical the

is signaled

by a change

in the shrinkage

by the establishment environments binder (e.g.,

of the polymer influence freeze/thaw). is carefully thickness shrinkage.

in stresses which

can have a considerable composition application counteract

effect minimum

formulations

are employed,

and additives

are used which

DEFINITIONS The requiring composition, (Table plished 28-l) by der in the low viscosity which of the binder compaction. and filler state while to provide appropriate used in acrylic nearly Product composition. maintaining character The filler optimal of formulations slurries systems allows by with the debinder the binsand is usumay

sign of products

can range from

free-flowing

to dry mixes

mechanical content uncured employing

is determined

of the products

are designed the

a maximum amounts filled skid

of cohesiveness fluidity. fine fillers,

This can be accommodifiers, surface

and coarse aggregates. Castables ally smooth be obtained diameter, aggregate .binder sistance. practical tables are nearly free-flowing low liquids. resistance. The resulting Skid with relatively and has a relatively by the application to a thin, after Binder upper is usually cure in castables limit uncured coat to or slip resistance by removal

of sand or abrasives of the product of a second provide ratios thin

large particle of excess The re-

followed layer vary of 1:3.

and application is designed bulk to of filler volume

of the product. and impact from

toughness, generally after /s.

resiliency

to filler limited

1 :I to 1 :2. The life of casthick-

extension lo-15 seldom

is at a ratio

Working

minutes exceeds

mixing.

The application

ness of monolithic

castables

Acrylic

Polymer

Mortars

and Concretes

283

Table 28-l

: Typical

Filler Systems % Weight Retained

Screen Sizea) Sand # 8 12 16 20 30 40 50 100 200 Filler

Castable

Grout

Mortar

2 30 14 5 1 25 41 9 9 7 5 6 33 13 17 10 21 5 6 14 6 21

coarse rqgregateb)
% w Based on Sand/Filler System

40 - 60

40 - 100

a)

U.S.

Sieve Size

b) ASTM C - 33 Table 2

Grouts brick. and liquid Grouts rails.

have are Such from

the

primary can

purpose be unfilled

of

filling liquids

voids (for

or joints for crack

between machinery

tile

or

also

employed

as leveling thickness inches. The

compounds

bases or filled fillers is a cure

products The <l/s to

injection) mineral on

systems.

application several flow

of grouts heat

containing

can vary compromise shrinkage,

composition in use. grouts, thicknesses

of such products cure,

between and

characteristics, propertiesrequired materials with are filled in specific troweling

development

and the physical bedding associated than are mortars

Mortars chanical less binder

the composition to flat surfaces. generally

of which The meuse of

has been adjusted action

for application

or screeding

permits

in mortars

in grouts. containing coarse aggregate.

Concretes

FILLER Upon gregates,

DESIGN cure acrylics fillers. form a strong adhesive bond to (dry) sands, coarse ag-

and other

Aggregate

angularity

is not required

to provide

strength.

284

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

Flow curring

characteristics round mortars the

of

products

can

be optimized and fillers. of coarse particles. low-oil for the varies very little

by the from

use of naturally cementitious

ocand

or rounded

aggregates Upon addition coarse with

The basic design of filler their aggregate An added binder a gap should dimension

systems be mainhave remodiremarof the

for the acrylic asphaltic tained design ceived fiers sistance ble and Fumed products tions between

and concretes fine with wetting and fillers

counterparts. is the use of fine pretreatments their find and allow

in the filler

absorption characteristics.

and sands which system and surface

plasticizers flour clays mixes

to change silica chalks silica to

and adhesion

For high chemical systems. Ground less chemical particle

sands and silica specialty product

are employed in systems can modify the

as filler

use as fillers

requiring Typical

resistance. size distribu-

rheological 28-1.

character

application

on walls.

for sand and aggregate

are shown

in Table

BINDER

COMPOSITION for acrylic monolithic castables, which with is the mortars principal workability concretes with for a minimum and concretes ingredient (<I are primarily of Plexiglas@ centipoise) low binof 4% The low

Binders based (Rohm allows

on methyl formulation

methacrylate of mortars for of these their screed

and Haas Company).

The low viscosity excellent Polymer

of this monomer at a binder a relatively applications. as a binder physical of these shrinkage,

at a relatively content low of vibration.

der content binder

(8 to 9% by weight). products

can be formulated content allows age which compressive der cient normal limited sile force sequence which high crete tively in order

application

is responsible methacrylate very The little effects practical

cure shrink-

use in cold climates and show conditions.

and freezer monomer change utility

Formulations ambient

using methyl

have very high properties unis very coeffiAs a conand those with a (l/s or less) of the conof rela-

strength

in their

products expansion

in as much and modulus methyl

as the combined of elasticity methacrylate with temperature potential (<200 of with the which

of cure

on concrete exceeds mono-, must applies

substratesare the strength mortars

so large that a shear/tenof the concrete. and concretes, methacrylates layers layer

can be generated

based polymer

have been modified glass transition to avoid substrate.

di- or trifunctional be applied distress particularly

in very thin in the surface to concrete

tensile/shear psi tensile methyl

This limitation

substrates

low strength Modification

strength). manner. methacrylate with which with

Stronger

concretes with

can accommoplasticizers and

date the induced monoresults lay, room

stresses in a better acrylic useful

monomer are well in the

or difunctional in binders temperature of the and grout

monomers properties

a low glass transition modulus

temperature via overat temof elasticity

suited for repair

patch

application. system

The reduction allows sufficient Such

which polymer

is associated

the decrease polymer

in glass transition mortars and

perature

stress relief

in use and avoids concretes As applications.

overstressing have adequate a consequence

of the

concrete relatively

substrates.

freeze-thaw of their

resistance

and can be used in freezer temperature

low glass transition

these products

Acrylic

Polymer

Mortars

and Concretes

285

will bient these ucts

creep,

cannot

be considered and should loads Depending

to have good not be exposed on the geometry when

structural to high

properties permanent of

at high loads

am-

temperatures circumstances. can bear

under is in

of the application, degree in shear. for

these prod-

continuous

an adequate at a minimum polymer containing

confinement dampness acrylic

achieved the

in compression or the filler

or loads are kept of acrylic used, aggregate in very of

To enhance substrate The volume sion monomethyl cyanates and low can be employed, (absolute)

the tolerance usually content requires resistance acrylic

formulations

silanes

a reactive from

group

low concentration. castables, which the generally convey To ranging hardness, accomplish 45 to 65% by and abraflexibilizing contain isotoughness this,

binders to

chemical

system.

and difunctional methacrylate. and polyols.

monomers

are used to modify castables

the base monomer

Polyurethane

modified

additionally

CURE Methyl to the solid of efficiency polymer. itiator benzoyl amines anilines such promoters The monomer trol come ducts. system. Urethane polyisocyanate isocyanate Benzoyl formulations The attendant adjusted to the product modified with acrylic castables polyols diluted and tertiary temperature mixing which and working employ with the reaction acrylic of aromatic binder. These di- or The prodflexible which are added to the acrylic monomers. reaction within heat part Such used. methacrylate state initiator. based binders radical The conversion The reaction a relatively for polymer mortars mechanism proceeds product and concretes in which with cure

via a free

polymerization to polymer product

a perox-

ide acts as the

a high degree thermoplastic into

(>95%). In some

is a lightly

crosslinked

Benzoyl peroxide. of the

peroxide, Both system

package-stable the presence

is the primary

cases hydroperoxides initiators p-toluidine, aniline cure. applied find are used require other at ambient

are employed ambient

as an alternative temperatures. Group VIII Tertiary metal

of promoters derivatives with

to provide

the activity such

and below

such as dimethyl as dimethyl naphthenate

toluidine

and substituted salts and

use as promoters. in conjunction

as cobalt initiator

hydroperoxides

to provide system formation of

surface while

is usually weight

at a concentration is present ratio

of 2 to 4% based on the in a concentration with the initiator. rate, powdered which of these are added to proTo conpolybepro-

the promoter and

vide a charge methyl

transfer

complex (exotherm) or methyl

in a 1 to 1 molar maximize methacrylate and ,influence comprise

reaction copolymers

methacrylate polymers

the polymer

system

the performance

usually

20 by 30% by weight

of the monomer

component peroxide cure short before

is generally systems. initiated potlife, cure

ucts are multicomponent

Cure proceeds

by a dual

mechanism. polymer l-2 hours. time

amine (100F) convey times

promoted generally a relatively (5 minutes

acrylic

at elevated

or less) can be long dwell concentra-

to some extent

by promoters

sets in. Lowering

of the benzoyl

peroxide

286

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

tion tiary time time

and the amine

initiator initiation

to promoter provide

ratio help to increase working (32F) systems utilizing 3 hours. benzoyl Complete Typical 28-2.

time

at high converworking to at which

temperatures.

At low temperature

peroxide/ter-

cure within

monomer potlife, (>90%)

sion can be achieved and cure time the work polymer is essentially

at temperature complete

as low as -2OF.

parameters

are listed in Table to its intended properties

Monomer

conversion

at the end of the cure time (generally

area can be returned (ca. 5%) and physical

use. Minor changes in monoless than 10%) occur

mer conversion for another

24 hours. Potlife, Working Time and Cure Time Concretes

BINDER TYPE HIGH AMBIENT TEMPERATURE

Table 28-2:

Relationships

for Polymer

TEMPERATURE

Application Temperature Range, Degrees F

25 - 70

60

100

P&life/Working Time, Minutes @ Degrees F - 40 60 80 100

Time,

65/45 35/25 15/10 6/3

Incomplete cure 100/90 so/35 15/10

Hours 3 2

@ Minimum Application Temperature @ Maximum Application Temperature

PHYSICAL

PROPERTIES resinous compositions products temperature temperature which properties form upon polymerization in nature. changing temperature. or cure amorAs a conseBelow and

Most reactive phous, quence their

glassy, polymeric physical

are viscoelastic

change with

above the glass transition of elasticity low the glass transition tain predictable their applications cations perature sition relief. perature glass transition which

range this change is relatively are not uncommon should This is particularly (Figure important temperature no effect

small. Modulus 28-1).6 To main-

changes by a factor performance require

of 50 to 100 in a region 25OF (14OC) above and bebe employed well below or above in load bearing in such applior the use temon the glass trantemshow stress

products rigidity

temperature.

and lack of creep. The polymer has virtually flexible

must have a relatively temperature. Products

high glass transition employed

must be low. The filler content of the polymer

near or above the glass transition in natureand

are usually crosslinked,

Acrylic

Polymer

Mortars

and Concretes

287

------...--<-_., t .._, )I*

.

lPPMA
O0

iz
07

0-l

-100

+100
OC

Temperature,

Figure 28-1: Shear Modulus (G) and Loss Tangent (tan 6) at 1 HZ for polymethylmethacrylate, poly-npropylmethacrylate and polymethylacrylate (Heijboer 1965). Note: tan 6 Peak corresponds to glass transition temperature.

The viscoelastic affects physical flexure, measured relatively listed mined on cure sample appear the properties. tension, by the simple

nature of

of the testing

polymer test

in acrylic and specimen

mortars the

and concretes

also

significance

procedures on the apparent temperature property shrinkage

determination of these

of their materials in is are

Test temperature, influence deflection out. volume Methods shear and compression. heat

shape and load application temperature test can be which

rates have a significant

strength test,

The glass transition values

an empirical for polymer concrete device shrinkage they

to carry 28-3. Total

Typical

concrete

in Table

of polymer

can be deterunder constant of a product because the readhere to the

by following (linear holder to yield

cure of the product are manifold

in a pycnometer and not very

temperature sults depend

conditions. shrinkage) during on test

to assess the effective

meaningful strain 28-4. substantially

specimen

shape and the degree to which compensated in Table differ information are listed concretes contraction the on linear

cure. Temperature castables and polymer on cure, determine in properties

gauge measurements

the most significant of typical cement Shrinkage with product

shrinkage. in their physicon-

Properties Hydraulic cal properties. into crete ticity account. of the

In the design and use of products large temperature

these differences and expansion is exerted

must be taken of eias-

of a polymer upon

in locations

fluctuations

and the modulus of the concrete

stress which

the concrete substrate.

substrate.

A mismatch

can lead to failure

288

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

Table 28-3:

Comparison

of Typical

Properties Concretes

of Acrylic

Polymer

and Cementitious

POLYMER cONCF.ETE
Test

CONCRETE:
Value 5,000

Method

Value 8,200 9,500 6.0 1,200

Compressive Compressive Compressive Tensile Flexural

Yield Yield

Strength, Strength,

psi psi

XTMC39 ASTM ASTM ASTM psi ASTM c579 0695 C307 C580

Xodulus, psi

x 10~ psi

35 400

Strength, Strength

Properties,

Strength Modulus (x 106) Heat DeElection

Water

2,400 1.0
OF

800

Temperature, P

ASTM ASTM

D648 0570

115

Absorption,

7 days 28 days

immersion immersion Strain Gauge

0.05 0.30 13.2

Coefficient of Thermal Expansion, x 10-6 I,% Volume Shrinkage, Linear Shrinkage,

Pycnometer P ASTM D2566

2.9

.05

.os - .07

Abrasion Resistance, Weight Loss, g

Taber ASTM

Abrad& CSOl

4.6

5.7

Table 284:
Rcrylic

Typical

Properties

of Castables
Urethane Modified acrylic

Binder

Coating

Binder

Filled Binder 1:2 by volume 3,800

Flexural

Strength, Psi

6,500 3,500 5 200,000 9 3.5

4,000 1,800 7 175,000 21 7.2 2,000 9 75,000 6 7.2

Tensile Strength, Psi Elongation at Break, \ Modulus of Elasticity, psi Relative Impact Strength Coefficient of Thermal Expansion, x 10e5 l/OF

1,700 1 500,000 1 4.4

To

minimize

the

induced, at the volume

potential lowest

stress on the substrate are extended application less than binder to practical

from with

shrinkage

and aggre-

temperature extension and

changes, permits

polymer

formulations of the acrylic shrinkage

additional

gate and are installed a drop in total

temperature. The

Aggregate 4% by weight linear

reduction

to approximately 2.0%.

apparent

Acrylic

Polymer

Mortars

and Concretes

289

shrinkage the order ticity concrete

on cure of such systems of 0.0125%. enough to below a critical keep the

as measured to employ maintaining modulus

according binders sufficient

to ASTM whose

D2566,

is of

It is important value while

modulus

of elaspolymer

is low

of the

aggregate

extended

strength.

CHEMICAL Acrylic industrial eral using the silica

RESISTANCE castables, application chemical sand resistance sugars, fats, based to mortars for their and polymer follow acids, for concretes those marble bases, added tend are extensively properties. type acid fillers salts, of Plexiglas. or chalk organic Monolithic chemical to soften the used in

excellent

chemical

resistance

In genhave

resistance dilute

properties mineral and

Formulations diluted usually Polar gain or This on the sama con-

aggregates

and ground processing fillers

excellent bleaches, employ solvents, loss when test while strength dition Strength bined product further

and metal aggregates

liquids.

castables resistance. weight

silica

based

aromatics a sample giving

and chlorinated is usually polymer is taking of the

hydrocarbons assessed by system place. testing

these products.

Chemical

resistance

determining give any

is immersed Exposure

in the chemical. information concrete shear mode,

a qualitative and

indication

does not

gain or loss which which is encountered in the suitability retention for a relatively industrial small

of polymer

ples to chemicals information with

subsequent

in a compressive applications, 28-5) immersion removal (Table 7 day (daily)

in many

industrial

can give valuable in a chemical, usefulness of spilled comof the

of a product weight change Periodic

in severe environments.

in excess of 80% upon application. of overlays

generally

suggests

chemicals

assures longevity

in such aggressive

environments.

SUBSTRATES Acrylic well too substrates crete. phaltic dry tion

AND castables,

SUBSTRATE mortars asphalt,

PREPARATION concretes of an asphalt have bond well to themselves as

and polymer and concrete. The strength which

as to steel,wood, for low to provide Urethane industrial

Steel and concrete for acrylic

are the most useful is usually or conto asmortar applied than must

the products. the rigidity floors good which modified

paved substrate polymer

is required

acrylic

castables

been successfully substructure the surface

generally

have better abrasion

road beds. be clean, preparaof an

To achieve method.

adhesion

to a concrete Mechanical

substrate

and free from

contaminants. Suitability

is the best surface surface for application adhesion which systems

To function in any way. a value formulation

as a suitable

substrate

the concrete by tensile Many

may not be cracked tests which may conThese

or degraded acrylic should pullout taminate veloped prior

of the concrete

polymer indicate

can be established minimum value.

of at least 200 psi. In critical can act as bond Suppliers substrate product. for of their breakers of acrylic preparation

applications chemicals for polymer polymer and should

240 psi tensile systems.

is a more a concrete must

desirable surface

contaminants

be removed.

have de-

recommendations

be consulted

to the application

290

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

Table 28-5:

Chemical

Resistance of Acrylic in Respective

Polymer

Concretea

(7 Day Immersion

Chemical

at 77F) Strength b, Retained, % 90.5 87.1 89.6 80.0 85.8 87.8 85.1 83.9 80.1

Weight Change, %
ClOTCOX

- 0.020 10% 10% + 0.040 + 0.040 - 1.600 10% - 2.400 + 0.300 - 3.400 - 0.200 - 2.000 destroyed Gas - 0.200 - 0.070 - 0.200 -20.000 Alcohol Water + 0.010 + 0.003 - 0.270 - 0.005 10% 10% - 0.200 - 1.000

Sodium Hydroxide, Ammonium Nitric Hydroxide,

Acid, 10% Acid,

Hydrochloric Sulphuric

Acid, 10% 10% 10% 10%

Lactic Acid, Oleic Acid, Acetic Acid, TOlUene

Super Unleaded NO. 2 Diesel JP-4 Skydrol=) Isopropyl Distilled Red Wine sugar, 20%

95.1 97.6 97.9 23.2 76.6 92.0 91.3 93.7 90.3 97.0

Detergent,

Ferric Chloride,

a) b)

CONCRESIVE~ 2020, Adhesive Engineering based fillers and silica sands.

Company,

containing

limestone

Punch/shear strength of control specimens, 18,600 psi. Test data are average of best Specimen size 1 x 1 x 5 inch. Test fixture consists of horizontally oriented 4 out of 6 samples. steel base with 0.52 inch diameter opening and vertically oriented movable piston (diameter, 0.50 in.) located above base plate opening. Sample placed between base plate and piston. Load application rate, Test at 77OE. 0.05 inch/min. Special Polymer Concrete can be formulated to be Skydrol resistant.

Cl

To avoid air inhibition mer systems the concrete. fied acrylic Recently moisture Most primers primers

of the curing step at the bond line between acrylic primers for are used which substrate. require a dry concrete acrylic

the polyseal modi-

and the substrate,

essentially

lsocyanate

have some tolerance high flash point

surface moisture monomers

in the concrete.

introduced tolerance.

appear to have a higher

Acrylic

Polymer

Mortars

and Concretes

291

APPLICATION
The mortars, bility mixing and care, techniques particularly employed parallel in indoor for acrylic those for monolithic the more castables, traditional grouts, materi-

polymer

concretes

als. Special Castable ing motors. ume ratio blended plastic

use, is recommended with

due to the flammamixvol-

and odor Air

of the binders. can be blended 1 to 2. size grouts, mixers. concrete mortars, Some and polymer prepackaged equipment and reactive free-flowing concretes formulations with can be offer mortar modified arising very from nature in buckets the aid of air operated because binder to filler entrapment exceeds on the batch is usually not a problem

mixes

seldom

Depending

in conventional bags which to employ

can be used as the mixing

device. mixing

For large scale applications, the appropriof the binonly a nature and

it is possible ate safety der systems. Castables minimum Acrylic consolidation grade part!y working evaporation teracted finished, 3 hours is attained time tics terial and finishes. ers and trowels

precautions by their

the flammable are highly their own flow

require

of assistance formulations during

in seeking have

level.

Rakes, squeegees, and require

spiked very method

rolllittle for

can be used to assist the flow excellent finishing. mortars the limit product of time cure. placement. and surface fluidity

of these products. properties is the best suited is rather because which

Screed application Floats

establishment Trowel because time.

can be used to obtain and partly of two

smooth short binder Once

finishing of the The working

of acrylic

and concrete

cumbersome of the

is a function

parameters, of the work.

and incipient by sprinkling surfaces should

The former

leads to skinning on the surface return Most acrylic fast

can be councure within area to serFull strength working

small amounts which

of binder allows

not be reworked.

formulations of the work longer.

after

their

application 24 hours.

vice (Table

28-2). within

At low temperatures at high when

cure times are slightly temperatures

Application particularly

air and substrate exotherm work of the

results to

in short

a relatively Most

high suppliers

on cure which polymer application

are undesirable recommend

characteristhat ma-

is subsequently acrylic during

exposed systems

large temperature 90 to IOOF.

fluctuations.

and substrate

temperature

do not exceed

PERFORMANCE
Monolithic binders rine environment vere weather crete highways. castables, grouts, they mortars and polymer under very concrete harsh air field utilizing acrylic In maunder seand consubstrates and freezer to profeathe short striking

have shown

excellent

performance

conditions. concrete runways concrete plants,

applications In industrial operations fruit

have protected they

reinforced

conditions

and have been used to restore application of bottling acids, industries plants,food acrylic

have protected processing castables

in steam cleaning operations. ture of these vide resistance downtimes

In other

wet process

are employed with

against materials

sugars, and fats. application

Perhaps the most associated

can be found in their

in the economics

which

are typical

and use.

292

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

REFERENCES
1. Altrock, Strassen und Teifbau (May 1965); Peschke, H.J., Bauen mit Kunststoffen (June 1972); German Patents 1,253,629,1,409,833,2,029,898,2,209,149; Peschke, H.J., Preprints 2nd Int. Cong. in Polymers in Concrete, University of Texas, Austin, Texas (October 1978); Fontana, J.J. and Bartholomew, J., FMWA Report IP-87-70 (June 1982). Hitt, G.,Der Deutsche Weinbau (May 1980). Trommsdroff, E., et al, Makromol. Chem. 1,169. U.S. Patent 4,299,761. Haddad, M.U., Fowler, D.W. and Paul, D.R.,ACI Journal, Proceedings V. 80, No. 5 (September/October 1983). Heijboer, J., Mechanical Properties and Molecular Structure of Organic Polymers. In: Physics of Noncrystalline Solids, edited by J.A. Prims. Amsterdam, North Holland Publishing Company,p 231 (1965). Peschke, H.J., Preprints 3rd Int. Congress on Polymers in Concrete, Nihon University, Koriyama, Japan (May 13-15,1981).

2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

7.

29

Hydraulics

PART A CHEMICAL RESISTANCE OF PORTLAND AND CONCRETE CEMENT MORTAR

Sandor Popovics Department Drexel Philadelphia, of Civil Engineering University Pennsylvania

INTRODUCTION Hardened like materials, lar to rock portland and indeed hardened cement many paste, mortar and concrete appear to be rockare simibethan to varof inThe to a environresistance attacks

properties is more perform

of the concrete susceptible cement satisfactorily are, however,

(and mortar)

properties.

One of the few concrete will

exceptions

is the chemical to chemical paste. when

cause, as a rule,

rocks due to the susceptibility To be sure, most ious atmospheric dustrial ments technical damage wastes under term concrete conditions, and other which for the the useful damage

of the hardened to most waters There

exposed kinds

and soils, and to many will

chemicals.

some chemical

life of even the best concrete of concrete corrosion. because or both. is deterioration

be short.

in contrast paste however, rock.

in metals

which

is called

In principle, rates, or because always ration when usually the attack of concrete the aggregate more

a concrete its aggregate due to the is attacked

can deteriorate deteriorates, cement better

its cement

deterioalmost Even resis-

In practice,

on the hardened

paste is the main cause of the deterioresistance the damage of a typical on the cement the chemical paste is

chemical

by a chemical, in the

severe.

Therefore,

following

discussion

tance of hardened

paste will

be emphasized. 293

294

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

Although heavily cement concrete ical processes.

physical Therefore,

factors first,

(solution, pertinent

crystal elements

pressure,

etc.)

can contribute by chemof portland on the

to the deterioration are presented deterioration before

of concrete, the effects

the damage of the more

is usually common

initiated

of the chemistry

chemicals

are discussed.

COMPOSITION

OF PORTLAND of a portland

CEMENT cement

CLINKER depends on the composition of the manufacturing and proprocess,

The composition portions of the such as burning Oxide

raw materials temperature,

as well cooling

as on details rate, etc.

Composition 95% or of portland lime, cement silica, are, among sulfur, cement clinker others, is made of certain Other sodium Methods compounds so-called oxides. covering of

About four oxides chemical literature. oxides, (the constituents compositions

namely alkalies), of these

alumina

and iron

oxide. and

minor The the

impurities

magnesia, 29-1.

and potassium

titania, oxides

phosphorous in Table are described

manganese

are presented

analysis

of portland

in ASTM

C 114 and in the

Table 29-l

: Names, Compositions,
and Major

and Abbreviations in Portland

of Common

Oxides

Compounds

Cement

N.WX

Composition

Molecular Weight 56

Abbreviation

"';z;;l

Lillle Silica AlUllilla Iron Water Sulfuric anhydride Magnesia Soda Potasda
TrilXikiLlUt SlO*

60 102 160 18 80 40 62 94 228 172 270 486 M

N

A1203 Fe2o3 "2O so3

MgO

Na20
K2 3Ca0.Si02 2Ca0.Si02 3Ca0.A1203 4Ca0.A1203.Fe203

K c3s c2s C3A C4AF celite alite belite

silicate Dicalcium Silicate (beta)

TI-iCdCiW!l

aluminate Tetracalcium a1uminoierrite*

*In reality, the iron-containing phase is a solid solution of variable composition. C4AF seems to be its fair average composition.

Hydraulics

295

Major

Constituents most

of Portland

Cement of which study portland cements them the are composed a up the built that

Although contain three considerable

of the substances elements into their

or more

in a state

of combination, by regarding started Most

one may introduce as being

simplification mentioned of of shown crystals than minerals

of the previously four major contain gible. is cut, the fluence hardening only attack glassy part. under than The compounds constituents form more Clinker polished, compounds

oxides. research clinker. recognition socalled is usually part of Table 29-1 be considered of these in the ground the four clinker clinker negliof in-

The publication

Le Chateliers in the bottom portland which cement

minerals

are so small that The porosity under etched, more than

the particles inside a microscope

one crystal.

of a particle

can be identified

if a piece of clinker methods. form which Some can

and suitably can form silicate,

by X-rays, one type

or by other of crystal

the hydration conditions. autoclave

characteristics only The curing.

of the compound. silicate form be noted

For instance, develops that

in the case normal strength to sulfate the most

of the dicalcium

the beta form Also, form.3

has cementing

values under sizable

gammadicalcium CsA in cubic It should minerals, from about that

is less vulnerable which is CsA for analysis.

in orthorombic can also of amount

a microcrystalline, composition, Bogue was cement. The sepaof of can

material

be identified calculated form ions.

in the clinker

the clinker

is, the compound

can also be approximately the first internal to offer structure formulas of The two calcium

the data of oxide

for such computation.4 70 to 80% of a portland can be described in a portland for some other properties occur as Si04 tetrahedrons are not

silicates by calcium

these silicates minerals possibly as they

rated and connected In reality, pure compounds. magnesia, the crystal (alite, etc.) alumina, influence to names

the clinker The and form

cement

in the form amounts impurities

calcium

silicates,

instance, oxides.

contain

small

Since these cement,

and other

of the compound,

it is reasonable by their mineral

call these

compounds,

in portland

as was originated minerals after

by Tornebohm. has important times.

These names are also shown characteristics, which as was in a week is proin

in Table 29-I. Each of the clinker shown duced strength velopment attains able very effect first and little intensive. increase occurs individual by Bates. Alite between has little times paste attains longer strength alite until but the greater (heat part of its strength of hydration) with alite.

The heat development

by reactions The be/ire after longer little

and water it approaches is much

is also quite steadily Also, shows how the dealone, a favoris that In any causing be added the in the a

for several weeks, equality calcium slower. with

but increases

of its heat of hydration strength on early contributes with reaction that heat of strength

Tricalcium clear yet

aluminate,

in mixtures development. of calcium aluminate

silicates

It is not silicates with

tricalcium

aluminate it interacts case, the flash by vigorous

to hardening tricalcium

and strength.

A possible as a type water is very

mechanism of catalyst. rapid,

the reactions is, quick evolution.

setting,

setting Gypsum factory

of the cement in the amount to slow down development.

paste which this reaction Tricalcium

is accompanied and control aluminate

of 3 to 6% should

to the clinker time of setting

in the cement as well

as the strength

296

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

clinker, sulfates marked cium to the

in large quantities, and other aluminate. presence chemical The ferrite at later cement of the ferrite heat evolution, cement Portland

also reduces attacks. phase but the reactions may ages although phase that without

the resistance

of the hardened rapidly than those

paste to by of tricalIt is due

The celite hydrates contribute this portland

accompanied development it characteristic color.

are less intensive mechanism cement

to the strength derives

of portland gray color. Minor

is not clear.

iron compounds

has white

Constituents The term rather minor than refers to the amount They true state of these constituents in portland effects on the The as

cement quality magnesia periclase, react alkali

to their

importance.

may have significant in the portland especially similar cement.

of cement. is usually it may active

This is particularly in an uncombined quantity are usually silicate (about cause the cement of certain

for the magnesia and the alkalies. in crystalline to the effect form

If it is presof free may and of

ent in an excessive lime. The alka!ies with cracking. cements.

5% or more), with

to be unsound; aggregates is not

combined reaction

the major compounds. causing harmful extensive when

Yet they expansion amount

This aggregate-alkali 0.6% by weight

the total are called

is under

of the cement.

Such cements

low-alkali

VARIOUS The portland proportion terial etc.). (up to tively and

TYPES wide

OF PORTLAND of applications compounds of the high

CEMENT of concrete This through made is done it necessary primarily (burning high cement to produce the raw maand CsA a rela-

range

cements certain

of different details

properties.

by altering of the alite

of the cement

the composition process A portland relatively

manufacturing early strengths,

temperature, of low heat of requires (maximum

For instance, 15% potential) high Currently belite five

to obtain contents

are desirable.

hydration,

such as would content main

be used in a massive dam construction, (at least 40%) 7%) contents. types of portland standard British cement cement are recognized types at the expense

of the alite

35%) and CsA (maximum States. 29-2. Type is general other beams cause decrease rapid ments four and the I, or according purpose types cement are not The description

in the United in Table cement, of the frames, beand and

of these to the that

is presented portland properties reinforced

terminology blocks, II cement

ordinary the special floors, is called

can be used when Concrete Type

required. of Type evolution. is high

slabs are typical rate of heat Type repairs, III development etc.

examples.

modified attack pavements plants, II cement.

it is a modification

I to increase early

resistance cement

to sulfate pipes, which

It is used in concrete strength is essential, heat)

foundations. strength concreting,

cement Type

is used where winter ceType Type resistant)

in concrete IV (low extreme

as in precast V (sulfate

and Type

can be considered tendencies

and special from

cases of the Type large concrete

IV has been used for the cracking

massive dams and other resulting

structures

to reduce

the accumulated

heat of hydration.

Hydraulics

297

Table 29-2:

Standard

Types of Portland

Cement

and Blended

Portland

Cements

Portland cements and air-entraining portland cements (ASTM C 150) Type I

For use in general concrete construction when the special properties specified for Types II, III, IV and V are not required. Air-entraining cement for the same uses as Type I, where airentrainment is desired. For use in general concrete construction exposed to moderate sulfate action, or where moderate heat of hydration is required. Air-entraining cement for the same uses as Type II, where airentrainment is desired. For use when high early strength is required. Air-entraining cement for the same uses as Type III, where airentrainment is desired. For use when a low heat of hydration is required.

Type IA

: : : :

Type II

Type IIA

Type III

Type IIIA:

Type IV

For use when high sulfate resistance is required. Type V : ___________________----------------~~~~--~~~~_______________________ Portland blast-furnace slag cements and portland pozzolan cements (ASTM C595) Type IS*

It corresponds to Type I portland cement.

It corresponds to Type IA air-entraining portland cement. It corresponds to Type I portland cement. It corresponds to Type IA air-entraining portland cement. For use in concrete construction where high strengths at early ages are not required. Air-entraining Portland-pozzolan cement for use in concrete construction where high strengths at early ages are not required. *Moderate sulfate resistance or moderate heat of hydration, or both, may be specified by adding the suffixes (MS) or (MH), or both, to the selected type designation. **Moderate sulfate resistance or low heat of hydration, or both, my be specified by adding the suffixes (MS) or (LH), or both, to the selected type designation.

Type IS-A*: Type IP*

Type IP-A*: Type P**

: :

Type PA**

Footnotes:

V cement with Types proved cement clamation are shown are canal cial order.

has been lining, Type

used

for

structures containing carried made concretes.

where larger

the concrete amounts

may rather

be in contact Such cases nature, imRespecial

the soil and groundwater culverts,

of sulfates.

foundations, has not

etc. Because of their in stock been used much the application Data collected

IV and V are not commonly IV cement in 29-3. construction unnecessary concerning in Table techniques mass

and usually in recent of this by types

are made on speyears because slowly hardening of cement

the

Bureau

the compositions

of the various

of portland

298

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

Table 29-3:

Typical

Composition

of Portland

Cements of Different

Types

Cement

TYPO of Data Max. Min. Mean Max. Min. Mean

C3S

C2S

Compound composition, percent C4AF CaS04 FlX?t? MgO C3A cao 14 5 12 a 4 6 17 7 12 7 3 5 5 1 4 12 6 8 16 6 12 10 6 8 18 6 13 15 6 12 3.4 2.6 2.9 3.4 2.1 2.8 4.6 2.2 3.9 3.5 2.6 2.9 3.9 2.4 2.7 1.5 0.0 0.8 1.8 0.1 0.6 4.2 0.1 1.3 0.9 0.0 0.3 0.6 0.1 0.4 3.8 0.7 2.4 4.4 1.5 3.0 4.8 1.0 2.6 4.1 1.0 2.7 2.3 0.7 1.6

Ignition LOSS 2.3 0.6 1.2 2.0 0.5 1.0 2.7 1.1 1.9 1.9 0.6 1.0 1.2 0.8 1.0

Number of Samples

TYPO I

67 42 49 55 37 46 70 34 56 44 21 30 54 35 43

31 8 25 39 19 29 38 0 15 57 34 46 49 24 36

21

Type II

28

Max. Type III Min. Mean Max. Min. Mean Max. Min. Mean

Type IV

16

TYPO V

22

There tion called of

are also Types

I, II and

III

cements the

which

are modified period. IA, action. greatly IIA

by the addiThese IIIA, where are rethere and

air-entraining

admixtures cements

during

manufacturing as Types to frost

air-entraining that

and are designated cements will be exposed admixture

spectively. is expectation that portance to the

The air-entraining

are used mainly dispensers

in structures

the concrete of automatic

Note, reduced

however, the im-

the development

of air-entraining in concrete concrete

cements. when

This is so because it is much admixture needed for the specified

easier to control separately under the

the air content prevailing It can portland

the air-entraining

is added air content

in the quantity Table there may

circumstances. be seen from Yet, Also, there 29-3 that CsS and C$S form be wide differences 70% to 80% of all between cements and thus of in cements. may often

the same type. the properties mixture

be overlapping of differing composition

in the compositions, types.

of portland

cements

The difference can produce even when

in the cement different

is one of the reasons why different portland

an ad-

results when

used with

cements,

the cements

are of the same type.

BLENDED

CEMENTS b/ended is the port/and cement major later cement constituent. under may be defined (The as an intimate material of the Materials.) and uniwhere the

The term form mixture will portland materials centage usually

of portland be discussed

and a pozzolanic Latent

or other properties

cement

replacement The per-

Hydraulic

of the replacement ranges from

materials,

such as natural

pozzolan, properties

fly ash, slag, etc., of the blended

15% to 30%. Therefore

the general

Hydraulics

299

portland ments. ment certain ally fresh

cements The

are similar of with

to the properties a pozzolanic period.

of comparable material liberated

(plain) from

portland is that

ceit ceagof

advantage chemically effects

adding

to the clinker of concrete

can combine

the lime and alkalies

the portland by excessive cements hand, the

paste during chemical

the hardening is reduced. heat with lower

Thus the resistance blended

against gener-

is improved of hydration,

and the expansion In addition,

caused portland

gregate-alkali provide concrete,

reaction a lower

and an improvement cement. at early curing

in the properties

as compared may C 595 give when

portland strengths two

On the other is provided. portland

a blended ultimate These

portland strength The are: (1) (2) The well

cement ASTM

ages although

is not reduced

extended

moisture kinds

recognized

of blended

cement.

Portland

blast-furnace

slag cement,

and

Portland-pozzolan standard given clinker, latter chalk, types

cement. of these material cement cements usable C 595. is applied gypsum, agent, lower natural either to interground or ground mixtures of portof and air-entraining strengths. cement, units, stones, than with agent; or mixtures are shown in Table 29-2. The slag as comply with

as the

pozzolanic masonry

in blended

cements

should

specifications The term land cement portland earth. tain drated mortars bricks, ments better sonry vant of The lime, for is to water cements or even setting,

in the ASTM limestone, develops cement, talc, together plastic pozzolan,

cement,

air-entraining group

and lime

slag or diatomaceous may also conlime, hyconcrete ceof also have of mairreletime are hydraulic brick, They

These cements slag cement, cements as clay cement. such

Portland-pozzolan cementing blocks, provide retention. is lower

or clay. masonry cut mortar

Masonry

are used to make of these

concrete

glass blocks,

etc. The purpose

more

portland primarily high cements strength

These goals are fulfilled produced that and cement A better Requirements compressive mortar mortar than of portland

by the large amount The strength this is usually soundness, cements but of

entrained

air. They

are often

fineness.

advantageous. C 91. masonry

concerning

fineness,

air entrainment strength

masonry of

given in ASTM The low is mixed high modulus and the types: Type making sonry Type land cement strength

usually

consists

1 volume with

of portsand of

to 1 or 2 volumes masonry cement

of hydrated

lime or other is obtained

blends

which 1 volume

up to 5 volumes. of about blend

by mixing

to 2 or 3 volumes material blast-furnace than

of sand. Sands having essentially ASTM

a fineness

2.3 are usually is a finely makes of granulated

used for this purpose. consisting 60 percent. of an intimate lime in which two covers slag and hydrated

Slag cement uniform slag constituent

divided up more

C 595

S-Slag mortar.

cement

for

use in combination with

with hydrated

portland

cement

in ma-

concrete

and in combination

lime in making

SA--Airentraining

slag cement

for the same uses as Type

S.

300

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

The expansion cements.

standard as well

requires as lower are hardly of their

higher strengths

specific for

surface

and permits than

higher

autoclave portland in the the an al-

slag cements

for blended mentioned

Slag cements standard strength kali salt. because

used for strength.

any other Efforts

purpose

than

low

have been made agents, such as fly

to improve ash with

development

by adding

accelerating

LATENT These value with tent) cium draulic

HYDRAULIC are materials in finely hydroxide properties. becomes active

MATERIALS which divided In other only other with in themselves form temperatures words, the strong portland groups the alkaline cement influence possess little to form hardening or no cementitious chemically is dormant a latent react (lahypossessing such as calactivated

but will, calcium and

and in presence

of water, energy

at ordinary

compounds

cementitious hydroxide

under

of an activator, When

or some is blended hydroxide most important

compound. and water, hydraulic

material

it becomes of the cement.

by the calcium The two ASTM metallic cium ulated only ties. Soviet cooling whole, cement which by empirical

developed

during

the hydration

of latent granulated of with

materials

are the granu-

lated blast-furnace product

slags, and the pozzolans. the term blast-furnace and iron slag as a glassy nonof calare and The and is granproperconsisting the essentially simultaneously molten material silicates in water for alumino-silicates

C 219 defines is developed quenching formulas High

in a blast furnace or steam instance

and air. There in the German advantageous. is complex.

for the composition lime and alumina glassy process of

of slag with contents alkali

good hardening

Some of these are included Standards. also be completely The that

in specifications, as the

are usually activation

slag must

crystallized

slag produced

by slow On the

is non-hydraulic. the compounds hydration except

of the slag appear to form the slag hydrates or pozzolanic of pozzolan

the usual products the liberation is siliceous Romans such

of portland of calcium and alumithe than still may tuffs etc. arresiof conmore

without

hydroxide. The composition nous, and varies widely. first 2,000 stand the and tificial literature for crete. gravity, trainment. The hydraulic years today. name binder. ago for of apozzolan A combination various for this concrete group material and lime was historically by the Parts of structures which Pozzolans some shales, divided

This was developed quarries

primarily

structures.

One of their

was near the town of latent earths, hydraulic opaline occurring to ASTM

Pozzuoli materials.

provided

pozzolan in origin pozzolan from

be natural These form

or artificial.

Naturally

pozzolans cherts,

are: volcanic important

pumicetes, pozzolan

trasses,

diatomaceous

Class N according the combustion fly

C 618. The most is the finely coal. an ASTM

is the fly ash (pozzolan fly ash is considerable, chemical

Class F) which including as well

due resulting sampling

of ground

or powdered

The amount standard cement

concerning tests

(C 31 1)

and testing include

ash for use as an admixture analysis strength, drying shrinkage,

in portland soundness

as determinations

of specific and air en-

fineness,

compressive

Hydraulics

301

ASTM well and physical a minimum Unfortunately, its reactive, identical, tents. talline with chemical There the for but of

C 618, foreign

the

Bureau countries

of

Reclamation, The chemical ability and

and

the Corps specifications

of

Engineers for

as

as many

have

all established

chemical call for Fe,Os. on conCrysexcept or matefor is, are not

properties the

of pozzolans. hydraulic silica,

requirements depends contents;

usually

of 70 to 75% of the pozzolan latent or soluble, not alumina

to be composed of a pozzolan iron oxide silica,

of Si02+A1203+ these pozzolan.

primarily

even proportional, ingredient materials, may

to the total

alumina with

and iron oxide

The siliceous siliceous curing at high

is in an amorphous combine Also, the

state in a good that

such as quartz, increase

lime very slowly, latent hydraulic

temperatures.

calcination,

is, heat treatment,

treatments have been of

reactivity

of many

rials but not all of them. several the chemical and physical will yet. content be finely to make methods recommended that determination the prediction none a fly of them amounts of reactive material satisfactory should be used ingredients behave Also, in pozzolans, in a mortar the hydraulic should

how

a pozzolanic

or concrete behavior as be as low

are completely

ash is influenced

by (a) its carbon which should can which

which divided

possible; Latent the They and latent ever, more early tion tion water, caused frequently zolans zolans, mainly chemical The form

(b) its silica content hydraulic of blended as finely materials of reducing materials cements

and as high as posmaterials in

sible; and (c) its fineness

be as high as possible. cementitious with ways, mixer as has already together and/or been discussed. portland It may cement for used. using Howprovide

in different concrete mineral

can also aggregate hydraulic the

be added

to the divided can

admixtures.

The justification technical. of cement materials are typically portland from

be economical of with using latent

the possibility important Strengths Simultaneously zolanic cements laboratory by materials

cost or saving

on the amount hydraulic materials with resulting still within than

technical of

advantages a concrete temperature The setting

are usually lower at

than the economic

reasons. pozzolanic are obtained cement alone. of pozspecificaportland of seaby

ages, and higher the of the cement. limits.

at later ages than times material natural pozzolans reaction. as well they of

rise is decreased

heat of hydra-

are also increased with other

by the addition the normal sulfate-resisting

although increase that

the values are usually resistance and

Use of pozzolanic solutions, aggregate of concrete when

generally sulfate tests alkali

of the concrete acid waters. are capable Improved

to aggressive of reducing

attack the

It has also been indicated of the

certain

expansion concrete In genpozof nonwhen

impermeability especially shrinkage

accompanies

the use of pozzolan, are not.

in lean mixtures. are greater resistance

eral, the creep air-entrained while through main

as the drying Freezing

are used than concretes this

and thawing

has also been observed air-entrained of of the pozzolan effects hydroxide forms derived from the reactive

to be impaired concrete

by the use of pozbe influenced air. is the of durThe concrete compounds cement stable cementing hydration.

resistance of the

seems to

the effect source between

on the amount pozzolans siliceous liberated portland

of entrained

on hardened and aluminous from

reaction This

the pozzolan ing hydration. substances

and the calcium process to those similar

the portland clinker

mechanically

and chemically cement

302

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

process the

of

binding

the

hydrated slow This at later

lime explains

is intensified for only lime not the

by the presence if water low strengths chemical a weak

of alkalies. needed at early resistance spot for ages of in the be by con-

Nevertheless reaction and the high pozzolan hardened The kept

it is fairly is available. strengths paste.

but continues

a long period

ages but also the improved hydrated with ash. materials

concretes, cement

since

the free

represents

use of air entrainment however, particularly and other that

together the amount

pozzolan

is possible. air is usually should

It should reduced

in mind, Pozzolans

of entrained

the pozzolan, veyed

if the latter latent

is fly

hydraulic

be handled,

and stored

in the same manner

as cement.

HYDRATION: When ment of considerable time, and stiffen, gone the strength. hours after Both stituents portland nally (CSH) droxide dration (1)

REACTIONS portland plasticity cement

BETWEEN is mixed

CEMENT with a limited result mixing, a while,

AND

WATER of water, the cedisplays to is is

amount

particles called less and the This

disperse

in the water. immediately period. can brittle, place

The after After

is cement however, and finally it is still The to the gain

paste which

and maintains

this for a period the paste starts

the dormant less plasticity becomes takes paste

be observed, although setting. subsequent

all the plasticity without any of strength, typically result that

sizeable several from a of

stiffening process,

process

is called

hardening

setting;

the completion the setting

of mixing.6 of portland reactions are covered that gel or gradually cement with cement paste between the water and the conhydration products, of fihyhydrate

and the hardening and consecutive These results that solids crystals reactions develop called

series of simultaneous of the cement. structured gel in which Ca(OH)2, most are: The reaction The

cement.

by the term time, calcium most

of the hydration,

is the hydration silicate

are calcium

hydrosilicates porous larger

and consist calcium

of other

materials, during

notably

are imbedded. important chemical reactions the early part of the hy-

The two

between and of alite

the CaA as well

as the gypsum

of the cement

and water; (2) After continue

The hydration the completion at a diminishing is lacking. silicates.

in the cement that

and water. hardening, chemical reactions to hydration (a) the be(b) a furparticles and down

of setting, rate until The decrease cement and the a protective found

is during reactions

one or more

of the conditions are the continuing result of two as the smaller become particles smaller;

necessary effects:

the reactions of the calcium surface come layer ther

The predominant particles larger

in rate is the particles

area of unhydrated completely hydrated

decreases

of CSH gel forms reactions by forming The chemical

on the surfaces

of the cement coating.

slowing

compounds

in the gel of hydrated

cement

are complex;

Hydraulics

303

most given sition

of them in their when

are impure chemical formed under it may

in the sense that and they watercement hydration differing

they

contain especially

elements with

not ordinarily respect to temof hardinformation com29-1:

formulas,

do not have exactly ratio. that

the same compo-

conditions,

perature

conditions

and original

Nevertheless, ened cement concerning pounds the final

be worthwhile complete

to mention provides

examination

pastes after

approximate of Table

compositions cement.

and the related

reactions

of the hydrated

of portland 2&S

For instance, + 3Ca(OH),

using the symbols

+ 6H = C&H3 represents

where

C&Ha

a CSH gel; or = CsACaS04.H12 is calcium the hydration develops CsA usually complex. calcium paste hydroxide from among aluminate is the weakest hydration of strength products. of deteriorais also In not only the standpoint the hydration the center sulfate aluminate monosulfate silicate that hydrated hydrate. and that of

CsA + HI0 + CaS04.HsO where the right

side of the equation between cement are quite to note cement chemical of of calcium presence

The dicalcium

main difference silicate trisulfate and ferrites in the hardened is that of portland

of tricalcium more Ca(OH)*. produces

the former

In the early

stages

of hydration aluminate aluminates It product but other tion

ettringite,

is, calcium calcium

hydrates.

The compositions that

of the other

is important

also it has the lowest words, the spots The from in concrete. especially

resistance hydroxide calcium

are usually

hydrates

harmful,

the standpoint

of sulfate

resistance.

GENERAL

ASPECTS

OF CONCRETE

DETERIORATION of a material significant although by themselves effects paste. form in order any Also, to attack deterioration, the attacking that preof ceconcencenot cause to withstand damage physical during the its of

The term conditions service concrete chanical tion with life. for An

durability which antonym initiated factors.

refers to the capability without to durability by chemical

it has been designed,

is deterioration. processes, either

The deterioration

is usually factors chemical cement

and me-

can also cause deterioration and magnitude structure should in the be above significant

or in combinaof

The character hardened and the internal A chemical ment the paste. free water must

of the chemical depend in liquid solid paste form may cement do act

on the deterioration composition

paste and concrete be present in dry hardened a certain

on both or vapor

the chemical

of the hardened

Chemicals

as solvent. a chemical depending that

chemical tration vailing ment

threshold

concentration

to be aggressive, in a given the ability on the other

is, to produce

deterioration. of different of the Some

However, magnitude factors other

can produce circumstances.

damages

reduce

paste, or concrete,

to resist deterioration

are:9

304

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

Higher

porosity

in concrete

resulting cement

from ratio,

inadequate

proportioning of these;

or

poor compaction,or Higher permeability porosity;

high water and higher

or a combination of concrete

absorption

as a consequence

of the higher Improper

cement

type

(in some circumstances);

Poor curing Alternate Increased

of concrete; and drying;

wetting fluid

velocity; of the aggressive chemical;

Replenishment Higher

temperatures; of reinforcing concrete than easily than more attacks which steel. is subjected more or small to aggressive damaging structural liquids only on one side, through with the sensitive migraintact in

Corrosion Note is more cement tion. after of that

vulnerable paste.

otherwise bringing thin

because the aggressive fluid material elements

can migrate into contact are more

the concrete to aggressive many

In addition,

massive elements, whereas

again because of the increased groundwater deterioration that of seawater were found concrete much

For instance,

large foundations

in aggressive considerable actions Kleinlogel

years of service withstood

was observed structures better

concrete large

pipes in the same area. dimensions types specimens

also reports

corrosive

than

small laboratory The various

made from

the same concrete. can be classified, which is caused hardness. as follows: by water containing the calDecement.

of deterioration is leaching low

C/ass / deterioration carbonic cium terioration ing power C/ass pounds liquid. tion weakens be the pounds, /I hydroxide

acid or having of Class

carbonate by the

It leaches out

developed

hydration

of portland is porous. the

I does not reach large proportions

is high and the concrete non-acidic cement products reactions between than

unless the dissolv-

of the water consists of

calcium

comhydracan be can com-

of the hardened Here the reaction and/or

paste and compounds are weaker porous. animal calcium for leaching.

of the aggressive the original Thus, the process examples

products

have the tendency and makes it more reaction between

the concrete saponification or reactions

The mechanism fats and calcium

base exchange

as in the

case of magnesium

salts. Other sacharate.

of sugars forming

C/ass /// consists ally reactions sulfates. duces gration C/ass IV position

of reactions

accompanied aluminate continuous sulfoaluminate

by expansion. compounds crystals growth cracks

These are usuand salts, mostly form which crystals may in-

between

hydrated but

In such cases, calcium capability, internal excessive

have cementing

of these

stresses producing

and gradual

disinte-

of the concrete. consists of reactions with acid which typically result in decomprod-

of the calcium

compounds

of the cement

and hydration

Hydraulics

305

ucts. not

In this hold

process

the

hardened raveling

paste takes

is gradually

dissolved

by the

acid and even them. of the concrete.

if the aggregate A gradual

particles

are acid resistant, place resulting

the paste can-

in disintegration

Class V is caused when trated crystals up pores in spalling penetrating Class which which Some others and usually VI a salt solution can appear

by physical penetrates

processes. concrete

Such a process typically continuously, becomes the salt crystallizes. as efforescence, internal pressure damage by ice.

occurs concenThe fill the

at an evaporating in the concrete and cracking. liquid

face, and subsequently surfaces excessive developing A special

on the concrete

and/or where

resulting

case of this is frost is developed

is water

and the pressure

is mechanical

deterioration moving wear and tear. classes sewers.

consisting solid

essentially in water

of abrasion or air, or

is caused

by waves,

particles

is just ordinary of these

deterioration plants and simultaneously is usually

are

more

likely

to

occur

in nature, procpredomi-

in industrial

In either type

case more of deterioration

than

one class can, which

do, occur there

or consecutively

in a deteriorations

ess. Nevertheless, nates.

a specific

MATERIALS Tables crete as well the entries guidance chemical, to prevent affected of who

WHICH 294

ATTACK 29-6

CONCRETE summarize the effects general harmful of many kind materials on conthat

through

as some of the pertinent to be only which requires concrete for materials

protective the most are not decorative

methods.

Note,

however,

are intended the contact

of guide. in the might

Treatments These are for of a needs

are also included

to concrete. by concrete, which

user who between

treatment

presence or who

needs to prevent

absorption

of liquid

and a chemical to organic

be adversely

by the concrete. in addition and mineral industrial waters acids, acid-containing silage, fruit juices, may also cause Class Some polyattack Many substances, of concrete. salts and animal wastes are also destructive. glycerol, which do compounds, such as glycols, of chemicals 29-6. salts which not attack concrete Lime without usually are most water harmful. poof Some is of removal or other chlorides, because weak fluorides, and silicates. are not mature and sugars slowly concrete. such as acidic wastes,

It can be seen that or acid-producing sour milk, Most hydroxy concrete. There Among carbonates usually lime Products tentially from IV deterioration organic salts of weak ammonium

bases, and some untreated

are a large number in Table some Other the and common nitrates,

do not attack

of these are also listed

neutral

beneficial derived acidic

to concrete from materials,

it promotes alkaline free

hydration

the concrete.

solutions of fatty to

petroleum,

when

oil additives

are normally

harmless

concrete.

these materials

can, however,

cause undesirable

discoloration.

306

Corrosion

and Chemical

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Masonry

Materials

Handbook

Table 294:

Key to Symbols

Used in Table 29-615

Symbol AB AS Asph Bk Btmn Buna-SR Bu-R CA CBk Cl-R CT-Ep EP FC Fu GBk

Material

Symbol Lead Mg/ZnSiF Neo N-R PbO PbSiF PC PE Pfn Ph S SBD-R Si Sic S-R Tl u Vn

Material Lead Magnesium or zinc fluosilicate (see Notation s, Table A2) Neoprene Natural rubber Litharge Lead fluosilicate (See Notation s, Table AZ) Portland cement Polyester Paraffin Phenolic Sulfur Styrene-butadiene rubber Silicate Silicone Polysulfide rubber Tile or vitrified brick (used with mortars of Column 5) Urethane Vinyl

._

Acrylonitrile-butadiene Alkali silicate (see Notation s, Table A21 Asphalt Brick (used with mortars of Column 5) Bi[tn$nous (asphalt or coal Butadiene-styrene rubber Butyl rubber Calcium aluminate cement Carbon brick (used with mortars of Column 51 Chlorinated rubber Coal tar-epoxy Epoxy Fireclay Furan Carbon and graphite brick (used with mortars of Column 5) Chlorosulfonated polyethylene (Hypalon)

HY

Table 29-5: t

Key to Special Notations

Sometimes used in food processing or as food or beverage ingredient. Ask for advisory opinion of Food and Drug Administration regarding coatings for use with food ingredients. Waters of pH higher than 6.5 may be aggressive if they also contain bicarbonates. (Natural waters are usually of pH higher than 7.0 and seldom lower than 6.0, though pH values as low as 0.4 have been reported. For pH values below 3, protect as for dilute acid.) Frequently used as a deicer for concrete pavements. If the concrete contains too little entrained air or has not been aged more than one month, repeated application may cause surface scaling. For protection under these conditions, see deicing salts. Carbon dioxide dissolves in natural waters to form carbonic acid solutions. When it dissolves to extent of 0.9 to 3 parts per million it is destructive to concrete. Frequently used ments containing as deicer too little for airplanes. Heavy spillage on runway entrained air may cause surface scaling. pave-

In addition to the intentional unwanted fermentation occurs producing lactic acid.

fermentation of many raw materials, much in the spoiling of foods and food wastes, also

Hydraulics

307

I other potentially

Contains

carbonic

acid, reactive

fish oils, materials. coal gas.

hydrogen

sulfide,

methyl

amine,

brine,

a sl wt er h iI

used for cleaning in those limited aggregates, up to about water

I with reactive
FOI ._solutrons

However,

areas of the United States where concrete disruptive expansion may be produced. 10 percent concentration.

is made

i
k 1 n

I Not

for drinking only.

pipes.

1 Polyesters
Followed

Composed mostly of nitrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, and water vapor. Also contains unburned hydrocarbons, partially burned hydrocarbons, oxides of nitrogen, and oxides of sulfur. Nitrogen dioxide and oxygen in sunlight may produce ozone, which reacts with some of the organics to produce formaldehyde, peracylnitrates, and other products. ___ These either contain ammonium chromic ____ chromium trioxide and a small amount of sulfate, sulfate (nearly saturated) and sodium sulfate. or

by tartaric

acid solution.

-. P

Many (a) (b) (c)

types of solutions are used, including Sulfate-Contain copper sulfate and sulfuric acid. Cyanide-Contain copper and sodium cyanides and sodium carbonate. Rochelle-Contain these cyanides, sodium carbonate, and potassium sodium tartrate. (d) O;ydxes such as fluoborate, pyrophosphate, amine, or potassium cyalead fluosilicates and fluosilicic acid.

q r

Contains

Reference here is to combustion of coal, which produces carbon dioxide, water vapor, nitrogen, hydrogen, carbon monoxide, carbohydrates, ammonia, nitric acid, sulfur dioxide, hydrogen sulfide, soot, and ashes. Increases resistance to attack but does not prevent range. and then known to ion. it.

t u

High melting,

for lower

end of temperature

Porous concrete which has absor.bed considerable molten paraffin been immersed in water after the paraffin has solidified has been disintegrate from sorptive forces.

_.-__ ~____-

Contains

nickelous

~_~__

chloride,

nickelous

sulfate,

boric

acid, and ammonium

_~

May contain various mixtures tive juices, partially digested varying amounts of water.

of blood, vegetable

fats and oils, bile and other digesmatter, urine, and manure, wrth

Usually contains zinc sulfate in sulfuric acid. Sulfuric density may be low (about 6 percent in low current (about 22-28 percent in high current density process). --

acid concentration process) or higher

---

Sand-filled.

308

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

Table 29-6:

Effect

of Chemical Protective

Agent and Commonly

Used

Treatments Coatings and surface treatments

Material *Acetic acid, < 10 percent *Acetic acid, 10 percent *Acetic acid, 30 percent *Glacial Acetone

Effect Disintegrates slowly

Thicker barriers Bk, Tl, Btmn, Ph, PE Bk, Tl, Ph, Fu Bk, Tl, Ph, Fu Bk, Tl, Ph, Fu Bk, Tl, Bu-R

Mortars Fu, Ph, S, Ep, Si Fu, Ph, S Fu, Ph, S

Btmn, S-R, j& MA?.SZn

I
Disintegrates Disintegrates Disintegrates slowly slowlyslowly Btmn, S-R Btmn, Btmn S-R

--

Liquid loss by penetration. May contain acetic acid as impurity (which see) Disintegrates slowly. In porous or cracked concrete, attacks steel -See ethyl alcohol, methyl alcohol Not harmful oil Disintegrates See potassium num sulfate slowly alumiBtmn. Hy, Ep, CT-Ep. Neo, PE, Vn Btmn, Cl-R,
EP, CT-EP. E;B ;FJp,

Fu, Si, Ep

Acid waters (pH of 6.5 or less) *Alcohol Alizarin *Almond

AS, Btmn, Cl-R, Ep, Neo, U, Vn

Ep, Neo

Neo, Lead, Tl

Fu, Ph, PE

Aluminum

Disintegrates rapidly. In porous or cracked concrete, attacks steel Disintegrates. In porous or cracked concrete, attacks steel

Bk, Tl, Btmn, Vn, Neo Bk, Tl, ;;m, Vn,

Fu, Ph, S,
EP, FE

*Aluminum

Fu, Ph, S,
EP, PE

AS; SiF Harmful only if it con tains harmful ammonium salts (see below: Ammonia vapors / May disintegrate mois concrete slowly or attack steel in porous or cracked moist concrete

Mg/Zr; Bk, Tl, Btmn, Vn, Neo Bk, Tl, Btmn, Vn, Neo

Btmn, Cl-R, Ep, Neo, Vn Btmn, PE, Vn

_____ Fu, EP,

Asph

Fu, Ep, Asph, PE

Btmn, Ep, G&EpEHy S-R; SBD-R V, Vn

Btmn, Vn, Neo, Bk, Tl

Fu, EP, Ph,

Asph

Hydraulics

309

Material *Ammonium chloride

Effect Disintegrates slowly. In porous or cracked concrete, attacks steel Btmn, Cl-R,

g&&&z,

pry
Bk, Tl, Btmn, Vn, Neo, Bk, TI

Ammonium cyanide Ammonium fluoride Ammonium hydroxide Ammonium nitrate

Disintegrates Disintegrates Not harmful

slowly

Btmn

I
slowly

Disintegrates. In porous or cracked conCrete, attacks steel

Ammonium oxalate *Ammonium sulfate

Ammonium sulfide Ammonium sulfite Ammonium superphosphate Ammonium thiosulfate Animal wastes Anthracene Arsenious acid I__Ashes Harmful if wet, when sulfides and sulfates leach out (see sodium sulfate) -Cause thermal sion expanI Si-clay AS, Ep, Vn Not harmful Bk, Tl, Btmn, Vn, 1 Bu-R Disintegrates Fem. EP, Btmn, Vn, Neo, Bk, Tl Fu, Ph, Ep

/ Fu, Ph, S I

Ashes, hot

310

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistanr

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

Material Automobile and diesel exhaust gases *Baking soda

Effect -May disintegrate mois concrete by action of carbonic, nitric, or sulfurous acid See sodium nate Not harmful bicarbo-

~____

Coatings and surface treatments

Thicker barriers Bk, Tl

Mortars Fu, Ep, Ph

Ep, Mg/Zn SiF, SBD-R Vn

Barium hydroxide Bark *Beef fat

Neo, PE, Vn Mg/ZnSiF

AS HY,

Bk, Tl, Fen Vn,

See tanning bark __-~ Solid fat disintegrates slowly, melted fat more rapidly May contain, as fermentation products, acetic, carbonic, lactic, or tannic acids (which see) Liquid loss by penetration -See specific chemical, such as hypochlorous acid, sodium hypochlorite, sulfurous acid, etc. _.._..___ See boric acid Not harmful

AS, Btmn, Ep, Neo, PE ;;F Mg/Zn Ep, PE, Vn

Bk, Tl, Vn, Neo, Bu-R

*Beer

Bk, Tl, Vn, Bu-R, Ep

Benz01 f benzene) Bleaching solution

AS, Ep, PE, yigC/ZnSrF,

Bk, Tl, Ph, PE, Fu

1 I -t
Fu, EP

Fu, EP

Ep, Fu

Fu, Ph, Si

Boracic acid *Borax

Btmn, Cl-R, EP, BY, Neo, Vn effect AS, Cl-R, Ep, Neo, PE

Bk, Tl, Btmn, Vn Bk, Tl, Btmn, Vn, Neo

Fu, Ph, Ep

*Boric

acid

Negligible

/ Fu Ph S, Ep: PE I

*Brine Bromine

See sodium chloride or other salt Gaseous bromine disintegrates Liquid bromine disintegrates if it contains hydrobromic acid and moisture Disintegrates slowly Neo, Vn Bk, Tl,

1 Si, PE

*Buttermilk

AS, EP, BY, U

Butyl stearate

Disintegrates

slowly

Hydraulics

311

Material Calcium bisulfite *Calcium chloride

Effect Disintegrates rapidly

Coatings and surface treatments -. _____ EP, HY, Neo, PE, Vn

Thicker barriers Bk, Tl, Btmn, Vn, Bu-R Bk, Tl, Btmn, Vn, Neo

,
In porous or cracked concrete, attacks steel. Steel corrosion may cause concrete to spa11 Not harmful AS,l Btmn, EP, CT-EP, HY, Neo, PE, SBD-R, SIC, Vn

I -Mortars

Fu, Ph, Ep. S, PE, PbO

Fu, Ph, S, EP, PE

*Calcium hydroxide Calcium nitrate *Calcium sulfate

Bk, Btmn, Vn, Neo

Fu, EP I Fu, EP, S,

Not harmful

Neo, PE, Vn, Mg/ZnSiF concrete sulfate AS, Btmn, Cl-R, Ep, Hy, Neo, PE, SBD-R, Vn
---_I--

AS, HY,

Bk, Tl, Btmn, Vn, Neo Bk, Tl, Btmn, Vn, Neo
_

Disintegrates of inadequate resistance Not harmful -_ See phenol

1
Ph Fu, Si Fu, Ph

Fu, Ph, S, EP

Carbazole

AS, Ep, PE, h$/ZnSiF, ____

Bk, Tl, Fu

Carbolic acid *Carbon dioxide Carbon disulfide _.. Carbon tei chloride *Carbonic

Gas may cause permanent shrinkage (see also carbonic acid) May disintegrate slowly Liquid tration loss by peneof concrete slowly -

Cl-R, Ep, Neo, U, Vn, Mg/ZnSiF

Fu, Ph, S, EP, PE Fu, Ph, Si

Disintegrates

AS, Ep, Neo, PE, Vn, MEc/ZnSiF

1 Bk, Tl, I
Btmn, Neo

Vn,

Fu, Ph, S, Ep, PE. ____~ Fu, Ph, PE

Castor oil

Disintegrates, especially in presence of air

Chile saltpeter China wooc oil Chlorine gas Chrome plating solutions

See sodium

nitrate
I

Liquid disintegrates slowly. Dried or drying films harmless Slowly disintegrates moist concrete Disintegrates slowly $; Btmn, _

Bk, Tl

Fu

Si, PE

Btmn,

Vn

Si. PE

312

Corrosion

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Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

Material

Effect

Chromic acid, Chromic acid, 60 percent Chrysen *Cider Attacks steel in porous or cracked concrete Not harmful Disintegrates slowly (see acetic acid) - 1 Harmful if wet, when sulfides and sulfates leach out (see, for example, sodium sulfate) ___._~~ __

Cinders

Cause thermal expan-

CA, FC RefractoryAS-Clay Fu, Ph, EP, S

dize to sulfurous or sulfuric acid, or ferrous sulfate (which see)

~_ Fu, Ph, Si

Disintegrates concrete.

Fu, Ph, S, PE Bk, Tl, Vn, 1 Fu, Ph,

*Cocoa bean oil

Disintegrates, especiEP, PE, U, ally in presence of air EVn

I PE, EP

/ EP, PE

*ziyd liver

Disintegrates slowly

EP, HY, PE, U

I PE, EP

Bk, Tl, Ph,

Fu, Ph,
EP, PE

Hydraulics

313

Material Coke

Effect Sulfides leaching from damp coke may oxidize to sulfurous or sulfuric acid (which see) Disintegrates slowly

Coatings and surface treatments 1-R. Ep, Hy, Neo, Vn

Thicker barriers Bk, Tl, Fey7 Vn,

Mortars Fu, Ph, Si

Copper chloride

Cl-R, Ep, Neo, BE, SBD-R, Vn, AS

Bk, Tl, Btmn, Vn, Neo Bk, Tl, Btmn, Vn

Copper pl3 ling solutions Copper sulfate

Not harmful Disintegrates of inadequate resistance concrete sulfate AS, Btmn, peoC;EEp SBD-R, Vn Ep, Neo ir,

Fu, -1

Fu, Ph, EP, S

Ph, Ep

>

Bk, Tl, Btmn, Vn, Neo, Bu-R

Fu, Ph, Ep

-_Copper sulfide -~ *Corn syru P Corrosive sublimate *Cottonsee d oil Creosote -_ Cresol -Cum01 Deicing salIts Harmful if it contains copper sulfate (which see) Disintegrates See mercuric slowly chloride

Bk, Tl, Btmn, Vn, Neo Bk, Tl, Vn, Neo, Bu-R Fu, Ph, Ep

Ep, Vn, AS

Disintegrates, especially in presence of air Phenol present tegrates slowly Phenol present tegrates slowly Liquid tration disindisin-

Bk, Tl, PE, EP

Fu, Ph, PE

AS, AS,

Mg/ZnSiF

Bk, Tl, Fu Bk, Tl, Fu Tl

Fu, Ph, Si Fu, Ph, Si

Mg/ZnSiF

loss by pene-

AS,

Mg/ZnSiF 50 percent solution boiled linseed oil in kerosene, soybean oil, modified castor oil, cottonseed oil

Scaling of non-airentrained or insufficiently aged concreteb

EP,~ CT-Ep

Diesel gas6 ?S Dinitrophe no1 Distillers slop

See automobile and diesel exhaust gases Disintegrates slowly Bk, Tl, Btmn, Vn, Neo Fu, Ph, S, EP

Lactic acid causes slow disintegration

314

Corrosion

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Masonry

Materials

Handbook

Material Epsom salt *Ethyl alcohol Effect See magnesium sulfate AS, Btmn, Cl-R, CTEp, Hy, NIX PE, SBD-R, S-R Cl-R Bk, Tl, Btmn, Neo, Bu-R EP, PE Coatings and surface treatments Thicker barriers Mortars

Liquid loss by penetration

Fu,

s,

*Ethyl ether *Ethylene glycol Feces

-_

Liquid loss by penetration Disintegrates slowlyl

;,, Tl, EP,

Bk, Tl, Btmn, Vn, Neo

Fu, Ph, El1 Fu, Ph, EP, S

See manure Industrial fermentation processes produce lactic acid. Disintegrates slowly (see lactic acid) -Disintegrates slowly

*Fermenting fruits, grains, vegetables, OI extracts Ferric chloride

AS, Cl-R. EP, HY, PE SBD-R, Vn, Mg/ZnSiF AS, Cl-R, EP, HY, PE, SBD-R. Vn

Bk, Tl, Btmn, Vn. Neo Bk, Tl, Btmn, Vn. Neo Bk, Tl, Btmn. Vn. Neo

Fu, Ph. S.
EP, PE

Ferric nitrate Ferric sulfate

Not harmful

Fu, Ph, S, EP, PE Fu, Ph, S, EP, PE

Disintegrates of inadequate

concrete quality

AS, Btmn, Cl-R, Ep,

HY, PE,

Ferric sulfide Ferrous chloride Ferrous sulfate

L

____~ Harmful if it contains ferric sulfate (which see) Disintegrates slowly

SBD-R, Vn, Mg/ZnSiF

EP, HY, PE

Bk, Tl, Btmn. Vn. Neo Bk, Tl, Btmn, Vn. Neo Bk, Tl, Btmn, Vn. Neo Bk. Tl, Btmn, Vn, Neo

Fu, Ph, S,
EP, PE

AS, Btmn.
EP,

Fu, Ph, S,
EP, PE

Mg/ZnSiF AS,

HY,

PC

Disintegrates of inadequate resistance

concrete sulfate

Btmn.

Fu, Ph, S,
EP, PE

.EP, HY, PC

Ma/ZnSiF

Fertilizer

Fish liquor *Fish oil

_ I
I --

See -1 ammonium fate, ammonium

sulsuperphosphate, manure, potassium nitrate, sodium nitrate Disintegrates Disintegrates slowly

EP,

Fu, Ph, Ep

Vn

Bk, Tl, AB, Neo, Bu-R Bk, Tl, AB, Neo, Bu-R

Fu, Ph, PE Fu, Ph, PE

AS, EP, HY.

Neo, PE, Vn Mg/ZnSiF

Hydraulics

375

I /
Material Flue gases Effect Hot gases (400-1100 6 cause thermal stresses. Cooled, condensed sulfurous, hydrochloric acids disintegrate slowly Disintegrates slowly

Coatings and surface treatments Btmn

Thicker barriers Bk

Mortars Si. FC -

Foot oil Formaldehyde, 37 percent

AS, EP, PE,

Mg/ZnSiF AS, Cl-R, pB,DHg Net S-R, Vr;

Bk, Tl, Vn. PE Bk, Tl, Vn, Bu-R, Neo, Lead

Fu, Ph, PE Fu, Ph, S, EP

Formic acid, formed in solution, disintegrates slowly

Formalin *Formic acid, 10 percent *Formic acid, 30 percent *Formic acid, 90 percent Fruit juices See formaldehyde Disintegrates slowly

AS, Cl-R, EP, HY, SBD-R

Bk, Tl, Neo, Bu-R, Ep Bk, Tl, Neo, Bu-R Bk, Tl, Neo, Bu-R Bk, Tl, Btmn, AB

Fu, Ph, Ep

Disintegrates Disintegrates

slowly slowly

AS, HY AS, HY AS, EP,

HY, Vn,

Fu, Ph, Si Fu, Ph, Si Fu, Ph, Ep

--

_.Gas waters

Hydrofluoric, other acids, and sugar cause disintegration (see also fermenting fruits, grains, vegetables, extracts) Ammonium salts seldom present in sufficient quantity to disintegrate Liquid tration loss by peneslowly

Mg/ZnSiF

Btmn

Bk, Tl, Btmn, Ep

Fur EP

--Gasoline Glucose

- _ ---

_
Cl-R, Ep, Neo, PE, VI AS, Btmn, EP, HY, Net Mg/ZnSiF AS, Btmn, Cl-R, Ep, ;_yR NG;,PF MgjZnSiF Bk, Tl, Neo, Ph Bk, Tl, Btmn, Neo, Bu-R Bk, Tl, Btmn, Vn, Neo Fu, Ph, Ep Fu, Ph, Ep

Disintegrates

*Glycerine

Disintegrates

slowly

Fu, Ph, S, EP

*Grain

See fermenting fruits, grains, vegetables, extracts Not harmful Solid fat disintegrates slowly, melted fat more rapidIy Disintegrates slowly Ep, PE, Vn Ep, PE, Vn Bk, Tl Bk, Tl, Vn, PE, EP Bk, Tl, EP, Fu EP, Fu Fu, Ph, PE, EP Fu, Ph

*Honey Horse fat

Humic

acid

AS, Btmn, Mg/ZnSiF

316

Corrosion

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Masonry

Materials

Handbook

Material *Hydrochloric acid, 10 percent *Hydrochloric acid, 30 percent *Hydrochloric acid, 37 percent Ha$ofluoric 10 pekcent Hayc$ofluoric 30 percent Hay$ofluoric 40 percent Ha<$ofluoric 75 percent

Effect Disintegrates rapidly, including steel

coatings and surface treatments AS, Btmn, Cl-R. Ep, Hy, SBD-R, S-R. Vn

Disintegrates rapidly, including steel Disintegrates rapidly, including steel Disintegrates rapidly, including steel Disintegrates rapidly, including steel Disintegrates rapidly, including steel Disintegrates rapidly, including steel Not harmful,, but in moist, oxidizing environments converts to sulfurous acid (see text), disintegrates slowly

SVBnD-RT S-R
SBD-R, Vn Btmn, Cl-R EP. HY, SBD-K, Vn Hy, SBD-R, Vn SBD-R, Vn GBk, Bu-R. Lead

! Ph, Fu, S

AS, Ep, Neo PE, SBD-R. Vn, Mg/ZnSiF

Hypochlorous acid, 10 percent Iodine

Disintegrates

slowly

SBD-R,

Vn

Disintegrates

slowly

AS, Cl-R, EP, Mg/ZnSiF

Iron chloride Iron sulfate Iron sulfide Iron vitriol Kerosene *Lactic acid, 5 percent

See ferric chloride, ferrous chloride See ferric sulfate, ferrous sulfate See ferric See ferrous sulfide sulfate EP, PE, S-R, Vn AS, Btmn. IWNoVPZ Mg/ZnSiF Bk, Tl, Vn, Bu-R, Neo Bk, Tl, Btmn, Vn, Neo Fu, Ph, PE, EP Fu, Ph, Ep, PE

Liquid loss by penetration of concrete Disintegrates slowly

Hydraulics

317

treatments slowly Hy. Neo, PE, / SBD-R, Vn, ) Mg/ZnSiF /

Thicker barriers Bk, Tl, I Btmn, , Vn, Neo

Mortars

Fu, Ph, PE

Solid fat disintegrates slowly. melted fat

Fu, Ph, lE, Ep Fu, Ph, PE, EP Fu, Ph, S, EP, PE

slowly, Lead nitrate

lard oil more slowly

Disintegrates

Disintegrates

slowly

Fu, Ph: S, EP, PE

See ammonium and ammonium

nitrate sulfate AS, Cl-R, %&%SiF

I ; Bk Tl I Vn: PE 1
Fu, Ph, PE, EP

--I
*Linseed oil

_____
If fatty oils are present, disintegrates slowly Liquid disintegrates slowly. Dried or drying films are harmless May disintegrate moist concrete by action of carbonic, nitric or sulfurous acids (see also automobile and diesel exhaust gases) _~ Fatty oils, if present, disintegrate slowly See sodium hydroxide

Locomotive gases

Btmn, Ep. Mg/ZnSiF, SBD-R, Vn

Bk, Tl

Fu, Ph

Lubricating oil

Btmn, Ep, PE. S-R. Vn

Bk, Tl, Vn. PE

_
Fu, Ph. Ep, PE

Lye
Machine oil

Fatty oils, if present, disintegrate slowly

AS, Btmn, Ep. PE, S-R, Vn,. Mrr/ZnSiF

Bk, Tl. Vn. PE

Magnesium nitrate

Disintegrates

slowly

318

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

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Materials

Handbook

+
Material Magnesium sulfate Effect Disintegrates of inadequate resistance concrete sulfate

/ and surface treatments _ --~ -Btmn. Cl-R, EH;;;EP, SBD-R, t Mg/ZnSiFVn, Coatings Thicker barriers Bk, Tl, Btmn, Vn, Neo

T -r
c -i

Fu, Ph, S,

Ep,PE

__ __
Manure Disintegrates of inadequate resistance Disintegrates concrete sulfate slowly

_I

r EP, PE, Vn, I@&ZnSiF.

AS, EP,
Mg/ZnSiF Ep, PE, Vn

-_ __
Bk, Tl, Btmn, Vn, Neo Bk, Tl, Btmn, Vn, Neo Tl, Btmn, Vn, Neo

Fu, Ph, S, EP, PE Fu, Ph, Ep

*Margarine

__
Mash, fermenting Mercuric chloride Mercurous chloride Methyl alcohol

Solid margarine disintegrates slowly, melted margarine more rapidly

__ __

Acetic and lactic acids, and sugar disintegrate slowly Disintegrates slowly

__

_~

Btmn, EP, Vn, Mg/ZnSiF

Bk, Tl, Btmn, Vn, Neo Bk, Tl, Btmn, Vn, Neo Bk, Tl, Btmn, Vn, Neo Bk, Tl, Btmn, Vn, Neo

Btmn, Ep, Hy, Neo, PE Mg/ZnSiF

I
-r

Fu, Ph, EP, PE

Fu, EP
Fu, Ph. S, EP, PE Fu, Ph, S, EP, PE

Disintegrates

slowly

EP, HY, Neo, PE, Ma/ZnSiF AS, Btmn, Cl-R, Ep, Hy, Neo, PE SBD-R, S-R U, Vn

Liquid tration

loss by pene-

Fu, s, PE, EP

-Bk, Tl, Neo, Bu-R, Ph, Fu Bk, Tl, Neo, Bu-R, Fu Bk, Tl, Neo, Bu-R, Fu

Liquid loss by penetration Methyl isoamyl ketone Methyl isobutyl ketone Milk Liquid loss by penetration

Fu, Ph

Fu, Ph

_Liquid loss by penetration Fu, Ph

__ .Not harmful. However, see sour milk Sulfides, sulfates, or acids present disintegrate concrete and attack steel in porous or cracked concrete Fatty oils, if present, disintegrate slowly EP, PE

-AS, Btmn, EP, PE, SBD-R, Vn, Mg/ZnSiF Btmn, Cl-R. ;,H+nPE, MgjZnSiF

Bk, Tl, Btmn, Vn Bk, Tl, Btmn, Vn, Neo

Fu, Ep, PE Fu. Ph, S, EP, CA

Mine water, waste

*Mineral

oil

Bk, Tl, Neo, Vn, EP -

Fu, Ph, EP, PE

Hydraulics

319

-7

Material Mineral spirits *Molasses

Effect Liquid loss by penetration

Coatings and surface treatments

__

Thicker barriers Bk, Tl, Ph, Vn, Fu

-1.

_.__

At I---- temperatures 1. 120 F, disintegrates I slowly See hydrochloric acid

AS, EP, HY, / Neo, Ph, Vn, Mg/ZnSiF

Bk, Tl, Btmn, Vn, Neo

Fu, Ph, Ep

Muriatic acid *Mustard oil Nickel plating solutions

/-__

I_

Disintegrates, especially in presence of air Nickel ammonium fate disintegrates slowly sulBtmn, Cl-R, Hy, Neo. PE, 1 SBD-R, Vn, / AS

Bk, Tl, Vn

I Fu,
i

Ph, Ep

-! Bk,
-I-

Tl, Btmn, Vn, Neo Bk, Tl, Btmn. Vn, Neo

I Fu,

Ph, Ep

_L

Nickel sulfate

of inadequate resistance

sulfate

Fu, Ph,
j

EP, S

Niter Nitric acid, 2 percent Disintegrates rapidly AS, Cl-R. Ep, Neo, Vn

-,-

iBk. Tl, Btmn, Vn, PE

T S, PE, Si

Disintegrates

rapidly

1 AS, Cl-R,
i

Bk, Tl, Btmn. Vn, PE Bk. Tl. Btmn, Vn Bk, Tl, Vn, Btmn Bk, Tl, Vn

S, PE, Si

Disintegrates

rapidly

WAS,,

Vn

-I-

S, Si S, Si

__

-_____-.

20 percent

/
Disintegrates rapidly rapidly

._

Nitric acid, 30 percent Nitric -,-&integrates acid 40 percent 1 Oleic acid. ___ 100 percent

1 AS, Vn / -.__
p

i S, Si
Si Fu,Ph,

._

Bk, Tl, Vn
.~

---;i;f$g$E;
See sulfuric 110 percent acid, Disintegrates slowly AS. Ep,PE,

Bk, Tl, Vn. Fu

._

Ep,PE

Oleum Olive oil

._

U, Vn,
Ores Sulfides leaching from damp ores may oxidize to sulfuric acid or ferrous sulfate (which see) AS, Ep

Mg/ZnSiF

Bk, Tl, Ph, PE, Ep, Vn Bk, Tl, Btmn. Neo, Bu-R

Fu, Ph, Ep

Fu. Ph. Ep, Si

320

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

Material Oxalic acid

Effect Not harmful. Protects tanks against acetic acid, carbon dioxide, salt water. Poisonous. Do not use with food or drinking water Shallow penetration not harmful, but should not be used on highly porous surfaces like concrete masonry

Coatings and surface treatments Cl-R, Ep, Neo, SBD-R, Vn

Thicker barriers Bk, Tl, Btmn, Vn, Neo

Mortars Fu, Ph, S, EP

Paraffin

AS, EP, PE,

Mg/ZnSiF

Bk, Tl, Vn, Neo, Bu-R

Fu, Ph, EP, PE

*Peanut

oil

Disintegrates Disintegrates

slowly

AS, EP, PE, U, Vn

EP, Vn

Bk, Tl, PE, EP, Vn Bk, Tl, Vn, PE Bk, Tl, Bu-R Bk, Tl, Neo, Bu-R, Vn

Fu, Ph,

EP, PE Si

Perchloric acid, 10 percent Perchloroethylene Petroleum < 35Be oils

Liquid loss by penetration Liquid loss by penetration Fatty oils, if present, disintegrate slowly Liquid loss by penetration. Fatty oils, if present, disintegrate slowly Liquid loss by penetration Disintegrates slowly

EP Btmn, Ep, PE, S-R, Vn

Fu, Ph Fu. Ph, PE

Petroleum > 35Be

oils

Btmn. EP, PE, S-R, Vn

Bk, Tl, Neo, Bu-R, Vn

Fu, Ph, PE-

Phenanthrene Phenol, 5 percent Phenol, 15-25 percent *Phosphoric acid, 10 percent

Bk, Tl, Bu-R AS, Cl-R, SBD. Mg/ZnSiF AS, Cl-R, Mg/ZnSiF AS, Cl-R, p&I ;;DT$ov S-R, U, Vn. Mg/ZnSiF Bk, Tl, Bu-R, Fu Bk, Tl, Bu-R, Fu Bk, Tl, Btmn. Vn, Neo

Fu Fu, Ph, Si

Disintegrates Disintegrates

slowly slowly

Fu, Ph, Si Fu, Ph, S, EP

*Phosphoric acid, 85 percent

Disintegrates

slowly

fi.; QhHy>
SBD-R, S-R, U, Vn, Mg/ZnSiF

Bk, Tl, CBk, Btmn, Vn, Neo

Fu, Ph, S

___ .._
Bk, Tl, Btmn. Vn, Neo Vn, Neo 4-____ Bk, Tl, Fu. Ph, S, EP Fu, Ph, Si

*Pickling brine Pitch

Attacks steel in porous or cracked concrete Not harmful

EP, HY, Neo, Mg/ZnSiF

Hydraulics

321

Material *Poppy seed

Oil __..-.-

Effect Disintegrates slowly Disintegrares concrete of inadequate sulfate resistance

Coatings and surface treatments PE, Vn, Mg/ZnSiF AS, Btmn, Cl-R, Ep, Neo. PE.

Thicker barriers Bk, Tl, Vn, Neo

AS, EP,

Mortars --~ Fu, Ph Fu. Ph, S, EP

__

*Potassium aluminum sulfate

___~

Bk, Tl, Btmn, Vn, Neo

*Potassium carbonate *Potassium chloride

Harmless unless potas sium sulfate present (which see) Magnesium chloride, in porous or cracked concrete Disintegrates slowly Disintegrates
__

AS, EP, HY, Bk, Tl,

Mg/ZnSiF AS, Cl-R,

Btmn. Vn, Neo

_Fu, Ep Fu. Ph, S, Ep. PE

Potassium cyanide Potassium dichromate Potassium hydroxide, 15 percent Potassium hydroxide, 25 percent Potassium hydroxide, 95 percent *Potassium nitrate Potassium permanganate Potassium persulfate

c f I -_
I
Not harmfuP

~ if present, attacks steelI FE>;gDyRo.

U, tin, Mg/ZnSiF
EP, HY, Neo

Bk, Tl, Btmn, Vn, Neo

Bk, Btmn, Vn, Neo Bk, Tl, Btmn, Vn, PE

EP,

Fu

AS, Cl-R, Mg/ZnSiF

EP, CT-EP, HY, Neo, U,

PE, S, Fu, Ph

Cl-R, Ep. CT-Ep. HY, Neo, SBDR, Vn

EP, Fu

Disintegrates concrete

Fy, ;J&EP,
SBi)-R, Vn EP, CT-EP,
HY,

EP, FU

Disintegrates concrete

-GBk, Vn, Neo Bk, Tl, Btmn, Vn, Neo Bk, Tl, Btmn. Vn, Neo EP Fu, Ph,
EP, S

SBD-R, Vn xS.l Cl-R, FE>FBYDy; Vn

Neo,

Disintegrates slowly

Harmless unless potas sium sulfate present (which see) Disintegrates concrete of inadequate sulfate resistance AS, Btmn, EP, HY. Neo, PE. SBD-R, Vn. Mg/ZnSiFe AS, Btmn, Cl-R, Ep. ;-L&J L, Mg/Zn&F

Fu. Ph. PE, EP Fu. Ph, S,

EP, PE

Bk, Tl, Btmn, Vn, Neo

-_
Bk, Tl, Btmn, Vn, Neo Fu, Ph. S.
EP, PE

Potassium sulfate

Disintegrates concrete of inadequate sulfate resistance

322

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

Material

Effect Harmless unless potassium sulfate presen (which see) See ferric sulfide, copper sulfide Disintegrates, especially in presence of air See sodium Not harmful chloride

Coatings and surface treatments

Thicker barriers Bk, Btmn, Vn, Neo

Mortars EP, Fu

t __

Btmn, EP, HY

-Pyrites

-*Rapeseed oil Rock salt Rosin Rosin oil

AS, Btmn, EP, PE, Vn, Mg/ZnSiF

Bk, Tl, Btmn, Vn, Neo

Fu, Ph, Ep

-_ -_
Bk, Tl, Neo Bu-R, Ep Bk, Tl, Neo, Bu-R, Ep Fu, Ph, Ep Fu, Ph, Ep

Not harmful

-_
Sal ammoniac Sal soda Salt for deicing roads See ammonium chloride See sodium carbonate

__

_ __

See text. Also calcium chloride, magnesium chloride, sodium chloride See potassium nitrate

Saltpeter *Sauerkraut

Flavor impaired by concrete. Lactic acid may disintegrate slowly Disintegrates concrete of inadequate sulfate resistance. Attacks steel in porous or cracked concrete Usually not harmful (see hydrogen sulfide) Acetic, butyric, lactic acids (and sometimes fermenting agents of hydrochloric or sulfuric acids) disintegrate slowly Organic grate acids disinte_ hydrogen

Sea water

Sewage

Silage

__
S~o;~~ter wastes --~ Sludge

-__-.___ z;;;sdeewage,

__
Soda water See carbonic acid

r ~ _ ._ _ ~ I

,pE> yno,

Bk, Tl, Btmn, Vn, Neo Bk, Tl, Btmn, Vn, Neo

Fu, Ph, Ep, PE

AS, Cl-R, ,p,. yB.DNo $$-R,

Fu, Ph. EP, PE

Mg/ZnSiF ______

Bk, Tl, Btmn, EP, Vn Bk, Tl, Btmn. Vn. Neo

gu+;h. EP,
Fu, Ph, Ep

Btmn. EP, PC, Mg/ZnSiF

.-.

Bk, Tl, Btmn, Vn, Neo Bk. Tl, EP, Vn

Fu, Ep, Ph

iBtmn.

Hydraulics

323

Material *Sodium bicarbonate Sodium bisulfate

Effect Not harmful

Coatings and surface treatments

Thicker barriers Bk, Tl, Btmn. Vn, Neo

Mortars EP, Fu

Disintegrates

Btmn, Cl-R, EP, HY. Neo, PE, SBD-R, Vn Btmn, Cl-R, EP, HY. Neo, PE, SBD-R, Vn slowly

Bk, Tl, Btmn, Vn, Neo Bk, Tl, Btmn, Vn, Neo Bk, Tl, Btmn, Vn, Neo

Fu, Ph, S

Sodium bisulfite

Disintegrates

Fu, Ph, S

Sodium bromide

Disintegrates

Fu, Ph. S, EP, PE

Sodium carbonale

Not harmful, except to calcium aluminate cement Magnesium chloride, if present, attacks steel in porous or cracked concrete. Steel corrosion may cause concrete to spa11 Disintegrates slowly

AS, Cl-R, Ep, Hy, Nco. SBD-R. Vn. Mg/Zn$iF AS, Cl-R, EP, HY, Neo, PE, SBD-R, S-R, Sic, U, Vn, Mg/ZnSiF Ep, Hy, Neo AS, Cl-R, Ep, CT-ED. HY, Neo, U, Mg/ZnSiF Cl-R, Ep. Hy, CT-Ep. Neo, SBD-R, S-R, Vn Cl-R, Ep, CT-Ep, Hy, Neo, SBD-R, S-R. Vn

Bk, Btmn, Vn, Neo, Ep

Ep, Fu

*Sodium chloride

Bk, T1, Btmn, Vn, Neo

Fu, Ph, S, Ep, PE

Sodium cyanide Sodium dichromate

Bk, Btmn, Vn, Neo Bk, Tl, Vn, PE, Btmn

Ep, Fu PE, S. Fu, Ph

Dilute solutions disintegrate slowly

*Sodium hydroxide. 1 percent Sodium hydroxide, 10 percent Sodium hydroxide, 20 percent Sodium hydroxide, 25 percent

Not harmful

Bk, Btmn, Vn, Neo, Ep

Ep,

Fu

Not harmful

GBk, Btmn, Vn, Neo, Ep

Ep, Fu

~___
GBk, Btmn, Vn, Neo, Ep Ep, Fu

Disintegrates

concrete

Cl-R, Ep. CT-Ep. Hy, Neo, SBD-R, S-R, Vn

Disintegrates

concrete 3-R, Vn

GBk, Btmn, Vn, Neo, Ep

Ep, Fu

324

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

Material *Sodium hydroxide, 40 percent Sodium hypochlorite *Sodium nitrate

Effect Disintegrates concrete

Coatings and surface treatments

Thicker barriers GBk, Vn, Neo

Mortars

? -

E$, ;$EP,
SBD-R, S-R, Vn Btmn, HY, Vn

EP, Fu

Disintegrates Disintegrates

slowly

slowly

Bk. Ti, Vn, PE, Btrnn Bk, Tl, Btmn, Vn, Bu-R Bk, Tl, Btmn, Vn, Neo

PE, PC Fu, Ph, S, EP, PE

~ Ep, Hy, Net

PE, SBD-R, Vn Cl-R, AS,

AS,

Cl-R,

Sodium nitrite

Disintegrates

slowly

EP, Fu

i
Sodium phosphate (monobasic) Sodium sulfate Disintegrates slowly

yBD?R NV, Btmn. Mg/ZnSiF Cl-R. Ep, Hy, SBD-R. Vn AS, Btmn, ;gDH; J$e$ Mg/ZnSiF

-1
I

___
Bk, Tl, Btmn, Vn Bk, Tl, Btmn, Vn. Neo Bk, Vn, Neo, Btmn Bk, Tl, Btmn, Vn, Neo EP, Fu

Disintegrates of inadequate resistance Disintegrates

concrete sulfate

Fu, Ph. S,
EP,=

Sodium sulfide *Sodium sulfite

slowly

EP, HY, Neo AS, Btmn, Cl-R, Ep, HY, Neo, SBD-R, Vn. Mg/ZnSiF AS, Btmn, Cl-R, Ep, HY, Neo, SBD-R, Vn, Mg/ZnSiF EP, U

EP, Fu EP, Fu

Sodium sulfate, if present, disintegrates concrete of inadequate sulfate resistance Slowly disintegrates concrete of inadequate sulfate resistance

Sodium thiosulfate

Bk, Tl, Btmn, Vn, Neo

EP, Fu

*Sour milk

Lactic acid disintegrates slowly Liquid disintegrates slowly. Dried or drying films harmless Not harmful

Bk, Tl, Blmn. Vn, Neo Bk, Tl, Neo, Vn, Bu-R

Fu, Ep, PE

Soybean
Oil

AS, EP,
f-2 N;;, MgjZnSiF Vn

Fu. Ph, Ep

Strontium chloride Sugar

Bk, Tl, Btmn, Vn, Neo Tl, Vn, Net, Bu-R

Fu. Ph, S, Ep. PE Fu, Ph, Ep. PE

Disintegrates

slowly

AS, Btmn, EP, Hy, Neo, Vn,, Mg/ZnSrF

Hydraulics

325

Material Sulfite liquor Sulfite solution *Sulfur dioxide *Sulfuric acid, 10 percent *Sulfuric acid, 30 percent *Sulfuric acid, 50 percent *Sulfuric acid, 60 percent *Sulfuric acid, 70 percent *Sulfuric acid, 80 percent *Sulfuric acid, 93 percent *Sulfuric acid, concentrated Sulfuric acid, 110 percent (Oleum) Sulfurous acid Tallow and tallow oil Tannic acid

Effect Disintegrates ~~._____. See calcium ._ bisulfite

Coatings and surface treatments Cl-R. Neo. SBDLR, Vn, Mg/ZnSiF

Thicker barriers Bk, Tl, Lead, Neo, Btmn, Vn

Mortars

Fu, Ph, EP.

PE, PbO

-c

With moisture forms sulfurous acid (whirls see) Disintegrates rapidly

AS, Btmn, Cl-R, Ep, SBD-R, Vn Cl-R. Ep, Hs, Net, SBD-R. Vn

Bk, Tl, Btmn, Vn, Neo, Lead

_

Fu, Ph, S, EP. PbO, PE

Disintegrates

rapidly

Bk, Btmn. Vn, Neo Cl-R, Hy, Neo, SBD-R. S-R, Vn Bk, GBk. Btmn, Vn. Lead Hy, Vn Bk, GBk. Vn, Lead Bk, GBk, Lead Bk, GBk, Lead Bk, Lead

Disintegrates

rapidly-

_ 1
i

Fu, Ph. S,
EP, PE

Fu, Ph, S. Ep, Si Fu, Ph, Si, S S, Si, Ph

Disintegrates

rapidly

Disintegrates

rapidly

-!-Si
Si

Disintegrates

rapidly

HY

Disintegrates

Si

Disintegrates

Si

Disintegrates

Bk, Lead

Si

Disintegrates

rapidly

Cl-R, Ep, ;yV;eo, .L.__ Ep, PE, Vn, Mg/ZnSiF Cl-R. Ep, Hy, Neo, U, Mg/ZnSiF Btmn. Cl-R,
EP, U, Vn

Bk, Btmn, Vn, Neo, Lead Bk, Tl, Vn, _ Neo, Bu-R Bk. Tl, Vn, Neo, Btmn Bk, Tl, Btmn, Vn. Neo Bk. Tl, Btmn. Vn, Neo

Fu, Ph, S, PbC, PE Fu, Ph, EP, PE Fu, Ph, Ep, Si Fu, Ph, Ep

Disintegrates Disintegrates

slowly slowly

May disintegrate slowly if damp (see tanning liquor) Tanning liquor Disintegrates, if acid

SBD-R. U. Mg/ZnSiF

Fu, Ph, Ep

326

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

Material *Tartaric solution Tobacco acid

Effect Not harmful (see wine, Column 3) Organic present, slowly acids, if disintegrate

treatments

-.___

Mortars Fu, Ph, EP, S, PE Fu, Ph. EP, PE Fu, Ep, PII Fu, Ph, Ep

Toluol (toiuene) l Trichloroethylene Trisodium phosphate Tung oil

_.

___ Liquid loss by penetration Liquid loss py penetration

~~___

Not harmful Liquid disintegrates slowly. Dried or drying films are harmless Mild attack. Liquid loss by penetration Not harmful Ep, Hy, Neo, PE, Vn, Mg/ZnSiF Cl-R, S-R Bk, Tl, Neo, Vn, Bu-R Bk, Tl, Fu, EP Bk, Tl, Btmn, Vn, Neo Bk, Tl, Neo. Vn, EP i Bk, Tl, Btmn, i_vn, Neo
EP, Vn

Fu, EP
Fu, Ph, Ep

Turpentine *Urea _____..__~ Urine

Fu, Ph

Ep, Neo, Vn

W EP
Fu, Ph, Ep

Attacks steel in porous or cracked concrete See fermenting fruits. grains, vegetables, extracts Disintegrates slowly (see acetic acid)

Ep, Hy, Nco

--.i
Fu, Ph, S, EP Fu, Ph, S, EP

Vegetables

Vinegar

/ /

Bk Tl, B&n, Vn. Neo

___-__

Walnut

oil

-~-

Disintegrates

slowly

-I Ep, PE, Vn, Mg/ZnSiF Cl-R, Ep, Neo, PE, Mg/ZnSiF Hy, Neo, PE, SBD-R, Vn Tartaric acid, Ep, Vn

Bk, Tl, II Vn, Ep 1 ~Bk, Tl, ~

Vn, Ep

Fu, EP
Fu, Ph, Ep

Whale

oil

Disintegrates

slowly -.___

*Whey ________ *Wine

Disintegrates slowly (see lactic acid) Not harmful. Necessary to prevent flavor contamination pulp Not harmful Liquid tration _ loss by pene____

Bk, Tl, Btmn. Vn, Neo Bk, Tl, Vn, Ep

Fu, Ph, Ep. S, PE

EP

Wood __--.--

Xylol (xylene)

Fu, Ep, Ph

.__

Hydraulics

327

Effect Disintegrates slowly

Coatings and surface treatments AS, Cl-R, ,pE ggDN; S-R, Vn Mg/ZnSiF

Thicker barriers Bk, Tl, Btmn, Vn, Neo

Mortars Fu, Ph. S, EP, PE

Zinc nitrate

Not harmful

AS EP, HY, Neo, PE, SBD-R, Vn

Btmn

Bk, Tl, Btmn, Vn, Neo Bk, Tl, Btmn. Vn. Neo Bk, Tl, Btmn, Vn, Neo

Fu, Ph. S,
EP, PE

Zinc refining solutions Zinc slag

Hydrochloric or sulfuric acids, if present, disintegrate concrete Zinc sulfate (which see) sometimes form4 by oxidation Disintegrates slowly

Fu, Ph, S

Fu, Ph, S ~Fu, Ph. S, Ep, PE

Zinc sulfate

L-

AS, Cl-R. ED. CT-Eu. Hy. Neo. PE, SBD-R. VW Mg/ZnSiF

Bk, Tl, Btmn, Vn, Neo

-_

The below. inorganic erable on field and attack Sulfate Biczok

most

important details

cases of deterioration

are also discussed offer valuable of concrete Kleinlogel attacks methods

individually guidance. and considprimarily in 20 pages, in 52 pages. of the

For further chemicals, experience.

several sources of information of resistance soils. waters, and sulfate

Lea13 devotes

83 pages to the discussion natural organized as well the alphabetically as the

to organic offers

information

for easy reference, and mechanical protective treatment of the

drawing

Kuhl14 discusses physical pertinent most extensive

chemical gives

attacks perhaps

relationship

to the properties Attack of the aqueous soils, most

of concrete.

One sists of Such cause they attack as 1910 dration menting crack cium the nized.

frequently of occur

occurring sulfates, mostly

groups

of

aggressive as well a few

materials as in nature sulfates.

conbeSince

solutions especially and

sodium

and magnesium

sulfates.

sulfate many

solutions

in industrial clayey damage identified with The soils, to

wastewaters produce within Burke

water-soluble

can cause

spectacular

concrete as early analysis

years,

the sulfate century. as early cein-

was discovered that of sulfates

as the beginning and Pickney hydroxide calcium

of this stated

For instance,

on the basis of chemical combine cement. but occupy disrupts attack that the portland

the calcium resulting

produced may hydroxide.

by the hyThis

new compounds cement

have good

properties and crumble.6

more words,

space than they correctly

crease in space occupied hydroxide important Thus,

the hardened and that

paste, causing recognized

it to bulge, Later is of

In other

the role of calwas recogattack

in sulfate it is known

it is a Class II I deterioration. in portland caused by cement sulfate

role of the aluminate

compounds deterioration

328

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

chemical ettringite water. much causing erated larger tion, severe case of that tion ponents;

origin which Due to

because the large the

it

is caused aluminate of

by

the

gradual containing water, the

formation about volume develops of sulfate gypsum a purely This can hydroxide

of crystals 30 molecules of ettringite is quite with

of of is large An

is a calcium

sulfate bound the

quantity internal

larger first calcium volume

than

the sum of the volumes pressure later cracking increase,

of calcium ettringite

and CsA com-

therefore volume

and crumbling

of the concrete. which

accompanying

chemical hydroxide than damage the

phenomenon calcium sulfate

is the combination paste to form In addition,

the libac-

in the cement

also has a can cause or in the solu-

hydroxide.17

physical

crystallization when

of the which

salts in the pores from

of the concrete, concrete face,

considerable

is a Class V deterioration. place an exposed solution. aggressive in a sulfate is more

be especially

evaporation sulfate

takes solution

intermittent

immersion

It has also been observed than a sodium sulfate cation has a contributing are also aggrespersulfate, tension beIt has also been exhibit but un-

a magnesium effect. sulfate,

of the same concentration Copper manganese and salts

because the magnesium sulfate sodium and ammonium bisulfates, an extra under and acid to

deteriorating sive. cause highly So are these

sulfate potassium attack.18 uniaxial

ammonium are acidic that sulfate concrete

producing specimens

documented

sustained that

reduced

resistance

as compared sulfate

of comparable essentially

loaded specimens.lg The protective plication terioration. that More

measures specifically, factors

against

attack

consist

of the apDeaction

of principles

mentioned improve

earlier it follows

under from

General

Aspects

of Concrete of sulfate

the mechanism resistance

the following (a) Low

the sulfate

of concrete: by the use There in Figby resistance caused

CsA content

in the cement-This severe cases Type evidence of the cement, CsA in cubic form. content

can be achieved V portland for correlating as shown, sulfate

of Type with the

II, or in more CsA content that

cement. instance,

is considerable ure 29-1. attack (b) Low either

experimental

The large spread in orthorombic oxide

of the test results form

is probably

the observation than free

is less vulnerable

to sulfate

calcium by

in concrete-This low admixture cement

can be achieved or, more imin the concrete. cement, that or by addreduces concrete the by

by the

use of a cementwith using a good in the form hydroxide

CsS content,

portantly, This latter amount combining (c) Low fresh water inated of

pozzolanic

can be done material calcium free with

of a blended in the

ing a pozzolanic

to the portland

hardened

it chemically. of concrete-This workability, solution can high be achieved cement content, and good by using a

permeability concrete cement by ratio,

of good

and low The

adequate water

consolidation, proofing barrier

curing.

penetration system .12

of the sulfate a suitable

to the concrete

can also be elimbarrier

or protective

Hydraulics

329

0.5 -

YE

0.025e

0.2x
1

ui
-0 d co 2 0.3 0 -ii 5 0.2P Iii Y% O.l. . . 0 0 2 $ 0.4 -

. .

.
.
..*

. .
l l

.
l

.: .. . . ... . . l . . . .... . l . : . h.: . . . ...

l l l l

: 0.. . *.. . : . ::* * .:..,,.., :*:**..*y_;~ * : 1 : . . . .*. .r . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... I . 4 X I I 6 I I 8 S I 10 I I 12 2

I 14

I 16

C3A,

%
of the potential C&A

Figure 29-l: Standard content of the Portland

sulfate expansion cements.20

at 84 days as a function

(d)

Others-Air water-cement when of the freezing 212F 35OF greatly. prove chloride, resistant curing.l

entrainment ratio point.

is beneficial insofar

from the standpoint is essential,

of chemiof however, below such as

cal deterioration

of concrete possible. attack Curing

as it makes the reduction by temperature temperatures,

Its application is accompanied the specimens at higher

the chemical (loo%)

in steam at temperature

and especially

(176C) the

in an autoclave, resistance reduce of the

also improves the sulfate resistance admixtures some, resistance. of drying indicate (see below) usually do not imsuch as calcium Precast following that units, more good its concrete; sulfate

On the other hand, chemical sulfate even can

such as concrete

pipes and blocks, results

can be made appreciably

by a period Laboratory

of several weeks cement

also seem to concrete

polymer

modification

of portland

improves

sulfate resistance. A tabulated 29-7 form of some of these protective by ACI. The measures is presented lightweight in Table exre-

as recommended

values also apply to structural and 4,250 ratios of 0.50 Type

to areas in the splash or concretes MPa), should be replaced and 29.4 sulfate, has less resistance than say, so-

spray zone. The values are also applicable cept that the maximum by specified spectively. dium sulfate. 28day It should watercement of 3,750 be noted that strengths

and 0.45 psi (25.8 cement

V portland

against the attack

of magnesium

salts, such as magnesium

330

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

Table 29-7:

Recommendations Subject

for Normal Attack

Weight

Concrete

to Sulfate

Exposure Mild Moderatet

Water soluble sulfate (SO4) in soil, percent 0.00-0.10 0.10-0.20

Sulfate 604) in water, ppm O-150 150-1500

Cement*

Water-cement ratio maximum**

Type II IP (MS). IS (MS) Type V Type V + Pozzolan $

0.50

Severe Very severe

0.20-2.00 Over 2.00

1500-10.000 Over 10,000

0.45 0.45

*See Table 29-2. **A lower water-cement ratio may be necessary to prevent corrosion of embedded items. tseawater also falls in this category. #Use a pozzolan which has been determined by tests to improve sulfate resistance when used in concrete containing Type V cement.

Since different pecially prediction ment tests. when

portland

cements

can have different

sulfate

resistances,

es-

pozzolanic resistance

materials resistance

are also used, a test method of the concrete unsuitable in question. is obtained

is needed for the The best assessexposure practiof acacof has sulfate or other A number

of the sulfate

of sulfate However,

of a given concrete

by lengthy

these are obviously

for specification

cal purposes where celerated resistance mortar portion ceptance.23

results are needed

in a few weeks at most. the ASTM C 452,

tests have been suggested but none has received In one such a test method, of a portland cement a mixture is determined of portland

more than limited the potential the expansion Experience

by measuring cement

bars made from that the mixture in concrete at the attack, start

and gypsum

in such pro-

has an SOs content in sulfate from exposure

of 7.0% by weight. well with but not better C3A contents cements.

shown that the results of this test agree fairly of cements predicted ASTM Sulfate the calculated for blended deterioration

the long term behavior than could have been of the cement. The

method

is not applicable by determining concrete

or in general,

caused by other factors, of the specimen, or strength,

can also or depth

be investigated coefficient, discontinued) Attack

changes in the weight layer, or appearance, the chemical exposure

of the deteriorated crete or mortar

or the diffusion (ASTM C267-65,

or by determining specimens Sonic methods

changes in various depths of the conto a sulfate solution.

after

can also be used for this purpose.

by Seawater

on Concrete% of concrete specifically, in seawater concrete can be reduced in seawater by several classes of by

The durability deterioration. More

can be deteriorated

Hydraulics

331

chemical

factors,

freezing

and thawing, particularly ions, from

erosion,

corrosion

of the reinforcement, by capil-

and crystallization section is primarily The dium quantity water of the Atlantic chloride pect that concrete. crete the effect content

of salts due to their concerned of sulfate

concentration factor.

being increased

lary action and evaporation,

in and above the tidal zone. The present magnesium chloride) and calcium sulfates, in the soex-

with the chemical

ocean is 2,800 of seawater show,

and that of chloride is sulfate this type

ions (primarily action primarily

from

but also from magnesium

is 20,000

mg/Q. One would

on concrete that

because of con-

this sulfate

is more than enough however, is much less than might

to produce

deterioration from

in hardened

Observations sulfate

of deterioration

in seawater

be anticipated concentration. associated with

tests made with &A, which This acalso in it is

pure magnesium tion inhibits the the

solution present

of similar

A possible reason for ettringite.

this is that the chlorides means that seawater. useful with

in the seawater cement

also react with

expansive one hand, caused

phenomenon it is harmful by sulfates

CsA of the portland

has a double 29-l); with

role in a concrete contributor hand,

On the

because it is a significant (Figure on the other of chloride

to the deterioration by combining with

because it reduces a low CsA content, this type

the quantity such as Type of damage. quite harmful

in the penetrating zero CsA content, material much

seawater but one

it. Thus it is not the cement of a suitable

V, which typically pozzolanic Seawater (143C). deterioration becomes

has the best resistance to the concrete more aggressive salts present products in which the such as gypon cement

against seawater. can also reduce in seawater of portland degradation tion of

The addition

when its temperature cement.

is as high as 290F

Also, magnesium

can produce of Ca(OH)s etc. summarized

in the hydration

This can be classified and calcium the formation

as Class II deterioration of secondary effects products, of seawater

silicate hydrates

occurs due to the substitu-

Mg2+ for Ca+, with

sum, ettringite, Regourd

the

physico-chemical

stone, as foIlows:25 (1) The chemical of permeable sufficient diffusion (erosion, (2) C&F, though dispersed grow very calized, alumina (3) Portland pecially water. attack of seawater on cement (low cement High porosity reactions, only occurs in the case high w/c ratio, inreaids in the

concretes

content,

impermeability).

of the material

of the aggressive ions, Cl-, SOh2-, COs2-, leading cracking) and finally to CsA, ettringite, needles With around of the destruction

Mg2+, which

sults in a series of chemical

to the deterioration of concrete. effects. Al-

in contrast it forms and large.

does not have deleterious this through-solution Fe-substituted the expansive

ettringite

is more never loin

trisulfoaluminate ettringite

CsA,

is more richer

gathering

the aluminate

grains because of the very in alumina. C6A2F,

large supersaturation than C4AF, cements Type

of the solution is less acceptable.

with

lower than 10% &A resist damage

such as Type

II and esin seaType V

V cements,

due to immersion also found that

An amount

of CsA higher than rich in CsS. Kuenning*

10% leads to greater expan-

sion in cements

332

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

cement

in hot

seawater

appeared

to be more

resistant

to attack

than those immersed (4) Cements containing

in seawater

at 73OF (23C). resistance

more than 65% slag have the greatest

to the sea. (5) The stability of cements in seawater containing 20% pozzolana directly depends upon

the mineralogical This stability absorption (6) Compressive measuring terioration. All this indicates that

composition

and the reactivity

of the pozzolana. related to the lime

is not always

of the pozzolana. or flexural strengths do not serve as a good basis for starts. The measof the de-

concrete

durability

once deterioration

ure of expansion

seems better

suited for the evaluation

portland

cement

concretes

deteriorate

in seawater,

al-

though this process is slow if the concrete Attack

is dense enough.

by Seawater on Reinforced Concrete%

reinforcement be found may cause serious durability Instances pipes, etc. in many applications problems in concrete unof distress due to steel corrosion of reinforced concrete: chloride It is particularly frequent in conbuildings, corrosion. as an wa-

Steel der crete

special circumstances. might

slabs, beams, piles, tanks, chloride Chloride admixture, concrete. onment

and serious when

ions can reach the reinforcement can be in the concrete or inadvertently A typical but there example are other as an impurity of the latter important

causing socalled

(a) because it was added to the concrete in the aggregate or in the mixing solution penetrated structure is a concrete

ter, such as seawater;

or (b) because chloride

the hardened in marine envirmost not-

cases where

this can happen, floors. staining

ably in concrete Sometimes around crete shortly tallic

bridge decks as well as garage and industrial the first evidence of distress is brown steel. This brown staining, resulting

of the concrete (rustoccurs of cracking the con-

the embedded but usually thereafter.26 iron from

from corrosion

ing) of the steel, may permeate Concrete or rust,

to the concrete cracking, cracking

surface without

it accompanies

or cracking

of the concrete

occurs because the corrosion volume The forces generated

product

steel, an iron oxide

has a much greater strength

than that of the meby this expansive resulting crackcracking, and from the with

which not

it was formed. the tensile only

process can far exceed ing. Steel corrosion raveling reduced mally forcing The depend cross-section, bars. of the concrete

of the concrete,

causes distress because of staining, failure bearing capacity, steel tendons

but may also cause structural thin prestressing

resulting

and hence reduced with

of the steel. This northan with larger rein-

is more critical

rate and extent partly thickness is influenced

of cracking

caused by the corrosion concrete

of reinforcement modulus thickand/or

on the properties of cover),

of hardened and partly

(tensile strength,

of elasticity, This latter cracks)

on the rust (black or red, quantity). properties (type of cement, porosity oxygen of excessive

again by the concrete diffusivity, of certain

ness of cover,

permeability,

presence

as well as on the availability

ions, primarily

and chlo-

Hydraulics

333

ride ions, including possible to evaluate sion of reinforcement Even though

the characteristics the effects and the resulting

of the environment. cracking

At present,

it is not

of each of these factors separately of the concrete. corrosion

on the corrobe-

a potential

for electrochemical prevented alkaline

exists everywhere

cause of nonuniformity view is that corrosion FesOs) film which oxygen, the initial of about tively the there higher initiated (1) initial the cement. The

of the steel in the concrete is normally

(active sites), the traditional iron oxide (gamma of and (pH relaand is

by a passivating formed

rapidly principal

forms on the steel surface in the presence of moisture, products during the hydration hydroxide, Ca(OH)2, lime water further soluble product is calcium

and the water-soluble alkalinity

of the concrete

is at least that

of saturated

12.4 depending alkalinity

upon the temperature).

In addition,

the seemingly

small amounts

of sodium and potassium of concrete that mechanisms can produce by which

oxides in cement a passivating

increase

or paste extracts,

and pH values of 13.2 layer.

have been reported are two general and maintained: Reduction ter, or their

Nevertheless,

the corrosion

of steel in concrete

of alkalinity reactions

by leaching of alkaline with a pozzolanic material, or other

substances with waor partial neutralacidic materials,

ization by reaction with carbon dioxide (2) By electrochemical oxygen. A frequently is the coating other cently, that tection. Principles onment (1) concerning the durability metal used method action involving

chloride

ions in the presence of

for the reduction a suitable, certain

of corrosion noncorrosive

of reinforcement material. Zinc and Reproenvir-

of the

steel bar with

coatings

have been used with (epoxy) results28 although

success for a long time.27 assure perfect in marine

nonmetallic

coatings have been introduced

for the same purpose

have shown

good

even these cannot of concrete

structures

are, as follows:2g*30 Rusting concrete and expansion structures important of reinforcing steel is the greatest danger to

in seawater. environmental factor concerning between the durabilof the contide levels to frost in

(2)

The

most

ity of concrete crete in relation is more action,

structures

in seawater

is the position because

to the seawater and drying,

level. Concrete to the capillary

susceptible to wetting

to deterioration

it is subject

rise of seawater

the pores of the concrete, (3) For above reinforced high water concrete,

and to attrition the severity

from wave action. of exposure immediately

level or where concrete them,

sea spray can reach the concrete tide levels. It is in the upper porof decks, or is most common. to seawater is to

may be even greater than between tions of reinforced beams supporting (4) A fundamental allow as little

piles and on the underside

that corrosion

factor

in the resistance of concrete as possible.

penetration

334

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

(5)

Therefore emphasis should placed upon of uniformly quality, including Low of high cement Ib/yd3 (400 can be ratio concrete are necessary represents the for severe cover

a con-

(6)

(0.4 to by weight) durable concrete. mix cement content reinforcing steel inadein

(7) (8)

1% quate

(38 mm) concrete any seawater

Rusting expansion of climate than severe climate.

steel is

pronounced

Air entrainment moderately beneficial severe exposures seawater at least so in exposures. However, improvement in concrete air entrainment freezing conditions less than is in cases of and thawing. Concreting under prefabrication (11) edges should are preferred. by Salts is or within preferred. and of the should be

avoided

the case

piles, cylindrical

Than Sulfatesl

magnesium and salts attack causing Class deterioration. of these, as ammonium are even aggressive than typical sulfates. chlorate, sodium several nitrates, ammonium niand sodium cause Class deterioration. A protection against attacks is use of V portland However, in salts or salts with pH, such ammonium bisulfate, V cement not sigmore resistant Type I. is it resistant in sulfate magnesium sulfate in which cation is aggressive. Acid Cement paste chemically basic a pH about 13, it is tacked by organic and acids. The is typically dissolution both hydrated unhydrated cement to form ble reaction resulting in IV deterioration. salts are acidic, therefore tend to concrete like Blended cements no better resistance than portland cement, the type portland cement not make difference. Limestone dolomite aggregates also susceptible acid attack may cause deterioration but other instances function as materials using the acid, thus prothe service of concrete. rate of depends not on the of the reactions but the ability the acid penetrate the hardened and on quickly the products are or removed the concrete. a rule, acids produce more quickly. acidity

Hydraulics
represented by a pH of 5.5 to 6 may be considered concrete usually on the mild, in contact the practical limit

335
of toleracids con-

ance of high quality crete needs protection tent of which

with any acid.31 For stronger The thickness service condition

in the form of a protective service conditions. of the chemical intermediates

barrier system, the exof the barrier increases. A service con-

depends

usually ditions (a)

increases

as the severity

guide by ACI

distinguishes

and severe chemical

as follows: l2 Typical with ity water (1 mm). rubber, examples of mild service conditions salts, concrete of protective epoxy, are chemical staining, solutions

a pH as low as 4,deicing service. Thickness butyral,

and high purin-

barriers are under 40 mil used for barriers polyurethane, chlorinated

Some of the generic types of materials acrylics, asphalt, coal tar, and vinyls. examples of intermediate in combination epoxy,

clude polyvinyl

(b)

Typical plants, materials

service conditions with chemicals.

are intermitThickness Typical of

tent exposure protective

to dilute

acids in chemical,

dairy, and food processing barrier

and abrasion barriers

are 125 to 375 mil (3 to 9 mm). sand-filled formulations. are exposure and strong

include sand-filled

polyester,sand-filled

polyurethanes, (c) Severe chemical centrated Thickness

and bituminous

service conditions or organic

to dilute alkali

or con-

mineral mil

acids

solutions.

of these barriers are typically (6 mm) epoxy brick or polyester, (PVC)

20 to 250 mil (% to 6 mm) precured neoprene membrane mortar, barrier. sheet, covand a

or over 250 plasticized ered with sand-filled

in some cases. Some of the barrier systems sheet, asphalt

are glass reinforced polyvinyl acidproof epoxy

chloride

using a chemical-resistant

system top coated with an epoxy

Other Attacks
(a) Near/y pure cement

waters or soft water

(snow water, Although carbonic

rain water, the capacity

etc.) can have from hardened of dissolving or from C02, the Nevertheis not from

high dissolving capability. lime is increased resultant when

Thus they dissolve calcium flows around

compounds

paste causing Class I deterioration. the water is rarely or when it contains cement have

the concrete

at a high velocity

under high pressure, deterioration less, conventional recommended (b) Marsh nearly of carbonic bination. (c) Bases, that chemically lutions attack

acid produced extra water.2

serious with concrete concrete without distilled

of good quality.

portland

protection ranging

for conducting

hot, mineral-free greatly Typical

waters may

differing examples

compositions

pure to aggressive waters. acid, humic

of the latter are the presence acid, or some of these in comthan 7 do not, as a rule, are aqueous socircumand become con-

acid, sulfate, with

or sulfuric

is, liquids portland

pH values higher concrete. Common hydroxide.

cement

examples concrete

of sodium hydroxide at an evaporating

and magnesium face, physical

When, however,

stances are such that sodium hydroxide centrated

can penetrate

damage may result from crystallization

336

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

of sodium oration (d) more the evaporating

carbonate.31 surface.

A possible defense of evaporation,

against this and other Class V deterifor instance by waterproofing the if in

is the

elimination freezing than water after

Repeated

and thawing alone. the

can produce

serious Class V damage in the observed, for instance,

the concrete form of

is not air entrained scaling,

properly. application

Salt solutions of deicing

pores can be bridge

disruptive

This is commonly

salts on concrete concrete. low flow which

decks and highway (e) Domestic

pavements. sewage is usually hydrogen wastes into harmless to good quality gas can be evolved However, velocity, acid. Disto the acids unsuch as high sewage concentration, sulfide but can be oxidized a sewer could

under special conditions, or high temperature, cause concrete charge of industrial (f) Certain or in industrial der Acid usually allowed and IV). (g) Certain comes exposed adequate fore that enclosure. surface Attack. harmless. to ferment rate concrete

itself does not materials Organic

deterioration

to aggressive sulfuric add deleterious etc. to concrete.

sewage, such as acids, sulfates, organic materials, organic materials

can also be harmful

such as lactic and acetic acids, stearic acid, occurring wastes, can produce Fatty (Classes II and Ill), Sugar solutions and create acids of vegetable especially (syrups,

in dairy and fruit products as was mentioned Petroleum however, animal oils can deteriooils are cause etc.),

Class IV deterioration and especially

if they are rancid. molasses. cider,

also Class II deterioration

even when

the concentration

is as low as 3%. and if

acetic acid, can cause serious damage (Classes III For instance, with freshly regardless heaters if carbon dioxide placed concrete, of subsequent It is important gas the an

gases can also harm concrete. in sufficient will be soft when concentration and remain soft combustion

in contact

curing. there-

This can happen

unvented should not

are used to maintain

curing temperature such heating Sulfur dioxide

in cold weather

construction. combustion

release any

gas into the heated of coal, petroacid. Both is high enough. but this problem of several other influoride, are

gas, one of the products

of combustion

leum and many of these produce can be eliminated dustrial

other fuels, can convert Class IV deterioration

to sulfurous concrete chloride

acid and sulfuric chimneys

when their concentration linings. Actions

Such is the case, for instance, gases, including

in reinforced hydrogen

by the use of acid-resisting chlorine,

and hydrogen

similar to that of sulfur dioxide.

EFFLORESCENCE Dissolved substance substances may migrate through the concrete and deposit This effect at or can be

near the surface from which evaporation or some reaction product seen in the familiar rescence frequently Because there A 2-inch efflorescence is no standard

occurs. The deposit in the concrete.

may be the original

formed

on walls of concrete, when seawater l3 test for the tendency

brick, or stone. Effloto cause efflo-

occurs, for instance,

is used as mixing water. of cement

rescence, the following

test is recommended:

(5 cm) sample of mortar

of 1:5 mix is made with a coarse sand and

Hydraulics

337

dried

for 24 hours.

It is then (free

placed

in a small amount salts)

of water placed

and a piece of (poron top of the Inspection

wet blotting ous type) blotting the cement

paper is placed on top of it. A 2-inch of efflorescing Any salts which

(5 cm) cube of limestone is then

or of brick paper.

may cause efflorescence on which the cement

will be dissolved out of or brick. can be judged.

and deposited

on the surface of the limestone

will show the intensity

of this action

POLYMER

MODIFIED

CONCRETE for improving the durability mortar of concrete or concrete is the techconsists of

A new development nique called polymer Polymer the addition Such modification of a suitable

modification. of a portland polymer several cement properties emulsion to the fresh concrete of concrete during mixing. simultaneously. is usually the remained out-

modification The

can improve

Some of the pertinent weatherability good. Except

improvements modified strengths

are discussed below. mortars (and concretes) acetate mortars by certain polyvinyl emulsions,

of polymer-modified

for mortars and flexural

compressive

of most polymer-modified exposure mortars in Japan. tends

nearly constant door exposure duced adhesion mortars. The better with provide the the

during a year of outdoor of polymer-modified nearly is still better durability and become

The adhesion

to decrease

during

constant

at the age of about 5 years. This reweatherability modified of nonmodified mortars is much did not due to

than the adhesion

freeze-thaw

of styrene-butadiene mortars. The maximum

than that of unmodified polymer-cement significantly reduced mortars. resistance specimens

durability

was obtained

ratio of 0.1 by weight less durability. ratio

but larger ratios, up to 0.25, durability is probably pore structure

The improved and the altered through

water-cement

of the poly-

mer-modified

The chemical umes of mortar fied mortars same extent tacked monium is good chemical

is measured subjected by organic

changes in the weights and volMost polymer-modito the for amthey are barely atacids approximately However, of other salts except

to various chemicals. and inorganic mortar. solutions mortars chemical mortars.

are attacked alkalies

as a comparable

nonmodified and aqueous of modified good again,

by sulfates, sulfate. except for

The resistance natural

to organic solvents and oils Acrylonitrile-butadiene The improved ratio and watercement resistance.

rubber-modified

mortars.

modification the improved

produces

particularly

resistance

is the result,

of the reduced

impermeability

of the modified

CONCLUDING

REMARKS variety of materials of chemical and techniques attack which will coming tend into being to be agents

Because of the expanding use throughout encountered. larger tomorrow industry, We are faced with

new problems

are continually

a broadening

problem

than it is today.

At the same time,

new, useful protective

338

are continually appearing, whose adaptability for specific environments must, in every case, be proven .I5 A review such as this can be no more than a guide, or introduction to the subject. It can present a summary of the materials and methods that have been successful in the past in certain specific cases. Therefore, this summary can be used as orientation for solving specific problems of protection against chemical attack. It may offer clues to the best means of handling new but related problems which are not specifically covered here. The final solution will, in many instances, require the counsel of manufacturers or other experts, or even the conducting of tests.

REFERENCES
1. 2. Popovics, S., Concrete Making Marerials, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, and Hemisphere Publishing Corporation, Washington (1979). Le Chatelier, H., Recherches experimentales sur la constitution des mortiers hydrauliques, (Experimental Researches on the Constitution of Hydraulic Mortars),Anna/es des mines, Ser. 8, Vol. 11,1887, pp 345-464 (English translation by J.L. Mack, published by McGraw Publishing Company, New York in 1905.) Mehta, P.K., Influence of Different Crystalline Forms of C$ on Sulfate Resistance of Portland Cement, 7th International Congress on the Chemistry of Cement, Vol. IV, Editions Septima, Paris, pp 575-579 (1980). Bogue, R.H., Calculation of Compounds in Portland Cement, Industrialand Engineering Chemistry, (Analytical Edition), Vol. 1, p 192 (October 15, 1929). Popovics, S., Possibility of a Catalytic Role of C& in the Hardening of Portland Cements, 7th International Congress on the Chemistry of Cement, Vol. IV, Editions Septima, Paris, pp 602-606 (1980). Popovics, S., Fundamentals of Portland Cement Concrere: A Quantitative Approach, Vol. 1: Fresh Concrete, John Wiley & Sons, New York (1982). Brunauer, S. and Copeland, L.E., The Chemistry of Concrete, Scientific American, Vol.210,No.4pp80-92 (April 1964). Sereda, P.J. and Litvan, G.G. (Editors), Durability of Building Materials and Componenfs, ASTM STP 691, American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, PA (1980). Highway Research Board, Observarions of the Performance of Concrere in Service, Special Report 106, Washington, DC (1970). Biczok, I., Concrete Corrosion and Concrete Prorecrion, Chemical Publishing Co., Inc., New York (1967). Kleinlogel, A., lnfloences on Concrete, Frederick Ungar Publishing Co., New York (1950). ACI Committee 515, A Guide to the Use of Waterproofing, Dampproofing, Protective, and Decorative Barrier Systems for Concrete, Concrete Inrernational: Design & Consrrucrion,V.1,No.Il,pp41-81 (Nov.1979). Lea, F.M. and Desch, C.H., The Chemistry of Cemenrand Concrete.2nd Edition, (Revised by F.M. Lea), Edward Arnold (Publishers) Ltd., London (1956). Kuhl, H ., Zemenr-Chemie, Band II I. Die Erhartung und die Verarbeirung der hydraulischen Bindemittel (Chemistry of Cement, Vol. III. The Hardening and Application of Hydraulic Cements),VEB Verlag Technik Berlin (1961). ACI Committee 515, Guide for the Protection of Concrete Against Attack by Means of Coatings and Other Corrosion Resistant Materials,AC/ Journal, Proceedings V. 63, No. 12,pp 1305-1392 (Dec. 1966). Burke, E. and Pinckney, R.M., Destruction of Hydraulic Cements by the Action of Alkali Salt, Bulletin No. 81, Experimental Station, Montana Agricultural College (1910).

3.

4. 5.

6. 7. 8.

9. 10. 11. 12.

13. 14.

15.

16.

Hydraulics

339

17.

18.

Swenson, E.G. (Editor), Performance of Concrete, Resistance of Concrete to Sulphate and Other Environmental Conditions. A Symposium in Honour of Thorbergur Thorvaldson. Canadian Building Series, No. 2, University of Toronto Press (1968). Kuenning, W.H., Resistance of Portland Cement Mortar to Chemical Attack, Highway Research Record No. 113, Symposium on Effects of Aggressive Fluids on Concrete, Washington, DC, pp 43-87 (1966). Simeonov, J. and Nazurski, D.G., Stability of Concrete Under Uniaxial Tension in Aggressive Ammonia Sulphate Media, (In Bulgarian), Mechanics and Technology of Composite Maferials, Proceedings of the Second National Conference, Varna, October 1-3, 1979, Publishing House of the Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Sofia, pp 681-684 (1979). Blaine, R.L., Arni, H.T. and Evans, D.N., Variables Associated with Expansion in the Potential Sulfate Expansion Test, Interrelations Between Cement & Concrete Prop erties, Part 2, National Bureau of Standards, Building Science Series 5, Section 4, pp l-26 (July 1,1966). Tuthill, L.H., Resistance to Chemical Attack, Significance of Tests and Properties of Concrete and Concrete Making Materials. ASTM STP 169B. Chapter 24, Philadelphia, pp 369-387 (1978). ACI Committee 201, Guide to Durable Concrete,ACI 201.2R-JJ,American Concrete Institute, Detroit (1977). Mather, K., Tests and Evaluation of Portland and Blended Cements for Resistance to Sulfate Attack, Cement Standards-Evolution and Trends, P.K. Mehta, Editor, ASTM STP 663, Philadelphia, pp 74-86 (1978). Popovics, S., Simeonov, Y., Bozhinov, G. and Barovsky, N., Durability of Reinforced Concrete in Sea Water, Corrosion of Reinforcement in Concrete Construction, Edited by Alan P. Crane, Society of Chemical Industry/Ellis Horwood Ltd., Publishers, Chichester,pp 1938 (1983). Regourd, M., PhysicoChemical Studies of Cement Pastes, Mortars, and Concretes Exposed to Sea Water, Performance of Concrete in Marine Environment, ACI Publication SP65, American Concrete Institute, Detroit, pp 63-82 (1980). Idorn, G.M., Durability of Concrete Structures in Denmark, Danish Technical Press, Copenhagen (1967). Zinc Institute,Ga/vanized Reinforcement for Concrete-//, International Lead Zinc Research Organization, Inc., New York (1981). Clifton, J.R., Beeghly, H.F. and Mathev, R.G., Protecting Reinforcing Bars from Corrosion with Epoxy Coatings, Corrosion of Metals in Concrete, Publication SP49, American Concrete Institute, Detroit, pp 115-132 (1975). Hansen, WC. (Chairman of the Advisory Committee), Twenty-Year Report on the Long-Term Study of Cement Performance in Concrete, Research Department Bulletin 175, Portland Cement Association, Research and Development Laboratories, Skokie (May 1965). RILEM-AIPCN, international Symposium on Behaviour of Concrete Exposed to Sea Water, Palermo, Italy, (May 24-28,1965). Woods, H ., Durability of Concrete Construction, American Concrete Institute Monograph.No.4,American Concrete Instituteand the IowaState University Press (1968).

19.

20.

21.

22. 23.

24.

25.

26. 27. 28.

29.

30. 31.

340

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

PART B THE USE OF HIGH ALUMINA CEMENT IN CHEMICAL CIVIL ENGINEERING AND

Henry G. Midgley
Ilminster llminster, Cement United Research Kingdom

INTRODUCTION
High alumina cium aluminates terials raw occur materials cement (HAC) upon is the name for a range of cements constituents. carbonate Smaller of the proportions in which calof other maSince the oxide oxides, &AS,

are the principal are usually calcium

depending

the composition

raw materials. iron, silicon include

(limestone)

and aluminum phosphorus C12A7, CA,

(bauxite),

both of which

may be impure together on cement shorthand

and contain will

and titanium

oxides as minor contaminants etc., the phases produced C,AF-C,F solid solution and glass. (Cement Portland Bied dration cium ented realized would hydroxide by Bied

with traces of alkalis, production wustite notation: (FeO),

(fss), CT, GS,

r&,A17fsSz

(pleochroite)

chemists

C = CaO, A = A1203, S = SiOZ, = 3Ca0.A120s.6Hz0.) by sulfates the in solution and necessary resistance (1908) France material calpatwas of and

F = FesOs, f = FeO, T = TiOs, cement that calcium

H = HsO. Thus &AH6 are decomposed would aluminates hydroxide. J. and A.

concretes

provide silicates to sulfate

that was lacking

in cements

based on calcium as vulnerable

(Portland), attack.

which on hy-

release calcium was regarded working with for

At the turn of the century Pavin de Lafarge at LaTiel,

The cement

made by fusing together low silica content, 2CaOSiOs. strength, cements. During producing some composition variations manufacture tion both the period of would were fate solutions This cement

a bauzite proved

or other aluminous not only

and ferriginous

lime in proportions an additional produced to 1913

to give a mixture to have the required

of Ca0.A120a

resistance to sulof high early of portland in

but showed

benefit

in the production production

far in excess of that 1910

by the current considerable others

trouble

was experienced that, similar

a suitable

cement

on a commercial excellent, by 1913

scale as it was found of apparent method

while

batches

cement necessary

were but

chemical

prove useless. Further

investigations a satisfactory

into the causes of these of commercial in producbefore the difficulties government,

had been achieved. company

Because of the previous over five years was carried

a series of trials extending by the Lafarge was finally

out on the product, to 1918 and other cement

itself and by the French in 1918. army During

cement

put on the market the P.L.M.

the years 1914

the cement special work.

was supplied In 1916

to the French Railway

for gun emplacements

in France calcium

used high alumina which

for the reconstruction passes through structive effect

of the Brauss Tunnel and lime mortars

on the Nice-Conti sulfate, used in original

line.2 This tunnel had a most de-

a solid mass of anhydrite, on portland

construction.

Hydraulics

341

At the was working of the nature its cementing ing bauxite Spackmans A further Bureau bauxite melting furnaces, the United rotary kiln. of

same time

as the work

of Bied,

Spackman314

in the United a material cement cements

States rather by add1910 U.S.

along different of a pozzolana qualities. to high calcium alumina aluminate

lines with

an object

of producing

to be added to lime or portland aluminate compounds of slags. A cement cements cements number natural

to enhance containing

Spackmans

were prepared

were marketed cements

in the United out by

States about at the

under the name Alca natural study Standards where kiln.

but their manufacture was carried were prepared

was later abandoned. by Bates clinkering worldwide; limestonemostly by type In in a

of aluminous

mixes in a rotary together but there

Currently,

high alumina

are manufactured mixtures cement

limestone-bauxite

in reverbatory

open-hearth

have been some manufactured

using electric

arc furnaces.

States, some high alumina

was at one time manufactured

MANUFACTURE The bauxite terials lution

OF CEMENT for the manufacture is widely available of high alumina distributed commercially cements are lime-

raw materials is the only

stone and bauxite. for cement

Although suitable

alumina material

in nature

(clays, etc.), main in so-

on a scale adequate occurring removed

production. as laterites

Bauxites which

belong are formed

to a group of naturally

known

when igneous rocks are weathered iron and titanium occur in tropical

such a way that the silica, lime, magnesia and alkalis are gradually leaving behind residual hydrated oxides of aluminum, of laterite nated with silica. Vast deposits Table 298 cement,

contamiregions but Special a very

only those with of high alumina bauxites refractory type

very high contents cements.

of alumina

are suitable

for the manufacture

gives typical for example

analyses for bauxites. the SEECAR

very low in iron are available of aluminous

and these may be used to produce

series of the

Lafarge group of companies. Table 29-8: Analyses of Bauxites

Greek 11 3 55 27 3 2 Yugoslavian 19 2 53 23 3 3

French Combined SiOz

A1203

water

Fe203 TiO2 CaO

12 4% 53 24 3 2

To produce stone and bauxite the liquid produced the

the

high alumina

cement

the appropriate which

proportions the quantity

of limeand of of glass

are melted

in the furnace of the liquid,

is tapped

continuously the production

is poured

into molds to cool slowly to minimize ranges in composition

by the rapid chilling phases. Typical

and to maximize

crystalline

of cements

are given in

Table 29-9.7

342

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

Table 29-9:
SiOz 4-5 3-5 4-5 8-9 5-8 6-8

Typical Ranges in Composition of High Alumina Cements (Wt %)

CaO 36-39 36-39 3942 39-42 39 -42 37-42 Fez03 8-10 9-11 IO-11 5-6 0.1 10-14 Fe0 5-7 4-6 4-5 5-16 1 trace TiOz 2 2 2 1 1% 2 MgO 1 1 1 1 1 1 SO3 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.5 0.5 English French Spanish U.S.A. German Czechoslavian

Abe03

3840 38-40 36-38 40-41 46-51 4045

Table 29-10 gives the analyses of a range of cements while Table 29-11 gives
the mineralogical analysis.8 tite, U.K. 55%; rotary CT and CAs. production, pleochroite kiln &AS composition found From as determined were CA, differences United CsAS, by quantitative 29-10 X-ray diffraction fss, wusof a of 36 to The minerals CsS, C12A7, pleochroite, of CA-from

the results given in Tables 7 to 28%. The

and 29-1 1, mainly lum was from

the major

are in the quantities sample States and contains of CA,

ranges from in the (31%)

marked

production

a high proportion

the inert

and a low proportion

but there

is a compensating

high proportion

of C12A7.

Table 29-10:

Chemical Analyses (wt %) of High Alumina Cements

. .Cement.

. .. . .. . . .. .. . . . . .. .
a b 4.62 36.29 37.50 9.64 6.85 0.54 1 .62 0.23 0.46 0.82 c 3.89 37.95 38.76 12.56 3.26 0.54 2.02 0.67 0.12 0.14 d 4.30 37.84 38.28 10.98 5.28 0.41 190 0.09 0.16 0.29

. .
f

. .. . . . . . . .. . . . . . . .
9 4.20 37 85 37 83 13.07 2.77 0.50 2.55 0.06 0.14 0.06 h 4.01 37.98 37.87 i 3.73 36.15 41.04 5.69 10.30 0.48 1.61 0.03 0.07 lum 9.5 38.7 41.6 3.6 0.1 0.5 0.8 0.1

e
4.1 1 37.97 39.01 17.17 0.31 1 .12 0.06 0.07 0.01 -

SiOs CaO
A303 Fe203

Fe0 MgG TiOz Na20

K2O so3

Loss

5.02 39.18 40.65 6.53 5.76 0.38 1.70 0.10 0.30 0.06 0.36

4.44 37.90 37.74 9.74 6.56 0.98 1 .92 0.06 0.14 0.1 1 0.27

9.82
5.69 1 .20 2.10 0.05 0.14 0.09

Table 29-11:

Weight Fractions of Minerals Present in High Alumina Cements

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Cement.
Mineral CA Plea. C2AS C2S
c12A7

. . .. . .. . . . . . . . .. .. . .
f 0.36 0.28 0.02 0.02 0.04 0.19 0.07 0.02 9 0.50 0.06 0.03 0.10 0.04 0.16 0.10 0.02 h 0.45 0.16 0.03 0.04 0.10 0.17 0.10 0.03 i 0.55 0.07 0.07 0.00 0.06 0.12 0.12 0.02 lum 0.30 0.02 0.31 0.02 0.07 0.07 0.06 0.03

a 0.43 0.18 0.04 0.02 0.07 0.17 0.08 0.02

b 0.44 0.11 0.14 0.03 0.06 0.1 1 0.10 0.02

d 0.45 026 0.01 0.03 0.03 0.14 0.05 0.03

e 0.39 0.11 0.09 0.01 0.08 0.17 0.10 0.06

fss Fe0 CT

0.47 0.12 0.04 0.02 0.03 0.19 0.10 0.03

From contain

the

results

in Table

29-l 1 it will

be seen that

high alumina to water

cements viz. CA, ob-

high proportions

of compounds

chemically

reactive

C12A7, pleochroite

and C2S; totals

in the range of 59 to 77 wt %, although

Hydraulics

343

viously

not each mineral cement

will

have the same potential be identified other

strength-producing and mortars are relatively by chemical

propfrom low. its imIf di-

erty .
High alumina chemical may while in concretes cements determined or mineralogical constitution. High alumina construction cements, as the name

plies are high in alumina the cement lute hydrochloric cements; that about tified cement simplest technique the twin distinguish there

part of the concrete

or mortar

can be dissolved by, for example,

acid and the silica and alumina type may cements in the cements

analy-

sis, then the wt % ratio of A120s to SiOz will for portland part is no limestone in portland aggregate, the ratio

be in excess of 7 for high alumina If it is known in be ratio will then the ratio of CaO to AlgO the

the ratio will be less than 0.3. cements

the acid-soluble 1, while

be used; in high alumina

is in the region of 9. High alumina and these may be idenpetrographic by F.M.Lea.6 analysis. microThe This to high alumina diffraction, and Concrete

cements are based on the compounds by mineralogical are given diagnostic produces high techniques scopy or thermal analysis;

CA and pleochroite

such as X-ray of Cement

details of these techniques however, to 350C from is differential

as applied thermal

in the Chemistry technique, 300 a thermogram cements

such as in Figure other

29-2 where the presence of which do not contain

peaks at about alumina

due to the presence of AH3 and &AH6 cements

these minerals.

I
200

I
300

I
400

100

1
500

TEMPERATURE-C

Figure 29-2:

Differential

thermal

analysis thermogram

for hydrated

high alumina cement.

344

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

HYDRATION

OF HIGH ALUMINA

CEMENT
cement has been extensively may be summarized reaction involved studied as in Figin the ini-

The hydration for many ure 29-3. reaction alkalis to Reaction

process of high alumina chemical 1 in this figure cement, external correct may

years and the known

reactions

is the important

tial setting of high alumina ucts depend upon factors

i.e., CA + H + CAHlo to the reaction. alumina

+ CzAHs + AHs. The of the prodratio. There So is the presence of

is not given stoichiometrically promotes the formation that there

since the various proportions For example,

of &AH8

as does a high water/cement gel and AH3 are formed.

keep the stoichiometry

some evidence

be some CaO substituted

in the alumina

gel to

form what is best described

as gel-phase. H

AH,,CaX
3,

C3A.3CaX.H32

temperature) I

I
L

AH..H
x

+ so;
-l-n,
_.

C,A ,3CaSO,, H70 a

-9 AL

C A.CaCa. co2

aq

H 8 \ (alkali) 10

b CaC03

H C2F 6 C3Fti6 + FHY

Fiyre 29-3: Chemical

\AH

(time) 11

reactions involved in the ageing of high alumina cement.

All the phases produced and C2AHs has become conditions, change known ages to crystalline AHs,

in the initial route

hydration

are meta-stable, and AHa while 29-3. under

the CAHlo change

to a mixture chemical as conversion.

of stable &AH6 2 in Figure It should in refractory

the gel-phase rapid drying

This chemical

be noted that concrete,

such as could be found

route 4 of Figure 29-3

Hydraulics

345

can be followed. can be induced example, steam

Reaction by elevating curing.

3 where The other

CA is directly normal

hydrated

to &AH6 hydration

and AH3 by, for reac-

the temperature

during the initial hydration

processes are the (&ASH&

tions of silica in dicalcium tion of dicalcium This compound the temperature

silicate and pleochroite.

In Figure 29-3, only the reacis formed. sensitive, the higher attack.

silicate is shown,

route 5, where stratlingite and being temperature formed. are those involved

adds to the strength,

the greater the amount

In Figure 29-3, the other reactions

in chemical

STRENGTH

DEVELOPMENT

IN HIGH ALUMINA
properties concrete

CEMENT
or mortar involved is its strength. during the life Howalways

One of the most important As can be seen from of hydrated relationship between high alumina of general

of a concrete reactions 29-3) present (Figure

the complicated cement strength

chemical

there will be no simple at any one time. The strength conditions develop-

and the minerals concrete which

ever, a number

relationships cement 29-4)

may be deduced.

ment curve for high alumina takes the same form mum followed rise in strength. (Figure

under isothermal this followed

shows a rise in strength

to a maxi-

by a fall to a minimum

strength,

by a subsequent

AGE (10s scale)

Figure 294: Strength development curve for high alumina cements.

At temperatures ogy to strength the formation to produce It must times, curs. Also quantity, From of stratlingite.

below

55C,

the following

general

relationship

of mineralis due to reaction

may be given. The initial of CAHlo and gel-phase, and AH,, that

rise to the maximum

strength

the fall is due to the conversion

the &AH6

the slow rise after the minimum at the

this is due to the formation can occur strength at different oc-

be emphasized amount

strength minimum

the faster the conversion the the amount a practical will point

reaction

takes place the earlier the minimum

of conversion depend

is not a fixed

on the rate of conversion, strength.

as does the differstrength octhat the depend

ence between

the maximum

and minimum

of view the time at which the minimum are of considerable strength. cannot importance, value, and minimum point

curs and the associated ence between strength at the minimum

strength

as is the differit will

the maximum

It must be realized

have an absolute

346

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

upon water/cement ever, similar curing The some general curing of two ter/cement

ratio,

mix design, etc., as well as the curing conditions. may be described: the difference 29-12 cement Table for example, maximum results for in water between cured and minimum two

Howfor of the

features

the higher the waconditions between

ratio the greater conditions. high alumina

gives the

mortars

at 18 and 50C.13 that at high made

higher temperature and minimum

gives the maximum strengths. ratio. strength

difference is lower

of strength

maximum

These results show conclusively

water/cement

ratios the minimum

than that of cements

with a low water/cement Table 29-12:

Difference in Maximum and Minimum Compressive Strength of High Alumina Cement Concretes as a Percentage of the 1 Day Strength
Free Water/Cement Ratio 0.25 0.30 0.35 0.40 0.45 0.50 0.55 0.60 0.65 0.70

. . Difference 50% 60 78 77 78 67 79 80 82 82 82

at . 18% 0 13 20 17 51 61 80 98

Table temperature out that alumina out that

29-13 the

for neat high alumina in strength from after

cement the

pastes shows that the higher the It should be pointed the higher the using high work is greater

of conditioning recovery The conclusion in concrete ratio

the greater the loss in strength. minimum is that this data

temperature.

for normal

cement for

or mortar

the temperature strength

must be kept down and cement con-

as low a water/cement similar cement cretes even under from Portland

as possible must be used. It should also be pointed of high alumina better is usually than that attainable

mixes the minimum concretes.

very adverse conditions

Table 29-13: Effect of Curing Temperature of High Alumina Cement Pastes, w/c 0.27, Upon Strength at Minimum
Curing Temperature C 18 20 30 35 50 60 70

Pa 172 163 152 135 80 90 100

Hydraulics

347

PERMEABILITY An which concrete ter/cement higher attain cement, alumina which Table the important is governed

IN HIGH property

ALUMINA of

CEMENT and

CONCRETE mortars is their permeability, of a of the concrete a low wacement is ratios to

concretes

by the porosity For

of the cement high alumina

paste part. cement

The porosity

will depend ratio

on the water/cement normal

ratio, the workability

and on the compaction. than portland

concretes

must be used. Since the workability cement, Using low water/cement and mortars moderate that they or

of high alumina water/cement ratios with

it is possible to use lower concretes with

same workability. it is apparent concretes rapid

high alumina

it is possible to obtain cement

of very low porosity. of specimens of high water/cement of curing ratios in porosity. of neat cehigh

However,

from a superficial made conversion

examination

have undergone 29-14

have increased

gives the results of the effect

of temperature

ment pastes on the porosity. Table 29-14: Effect

on Porosity

of Curing Temperature Cement

of Set High Alumina

Curing Temperature OC 18 50 60 *Vacuum dried over PzOs

Porosity, 4 5 8

%+

No published or mortars cement (ASTM Type concrete Ill),

figures on the permeability but is similar which to that of a British

of high alumina Rapid hardening

cement portland

concrete cement

are available

Leas states that the permeability 1 x 1O-1o cm/set.

of high alumina

is about

PHYSICAL MORTAR

PROPERTIES

OF

HIGH

ALUMINA

CEMENT

CONCRETE

AND

The density is usually dom, not such as Fondu and not

of high alumina less than 225 is black, 49

cement

is about 3.20 to 3.25 g/ml; the fineness of ordinary high alumina In the United cement Kingtypes are white. time

m*/kg;

the color

but the SEECAR is required

the compressive less than

strength

to be not less than 42 Pa at 24 hours must be between 2 and 6

pa at 3 days. The setting

hours for the initial but ultra rapid with

set; the final set is not to be more than 2 hours after the inicements are slow setting is high; Table cements of high alumina It follows that the heat of hydration

tial set. From this data, it will be seen that high alumina hardening. portland 29-15 gives a comparison cements creep of the heat contain of hydration

compared

cements. no free lime so there cement is no risk of unsoundas portof is similar to that cement paste is of the same magnitude concrete

High alumina ness. Shrinkage land cement. The

of high alumina

of high alumina

348

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

portland

cements

of similar then

mix

design. However, with

since creep is related loss in strength,

to the there

strength-stress

ratio,

on conversion

a possible

will be a possible increase in creep. Table 29-15:

Cement

Comparison

of Heats of Hydration
.Heat of Hydration, 7 Days 79 52 48

of Different
Cal/g at 28 Days 70 67

Cements

. . . . . . .. .
1 Day III) 78 36 23

. .. . . . . . .
90 Days

Type
Hat RHPC OPC (Type

3 Days 79 46 43

80

THE

STRUCTURAL Many applications

USE OF HIGH of high They

ALUMINA cement

CEMENT concretes

CONCRETE rely on their

rapid

alumina

hardening slightly hardening

characteristics. commences

are not rapid portland is developed runways,

setting, cement rapidly.

in fact the setting time (ASTM

Type

is

longer than that

of ordinary

I), but once

strength

This is made use of in the

repair Of floors, roads, airport return to normal use is critical. Associated with heat of hydration, A particularly Alag, cluding

railway

level crossings, etc. where rapid of heat, due to the high concreting reif at all. abrasion and impact artificial aggregates such as in-

rapid hardening

is rapid evolution advantage with

and this is of particular high strength from cement specially

for cold weather

where other cements

can only be used with difficulty, excellent produced

sistance can be produced manufactured prestressed

by the Lafarge group of companies. cement allows for the manufacture much more of precast concrete cements. rapid demolding and detensionHowever, conquality

The use of high alumina concrete ing times without trol

steam curing than is possible with portland loss in strength due to conversion,

due to the potential temperature

considerable

is necessary to make sure that the correct of curing are always used.

low water/cement

ratio and low

It is suggested that the critical water/cedurable high alumina cement ratio cement concrete concretes the safe-

ment ratio is 0.35 the fundamental ceed 0.4. exhibit adoption precaution containing prevent better

and this should never be exceeded. of good quality is that requirement the total water/cement shall not excement,

For the manufacture Although

at low water/cement cement possibility in water content of

ratios high alumina of 400 kg/m3

workability

than an equivalent

mix based on portland ratio in practice. hydrolysis during

of a minimum against the

is a sound practical aggregates

guard against errors in the control

of water/cement alkaline

As an added and sands

free or releasable alkalis are proscribed. or soaking is necessary the initial curing period to whenever condiout of the concrete as a result of heat evolution, increases in temperature. has shown that structural high alumina While pruconverted is a reliable under material.

Spraying drying

tions of placing lead to substantial When these requirements cement concrete exceptionally high strengths even if rapidly

are met, experience can be obtained

special circumstances,

Hydraulics

349

dence dictates found good When get strength, ways be that Table for concretes

that

the structural which appropriate which is the test

design should concrete

be based on the minimum with high alumina 400 kg/m3 always

strength it is It al-

in concretes designing that practice

are converting. mixes cements, be exceeded. should have not less than at 24 hours, the strength and that the tar-

to use mixes that

strength

should

is also suggested 29-16

for design

purposes

at the minimum

of the worst relates cured

case possible the strength

due to conversion. at 24 hours to the strength at the minimum

at 38C.

Table 29-16:

Strength of High Alumina Cement Concretes at Different Water/Cement Ratios

0.35 49.6 27.5 0.40 39.3 22.0 0.45 31 .o 18.0

Free w/c 1 days strength, Pa Minimum strength, Pa

Table ter at 18C.

29-17, for

adapted various

from mix

data

by Teychenne,13

gives the strength cement cured

data on in wa-

100 mm cubes

proportions

of high alumina

Table 29-17:

Compressive Strength Data for High Alumina Cement Concretes Cured at 18%
Free w/c 0.35

. . .. . .. . ..
1 Day 52.5 7 Days 69.8

Mix Proportions* 1 :I .8:1.2

.Compreaive 28 Days 76.5

Strength 3 Months 84.8

Pa. . . . 1 Year 85.2

.. . . . . .
5 Years

1:2.7:1.8 1~3.6~2.4 1:4.5:3.0

0.35 0.35 0.47

51 .9 60.4 47.1

68.6 JO.5 60.4

75.2 82.2 67.0

80.1 81 .O 66.6

78.0 81 .8 64.8

77.5 73.0 75.6 47.3

*Cement:aggregate:sand

Table in these of high climatic (38C). in strength curs earlier, strength.

29-18

gives similar show and typical the cements both

data

for

concretes strengths ambient

cured

at 38C, with

IOOF.

The data mixes

tables alumina 2one1* Two only

compressive in normal shown minimum

attainable

suitable

temperatures in higher cured at 38C, that there

in a temperate temperatures at 18C

strength in those

attainable samples

factors between

are clearly between 3 and

: the loss
ocin

appears

1 and 5 years; while afterwards

the minimum is an increase

12 months;

Table 29-18:

Compressive Strength Data for High Alumina Cement Concretes Cured at 38%
Free

. . . . . . . . . . Compressive
1 Day 52.5

Strength

Mix Proportions*
1:1.8:1.2

WIG

7 Days
70.5

28 Days
41 .o

3 Months
26.8

Pa . . . 1 Year 29 .J

. . . . . . .
5 Years

0.35

1:2.7:1.8 1:3.6:2.4 1:4.5:3.0

0.35 0.35 0.47

51.9 60.4 47.1

66 .o 73.7 58.5

49 .J 55.6 29.6

26.6 27.3 17.8

26.7 30.0 17.9

32.5 29.5 33.7 18.0

*Cement:aggregate:sand

350

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

The crete:

following

measures

should

be carried The concrete

out to make good quality should always

con-

as low a water/cement

ratio as practicable

be used consis-

tent with obtaining

full compaction.

should be kept cool and moist

during the first 24 hours by the following (a) Wooden molds (other later

methods:14 should be stripped (usually concrete within 4 surfaces neces-

than base or soffit forms) as possible 6 hours). after casting than All exposed is then

or eased away hours and not should for

as early

then be kept continuously Further

wet by spraying with cold water curing not normally water. a membrane is no subbefore applying

at least 24 hours.

sary. Steel molds need not be removed (b) When stitute curing cooling water is required, spray.

the use of hessian,

curing compound, for a water agents only

polythene

sheets or other dry covering there is little

Such materials

should be used as the sole or no tempera-

for units in which

ture rise, e.g., thin slabs or thin sections in steel molds. (c) In very hot weather, as cool as possible long periods shielded ticularly from the water for mixing and for curing should be to stand for be use. It is parspray as

(e.g., water which

has been allowed water before

in the sun should

not be used); aggregates should with a water

the sun or sprayed

important

to strip the molds and apply

early as possible. (d) The concrete tial curing. No precise temperatures cement 29-12 for concretes and mortars are for concretes temperatures between that can be given for curing and service of high alumina but the minimum strength figures given in Table gives the effect of should be kept reasonably dry and cool after its ini-

which have been stored at 5OC, while the strengths given stored at 18C. Table 29-13 70% the loss is not so great. temperature governs the minimum in the range 18to it is the maximum which and, as was shown earlier at temIt must be noted that which is reached during i.e., if the alstrength period, strength,

1 day are for similar concretes 50 and 70C,

different peratures there

is evidence

the lifetime concrete

of the concrete

reaches 5OC for only a short time, which

then the possible minimum

will be that of a concrete

had been stored at 5OC for the whole between.

though it is more likely to be somewhere

CHEMICAL

RESISTANCE cement

OF HIGH concrete

ALUMINA was originally known

CEMENT

CONCRETE to agRe-

High alumina water. ground piling Many

made for its resistance the

gressive environments, studies U.K. search Station acid sulfate

and it is well have been recommended application concrete exist.

for its resistance to sulfates and seaand at one time Building in sulfate

publishedI

it for the most severe applications of sulfate resistance cement exposed to seawater concrete

soils. A particular conditions in seawater

is in sewer pipes where has been used for Advantage tides. between in general.

High alumina

and for

can be also taken of its rapid hardening

properties

for working

Hydraulics

351

High portland towers,

alumina cements

cement and

concretes

resist dilute

acids considerably in flue linings,

better

than

thus

give excellent

service

gas washing in breweries, of re-

ash hoppers,

bleaching cement

plants and also for floor applications concrete are given in Table 29-19. Cement

dairies and other

plants where acid spillage can occur. Successful examples

sistance of high alumina Table 29-19:

Acid Sulfuric Sulfurous Lactic Tannic Humic Carbonic Butvric

Types of Acids to Which

industrial

High Alumina
Use

is Resistant

Concentration Above pH 4 Uptol%

Gas-washing Bleaching plants Dairy (and to some extent brewery) Tannery Peaty soils Mineral water, bottled drinks Brewery

As has been said before, high alumina was resistant their cement were to sulfate

the investigations waters. These

which

led to the production a cement were successful unequaled

of in by

stimulated cements,

by the desire to obtain investigations which, a material

which

bearing

aim and in high alumina

under normal

tempera-

ture conditions,

has a resistance to attack cement.6 of examinations the resistance made with in their both

by sulfates and seawater in the laboratory anhydrous after

any other construction A large number conditions fates. In fact Miller have shown concretes

and under practical concretes sulfate to sulas agin I) calcium

of high alumina

cement

anhydrite,

gregate showed no damage after many years exposure. and Manson of Medicine cement within were study of concretes found while portland resisting 20 years exposure (ASTM cement Type (ASTM sulfate waters high alumina concretes Lake, South Dakota, unattacked that concretes cements portland made with

failed

5 years and sulfate

Type V) concretes More recently, that, tually after 5 years unattacked,

lost half their strength within the cooperative burial, while concretes cements made with

IO years. Park in the U.K.16 found cement were virshowed penetration cement to sulhigh alumina cement

tests at Northwick based on portland cement

by sulfates. The relative fates is illustrated resistance of portland and high alumina in Table 29-20. Linear Expansion (%) of I:3 Mortars
High Alumina 1 Year 0.32 0.91 Cement 1 Year 0 0 0

Table 29-20:

Solution 5 % Na$Oh 5% MgS04 5% (NH&SO,

* . . . .Portland Cement . . . . . 4 Weeks 12 Weeks 24 Weeks

0.018 0.018 0.100 0.070 0.054 3.800 0.144 0.25

The chemical understand;

reasons for the resistance products

are at first sight a little

difficult

to

the hydration

of high alumina

cement are calcium aluminate

352

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

hydrates complex The droxide

and it is these minerals which mixed salt calcium resistance may (See reaction

react with sulfates to form the disruptive hydrate, 3Ca0.AI,0s~3CaS04*32Hz0, hy-

sulfoaluminate

called ettringite.

7 in Figure 29-3.) is always present in portland cement mineral cal-

be in part due to the absence of any free calcium paste, which between in portland a solid cement cement

in the set cement in solution

pastes. Lafuma has suggested that the reaction and a material between sulfate ions and tricalcium hydrate. aluminate

always leads to expansion However,

as in the case of the reaction to form mineral goes into solution, sulfoaluminate

cium sulfoaluminate hydrate

if the cement

then reacts with the sulfate These reactions points are discrete. cement cracking solution, throughout Lafuma calcium making droxide curs. Lea6 concludes from attack rather that them paste then and

ions with precipitation

of the calcium

as a solid there will be no expansion. may be described Then the crystal so produce as if the reaction growth will pressure hydrate is in situ, i.e., the growth points within result the which in the evenly are no be at distinct points, will

disruptive

of the paste and thus the concrete the calcium sulfoaluminate there the paste and although also pointed insoluble out that

or mortar.

If the reaction

is through

be precipitated since there

may be expansion, portland

discrete pressure points there will be no cracking. in hydrated cements the presence of aluminate hydrates is of hyocby cement no calcium hydroxide suppresses the solubility and so the sulfate follows. of the calcium reaction

in set portland cements

the first type and disruption is present,

In set high alumina is of the second type,

so the reaction the

and no disruption cement in which to attack

resistance

of high alumina in the manner

sulfates seems, however, occur. Thus high alumina sulfate solutions analysis suffered attack, indicating that

to be due to the immunity cement little concretes

of the aluminate

compounds immersed which in

than to any difference

such reactions on subsequent have the efor from

and even lean mortars, Specimens

for long periods show only small sulfate contents reaction has occurred. either because of poor quality of the concrete

fects of high temperature The authorr12 of different viz. CAHlo examination cium sulfate verted, There CAHro were porosity

show on the other hand considerable these reasons for sulfate attack. or &AH6 immersed

sulfate contents. He made concretes mineral suites, From an

disputed

(and thus permeability)

and of two different in magnesium, were

and gel phase (unconverted) of cubes, made as above, solutions it was found while unattacked; those that

and AHs (converted). of low porosity,

sodium and caleven if conattacked. concretes always

specimens

of high porosity were

was some evidence and gel-phase

that the unconverted porous CsAH6and susceptibility

specimens, attacked AHa. to attack

i.e., those containing less than

even if highly i.e., contained that

which had converted, tion of the minerals Examples

From this, he concluded of failure

is not so much a funcdue to sulfate from the authors soluex-

present but of the porosity. of high alumina in the literature. failure cement concrete l5 Four examples

tions have been reported perience will be given. Firstly,

the well documented England.

of a roof beam of a swimming cement

pool in concrete

a school in London,

The beam made of high alumina

Hydraulics

353

which a wet highly

failed

had been in contact Calcium and the U.K.

with a plaster (CaS0.J hydrate to a depth

coating and had been in in large quantiwas Rethe concrete

environment. converted

sulfoaluminate

was found

ties on the

surface and was identified porosity concluded

of 50 mm. The concrete as 22.6%. to attack. With The Building

was measured vulnerable cement specified that

having such a high porosity search Establishment to the loss in strength sion followed expected for the

it was clearly

the failure

of the roof beam was due as a result of converwas greater than that the at in of the sulfoalumi-

of the high alumina attack. may on the of the concrete

concrete

by sulfate quality ratios

The degree of loss of strength have exceeded the maximum

and it was inferred

free water/cement production.

of 0.4 aimed examination (calcium of calcium

George21 reporting high alumina aluminate Calcium tration nate hydrates, sulfate transported swimming The An which ing from normally 13.2%. content. George21 concluded sulfate attack, crete used for the beam. The author cement where hydrate)

same beams says chemical revealed porosity cement

concrete which excessive

the presence of ettringite due to high water/cement of gypsum concrete plaster,

generally

results from sulfate attack

ratios exist. or by pene-

was present

in the form

and may have been

to the

high alumina

by condensation

of rain water.

There was considerable

condensation infiltration obtained

at roof level from the due to the roof leakranged from the height to

pool and the possibility results for total estimate would of the

of rain water ratio

age could not be excluded. water/cement permeability by Lafarge 0.45 to 0.64 with an average value of 0.54. was made with by measuring absorption. water rise into the concrete for fully converted linked by capilliary Figures rang25 and 35 mm with a to-

65 to 120 mm may be compared observed ratio of 0.4. being Porosities

values between cement

high alumina with the

concrete

tal water/cement

were also variable, measured

ranging from 7.6 to in cement

these variations

differences

that the failure

of the beam, which

in part was due to ratio in the concement is

was a consequence

of too high a water/cement

agrees with the findings aggressive sulfate of the member,

of George and if high alumina environments ratio

to be used in possible cised in the manufacture recommendation the taken initial curing

then care must be exer-

both in keeping to the manufacturers is less than 0.4 and to ensure that Also, account must be. condiHigh temperature.

that the water/cement is kept at a reasonable under which has examined

of the environment the author Examination

it is to serve. Even under extreme a failed sewer lining concrete in the U.K.

tions if the concrete Secondly, alumina porosity tained duce was unusual. cements

has been made correctly, have been used extensively

it may still be adequate for service. as sewer linings cement and the failure showed that the within conwill proto proconcrete which

of the high alumina was high, 19.6%. in an environment which

of the concrete

It had converted of made under

very quickly, ground

3 years, and had been placed a high concentration ettringite, calcium duce sulfuric was disruptive.

of FeS04

leaching conditions cement concrete cement

acid. This had attacked sulfoaluminate

the high alumina hydrate, which

under these conditions

The reason for the failure

of this high alumina

354

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

must should ment

be the

high

porosity an artificial

and

converted

nature

of

the

concrete.

Why

this ce-

be so can only design with

be conjecture. ratio

The concrete

was made to a portland workable

lightweight

aggregate; to obtain to rise too much. cement

mixes, curing would is

too high a water the temperature would produce be vulnerable The third containing was found years old. probably

cement must

must have been used and during the initial high alumina concrete is that attack which

have been allowed Again

These two factors good practice

a porous converted to attack. example quality

the lesson to be learned cement concrete

necessary to produce

concrete. is in the foundawere in a soil it Howless, of a were examined, had formed. again in the U.K. The foundations

of high alumina

tions of a large school building, epsom salts, MgS04. that of penetration

When samples of the concrete and ettringite was only

the surface had been attacked the porosity

ever, the depth

3 mm and the concrete was 22% while

was at least 18 attack

On the surface, less than as the attack cement

inside it was much of chemical was only

15%. Technically, concrete, rate of penetration to a depth would

this is an example is probably

high alumina years then, for sulfate Finally, ment concrete floor was found chemical took water the cur. The concrete.

but since the disruption

3 mm in 18

quadratic, years.

the possible time in bearing capacity ceof a

of 1 meter,

still not significant of a structure

of the foundations,

be on the order of 2 million of bad detailing

an example

using high alumina sulfate attack,

beams is considered.

The beams used were on the underside

deck of a garage. A few of the beams had suffered attack the structure itself could was still stable, become

ettringite attack to ocof cement was at conhad

100 mm inside the beam. Since only a few of the beams had suffered however, weak if further for failure portland solution sufficiently

place then the structure reason for the attack This concrete through

was that there

had been considerable of a lightweight of sulfate

leaking

the floor which was constructed had been leached that It was concluded

by rain water with other

and was the source of cement

sulfates.

the penetration

least 100 mm in 5 years. When compared cretes in aggressive environments, penetration been made to waterproof so far into the concrete.

high alumina that

there must have been microcracks It was considered

to allow the overloading

since attempts

the deck by successive layers of bitumen, resulting in microcracking. bad practice it is clear that and correct cement

of the beam could have occurred In the four cases discussed, of the high alumina can lead to distress. reason to expect cement

in the manufacture environments there is no

concretes;

using concrete

in unsuitable

If good practice

use are maintained,

failure

of high alumina

concrete.

ALKALINE

HYDROLYSIS of high alumina hydrolysis cement concrete by alkaline hydrolysis was first This

The attack described attack reactions

by Rengade,

LHopitallier

and Durand

de Fontmagne22 hydrates, equations:

in 1936.

is by alkaline

of the calcium

aluminate

the chemical

involved may be represented K&03+ Ca0.A120s.10H,0

by the following +CaCOs+

KsO.AlsOs+ IOHs

Hydraulics

355

The carbon dioxide

in the atmosphere
CO2 + Kz0.A120,

regenerates
+ K,C03+

the K,COa:
A1203.3H20

+ 3H20

and it can react again. The attack lis only acting a carrier.
COz+

by the carbon dioxide can be written

Al@3.3H20

thus continues, as:

f 7H20

the alka-

The final reaction

CaO~A120~~10Hz0

-+CaC03+

This form tassium

of degradation soluble

can take place in good quality

concrete

when the pocon-

aggregate contains

alkalis

as may be the case with granite containing when the aggregate Neville23 states that loss of strength inadvertent

micas (muscovite). from

Schist and mica, especially

tains dust, may liberate alkalis derived The alkali ample, concrete pilliary ment concrete. action

alkalis.6

is caused by

aggregate and also through

inclusions that have for excecement by ca-

been observed in Switzerland. carbonate may also have its sources outside the concrete, occurs, of course, only if the high alumina carbonate further then travels through in, where the concrete concentration if the concrete is placed in granite ground or in contact with portland

Deterioration to the concrete takes place.

is porous; the alkali

by evaporation of

and carbonation high alumina The stituents The alumina water

It is also suggestedthat cement from tion; with a resultant alkalis which U.K. cement been suggested that are also prohibited.21 Buildings concrete

the presence of alkalis encourages the conversion even in the absence of evaporation and potential releasable alkalis loss in strength.

concrete the

or carbonaand it has con-

increase in porosity

rocks have been termed

aggregates such as granites,

schists and micas or other

are more or less decomposed Regulations Advisory

shall not be used. Slag aggregates Committee% hydrolysis stated that all high when exposed to in but ceatmica ceases dispreor

is vulnerable

to alkaline

and alkali from outside the concrete. attack alumina can continue to remain. cement is allowed

Since the alkalis are not exhausted source of alkalis is portland to internal chemical

the reaction, the water ment. tack flow High

even if the source of the alkalis is removed The commonest is also vulnerable

concrete

by alkalis that can be leached out from fine aggregate such as feldspar, dust, but this will only over a number of water or heavy condensation situations of years. The attack routine maintenance

and some schists and granite when the source of either appears. it will Such damaging not therefore vents continuing kitchens. To prevent taining should alkaline

take place where there is a

the water or the aggressive agent (carbon dioxide) cannot occur where heavy condensation is not allowed

leakage or where

to persist:

occur as a result of normal hydrolysis etc., taking with

use in domestic

bathrooms

place, suitable portland cement

aggregates, i.e., not concement concrete impermeif there is the possibilthese cements paints or water

fines of granites,

should

be used. High

alumina

not be used in conjunction should

ity of water transfer. able membranes repellent suitability materials.

To prevent water transfer If these precautions cement

between

be used; e.g., plastic sheeting, concrete.

bitumastic

are used, there is no reason to doubt the

of high alumina

356

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

HIGH ALUMINA

CEMENT CONCRETE
of high alumina

FOR CHEMICAL
concretes

RESISTANCE
for use as

The manufacture chemical resistant ing conditions:21 (a) Aggregates micas

cement

and mortars

materials

is possible with suitable

mixes subject to the follow-

containing

releasable alkalis such as granites, which are more

schists and

or other

constituents

or less decomposed

shall not be used. Slag aggregates are also proscribed. (b) Sands should have a sand equivalent treated (c) (d) to remove particles greater than 85 or should be

less than 0.2 mm.

The water/cement A cement workability be readily content

ratio should be equal to or less than 0.4. of .at least 400 kg/m3 must be used so that good at the required achieved. is essential since escape of laitance water/cement ratio can

and compaction and consistently formwork

(e)

Well

constructed

must be fully (f) Premature avoided. sible

prevented. out of the concrete the concrete by overheating forms must be

drying

This can be achieved 4 hours after

by removing

as early as posand spraying

(normally

is placed)

with water for 48 hours. Among these requirements, the specification Furthermore, kg/m3, margin the ratio. of a maximum although specification water/cement

ratio of 0.4 is of course paramount. duce compact with lower a cement limit impermeable content concrete 400 below

it is possible to proof 400 kg/m as a

at water/cement of safety

ratios of 0.4 or even less in practice against inadver-

provides

an invaluable

tent errors in control

of the water/cement

EXAMINATION IN THE FIELD

It may staining,

OF HIGH ALUMINACEMENT

CONCRETES AND MORTARS

be necessary

to examine

structures

in the field

for their indicators incomplete

integrity. of potencompacthen the by

The most important tial deterioration. Flaws concrete patching.

examination

is visual inspection.

Flaws such as porous areas,

cracks and changes in color such as incomplete is probably satisfactory

are the most common probably indicate

concrete

tion during manufacture

and, if there is no further

sign of deterioration,

and repair can confidantly examination resulting Examination

be undertaken

If porous areas are found, arise from reactions poor manufacture, incomplete cement removing ing the concrete;

further

is necessary. These areas may in water voids; or chemical near the

i.e., sand or mold oil left in the mold before pourcompaction in solution. of the concrete

porous area is therefore

essential.

Hydraulics

357

If the porous area is not due to simple error in manufacture, isolated nature. concrete black. produce areas of porous concrete, For example, hydrolysis. may should chemical If chemical the reason is most likely by aggressive solutions attack for is suspected, must then which attack

and if there are

to be of a chemical such as sulfates or adjacent areas of or to may be white flowing

by alkaline There

be examined reaction.

for traces of efflorescence there If there are dribbles attack

also be dribbles

have been water

the chemical

or runs, then the source of small samples may be taken attack. leakage, and if the the structhe deleterexamsource is water

the aggressive material If there for laboratory If staining

must be located. for chemical to determine the nature of the chemical

is visual evidence examination of the concrete cannot

is seen, then the likely

and the source should be located. source of the water ture. If the staining ious agents, then ination. If cracks are found ment stain forcing or by tell-tales. is rust colored, continues

If there is no distress to the concrete it will be necessary to monitor necessary to identify

be stopped,

and it becomes

it may be necessary to take small samples for laboratory by visual examination, they Examination their should size should be monitored may

be determined by measureIf the reaches a reinexamination depend on but will

and if not serious on first examination, then there action

of the cracks

show staining.

is the possibility taken. The nature

that the crack of this action are usually

bar. In this case, samples will have to be sent for laboratory remedial cement examination. concretes it is likely earlier and mortars black

and immediate

the results of the laboratory High alumina if they If this color vulnerable have suffered to chemical

in color,

too rapid conversion, attack

the color

may change to red-brown. will be highly porous and it may be necessary of the constrength. analyby corand

is seen, then

that the concrete

and may be weaker under

than normal.

As has been described to resort to laboratory crete; viz ., chemical Chemical porosity and

visual examination, constitution;

examination.

This is to evaluate the properties porosity may be determined by capillary

mineralogical constitution by thermal

and mineralogical analysis by helium

by chemical rise, strength

sis, mineralogical ing to provide Chemical (1)

techniques,

X-ray diffraction;

microscopy,

pychnometry,

permeability

minicylinder

for crushing. analyses can be used to determine: cement, for example cement.

and mineralogical

If the cement (a) (b) A1203/Si02 Optical chroite. (c) Thermal

used is a high alumina

in excess of 7, otherwise

a portland

microscopy

reveals the presence of CA and pleo-

analysis shows the presence of &AH6 minerals present. in excess of &AH6

and AH3.

(2)

The hydrate

If CAHIo high alumina ity; if &AH6

and gel -phase are present cement concrete

and AH3,

then the is

is of low conversion

and likely to be of good qualcould be of lower qual-

and AH3 are in excess of CAHlo

and gel-phase, then the concrete

of high conversion.

If this is the case, then the concrete

358

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ity and other tests such as porosity and strength should be carried out. If the mineralogical analysis reveals the presence of ettringite, then the concrete has suffered sulfate attack and the source of the sulfate should be found. If the mineralogical analysis reveals the presence of a large quantity of calcium carbonate and much more AH3 than C3AH6, then alkaline hydrolysis is suspected. In this case, there should be considerable softening and powdering of the concrete where the attack has taken place. The source of the alkali solutions should be found and remedial action taken. In most of the cases where disintegration occurs the reason for the action should be determined since invariably it will be found that the cause is incorrect manufacture of the concrete, usually due to the use of a water/cement ratio in excess of 0.4; the incorrect curing of the concrete or mortar during the initial stages. If chemical attack is found, then the most likely cause is incorrect detailing of the structures to allow water access to the concrete. If, however, the rate of chemical attack can be measured, it will probably be found that, for example, in foundations the rate of deterioration will be much less than 1 mm per 10 years in well-made concrete and so of no significance. In conclusion, failure of high alumina cement concretes are only likely if the material is used incorrectly in its making, in its placing and in its curing.

PRACTICAL

HINTS ON THE USE OF HIGH ALUMINA

CEMENT

This section is prepared from data issued by one of the manufacturers of high alumina cement. High alumina cement is not a quick setting cement; the setting time being similar to that of ordinary cements. However, once the set has occurred, mortars and concretes harden with exceptional rapidity. In 6 hours, a high alumina cement concrete can reach 40-50 Pa. This property makes it useful for certain types of construction, e.g., urgent works, concretes which must take heavy loads soon after placing, jobs which require the stripping of molds and rapid return to service, precast concrete, pavings, industrial floors, road and runways returned to service only 6 hours after placing, piles driven 24 hours after manufacture, concreting underground, underpinning, land reclamation, concrete pipes, etc. High alumina cement, due to its special chemical formulation and the fact that free lime is not liberated during setting, resists many aggressive agents including: seawater, sulfated groundwater, pure water, water containing aggressive carbon dioxide, brackish water, dilute acids (pH between 4-5 and 7, depending on frequency of removal of the corrosive liquid, rate of flow, etc.), dairy liquors, fruit juices, tannery and brewery effluents, mineral salts (chlorides, sulfates, sulfides, etc.), vegetable oils, sewerage, etc. Although high alumina cement is not acidproof, it does have much greater resistance than ordinary portland cements to a number of aggressive substances. However, its use cannot be recommended in the presence of acids with a pH much less than 5 or in the presence of caustic alkalis (i.e., alkaline solution of sodium or potassium). High alumina cements may also be placed at low temperatures because of the rapid heat development during the setting/hardening cycle of the concrete.

Hydraulics

359

A concrete ter compatible Whatever crete will mixing of cement importance erably gate, water

or mortar with

should

be gauged with cement

the minimum

amount

of wa-

reasonable on the total water

workability. used, the final ratio, i.e., strength of the conof water/cement which ratio of the weight

the type (including

of hydraulic

depend used.

is present in the aggregate) cement, including

to the quantity

In the case of concretes that the total less than 0.4 by : Reducing

based on high alumina 20 liters of water,

it is of paramount that in the aggreratios can be

water/cement In practice,

ratio should always be equal to, or prefthese low water/cement

(i.e., less than

per 50 kg of cement).

achieved (1)

the quantity content. is fully

of mixing Efficient

water, or

while

maintaining

an ade-

quate cement

consolidation

is essential to ensure

that the concrete (2) Increasing cient water

compacted;

the cement

content

of the mix, while workability.

maintaining

suffi-

to ensure reasonable should cement

The gauging water the presence of chemical avoided. High alumina of limits content resistance applications Because ity the cement sion of organic terials which tain material the possibility sence of fine particles It is imperative

be clean, cool, and, if possible, drinkable, may affect the setting/hardening for load bearing total structures intended

so that cycle is

agents, which

or chemical ratio, the ab-

should never be gauged with seawater. concerning maximum water/cement in the aggregates and the requirements should be at a minimum of 400 kg/m3. incluschists, micas, and other ma(sand) used should effectively are normally not conovercomes encountered of good workabil-

that the sand and gravel used be clean and free from clay and those granites, The fine aggregate alkalis, which

substances, 0.20

can release alkalis. less than

mm in size. This precaution

of sources of releasable is a possibility resistant siliceous

in very fine material. Where there should rosion be suitably is likely,

In most cases, the use of slag aggregates should be avoided. of chemical attack occurring, the aggregate used i.e., if acid cormay to the aggressive substances present, it is important the following

aggregates are normally attack,

used. Where the concrete

be subjected

to chemical

that the aggregate grading is such materials may be used for a cubic

that full compaction For a typical meter of concrete:

is obtained. application

I:3 High alumina Sand 1:1X:3 High alumina Sand Coarse aggregate Where concrete is to be subjected cement cement

Mortar 500 to 700 kg 1,500 Concrete 400 to 500 kg 600 kg (400 liters) 1,200 kg (800 liters) environment, it is necessary kg (1,000 liters)

to a corrosive

360

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to achieve the maximum that the concrete water/cement have the signed. Mixing concreting the cement, techniques. portland required

degree of compaction. and cement may be fully (including

The optimum

quantity

of each so and

aggregate must be determined produced properties ratio below 0.40

contents compacted water

over 400 kg/m3 employed in the aggregates), for which

at the lowest possible total it was de-

present application

for the particular

water cement

and aggregates may be carried and materials is employed: should or lime before use. The following

out using normal be washed clean may be used as

All the equipment drum mixer

and free from

a guide when a conventional (1) Add terial drum (2) (3) (4) (5) Add the cement part left

of the coarse aggregate should from be turned the previous mix,

and some of the mixing which may be adhering

water. to the

The drum

over a couple

of times to remove ma-

Add the rest of the water Add the sand Mix the ingredients mainder together for a short while before adding the re-

of the coarse aggregate. of factors which effect may be encountered is particularly initial Between on the during concreting susceptible. 25C and 35C, in of the setting 35%. Above of

There

are a number

to which the setting/hardening Temperature ment. the time Up to 25C, of 30C, returning region

cycle of the cement

has a significant the setting time the cement

and final set of the ce-

varies very little. exhibits

occasionally

retardation approaches

to its normal

range as the temperature decreases until exposed

this temperature, cannot using warm The water

the setting time or aggregates

it is so rapid that the concrete the consequences be taken into account i.e., the

be placed correctly.

Because of these characteristics, to heat should affects

during concreting. length of time the concrete of mold is mixed the setting time, longer and stronger the mixing The requirements They should laitance be impervious the more rapid the set. and formwork are those for ordinary Porous materials concretes.

and have a good fit at the joints to avoid the loss of (bricks, etc.) which to ensure that Mechanwetted before placing the concrete. compacted compaction be carried out. is achieved.

since this could lead to poor finish. should be carefully

can absorb water should be thoroughly The concrete the mold is completely ical aids to compaction Demolding nonstructural high alumina volume ration ble, once the concrete formwork) cement

and thoroughly

filled and the maximum are entirely suitable. should of shuttering to allow

or removal

out as soon as possiplacing for Concretes based on of time on the evapo-

is hard enough

(approximately

4 hours after

curing to be carried

give out a large amount properties; During the hardening

of heat in a short period depending premature it is essential that To avoid drying

due to their rapid hardening of the unit. of water from are suitable

the rise in temperature period, and to prevent

conditions

to ensure hydration

of the cement,

the surface of the concrete.

out of the sur-

Hydraulics

361

face it is necessary to keep the concrete water water curing during should with the initial hardening. during as soon as the unit be continued a high cement

or mortar

wet by spraying

it with cold with The

Normally, the period

the concrete

can be sprayed removed.

has been demolded,

or the formwork

when the heat is being evolved, to protect fresh concrete of water. may become and evaporate con-

i.e., for the first 24 hours, and up to 48 hours in the case of very large units or concretes content. It is advisable from moving currents of air since this can cause further evaporation If the concreting is taking place in hot weather, the concrete heated and this serves to accelerate the setting/hardening cycle, the water

used in gauging. The precautions

to be taken for these particular

ditions are as follows: (1) If the constituents of the concrete prior to use. have been exposed to the sun,

they should be cooled (2) (3)

Very cold water should be used for gauging the mix. Concreting should preferably be carried out in the evening or the

coolest part of the day. (4) The concrete should be thoroughly water treated during hardening

to avoid dusting. Concreting be effected superior should not be carried cement, out in hot weather if adequate composition, It is extremely would curing cannot has properties rapid hardenhardening be inconcretnormally

during hardening. because of its chemical in very cold weather. which cements

High alumina to portland

ing and the significant in cold weather, terrupted with ordinary

heat evolution cements.

is produced

allows normal as for ordinary

and makes it suitable

for use where work certain

The same techniques However,

ing may be used in cold weather. 0 The point

l

precautions

must be taken: above freezing

temperature

of the mix should

be maintained

by heating the water, should

sand and aggregate. and prevented is evolved from freezing with

Fresh concrete until 4-5 hours after

be kept warm and heat

it begins to harden placing).

(i.e., approximately by insulating

This may be achieved

dry sacking, matting Provided that the constituents concretes

or sheeting. are not frozen, high alumina cement attain cement concretes

may be placed with air temperature Although sive strengths factors: a 0

l l

down to -10C. very high compreson a number of development depends

based on high alumina

at early ages, the strength

The nature

and grading of the aggregate of the concrete

The workability The mixing

procedures of the concrete

The temperature

362

Corrosion

and Chemical

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Masonry

Materials

Handbook

The first three ture tio However,

follow

the effects found with ordinary has a more profound effect has been made correctly and the cement

cements,

but the temperaearlier. rakg/m3,

of the concrete is not greater

as has been described is greater than 400

if the concrete

and the total water/cement

than 0.40

content

then the results given in Table 29-21 are typical of the strengths that can be expetted .

Table 29-21: Strength Development (Pa) of a High Alumina Cement Concrete During the First 24 Hours After Placing Total w/c = 0.40, Cement Content = 465 kg/m3
Time (hr) 4 6 18 24 *Probably maximum Curing at Less than 25% 1 44 62 65 at 85C. Curing at Greater than 25% 1 37 38 42

Table

29-22

gives compressive

strengths for up to 28 days where storage has

been either at 20C, or a 24hour

cycle of 25 to 85OC.

Table 29-22:

Compressive Strength of Micro Concretes

mm, Cement Content = 465 kg/m3, w/c = 0.40
(Pal at. 7 Days 80 43

Siliceous Aggregate = 2.8-0.5

. . . . . . . . . . . Strength
Storage Condition 20% 24 hour cycle of 25-85C 6 Hours 52 37 1 Day 66 42

. . .. . . .. ..
28 Days 85 44

REFERENCES
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Bied, J., Brit. Patent 8193/1909 (1909). Touche,Le Cimenr,31,240 (1926). Spackman,H.S.,CemenrAge, 11,(2),76 (1910). Spackman, H.S., Brit. Patent 10110/1908 (1908) Bates,P.H.,Bur. Stand. Tech. Paper,No. 197 (1921). Lea, F.M.,Chemistry of Cementand Concrete, E. Arnold, London (1970). Robson, T.D., High alumina cements and concretes, Conrracrors Record, London (1962). Midgley,H.G.,CementandConcrete Research ,6, (21,217 (1976). Midgley, H.G., and Midgley, A.,Mag. Concr. Res., 27, (91). 59 (1975). French, P.J., Montgomery,R.G.,and Robson,T.D.,Concrefe, 5, (81,253 (1971). Midgley, H.G., Int. Seminar on calcium aluminates,Turin, 314 (1982). Midgley, H.G., Trans. kit. Ceram. Soc.,66, (4), 161 (1967). Teychenne, DC., Mag. Concr. Res.,27, (91),78 (1975). British Standards Institute, Code of Practice CpllO, Part 1 (1972). Bate,S.C.C.,Building Research &tab. CurrentPaper CP/34/75 (1975). Harrison, W.H., and Teychenne, D.C., Sulfate Resistance of Buried Concrete, 2nd interim report on long term investigations at Northwick Park, B .R .E. report (1981).

7.
8.

9. 10. Il.
12.

13. 14. 15. 16.

Hydraulics

363

17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24.

Building Research Station Digest No.27,H.M.S.O. (1951). Thistlewayte, D.K.B., Control ofsulfides in sewerage, Butterworths (1972). Miller, D.G., and Manson, P.W., Tech. Boll. U.S. Dept Agric., No. 358 (1933). Lafuma, H., Rev. Mater. Constr. Trav. Publ., 234,441 (1929). George, C.M., The Structural Use of High Alumina Cement Concrete., LaFarge Fondu International, France (1976). Rengade, E., Hopitallier, P.L., and Durand de Fontmagne, P. Revue. Marer. Constr. Trav. Pub/.,318,52;319,78 (1936). Neville,A.,Proc. Inst. Civi/Eng.,25,287 (1936). Building Regulations Advisory Committee, Sub Committee P., B.R.A.C. 75, P40, London (1975).

PART C LATEX-MODIFIED MORTARS AND MONOLITHICS

David W. Fowler Department of Civil Engineering of Texas Texas

University Austin,

INTRODUCTION A latex consists high molecular polymer monomers. The latex of very small (0.05-I held in suspension made by emulsion .O /J in diameter) polymerization may be used. polyof Table 29-23 gives typical properties spherical particles of

weight

by use of surface-active

agents. The about

is usually

and contains

45 to 50% solids by weight. Plasticizers common acrylic, polymer most

Most latexes are copolymer

systems of at least two

and other modifiers polymers latexes. and natural rubber.

used in latexes are: styrene-butadiene,

vinyl acetate, some common

The discussion will focus on acrylic appear to be the most widely used.

and styrene-butadiene

latexes since they

ACRYLIC Acrylic content vironments. that

LATEX latex is generally Acrylic supplied modifiers as a water-based emulsion with a solids en-

of 46 to 48%. Acrylics

are stable in ultraviolet

and moisture

appear to form concrete

a film of coalesced polymer better properties

spheres around Tests show

sand and cement

particles and act as a barrier to further develops

evaporation.

acrylic-modified

when air cured. Wet or

moist curing is not recommended.

364

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Table 29-23:

Typical Properties of Latexes for PPCC

Polyvinyl Acetate (PVAc) 50% Nonionic StyreneButadiene 48% Nonionic

Polymer Type Percent Solids Stabilizer Type Specific Gravity (26X) Weight/Gal (lbs @ 25-C) PH Particle Size (A') Surface Te;sion (d;;'$cm @ Shelf Life Freeze-Thaw Stability (15-C to 26X) Viscosity (cps @ 2O'C)

Acrylic 46% Nonionic

Neoprene 42% Nonionic

1.09

1.01

1.05

1.10

9.2
2.5

8.4 10.5

8.8 9.5

9.3 9.0

NA

2,000

lu

NA

NA NA

32 2 yrs.

40 Excellent

40 NA

NA

5 cycles

5 cycles

NA

17

24

250

10

Mix Design
A typical acrylic modified cement
Material Sand Type I portlandcement Acrylic modifier (solids) Antifoamingagent Water

mortar

is as follows:
Parts by Weight 300 100 15 0.15 As required

The ment.

mixing

of acrylic

modifiers that

in cement

mortars mixing

results

in air entrainthe in-

It is recommended of water

antifoaming will

agents be added to minimize is used.

corporation cement fier good

of air, particularly materials

when mechanical used in the mix. of water the minimum

The amount is increased, workability.

required

vary depending must be similarly amount

on the type of sand and of acrylic required increase modito give with reas foldecreased Will to maintain

and on other

As the amount of water

the amount Generally, should ratio.2 modifiers

adequate Some powders. lowed.

workability acrylic The

be used since the strength come in liquid form on while

duced water-cement

others are furnished should be carefully

manufacturers

instructions

mixing

Hydraulics

365

Properties Table fied cured 29-24 gives the properties Test results for All modified of ordinary mortars (unmodified) mortars and acrylic-modisince this gives

mortars.*f3

the unmodified

are given for both air

and wet cured.

were only

air cured

the highest strengths. Table 29-24:

All tests were at an age of 28 days. of Ordinary and Acrylic-Modified Mortars*B

Properties

All Strengths

Were at 28 Days
Unmodified Modified

Ratio of Polymers Solids to Cement Weight Water/Cement Ratio Tensile Strength, psi Air cure Wet cure Compressive Strength, psi Air cure Wet cure Flexural Strength, psi Air cure Wet cure Shear Bond* Adhesion, psi Air cure Wet cure Impact Strength, (in.-lbs) Air cure Wet cure Abrasion Resistance (% wt. loss) Air cure Wet cure

0 0.48

.lO 0.40

0.15 0.37

235 535

645 ___

615 __-

2390 5795

5450 ___

5715 ---

610 1070

1355 --_

1585 __-

45(A)* 185(A)

450(C)' ___

650(C) ___

12 ___

16 -_-

23.8 5.1

1.7 ___

___ __-

'A indicates adhesive failure; C indicates cohesive failure

There

is little

difference

in the compressive mortars. mortars; the flexural

strengths strength

for the ordinary strength to 650 mortar.

wet

cured mortars But the most modified modified

and the modified dramatic

However,

the tensile

is about

20% higher for the modified mortar concrete

increase is even higher. psi for the The shear onto an unwith the

improvement

is in shear bond-450

versus 185 psi for the wet cured unmodified by casting a two-square-inch curing a force interface. to the The failure base. After is applied

bond test is performed in a direction parallel

patch of mortar

to the edge of the patch

for the specimens

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Materials

Handbook

modified The third that modified

mortar weight mortar.

patch

was in the concrete;

for the unmodified mortar

mortar

patch, one-

the failure was at the interface. loss in the abrasion mortar. of acrylic Adhesion, test of the modified Impact strength was only of the unmodified of the amount in Table 29-24. was also greater for the

The effect results shown

in the mortar impact acrylic

can also be seen from the flexural strength, and loading. Tensile and comof acrylic sol-

strength,

shear bond are seen to increase with pressive strength Figure ids/cement 29-5 ratio. are not affected

increased

significantly. properties as a function noted the trends in Table 29-24 except

is a graph of the strength The graph agrees with

for shear bond which appears to level off at a ratio of 15%.

-:

!5

:20

-*

15

IO

5
,ond Strength

0
0

.05

.lO

.15

.20

Ratio of Polymer Solids to Cement

Figure 29-S: Effect of ratio of acrylic solids to cement on mechanical ProPerties.*

The chemical cured for

resistance

of acrylic-modified x 2-inch results The

mortar indicate

is shown in Table 29-25. blocks which were air modifier in some mortar; that the acrylic

The tests were performed 7 days before does not substantially cases, the acrylic

on 0.25-inch testing.

x 2-inch

increase the resistance of the unmodified

reduces the resistance of the mortar.

Hydraulics

367

Table 29-25

Chemical

Resistance of Acrylic-Modified
AcrylicModified Mortar*

Mortars

Unmodified Mortar

IMMERSION TIME 5 minutes A A: Lactic. 10% Gasoline Xylene Methyl ethyl ketone Trichloroethylene IMMERSION TIME 7 hours H2SO4, 10% NaOH, 10% Citric, 10% Lactic; 10% Gasoline Xylene Methyl ethyl ketone Trichloroethylene :c" C

AE E E RATING SCALE

L t-

F A B AA A A A

A AB BC ! F F-

Intact; unaffected Intact; abrades slightly Intact; abrades readily Intact; abrades severely Intact; softened to rubber consistency Intact; softened to rubber consistency Soft, rubbery mass Surface crumbles Crumbles completely

__ tears

readily

*These mortar sections were prepared with a 3/l sand/cement ratio and were air cured for 7 davs. The oolMner modified mortars contain 20 percent polymer solyds on cement weight.

Applications Acrylic-modified Floor Basically, modified overlays, terrazzo concrete including has been used for successfully in freeze-thaw. have been used for many years. as 3!s inch can be used. Acrylicin 48 hours versus 7 days for unto be used in spray coat apto wood, metal, glass, conmato terrazzo mortar floors, as thin repairing potholes

in bridges. The materials

have good durability

an acrylic-modified

can be ground modifiers

and polished

modif ied terrazzo Some acrylic plications. Other The be placed crete, and masonry.

due to the greater strength gain. are especially designed have very good adhesion mortars, ceramic for

These materials uses include minimum is about

patching

tile adhesive and grout, acrylic-modified mortars

sonry paint, and a concrete 55F.

block filler. temperature should remain at or above 55F for at

recommended

The temperature

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Corrosion

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Masonry

Materials

Handbook

least 24 hours for thin

(% inch) sections and longer for thicker spheres will will accelerate sections The initial not coalesce the cure. latex-modified than to form

sections. At lower a tough, durable

temperatures, film. Air curing ception ducing

the

polymer

Higher temperatures may be for thick surface cracking.

is recommended an initial

for acrylic (greater 24-hour

mortar.

The only exlimited experiin reby the

2 inches) where

ence has shown that

period

of moist curing was useful be followed

moist cure should then

usual air cure for 2 to 3 days. The pot life is about modified mortars 1 to 2 hours and the set time is 4 to 6 hours for acrylic ambient should conditions. or roughing the surface is mortars. mortar. with The mortar pressure Since the surlittle Large areas can be used. Etching under normal

A clean, sound substrate should be placed quickly quickly,

not necessary due to the excellent face skin forms the trowel

bonding of the modified as ordinary should be used quickly

in the same manner

and cleaned frequently.

The surface should not be over-troweled. the equipment manufacturer

be screeded with a metal straight edge. For spray applications, should be consulted.3

STYRENE-BUTADIENE Styrene-butadiene mally ilar to those with recommended other modifiers Properties Properties ment ratios mortars
for SBR-modified mortars

(SBR)

has a solids content mortar. Silicone

of about

48%.

SBR

is norare simon

used at a latex solids/cement acrylic-modified for SBR mortar.

ratio of 0.1 to 0.2. The formulations antifoaming should use.

agents are also be consulted

The SBR manufacturer

and the specific formulation

for the intended

are given in Table 29-264 mortar control. strengths

for solids/ceare higher (for

of 0, 0.10 except

and 0.20.

The properties

for SBR and acrylic-modified

are similar.

Generally,

acrylic-modified

a ratio of 0.20) lus is considerably Table 29-26:

for shear bond.

It should be noted that the elastic modu-

lower than for the unmodified of Ordinary

Properties

and Styrene-Butadiene-Modified at 28 Days Modif ied

.lO .20

Mortar3

All Tests Were on Air Cured Specimens Unmodified

Ratio of Polymer Solids to Cement Weight Water/Cement Ratios Tensile Strength, psi Compressive Strength, psi Flexural Strength, psi Shear Bond. psi Elastic Modulus, psi x 106 0 0.48 380 4480 820 50-200 3.40

630 4000 1130 630 ___

870 4800 1730 >650 1.36

Hydraulics

369

Applications Applications tars. flooring. mortar

for SBR-modified mortars are similar to acrylic-modified

morresilient cement

Underlayments concrete. substrate

are used to level concrete

prior to covering for patching

with

SBR latex mortar including

patch kits are available

portland

Thin overlays and terrazzo must

floors can be made with SBR. Sprayby the manufacturers. sound. Cracks should to a depth not be of at least 2 inches for at least an hour or less. mortar should be

on mortars, The bridged with

stucco, are recommended but should should Mixing be widened

be clean and structurally

the mortar,

and filled with mortar. The concrete before mortar The mortar should substrate be kept damp with water should be completed off. placement. in five minutes

be brushed brushed-in

into the surface and additional mortar and struck

placed over the wet

The surface can be trow-

eled, but oven-finishing

should be avoided.

The surface should be moist cured for 24 to 48 hours.

REFERENCES
1. 2. 3. 4. Polymers in Concrete, Report of ACI Committee 548, American Concrete Institute, Detroit, Michigan (1977). Cement Modifier Trouble Shooting Guide, Rohm and Haas Company, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania (March 1983). Lavelle, J.A. and Wright, P.E., Acrylic Modifiers for Cement, Resin Review, Vol.XXIV, No. 2, pp 3-10 (1974). Dow Latexes 460 and 464, Dow Chemical Company (1973).

PART D RHA AND FUMED SILICA

Walter

Lee Sheppard,

Jr.

CC. R.M.,

Havertown,

Incorporated Pennsylvania

RHA of the ticular California,

are the initials became

of rice hull ash. Engineering,

In the early 197Os, Dr. P.K. Mehta, of California, at Berkeley, wastes and in parof rice. In 1974, a paper of the had deDivision in authoring Rubber

Department

of Civil interested

University

in possible uses for agricultural the harvesting Jr., of Oakland, 106th Meeting and preparation California, of the

the hulls and straw from Dr. H.E. Haxo, in Philadelphia Chemical at the

he paired with presented American

Society.

This paper discussed a process Dr. Mehta

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Corrosion

and Chemical

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Masonry

Materials

Handbook

veloped primarily grinding,

of partial

incineration,

at controlled divided

temperatures, reactive

of the hulls of rice mesh, composed carbon. After

to produce

heat energy and a finely of amorphous silica with passes a 325 used, X-ray tables Douglas

ash, 200

a small amount and other 5, which

of unburned photographs,

99.5%

mesh screen. Attached diffraction Table

to the paper is a discussion and a number constates is based on a

of the equipment of interesting work by Dr.

and charts.

Dr. Mehta

R. Houston,2

gives the following

ranges of chemical

tent of rice hull ash through

SiO2
K2O

the years 1871-1970:

86.9-97.3% 0.58-2.5% 0.6-I .75% 0.2-l .15% 0.12-I .96% trace-O.54% 0.2-2.85%

Na20 CaO MgQ Fe203

p205

Other metals in California, nonreactive Though

present,

in parts per million: was made that of Dr.

Al, 59; Cu, 2; Mn, 4; Sn, 0; (and complete Mehta, incineration results in a Norman the cement did

B, 1). The point crystalline this paper,

silica product, and another

with all the carbon consumed. co-authored with both papers mentioned significant

Pitt,3 stressed the use of this ash as a filler for rubber, possible use of the ash combined in hydraulic not contain In 1976, same material, mortars the ash, Dr. Mehta and Mr. Pitt offered another and that in the chemical resistance with or replacing such admixtures

some of the portland over portland

showed

improvement mixes that

of such cured mixtures

paper4 covering concretes

much the in which this C-109;

but adding a great deal more data on hydraulic cements had been replaced with table is quoted.

some of the portland paper, the following water/cement ratio 0.5)

rich hull ash. From

(Tests run on 2-inch cubes per ASTM

Proportions

by Weight e Strength -MPa (psi) 7 Days 28 Days 24.5 (3500) 36.5 (5210) 40.2 (5740) 46.8 (6690) 46.8 6680) 33.5 (4780) 35.9 (5130) 44 .o (6280) 59.2 (8460) 60.4 (8630) 61 .3 (8760) 43.6 (6230)

Formula 1 2 3 4 5 6

RHA 80 70 50 30 20 0

Portland 0 30 50 70 80 100

Quick

Lime 20 0 0 0 0 0

3 Days 10.5 (1500) 24.7 (3530) 26.9 (3840) 32.8 (4690) 28.7 (4100) 23.0 (3290)

Dr. Mehta dinary portland

notes,

in all three

papers, that the cure of the There some of the portland

RHA with

as a mortar unused in orRHA, this

requires the presence of quicklime. cement,

is an excess of quicklime

and by replacing

Hydraulics

371

excess lime is utilized. be added. Additional the fered in this paper. In 1975, carried

When a cement analysis

is made from

RHA

alone, quicklime mixture

must is of-

of the functioning

of this mortar

May issue of the Journal cement subject concrete. including

of the American

Concrete

Institute issue,

on pages 235 and 236 a news item on Dr. Mehtas work published a four page article of Dr. Mehtas an abstract cement the portland control

with rice hull ash the data from 50% and 70% the table

and its use in portland the Journal earlier RHA shifting mixes, papers on the

Two years later, in the September recapping mix, of the 30%.

along with point

all from

given above, except the decimal show the effect In the text, ratio, period whereas made with 35% of 1,500 containing

that the metric

units were changed from A further cylinders submerged of quicklime

MPa to kg f/cm2 by table was added to and of slaked lime. of 0.4 water/cement husk ash cement continuously for a

one place to the right. notes that Concrete were

on several mixes of the addition Dr. Mehta Type rice husk II portland cement,

and a portland-rice

ash by weight, concrete

hours in a 5% solution cement weight

of HCI or HsSO,+ In the 5% HCI solution, registered 35% by weight loss during the concrete showed only 8% weight were 27% for the 1 year loss weight He adds that after remained

the portland

test period, portland

the Portland-rice

husk ash cement

loss. The corresponding

losses in the 5% H2S04 solution husk ash concrete. cement mortars

and 13% for Portland-rice portland whereas lime-rice has supplied and RHA

in 1% acetic acid ordinary and softening, condition Mr. portland Pitt

show substantial

husk ash cement

mortars

in excellent mixes of

after 4 years exposure. the following for exposure acid resistance data for two cement to 2% and 5% H2S04, based on weight

loss of the samples, after 25 days immersion.

3b% *R-H 2%H$iO4.. A . . II Portland Initial weight, g Final weight,g Weight loss, g Percent loss 289 288.1 0.9 0.31% 234 217 17 7.26%

.
35kdHA 523 518.7 3 .8

.5%H$04..

. . . II Portland 531 488.2 42.8 8.06%

0.73%

The active ical Dictionary silicon powder. amounts. concrete Fly Fumed

ingredient defines ash to

in RHA

is silica fume furnaces. contain

or fumed

silica. The Chemof white

it as colloidal is stated also to

form of silica made by the combustion It consists of a fine silica, though in a 95-97% fumed

tetrachloride

in hydrogen-oxygen

in lesser form as a

silica (or Silicafume) be added to concrete in the formula.

is also available

additive

mixes in the amount

of 20% of the

weight of the cement

REFERENCES
1. Haxo, H.E., Jr., Mehta, P.K., Ground Rice Hull Ash as a Filler for Rubber, 106th Meating of the Rubber Division, Inc., American Chemical Societv, Philadelphia, PA, Oct. 15-18, 1974. Later published in Rubber Chemisrry and Technology, Vol. 48, No. 2, pp 271-288 (1975).

372

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Houston, D.F., Rice industry and Technology, American Institute of Cereal Chemists, inc., St. Paul, MN (1972). Mehta, P.K., N.P.H., A New Process of Rice Husk Utilization, UNFAO Conference on Rice ByProduct Utilization,Valencia,Spain (Sept. 14-Oct. 2,1974). Mehta, P.K., Pitt, N., Energy and Industrial Materials from Crop Residues, Resource Recovery and Conservation, The Netherlands, Vol. 2, pp 23-38 (1976). Mehta, P.K., Properties of Blended Cements Made from Rice Husk Ash,American Concrete lnstituta Journal, pp 440442 (Sept. 1977). Wolsiefer, John, Ultra High-Strength Field Placeable Concrete ture, Concrere lnrernational (April 1984). with Silica Fume Admix-

Section VI Castables, Machine Grouts and Polymer Concrete

373

30 Silicate Castables, Grouts, and Polymer Concretes

Robert Horseshoe

L. Trinklein Bend, Arkansas

Silicate forms Chemical

corrosion-resistant applications defines

cements a polymer

are available

for

use in all three into place.

title (The with

as monolithic Dictionary

to be cast and/or number

troweled

as a substance composed concretes mortar in which

of giant molethe binder for Thus, a maspecifi-

cules that have been formed one another. chine grout, be polymer are for floors, trenches, Polymer a filler the aggregates is a polymer concretes. polymer

by a considerable are those rather

of simple molecules or cement.

concretes

than a simple known

for deep holes, and a castable No formulation concrete.) Typical

applied

3 inches thick can all of this type

at this time is marketed applications tanks,

cally as a silicate

monolithic

acid tank linings, waste treatment in Chapter

pits, sumps, foundations, of the silisilicates are On structures in pracis a cement less water, sodium

etc., and settinggrouting-equipment. 21, the type and composition requirements. greater elasticity Potassium to cement influences the properties of the monolith. The use of sodium or po-

As discussed previously cate greatly tassium more silicates hand, depends sodium

on performance silicates types impart

refractory,

are less tacky,

and show greater resistance to efflorescence. as well as greater fired strength. (less siliceous silicates) alkaline silicate, At strength.

the other fractoriness needed made making

and result in higher tice by the fact that in the mix from a more

green strength

The lower resilicate,

of the alkaline

may be offset

less of the highly to obtain alkaline good silicate with

usually sodium

a given consistency, silicate will contain In many applications

like sodium less shrinkage.

for a denser structure

silicates having mot ratios between As is the case for mortars ferent sodium setting types. silicate castablechemical

2.0 and 2.5 give the best results. systems may be of difavailable today are sodium silicate types commercially

and grouts these castable setting type 374

The most common

and the modified

Silicate

Castables,

Grouts,

and Polymer

Concretes

375

type.

The reason for the use of these types the setting mechanism

is because in thick upon chemical and grout.

sections setting

such as agents in

castables

has to depend on mortars

the mix as discussed in the section cal to depend ble to moisture. In addition tained plastic with on heat curing

It would

be impracti-

and in most cases these systems have to be insoluthe

to the choice of the silicate binder such as liquid or powder, material is important. High impermeability particle through of various mesh sizes and with may be regulated the ability ingredients

shape and size of filler a combination mote close packing. ingredients of course, the chemical Another either ter content Generally, resistance comes ture cedures. Recent plication with densation furic sodium trends silicate

can be obshapes to proof

Casting properties resistant

the amount

such as clays and nonplastic castables is extremely important.

such as silica. Then, to withstand

in chemical environment factor

of materials

concerns

the volume

stability

of these mixes upon setting This is where the wa-

at ambient

or in higher temperature the casting properties properties

environments.

as affected the

by the solids to liquid

ratio comes into play. This factor of the set castable. chemical beproin apoccurs conAs when set, the better

not only influences

but also the density

higher the density is a greater

of the castable exist. tendency

and mechanical

On the other hand, when density toward bloating through proper curing more

excessive there

in higher tempera-

applications.

Generally,

this can be controlled potassium

have been to utilize castables conditions to form expansion. where

silicate castables

where

efflorescence

is promoted vary from silicate the

by environment. acid exposure

This usually

sulfuric

occurs during

and where

wet to dry over a period of time. salt NazS04.10Hz0 silicate which

was pointed companied

out previously, by volume of factors

sodium

systems are prone to react with sulis acdoes not form hydrated

acid and moisture

hydrated

Potassium

salts under the same conditions. A number will influence the selection of the proper castable for a specific installation: (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) Indoor Type or outdoor installation and its condition

of substrate to be protected involved,

The chemicals Operating Mechanical Type

their pH range, and concentrations and thermal shock conditions conditions Most of these

temperatures

abuse, abrasion, procedures

and traffic

of cleaning

in the case of floors.

castables will not resist strong caustic solutions. Cost comparisons the tion latter. (brick The vary with Cutting must between brick and mortar troweled with versus castable monoliths intensive chemical-resistant of a castable however, favor all will

of bricks and special brick and the labor be individually surfacing.

construc-

mortar), monolith

factors favoring

monolithic

installed

or in place cost per square foot

the type used and the method

of installation;

castable monocovering.

liths will generally

cost less with the obvious advantages of a monolithic

31 Polymer Portland Cement Concrete

David W. Fowler
Department of Civil Engineering of Texas Texas University Austin,

Polymer terial ture in which

portland either

cement

concrete

(PPCC)

is defined

as a premixed allowed modified

mamix-

a monomer

or polymer The

is added to a fresh concrete terms polymer

in a liquid,

powdery, polymerized cement

or dispersed phase, and subsequently in place. concrete (LMC) (PCC)

to cure, concrete

and if needed, (PMC) same category Latex terial. produced PPCC, struction ishing. There polyvinyl tion and acrylic Some setting crete, tance,

and polymer modified

have also been used to refer to this polymer more ma-

of materials. concrete is the oldest type of concrete in the 1950s. In the U.S., were developed LMC, PPCC is

These materials

with latexes than with any other type of polymer. and particularly industry to conventional represents an acceptable in durability material to the conand (2) and finacrylic, (SBR) because of (1) the concrete increase properties placing

the similarity

technology

in mixing,

are several latexes acetate, and natural modified

used to produce rubber. (Chapter 29,

PPCC: styrene-butadiene, Part C). Styrene-butadiene PPCC. They portland

These materials

were discussed in the sec-

on latex

mortars

are the most widely epoxy when

used latexes in the U.S. in fresh concrete. to produce a curing are thermochemiconresiscement with agent form with Epoxies strength, a tough, freeze-thaw

resins are also available combined emulsified chemical chloride to When increased

resins which polymer. provide they and

cal resistant

and mixed resistance, intrusion.

impermeability

are more

expensive

than most latexes. 376

Polymer

Portland

Cement

Concrete

377

LATEX-MODIFIED Latex-modified widely used type from latex tinguished When

CONCRETE mortar of latex has been described to produce to concrete, in a previous chapter. The most as disthe

latex-modified (SBR). bond a chemical

concrete is formed

(LMC),

mortars, is added

is styrene-butadiene

between

latex and aggregate.

As cracks and voids form,

the latex remains, forming

a seal.

It is believed that latex serves several functions: (1) (2) (3) Relieves the internal stresses at microcracks and formation of cracks

Retards the enlargement

Seals the voids and cracks. used in LMC cement should be of the same quality I, Type The I I or Type latex modifier as used in ordinary I I I. Sand and coarse is furnished as an

Materials concrete.

Portland

can be Type size of 18 inch.

aggregates should gravel with emulsion agents. accordance which

be clean and sound. Coarse aggregate may be crushed stone or usually contains 46-50% instructions. used in overlays or other similar applications latex solids, stabilizers, and antifoam

a maximum

If antifoam

agents are not included

in the latex, they should be added in

with manufacturers

A typical is as follows:20

mix design of LMC

Portland cement, lblyd3 Sand/coarse aggregate weight ratio Latex content, percent by weight of solids to portland cement Water/cement ratio Air content, percent

700 55145 to 65135 15 0.3 to 0.4 Less than 6

For small quantities

of patching material,

a typical

mix design is as follows:20

94 300 14 to 19 4 to 25

Portland cement, lb Blended sand, lb Polymer solids, lb Total water (including water in latex and sand), lb

Both of these mix designs are typical to materials used and required workability.

and may have to be varied according

EPOXY-MODIFIED Epoxies of portland been problems cost is higher A typical

CONCRETE used to obtain (EMC) improvements being accepted. in properties have the Although

have been successfully cement concrete.21-23 LMC, EMC in epoxy-modified than for

High cost and difficulties concrete has been used successfully

in handling in many

applica-

tions.23 Some of the epoxies currently

used have viscosities as low as 80 cp.

mix design for EMC is as follows:23

378

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

Portland cement, lb&d3 $and, lb&d3 /E-Inch coarse aggregate, Ib/yd3 Water, Iblyd3 Epoxy, Iblyd3

704 1500 1125 187 140

Epoxy/cement of 0.20 plished until mixed cracking is recommended uniform. until

ratios of 0.15 for applications the aggregate the water slump

to 0.30 with

have typically

been used, with a ratio The given mix design is accomfirst and blending Water is added and may result in

being recommended by loading followed a 3-to

by at least one manufacturer. thicknesses and cement

over % inch. Mixing

into the mixer mixed.

One-half

is added and mixed. is thoroughly utilizes is obtained. directions

The curing agent is added

and mixed,

by the resin which 4-inch This procedure

An excess of water an epoxy should be followed

during

curing.

which does not have to in all cases for

be preemulsified.23 the particular

Manufacturers type of epoxy used.

PROPERTIES Properties sive strength ment of the addition ural strength. ticity concrete of PPCC are given in Table 31-1 .1f20123Improvements and flexural strengths over those obtained to the lower water/cement better. to the effect with normal are due partly ratio in compresportland ceflex-

possible because of elas-

of latex and partly Shear bond strength

of the latex itself, especially The modulus

is considerably

is usually lower. Table 31-1: Properties of PPCC1n20#23

Pounds per Square Inch Compressive strength Flexural strength Modulus of elasticity Shear bond strength 4,000a,500 900-2,000 1.5-2.5 x lo6 350-650

The lower turn,

permeability

of PPCC results in less water due to freeze-thaw content and the number

penetration

which,

in asa

reduces the deterioration of depth

and corrosion

of reinforcing The chlo-

steel. Figure 31-1 indicates the chloride function into the concrete ride levels in the upper Cores from salting indicated a bridge inch of concrete lower. in Detroit

of bridge decks in Minnesota of years exposure.

are relatively

high, but at the depth of after eight winters of

steel the values are significantly the following:20

with

an LMC overlay

Chloride Depth From Surface, inches o-O.5 0.5-l .o 1.0-l .5 1 .5-2.0 LMC 9.6 5.5 0.6 0.7

ion, lb/yd3 Air Entrained Concrete 10.4 11 .4 9.3 6.5

Polymer

Portland

Cement

Concrete

379

Chloride Content, 0 0 1 2 3 1 Yr 4 5

Ibs/cu yd 6 7 2 yr 8 3 yr 9 4 yr 10 5 yr

c g
0

2
0.5-

._ J

Data from 1 l/4 .x z

latex modified concrete

overlays on new decks

Source : Minnesota DOT

1.5
Figure 31-1: Corrosion resistant data for latex modified concrete as used in bridge decks,

These results ing the reinforcing Similarly, lowing results: 23

show that steel.

PPCC is effective

in preventing

chlorides

from

reach-

lab tests on EMC

based on the go-day

ponding

test gave the fol-

Depth

From Surface, inches

Chloride

ion, Ib/yd3, EMC 2.2 0.5 0.5 0.5

0.25-0.75 0.5-I .o 0.75-l .25 Unexposed sample

APPLICATIONS PPCC has been most garages and floors; precast cellent didate cally, move placing EMC, water should concrete bond for SBR elements. for bridge deck and floor to water overlays. make The exTypito reto and increased of reinforcement decks or floors, and laitance should before impermeability and repair in thicknesses. the surface to produce for should placement. should at least be blast 1 hour. cleaned a clean surface. be followed. Just prior Any it a good cansurfaces. widely used .for overlayments cement concrete; of bridge decks, parking

patching

of portland

and to a lesser extent,

has been used extensively strength protection new LMC, bridge the

of deteriorated

the overlays For all curing the epoxy

are 1% to 2 inches compound surface off

be wetted instructions concrete steel.

In the use of standing

manufacturers for reinforcing

should

be blown

At least 2 inches of cover

be provided

380

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

For old chine scarified deteriorated or less. All corrosion imately minimum placed. fore

surfaces, concrete corroded

it is recommended concrete. should be removed Concrete should

that with should

the concrete

surface which

should

be masteel,

to sound

In deeper should

spalls and around an air hammer, cleaned. bond be removed after be blast

reinforcing Bars with

weighs 30 lb excessive of approxA is

reinforcement the clear

should 1 inch of For

be replaced. below

to a depth

bars to permit cover surface

complete be maintained

to the LMC or EMC. the new concrete and wetted water.

2-inch LMC,

the entire

should

be blast cleaned, be placed

just be-

placement

of the concrete.

EMC cannot

over standing

Mixing

and Placement should 1 hour be site work LMC concrete mixed life. should due LMC to the short should before work the time, on to brushed but some epoxies surdries. material

LMC have faces. Epoxy

up to

be brushed

all concrete

Additional modified

be applied

does not require

a brush coat on the surface.

Finishing The concrete vibrating pockets or other surface completed Curing The surface polyethylene cured mit face. Manufacturers wet cured. lowed. PPCC should cals should not be placed at temperatures lower than 45OF. Deicing curing cheminot be used until at least 30 days after the normal period. of epoxy the used for EMC may not require should that the surface be folHowever, manufacturers instructions be carefully of LMC should should for The burlap be promptly covered with wet burlap. then A layer of be wet to perand roller should be continuously equipment. with placed, Spot a float consolidated should and finished around before should with edges the be

finishing

vibrators

be used in deep

and at edges. Hand finishing discontinuities. film forms before the film Care should on LMC.

may be necessary to complete finishing

be taken

If a texture

is to be applied,

the operation

forms.

film

be placed

on the burlap, before

and the surface should permitting

should

for 24 hours.

and polyethylene

be removed traffic

the surface

to dry

at least 72 hours

on the sur-

Editors Shortly tion pecially proved ments vinyl found for after the end of World mortars use in textile resistance dye

Note developed natural provided unmodified in the modificarubber latex, esimcesomewhat hydraulic

War II, an interest surfacings Such years, rubber latexes refineries, with materials latexes

of cement chemical

and of cement houses. to mild

organic

acids over

and concrete.

In the intervening replaced do, natural epoxy

of other

elastomers,

such as also liquor

neoprene,

have largely still

in such formulations, employed. in the in particular

and various Latexes sweet

and even some modified use, and

are similarly

in sugar

Polymer

Portland

Cement

Concrete

381

rooms, resistance, polyester as grout

under but

filter

presses, not only ability Similar food

for

their

improved

density

and chemical than epoxy agents, and and

for their

to withstand formulations plant

higher

temperatures

monolithics. for tile in many

are also used as bedding

installations.

REFERENCES
1. 2. Polymers in Concrete, Report of ACI Committee 548, American Concrete Institute, Detroit, Michigan (1977). Manson, John A., Overview of Current Research on Polymer Concrete: Materials and Future Needs, Applications of Polymer Concrete, SP-69, American Concrete Institute (1981). Christie, S.H., III, McClain, Roland R., and Melloan, James H., Epoxy Modified Portland Cement Concrete, Applications of Polymer Concrete, SP-69, American Concrete Institute (1981 ). Bartholomew, J., Fowler, D.W., and Paul, D.R., Current Status of Bridge Deck Impregnation, Proceedings Second International Congress on Polymers in Concrete, The University of Texas at Austin, pp 399412 (1978). Patty, T., Petrographic Identification of Polymer in Surface-Treated Bridge Decks, Proceedings Second international Congress on Polymers in Concrete, The University of Texas at Austin,pp 245-253 (1978). Dikeou, J.T., et al., Concrete-Polymer Materials, Third Topical Report, USBR RECERCJIS and BNL 50275 (T-602) (January 1971). Dikeou, J.T., Kukacka, L.E., Backstrom, J.E., and Steinberg, M., Polymerization Makes Tougher Concrete, Journal American Concrete Institute, Proceedings, Vol. 66, No. 10, pp 829-839 (October 1969). Limsuwan, E., et al ., Behavior of Post-Tensioned Polymer-Impregnated Concrete Beams, Research Report No. 114-6, Center for Highway Research, The University of Texas at Austin (June 1978). Fowler, D.W., Houston, J.T., and Paul, D.R., Polymer-Impregnated Concrete Surface Treatments for Bridge Decks, Polymers in Concrete, American Concrete Institute, SP40, pp 93-l 18 (1973). Lockman, W.T., and Cowan, W.C., Polymer-Impregnated Precast Structural Concrete Bridge Deck Pane/s, Report No. FHWA-RD-75-121, Federal Highway Administration, Washington, D.C. (October 1975). Carpenter, L.R., Cowan, W.C., and Spencer, R.W., Polymer-Impregnated Tunnel Support and Lining, Report No. REC-ERC-72-23, U.S. Bureau of Reclamation (December 1973). Sopler, B., Fiorato, A.E., and Lenschow, R., A Study of Partially Impregnated Polymerized Concrete Specimens, Polymers in Concrete, American Concrete Institute, Detroit, Michigan, SP40, pp 149-151 (1973). Gerwick, B.C., Application of Polymeri to Concrete Sea Structures, Proceedings Second International Congress on Polymers in Concrete, The University of Texas at Austin,pp 37-43 (1978). Webster, R.P., Fowler, D.W., and Paul, D.R., Bridge Deck Impregnation in Texas,Po/ymers in Concrete, American Concrete Institute, SP-5, pp 249-266 (1978). Yimprasert, P., Fowler, D.W., and Paul, D.R., Durability, Strength, and MethodofAppi/cation of Polymer-Impregnated Concrete for Slabs, Research Report No. 1144, Center for Highway Research, The University of Texas at Austin (January 1976). Hallin, J.P., Field Evaluation of the Polymer Impregnation of New Bridge Deck Surfaces,Po/ymersin Concrete,American Concrete Institute,SP-58,pp 267-280 (1978). Schrader, E.K., Fowler, D.W., Kaden, R.A., and Stebbins, R.J., Polymer Impregnation: Used in Concrete Repairs of Cavitation/Erosion Damage, Polymers in Concrete, American Concrete Institute, Detroit,SP-58, pp 225-248 (1978). Cement Modifier Trouble Shooting Guide, Rohm and Haas Company, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania (March 1983).

3.

4.

5.

6. 7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

12.

13.

14. 15.

16. 17.

18.

382

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

19. 20. 21.

22.

23.

24.

J.A., and Wright, P.E., Acrylic Modifiers for Cement, Resin Review, Vol. No.2,pp 3-10 (1974). Modifier A, Dow Chemical Company. Nawy, E.G., Ukacike, M.M., and Sauer, J.A., Optimum Polymer Content in Concrete Modified by Liquid Epoxy Resins, Polymers in Concrete, SP-58, American Concrete Institute,pp 329-355 (1978). Popovics, S., and Tamas, F., Investigation on Portland Cement Pastes and Mortars Modified by the Addition of Epoxy, Polymers in Concrete, SP-58, American Concrete Institute,pp 357-366 (1978). Christie, S.H., III, McClain, R.R.,and Melloan, J.H., Epoxy-Modified Portland Cement Concrete, Applications of Polymer Concrete, SP-69, American Concrete Institute, pp 155-161 (1981). Dow Latexes 460 and 464, Dow Chemical Company (1973).

Lavelle, XXIV,

32 Polymer-Impregnated Concrete

David Department

W. Fowler of Civil Engineering of Texas Texas

University Austin,

INTRODUCTION Polymer-impregnated land States caused cement concrete quently polymerized in 1966. considerable types of concrete which in situ. good interest PIC were could for field (PIG) has been defined with research as a hydrated a monomer and durability could portUnited

has been

impregnated

and subseproperties

Significant increases in finding

began on PIC in the which

The very

in mechanical

applications

use PIC to good and partial-depth and the research com-

advantage. Two latter mercial investigated: be produced applications. suggested, States. Fully-impregnated only under plant impregnated. performed The former and many conditions current

was investigated

In spite of the considerable there are no known

applications

uses of PIC in the United

MONOMER Nearly Although volved used. important viscosity, vinyl MMA liquid

SYSTEMS all monomer gaseous monomers has a viscosity since density the rate and pore investigations have with and methyl degree have been with used, nearly methacrylate one centipoise. of monomer which of the concrete. vinyl all work (MMA) penetration MMA, has several monomer with being most systems. PIC has inwidely is quite on (1) of the

monomers

been

of less than structure vapor

The low viscosity like many

is dependent disadvantages:

monomers,

has a high

pressure 383

384

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

low

boiling

point; is relatively

(2) higher

flammability; (less than

and (3) high evaporation $1 per lb).

rate. MMA,

however,

low in cost

POLYMERIZATION Polymerization, a polymer, (1) lytic small tiators Small rate. The tiator thermal-catalytic; polymerization amount which (2) is the is the chemical promoted-catalytic; most when commonly process of converting which (3) because is heated. and used radiation. of a monomer into

can be accomplished

by several methods

generate

free radicals: Thermal-cataA in ini-

its simplicity. which results

of an initiator of free radicals of

added to the monomer the monomer (AIBN) agent concrete depends upon This technique sometimes such used

decomposes

the generation amounts The rate

Commonly-used

are azobis(isobutyronitrile) a cross-linking are (TMPTMA)

and a tert-butyl-azoisobutyronitrile. as trimethylolpropane to increase the to initiate trimethyl polymerization polymerization. of iniapplications or accelof heat. rapid

methacrylate

monomer-impregnated of polymerization agent. impregnations.

is heated is widely

the temperature

and amount

and cross-linking Promotedcatalytic

used for field

of partialdepth erators However, into

polymerization decomposition of very promoters little time

uses the addition of initiators is available using instead for and accelerators

of promoters of the addition results

to accelerate the addition and

in relatively

polymerization, the concrete. Free sity. ture radicals

the monomer radiation is a function required facility.

to penetrate such as gamma of the intentemperapermit which

can also be generated are that: and (I)

ionizing rate

rays produced Advantages (or lower) cost

by cobalt-60.

The polymerization polymerization more than and promoters

can be initiated are not

at room

(2) initiators

the monomer is the high is limited

to be used for and safety operation.

one impregnation of the radiation

run. The disadvantage This technique

requirements

to plant

IMPREGNATION Full Impregnation The full polymer laboratory. (1) This process

PROCEDURES

impregnation which requires

process produces

is used when the greatest

it is desirable available

to have maximum durability. in a plant or only

loading

strength

and maximum

carefully

controlled of: until

conditions

The process consists Drying may water concrete require from

at 300F

constant maximum

weight

is achieved to remove

which the free

up to 24 hours. the pores to permit

Drying

is essential

monomer

penetration.

(2) (3) (4)

Cool concrete Evacuate Introduce

to lOOoF or less. chamber under at -30 inches and apply Hg for 30 minutes. pressure of 10 psi

in a vacuum monomer

vacuum

and soak for up to 60 minutes.

Polymer-lmpregnated Concrete
(5) Remove monomer and backfill with water.

385

(6) Polymerize monomer in situ with steam, hot water, or radiation. (7)
The

Remove specimen from water and clean.

optimum polymerization procedure should be determined by a thor-

ough economic

study.

Partial-Depth

Impregnation

Partial-depth impregnation, also called surface impregnation, has been developed for floors and bridge decks. Impregnated depths of 0.5 to 1.5 inches can be obtained to provide a tough, abrasive resistant and more impermeable surface . The process is designed to be used under field conditions in which it is not feasible to use vacuum or pressure. Strengths will not be as great in partial-depth impregnated concrete as in fully-impregnated since the polymer loading will not be as great due to the lack of vacuum and pressure. Bridge deck procedures include: 2 (1) Surface must be clean from contaminants such as oil or dirt.

(2) Surface must be dried. Prior to drying, a 3/8-inch layer of concrete sand should be placed on the deck. The sand layer minimizes the thermal shock during drying. The surface temperature should be maintained at 250 to 300F for 6 to 8 hours. Figure 32-1 shows infrared heaters used for drying a bridge deck.

Figure 32-1:

Infrared heaters used to dry a bridge deck.

386

Corrosion and Chemical Resistant Masonry Materials Handbook o (3) The surface should be cooled to 100 F or less. (4) The monomer system typically consists of 95 wt % MMA and 5 wt % TMPTMA. Approximately 0.5% of AIBN initiator is added to the monomer just prior to applying the monomer to the surface. (5) The monomer is applied at the rate of about 1.0 psf per ft2 depending upon the polymer depth required (Figure 32-2). The monomer is allowed to soak into the slab for 4 to 6 hours, or until the sand just begins to become dry. The sand cover holds the mon omer in place during the soaking period. A membrane, e.g., polyethylene, should be placed over the surface to minimize evaporation losses.

Figure 32-2:

Application

of monomer on a bridge deck

(6)

Polymerization

is accomplished

a surface temperature of 150 to 190 F for 2 to 4 hours. Steam heat is preferable. Open-flame heaters should not be used because of the danger of combusion of the MMA vapor .
Cores taken from the surface usually indicate the depth of polymer .5 Figure shows laboratory-treated slabs which have been broken open after impregThe increased observed. depth of impregnation as a function of soaking time can

by

applying o

heat

and

maintaining

32-3

nation. be easily

Polymer-lmpregnated Concrete

387

Figure 32-3:

Six-inch slabs showing polymer depth as a function

of soaking time.

PROPERTIES The properties of PIC has been determined by many researchers:'3-s The advantages of PIC are the excellent mechanical and durability properties (Table 32-1 ). The improvements are primarily due to the fact that the open pores in the concrete are filled, or at least partially filled, with polymer which results in improved bond between the cement paste and the aggregate. The polymer also apparently repairs some of the microcracking. It can be observed that the improvement in strength is quite dramatic when compared to normal portland cement concrete. The durability is also improved significantly. The improvements in strength seems to be a function of (1) degree to which the pores are filled; (2) type of polymer; and (3) conversion of monomer to polymer during polymerization: The increased durability, e.g., freeze-thaw resistance, resistance to acid attack, and abrasion resistance is a result of the much higher impermeability of the concrete and the strengthened concrete surface. It should be noted that the properties shown in Table 32-1 are values that can be achieved by the full-impregnation process. Using steam cured high strength concrete, strengths in excess of 30 ,000 psi are possible since steam curing results in larger pore sizes (even though total porosity is about the same) .1 Partial-depth impregnation will not achieve as high polymer loadings, and therefore the strength and durability of the impregnated portion will not be as high. However, partial-depth impregnated concrete has been found to be much more resistant to freeze-thaw deterioration and abrasion (Figure 32-4). Skid resistance has been shown to be as good or better than for normal concrete .6,7

388

Corrosion and Chemical Resistant Masonry Materials Handbook

Table 32-1: Properties of Polymer-lmpregnated Concretel

Property Compressive Strength, Tensile psi Modulus Rupture, Modulus Elasticity, psi Freeze-thaw Resistance, no. of cycles/ % wt Acid loss Resistance, of of psi

Ordinary Concrete

PIC

psi strength,

5000 300-350

15-22,000

1100-1600

400-600

1500-2600

3-4.5

x 106

4-6.5

x 106

700/25

2000-5000/0-2

no. of days/ % wt loss 15% 15% HCl H2S04 Loss, (g) 14

100/27 50/35

700-800/7-9 70-120/30

Abrasion wt loss

Figure

32-4:

Abrasion

of control

and surface

impregnated

concrete

tile.

Polymer-Impregnated

Concrete

389

PIC shows a gradual maximum temperature MMA, Upon tion of the glass transition PIC made with contribution. all of the original elastically addition reduced. almost of butyl

reduction point

in strength structural

with

increased temperature.

The

for which the polymer cooling,

properties

do not decrease is a funcIn fire resistance tests on and made no strength regained

(Tg) of the polymer. was liquified solidified

at 500F

the polymer

and the specimens

strength .I to peak stress. Very acrylatte (BA) little ductility is exhibited. although However, the strength the is

A stress-strain curve for MMA PIC is shown in Figure 32-5. The material acts
improves the ductility,

20 -

75%MMAt

25%BA

Slroin. Figure 32-5:

in/in.

Stress-strain curves for PIG.

APPLICATIONS Many decking,8 applications to be that tually applications tunnel of PIC have been and lining concrete investigated including precast beams, bridge pipe,

support and other

systems,, components. the economic

post-tensioned However, feasibility

sea structures,

there are no known The reason seems of PIC without acthe expense of in the United impregthat

of fully-impregnated it is difficult knowing an efficient impregnation unpublished Until

concrete plant,

at the present time.

to determine

constructing Partialdepth

but it is difficult

to justify bridges

a plant without States widely. nated oped and bridge during

that such a plant would and parking indicate intrusion

be successful. garages.2,2,3 that through Costs have varied cracks devel-

has been used on many studies chloride

on floors

of building

However,

some partial-depth hairline

slabs may permit drying.

this matter

is resolved,

it is not recommended

390

Corrosion and Chemical Resistant Masonry Materials Handbook

partial-depth impregnation be used on bridge decks on which deicing salt will be used. Hydraulic structures have been successfully impregnated. Walls of a dam outlet subjected to severe cavitation damage were repaired and then impregnated. After drying, stainless steel monomer holding panels were pressed against the walls (Figure 32-6) to permit the monomer to soak in. The monomer was drained, and the panels were filled with hot water to polymerize the monomer . The walls have performed very well }4

Figure 32-6:

Monomer soaking panels used for vertical walls of an outlet tunnel in a dam.

REFERENCES
1. Polymers in Concrete, Report of ACI Committee 548, American Concrete Institute, Detroit, Michigan (1977). 2. Bartholomew, J., Fowler, D.W ., and Paul, D.R ., Current Status of Bridge Deck Impregnation, Proceedings Second International Congress on Polymers in Concrete, The University of Texas at Austin, pp 399-412 (1978). 3. Dikeou, J.T., et al., Concrete-Polymer Materials, Third Topical Report, USBR RECERC-71-6 and BN L 50275 (T -602) (January 1971 ). 4. Dikeou, J.T ., Kukacka, L.E., Backstrom, J.E., and Steinberg, M., Polymerization Makes Tougher Concrete, Journal American Concrete Institute, Proceedings, Vol. 66, No. 10, pp 829~39 (October 1969). 5. Limsuwan, E., et al., Behavior of Post- Tensioned Polymer-lmprenated Concrete Beams , Research Report No.114-6, Center for Highway Research, The University of Texas at Austin (June 1978) . 6. Fowler, D.W., Houston, J.T., and Paul, D.R., Polymer-lmpregnated Concrete Surface Treatments for Bridge Decks, Polymers in Concrete, American Concrete Institute, SP-40, pp 93-118) (1973).

Polymer-Impregnated

Concrete

391

Yimprasert, P., Fowler, D.W., and Paul, DR., Durability, Strength, and Method ofApplication of Polymer-Impregnated Concrete for Slabs, Research Report No. 1144. Center for Highway Research,The University of Texas at Austin (January 1976). Precast Structural Concrete 8. Lockman, W.T., and Cowan, W.C., Polymer-Impregnated Bridge Deck Pane/s, Report No. FHWA-RD-75.121, Federal Highway Administration, Washington, D.C. (October 1975). L.R., Cowan, W.C., and Spencer, R.W., Polymer-Impregnated Tunnel Sup9. Carpenter, port and Lining, Report No. REC-ERC-73-23, U.S. Bureau of Reclamation (December 1973). 10 Sopler, B., Fiorato, A.E. and Lenschow, R., A Study of Partially Impregnated Polymerized Concrete Specimens, Polymers in Concrete, American Concrete Institute, Detroit, Michigan,SP_40,pp 149-151 (1973). B.C., Application of Polymers to Concrete Sea Structures, Proceedings Sec11. Gerwick, ond International Congress on Polymers in Concrete, The University of Texas at Austin, pp 3743 (1978). in Texas, 12. Webster, R.P., Fowler, D.W., and Paul, D.R., Bridge Deck Impregnation Polymers in Concrete, American Concrete Institute, SP-5, pp 249-266 (1978). 13. Hallin, J.P., Field Evaluation of the Polymer Impregnation of New Bridge Deck Surfaces,Po/ymersin Concrete,American Concrete Institute,SP-58,pp267-280 (1978). 14. Schrader, E.K., Fowler, D.W., Kaden, R.A., and Stebbins, R.J., Polymer Impregnation: Used in Concrete Repairs of Cavitation/Erosion Damage, Polymers in Concrete, American Concrete Institute, Detroit, SP-58, pp 225-248 (1978).

7.

33 Polymer Concretes

PART A CORROSION-RESISTANT SULFUR CONCRETES

William Albany United

C. McBee Center of the Interior

Research

Bureau Albany, Thomas Boulder United

of Mines Oregon A. Sullivan Laboratory of the Interior

States Department

City Engineering Bureau Boulder of Mines

States Department

City, Nevada F. Fike Institute D.C.

Harold The Sulphur

Washington,

INTRODUCTION Sulfur that mixing (248O to vary cement concrete according and (SC) is a general to their mixture materials sulfur Sulfur In this concretes range, term used for a range of concrete aggregate gradation, materials with a viscosity prepared slightly products and sulfur by hot15OC higher

design,

contents. sulfur 302F).

are thermoplastic in a temperature is a liquid

aggregate

range of 120 to

392

Polymer

Concretes

393

than

that

of water. products properties mixture

On

cooling

the mixtures sulfur to those type

to ambient together of portland

temperatures, the aggregate cement

solid parti-

concrete cles. The (PCC)

are formed designs,

with

binding

of SC are similar

concretes

in that

including

and gradation

of aggregate ma-

terials, quantity and quality of sulfur cements, and mixing conditions all have to be specified to produce an SC product with specific properties. The properties and type of both SC and PCC products may be varied by adjusting the components of the mix. Historical The use of sulfur as a hot-melt bonding agent and sealer for water in the 17th century vessels of using

has been known for sulfur Texas. a surplus. additives almost Kobbe, from

since prehistoric

times.

Examples

sulfur to anchor metal to stone still exist in Latin America. led to the opening of the Big Dome of sulfur This doubled materials modifying sulfur the production to utilize the in the United They for found product properties found that

In 1919 the demand near Matagorda, resulting in uses of sulfur in uses and found of 60% strength. prepared of Duecker cyclproduct States,

sulfur deposit

Bacon and Davis in 19213 reported for properties In their of work,

on the projected sulfur they specific

construction

the surplus sulfur.

tested many suggested that a mixture of excellent of materials the sulfur strength.

all of them in 1924, sulfur and

unsuitable. produced

sand and 40%

an acid-resistant In 1934,

reported cokeP

on the acid-resistant Duecker,

Bacon and Davis grew on thermal ing by modifying The industrial proving 1940, factory in ASTM Current The

cycling with a loss of flexural of an olefin and

was able to retard both the tendency use of additives acceptance sulfur outlined products testing to prepare and more more

to grow and lossof strength on thermal polysulfide stable cements mortars materials and products

the sulfur with addition research for

(ThiokolTM).* led to more imin satis-

development that

on means for

such as acid-resistant methods Many sulfur

and grouts. McKinney,6 had been found were adopted

at Mellon

Institute.

of these methods

and are found

specifications Technology development material, the

for chemical-resistant

sulfur mortar.7

of modern its durability

corrosion-resistant would

sulfur

concrete

has taken sulfur

place in the last decade. construction cements veloped for would

It was based on the premise that and mixture products

for SC to be a viable improved have to be debasis. Impetus

have to be improved, designs would on a routine

have to be developed, production sulfur construction The Sulphur (SUDIC), United

of uniform materials States

for improved production petroleum of

was given by the rapid rise of sulfur sources such as sour gas wells and of the Interiors program Bureau in 1971 and the new uses a cooperative Department In 1973,

in the early refining.*

1970s from Institute jointly

secondary launched funded

Mines and The of Canada sulfur

on the development Institute Canadian

of new uses for sulfur. was established.

the Sulphur

Development

by the Canadian government Its purpose was to develop

producers,

for the increasing Canadian

*Reference

sulfur surplus.g Both the United

States and Canadian

to specific products does not imply endorsement

by the Bureau of Mines.

394
programs terials.

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

were work

instrumental

in increased

research

on sulfur

construction

ma-

Earlier SC with obtain sulfur

by Dale and LudwigloJ strength work properties indicated the

and Crow and Bates12 had shown that be prepared for from sulfur from cycling and aggreto hot-mixing Early or humid necessity SC may aggregate graduation

excellent

could

gate mixtures. unmodified conditions, Initial

Their

best strength sulfur concrete failed

properties. when

While

be prepared temperature

and aggregate,

durability

of the materials

is a problem.

exposed in water.

to normal

or on immersion Bureau

of Mines research was aimed at establishing means for preventing state failures. When cast, and cooled to prepare

reasons for failure unmodified sulfur the sulfur

of SC and determining binder with form crystalized from

and aggregate are hot-mixed, a volume

SC products, sulfur

the liquid sulfur

(Ss) as monoclinic

(So) at 119C

decrease of 7%. On cooling to below (So), which The transformation

114C, the Sostarts to trans-

to orthorhombic

is the stable form of sulfur at ambient in the material cycling, as the

temperatures. the So form solid sulfur thing failure sulfur product was to products olefinic were sulfur sulfur that

is rapid and occurs in less than 24 hours. Since Sp, high stress is induced in SC products can be highly stressed, and anycan cause of of a sulfur

is more dense than shrinks. tends The sulfur binder to relieve by

the stress, such as temperature and result Duecker in disintegration is an example cycling. toward

in the sulfur mortars through develop would

of the SC. The growth of the failure two

observed

stress relief by thermal research be highly additives in preparing unsaturated were prepared goal second an economic not means showed SC for

Bureau

of Mines

on SC was directed for modifying stressed and would promise large-scale

goals. The first so that the SC While costs stable polyand

the sulfur

have good durability. their

polysulfide with an The for

in these applications, construction of long-chain, of corrosion-resistant

prohibitive cements

uses. By reacting (DCPD), polymeric designs

hydrocarbon, was the

dicyclopentadiene

by the formation of durable, sulfur

sulfides.3-6 specifications Other include Diehlz6

development

mixtures

the preparation for treating

SC. This goal They and

also was achieved .1713 methods for use in SC have been reported. polymer materials. Leutner VroomX2 using DCPD, using olefinic Gillot, and DCPD hydrocarbon

et al.27 using crude oil and polyol additives, woo29 using phosphoric Campbel13 Nimer modified and Gregor

Schneider to im-

and Simic freeze-thaw prove water tory

using DCPD resistance, stability.

or a glycol,

acid to improve on labora-

using organosilane Bright, DCPD

In addition,

and Hack131 have reported sulfur with

design tests for While modification researchers, between (14OC),

SC products, with

et al.32 on modified DCPD. because to high for preSC17. has been investigated is exothermic

sulfur systems, and Bordoloi by many

and Pierce33 on stabilizing by reaction applications

of sulfur sulfur

its use in commercial and DCPD Also,

has been limited when exposed

the reaction and requires temperatures form are

in preparing with

sulfur cement

close control.

the cement The Bureau

is unstable

such as in mixing cements sensitive that at

hot aggregate,

and may react to easily, and

an unusuable not temperature

SC product.

of Mines devised methods temperatures for producing

paring modified-sulfur

are stable, can be manufactured mixing

Polymer

Concretes

395

The sulfur

methods and

utilize

the

controlled of DCPD of the

reaction

of

cyclopentadiene of cyclopentadiene, devised of by Houston, the by the

(CPD)

with

use mixtures

and oligomers sulfur of 300

hereafter Bureau Since of

referred Mines after

to as oligomer. production by pilot cements Inc., tons was initiated production Sulfur as floors, for Chemical production and Enterprise, Texas, in 1979 then,

Commercial a successful

company. directly ditches,

commercial continually. plants tions prietary United The where are

installation are being fail from electrolytic by

of corrosion-resistant precast acid Limited cells, or installed drainage commercial and salt corrosion.

SC has increased in industrial installaand in the will be of a promade sidewalls, Typical

concretes sumps,

PCC materials columns

foundations States.

and pumps. developed

application

SC technology description

Vroom2425

also has been in this

of corrosion-resistant usage of Bureau

SC materials technology.

chapter

based on commercial

of Mines

SULFUR Modifiers The 1930s. production DCPD uniform DCPD oligomer

CEMENTS (Plasticizers) need Many to types plasticize sulfur for use as cement was recognized in an effort of Mines from the during the

of organics cements, system, of CPD, The as steam

have been employed but only devised is currently oligomers oils, by the Bureau being are obtained and contain 10% dimer, Generally, of concrete. the mixed

to accomplish and employing to produce production 5% CPD. content 20% tetramer, was of Major

of durable modifier oligomers such

a few are used commercially. used commercially less than 10% trimer, a 5%-modifier

A mixed and

durable resins,

cements.

sparge

components

are approximately polymer. of rigid types employing

45% pentamer, A generalized 33-l.

and 10% higher reaction

the best for production

modifier

is illustrated

in Figure

\I 0

+s,------

CPD

\ % cz
Se
I + (Trimer) qG

m
Oligomer (Tetromer)

+Q:;

--;BgfI

\ Etc._-

I t
Ltnear

polymer

Figure 33-l:

Generalized reaction employing

mix modifiers.

396
The

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

initial

CPD for at room

sulfuration temperature.

is supplied

by DCPD,

which

spontaneously

depolymerizes 50% which exhibit behavior and are

The percentage produces too As illustrated

of DCPD cements 33-2, for

in the mixture with stable below 40%

can be varied oligomer concrete results

in the range of 40% to characteristics. cements cements in These in unstable

(reproducible)

viscosity production.

in Figure reactive viscosity

subsequent sulfur.

increasing to DCPD

with

age at elevated

temperatures

and are similar

modified

180160140a , E G E cn > 60I 65

120IOO80-

pet DCPD-35

pet

oligomer 3 20 40
2 50 pet DCPD-50 pet

oligomer
60 pet DCPD-40 pet i

I 4

I 8

I 12 DURATION.

I 16

I 20 h

I 24

28

Figure 33-2: of 140C.

Viscosity

of modified-sulfur

cements versus time at a reaction temperature

The ambient Normal solidified fied-sulfur samples using 50-50, (C), similar

cements pressure reaction for future cements aged for

are prepared and times scanning

in the

temperature reactor which after

range the

of

140 to with cement sulfur were

15OC

at

in a sealed,

jacketed

equipped molten for Cement hereafter orthorhombic for the

a stirrer. can be

are 4 to 6 hours calorimetry

use or used directly are shown 14 months mixture in the sulfur in Figure at ambient of DCPD monoclinic (A). A

as a liquid. (DSC) 33-3. thermograms and modimade on to as cement phase, 50-50 So, cement The thermograms

Differential

temperature. and oligomer, phase So. The to the

B was prepared referred

5% of and originally to

a 50-50 remained in the

DCPD-modified

Sp phase,

transformed

unmodified

DSC thermogram

Polymer

Concretes

397

(B) after show Sp to 5050 that

21 months the 50-50 was

of aging was identical cement does and not durability

to the of

14-month a phase concretes

curve.

The results from with the phase

undergo

transformation made by the

So on cement

solidification, improved

sulfur

by eliminating

internal

stress caused

transformation.

^-in t---k

KEY A Sulfur 50-50 Modhi sulfur, 5 pcf DCPD B C

V\i

I
60

I
80

I
loo

I 120 - C

I
140

I
160

I
IBC

TEMPERATURE,

Figure 33-3: Differential scanning after 14 months of aging.

calorimetry

(DSC) thermograms

for sulfur

cements

The with formation softening did not cause the sulfur and dense The tion.

linear with point test

thermal a rapid which

expansion increase was above was

is shown in volume.

in Figure sulfur The 50-50 point soft

334

for

plasticized was heated sulfur, discontinued

sulfur to its and beliquid on

increasing

temperature.

Unmodified

goes through cement

a So to So trans-

the softening suitable for

for unmodified materials. stable binder

go through cement,

the Sa to So transition. not contraction (6%) than this

The test was then occurs Since the on solidification the solid Sp phase

equipment the So to

For unmodifiedof the first Sn phase is more

a 13% volume

through and 50-50

So transformation. stressing

occupies there cement cement

less volume is a resultant does and not results or contraction

formed

solidification,

of the sulfur allotropic

in the solid state. on solidificathat of unmodiand less

go through

transition one-third

Its expansion

is approximately

fied-sulfur stressing

in less shrinkage

of the sulfur

concrete

of the binder.

398

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

t a z Gi 2 t: 2 z F I3 z i

1.6 A 1.2B

I KEY Sulfur 50-50

OB-

0.4-

25

50 TEMPERATURE,

75 C data

100

125

Figure 33-4: The thermal 33-I.

Linear

thermal

expansion

for sulfur

and sulfur

cement.

expansion

coefficients

of the two

materials

are given in Table

Table 33-l:

Thermal

Expansion

Coefficients

of Sulfur

Cements

Sulfur

cement

Thermal expansion coefficient, 10-6 In/in o c 46 1,000 59

Sulfur: 25O to 95O c... 95' to 108' C.. 50-50 cement: 25" to 100' C... * *

Test on 50-50 cement was not run above 1OO'C due to possible damage to test equipment from soft material.

The pared typical

composition

and

properties with DCPD

were

determined at

for

50-50 for

cement

preA

by reacting

sulfur

arid oligomer

145k

6 hours.

analysis is shown in Table 33-2.

Table 33-2:

Composition

and Properties

of Cement

Polymer

Concretes

399

MIXTURE As with best mixture ties desired aggregate strength sulfur tions, These concrete

DESIGN portland for specific cement concrete concretes (PCC) and asphaltic into specific contents, concrete water (AC), the and the of

design for sulfur

must take cement

consideration strength

the propercontent, properties, and types

uses. Just as certain are used for concrete will with

proportions properties binder sumps, minimum Gradation

PCC to obtain gradation. for for

of sulfur discussed and materials moisture

are influenced

by the amount The mixture

cement tiles,

and the aggregate electrolytic

designs for sulfur of floors, foundachemical

materials

be suitable cells good

construction strength

use in acid

or salt environments. properties,

uses require

mechanical

resistance, Aggregate

absorption,

and durability.

Aggregates gravel water. which ite hard, tion, acid not with for must ments, corrosion in preparing concretes sufficient the amount aggregates report (all deposits is crushed

generally produced

are obtained by natural Stone rock), and are primarily igneous

from silica. quarry

two

sources. and

One is natural abrasion source include concretes from

sand and running rock granrock), In addi-

weathering

These aggregates coarsegrained strong,

The second products (all sulfur

is quarried limestone, igneous must

and screened. Aggregates

traprock

fine-grained

and sandstone. tough, they and exceed sulfur must

for corrosion-resistant free from absorption concretes chemical attack quality of mineral with or quartz

be clean, to

durable,

any swelling

constituents. from

resist chemical Moisture highest source aggregates For example, either work, excellent was quartz

and absorption

of water

exposure

salt solutions. 1%. The concrete,

and acid dissolution produced resistance aggregates In developing consistent may are suitable

losses should mixture with designs their use salt PCC These when environ-

have been formulated

a homogeneous be selected. whereas

aggregate. aggregates

in acidic

limestone gradations

be used where for

is the problem. aggregate were used that are shown and in the mineral were suitable in Figure aggregate. properties sulfur had binder concretes. These gradations resistance the voids 33-5.

In previous

corrosion used to fill on cooling

mechanical required

DisadvanCrushed rounded to in this from those

tages of this gradation produced

were the large amount superior-strength concrete concretes binds made with (PCC). sulfur

of binder concretes

(22 to 26%) and to

of shrinkage aggregates. involved

and solidification of sulfur crushed sulfur Sulfur

of the concrete. compared concretes referred

sand and gravel Mechanisms of portland which tures, to form the is mixed liquid

The properties in preparing

are for sulfur cement

aggregates. are different is a thermoplastic to ambient hydration concrete, rigid sulfur material temperaPCC reaction based on design would was be re-

concretes concrete and forms

and cast hot. sulfur

On solidification the aggregate

and cooling

concrete.

is prepared

at ambient

temperatures designs

and relies on a chemical were devised material. with With this for sulfur The

the concrete. gradation another aggregate aggregate for AC, thermoplastic mixtures (VMA). gradation density less sulfur

New aggregate technology aimed voids at developing in the mineral

maximum design,

and minimum

400

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

A Limerlone

swe numberr---------& Figure 33-5: Aggregate gradation curves,opengraded

spoor* oprn~ngr.in -_I0 (U.S. Standard Sieve Numbers).

quired higher

to

fill

the

voids

in the

aggregate of

mixture.

In most aggregate binder

cases, this contact

results

in

strength

materials aggregate maximum

because gradation density

improved for

and

in less

shrinkage

on solidification

because of decreased designs curvesp6 from

sulfur sulfur to

requirements. were
Fuller

Suitable having
density

concretes The

achieved
maximum

based on Fuller
relationship:

shown

in Figure 1 inch.

33-6, for materials

a maximum

size ranging

8 mesh

I&

0.5

where

P d D

= = =

total

percent

passing given sieve size, and in gradation

size of sieve opening,

largest size (sieve opening)

was used for designing

sulfur

concrete

aggregate

gradations.

Figure

33-S:

Aggregate

gradation

curves,

densegraded

(U.S. Standard

Sieve Numbers).

Polymer

Concretes

401

Binder

Requirements sulfur cement (I) They binders in corrosion-resistant bond together moisture sulfur

The role of the modified concrete (2) they technology provide

is threefold: sufficient when that

the aggregate particles; absorption; sulfur conwere used Since

fill the voids in the mineral

aggregate to minimize

and (3) they crete mixture.

fluidity sulfur required

in the mix to give a workable containing 5% modifier to fill the sulfur

In previous work,15 to prepare sulfur mineral aggregate than

cements for

concretes,

less binder

was required

voids in the binder.

an unmodified

modifiedsulfur aggregate, The the entrained moisture

cements air occurs absorption

are more viscous than as discrete into the which bubbles

sulfur when they are mixed with are not interconnected; This voids that thus, to

4 to 8% air voids are entrained material forms

in the binder and increase the volume. that is negligible. is in contrast

portland ceptibility damage.

cement

concrete,

interconnected resistance concrete absorption

increase sus-

to absorption

and decrease sulfur

to corrosion with

and freeze-thaw and dura-

To obtain bility, below justing the mix 0.05%. the

corrosion-resistant Criteria

good strength

is designed for moisture level to provide maximum specific strength with both types the

less than 0.1% and preferably between maximum com-

used to determine

the best mix design are based on adbest balance minimum absorption, and a workwater Figure levels. for the

binder

pressive strength, able mixture. Maximum absorption mix 33-7

gravity, and of

compressive with 33-8

specific aggregates

gravity in that

and minimum same range. cement binder

were obtained

a binder

range of 16 to 18%. A fluid, strength

workable

was obtained and Figure

show the changes in compressive prepared to 500-pound

and in specific

gravity

in the sulfur concretes laboratory aggregate

with varying 50-50 the

On scale-up from 3/s-inch quartz 18%. the gate. Independent binder

batch size, the binder content 3/s-inch limestone

was 17% and for

aggregate was

mix designs should 50-50 cement

be made for each new type and gradation quartz aggregate was used, concrete product quartz had aggrewas 14%, and the

of aggregate. For example, levels of approximately

when a 1 -inch dense-graded

the same strength

values as the 3/s-inch dense-graded

PROPERTIES Mechanical

OF SULFUR Properties of typical mineral ASTM

CONCRETE

Strengths measurements concrete accordance Concrete with C ASTM and

modified-sulfur aggregates. Method Tensile

concretes

are given in Table ASTM was strength

33-3.

The for in

were determined

in accordance C 39,

with standard

methods

Compressive

determined of Cylindrical Cylinders,

with

Compressive measurements Strength Single

Strength

Specimens. Method strength

strength

were made in accordance of Concrete with Beam With ASTM Method

C 496,

Splitting of

Tensile were Using

and flexural 78, Loading.

measurernents

in accordance

Flexural

Strength

Concrete

Third-Point

402

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

S-

e-

6-

5-

4-

31

1
I
I2

KEY A Quartz
0 Llmstone

2i IC

I
14 BINDER,

I
16 PC+

I
18 20

Figure 33-7:

Variation

of sulfur concrete

compressive strength with sulfur cement content.

.5r

4-

.3 -

-I
/
of sulfur concrete

KEY A Puar1z 0 Limestone

2h IO

Figure 33-8:

Variation

specific gravity with sulfur cement content

Polymer

Concretes

403

Table 33-3:
Aggregate Type

Properties

of Typical

Sulfur

Concretes

Sulfur cement, Pet Pet Compressive Flexural

QUARTZ 77 a4 86 23 16 14 5.030 7.720 8,710 730 1,040 1,030 1,130 1,440 1,330

3/a-in:
Open-graded.......... Dense-graded......... l-in: dense-graded.... LIMESTONE 3/a+: Open-graded . . . . . . . . .. Dense-graded......... l/2-in: dense-graded..

79 a2 86

21 ia 14

9.100 a.710 a ,800

1,050 1,050 1,100

i ,480 1,720 1,530

Strength

measurements

were

made

1 day strength

after

casting

the sulfur-concrete were made on and freeze-thaw cast bars of sulfur of the modifiedwas achieved to nucleation

test

specimens.

Compressive were

and

tensile

measurements strength 14-inch strength

3- by 6-inch durability concrete. sulfur

cylinders

of the sulfur made were of the

concrete.

Flexural

measurements Ail measurements 80%

on 3- by 3- by mechanical The

made in triplicate. ultimate ultimate strength

Approximately concrete

was attained

in 24 hours.

after aging between 6 and 12 months. Aging changes are attributed and growth of monoclinic sulfur crystals in the binder. Load Deflection Stress-strain aggregate described intervals was for in Compression behavior studied of modified-sulfur of time Data for concrete for a l-year prepared period, initially

with

quartz

as a function Cylindrical of 1 year.

a procedure 33-9.

by Sullivan.14 a period

samples were tested

and at 3-month in Figure

the tests are plotted

2,000
MICROSTRAIN

4,000

6,0C

Figure 33-9:

Stress-strain

curves for modified-sulfur

concretes

404

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

With that days.

the aging

conventional increases the yielding mode the 33-10 from during rock,

modified materials the occurring

cement, exhibit

the values

load plastic

deformation during yielding elastic psi. rupture strength. and 7,000

curves when position the

indicate 180 inload

the stress-to-failure curves

significantly a more

the first

Initially, After

some approach is by

creases.

91 days,

and show

some plastic Failure and indicates Figure calculated strength cement was quartz

at stress levels above exceeds brittle the

of the bond

material strength

transgranular aggregate material.

of the aggregate The aggregate modulus values and

which the

is an elastic ultimate deflection period

contains load

compressive curves. The

strength

SC increased

in modulus

a 180day

in a manner

similar to the behavior to nucleation

of portland and growth

concrete.

The strength

increase was attributed

of monoclinic

sulfur crystals in the matrix.

2 0

I 60

I
120

I
180 AGE,doys

I
240

I
300 360

AGE ,days

Figure 33-10: Compressive strength and modulus value calculated from load deflection
curves.

Moisture

Absorption is an important factor in preparing corrosion-resistant concrete Howcan be In properly

Porosity materials. ever, designed maintained

This is especially sulfur concretes,

true if reinforcing sulfur concretes the porosity

steel is used in the concrete. are not interconnected. by moisture-absorption

air voids in modified

measured

at less than 0.05%.

Polymer

Concretes

405

Figure tent ?s-inch require modified mixing

33-l

1 shows aggregate. result

the

variation

of moisture or 50-50 less than sulfur. cement 0.05% The

absorption binders moisture binder

with

binder

conwould for the

on sulfur quartz sulfur cycle

concretes

using sulfur To obtain or 20% natural sulfur

and a dense-graded absorption requirements during Entrained air voids

17% 50-50

cement from

lower

entrainment viscosity and aggregate.

of discrete

because

of the higher

of the cement.

air voids

are not generated

on mixing

BINDER,

pc,

Figure 33-11:

Moisture

absorption

versus binder content

of sulfur concrete.

Static sulfur ameter concrete in each slabs. while Crete slab. Specific The cylinders ASTM Concrete

water

permeation and pipe portland were cement

tests were cement concrete. bonded to the

made comparing concrete. surface A 51-inch Five-foot

the permeability sections thick of water after

of the di-

concrete plastic pipe

of 6-inch

of 2-inch column pressure more through

slabs of sulfur was placed of the loss con-6 months,

and portland section sulfur

to provide cement was

a 1.84 psi water

on the surface height than portland 1 inch/hour cement

The

concrete

has shown concrete through

no loss of water slab has shown the more of water porous

the portland height material.

of water

by permeation There

no penetration

the sulfur

concrete

Gravity specific Method .I The

and Air Voids gravity C 642, variation in two of sulfur concretes Gravity, gravity aggregates was determined were binder and on 3- by Voids B-inch with

of the cast material.

The measurements with

made in accordance concrete in Figure content using 33-8. from

Specific

Absorption, is shown of the void

in Hardened 3/s-inch Air voids the actual

of specific ways:

dense-graded

quartz

and limestone

were determined

by calculation

406

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

specific

gravity ASTM

of the sulfur Method linear the

concrete

sample and the theoretical Determination The

specific gravity in accordConis Table sulfur method of Air-Void

of the aggregate-binder ance with tent, 334 using the compares

mixture, C 457, gravity traverse

and by microscopic Microscopic method (Rosiwal).

determination microscopic

useful when the specific concrete formulations

of the aggregate materials by the two methods cement. of Different Sulfur

is not available. for different

results

obtained

with 50-50 Content

Table 334:
Sulfur

Air-Void
concrete

Concrete content,

Formulations pet

Quartz
3/8-in:

aggregate

formulation Cement
content ,pct

Air-void Microscopic
method

Specific gravity method

90.................
81................. l-in: a7 ................. I36 ................. 85 .................

a4.................

10 16 19 13 16 15 16

Thermal

Expansion thermal

of Modified-Sulfur expansion IOOC

Concrete aggregates and the concrete was exheating rate of

Linear materials measured

values for specific temperature are plotted in Table 33-5.

were determined over a 25O to Values

on l/z- by %- by l-inch obtained

samples. The expansion 33-12, and thermal

range at a constant in Figure The thermal

3OC per minute.

pansion coefficients of the modified-sulfur

are shown cement

expansion

coefficient

is given for comparison

purposes.

TEMPERATURE,

Figure 33-12: materials.

Linear

thermal

expansion

of sulfur

cements

and concretes

and aggregate

Polymer

Concretes

407

Table

33-5:

Thermal

Expansion Sulfur

Coefficients Between

of Sulfur

Cement,

Aggregate,

and

Concrete

25 and 100C I Coefficient expansion, of thermal per C (x10S6) 9.3 12.0 59.0 14.0 14.7 15.3

Sample Limestone aggregate ..,............... Quartz aggregate..................... 50-50 sulfur cement . . . . . . . . . . 14 pet sulfur cement - 86 pet quartz aggregate................... 18 pet sulfur cement - 82 pet quartz aggregate................... 22 pet sulfur cement - 78 pet quartz aggregate...................

........ ~/~-II-I 3/8-in 3/8-In

The fied-sulfur decreasing coefficient sulfur

values the of

shown sulfur thermal of

in Table binder

33-5

indicate of from

that the 22 to for for of

thermal amount 14%, every sulfur

expansion of cement

of modiused. In in are other 12 x in the

concrete

is a direct expansion

function content

a 1% decrease percent concrete expansion

is obtained values

decrease materials with of is about

binder in

concentration. thermal for expansion specific the is 11.9 designing uses because x 10d/C and of compatibility that for steel

Coefficients important materials. portland 1oPc. Freeze-Thaw A useful ability ASTM 33-13 freezing For cement

comparison, concrete

coefficient

thermal

a quartz

Durability method for predicting damage concrete C 666, Rapid typical thawing cycles, This by rapid prisms and long-range freeze-thaw cast vertically to Concrete Thawing between for in durability cycling. to Rapid Water, minus of surfur Testing Freezing was concrete is its size. Figure during 300 promodulus require on their modulus of a After

to withstand Method A, and shows

was performed and Thawing,

on modified-sulfur Procedure

to a 3- by 3- by 14-inch followed. behavior dynamic criteria

Resistance Freezing quartz-aggregate, at temperatures

modified-sulfur 80% of the less than

concrete relative with

18O and 4.4C.

freeze-thaw of eleasticity. cedure and 60% modulus

the concrete is typical after absorption

retained behavior of

SC prepared 0.05%.

the best mix

a moisture retention durability is plotted

ASTM

300 cycles. of moisture in Figure initial water 0.05%, materials formulations. exceeds concrete indicate that absorption 33-14. absorption When good with the in sulfur concretes dynamic The relative moisture

The effect freeze-thaw of elasticity gate, sulfur

of the amount against concrete

is shown

of different

quartz-aggreabsorption is damage essential

modified-sulfur concrete dramatically. durable to Acid

formulation sulfur

its resistance quality

to freeze-thaw control

decreases

The data

in producing Resistance

uniformly

low absorption.

and Salt Corrosion testing .14,1s of sulfur Recently, concrete acid in different corrosion corrosive tests were environmade on

Previous ments has

corrosion been

reported

408

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

ZO-

I 50

I 100

I 150 FREEZE-THAW CYCLES 200 250 x)

Figure 33-13:

Freeze-thaw

durability

of modified-sulfur

concrete

INITIAL

WAT,ER

ABSORPTION,

pci

Figure 33-14: Influence modulus of elasticity.

of moisture

absorption

of sulfur concretes on relative dynamic

3- by quartz mersed were gravity, pressive l-year from

6-inch

cylinders and every 60.,

of

sulfur

concrete H2S04 to

prepared cement. solutions any were

from The for

3/s-inch

dense-graded were imSamples specific for during to 0.10% comthe for

aggregate removed strength period. 0.05

17%-modified-sulfur and 96% 3 months damage.

test cylinders period. in weight, quarterly observed absorption 0.02

in IO-, 20-, or chemical

a l-year

determine samples

change evaluated were the

Some

measurements. or corrosion weight gain the samples of the materials was shown with in 10% H,S04 A slight for increasing

No signs of spalling to 0.18%

and from

Polymer

Concretes

409

those over crete sulfur

in the the

more

concentrated indicated and would shown

HzS04 solutions. that not strength in Figure solution any reach

The small change penetration reinforcing into materials showed

in absorption the sulfur an increase conin used in the

l-year

period small

was very concrete. similar

Compressive to that

measurements 33-10.

strength

MANUFACTURING Commercial industry upon which techniques concrete manufacture asphaltic Equipment Production aggregate sulfur to 149% cement (260

PROCESS preparation developed and and installation in the last three used are still of corrosion-resistant years. As a result, Present portland SC is a new for SC is based and

techniques technology concrete

and placement production.

being improved. in both

equipment

cement

of SC requires will produce

equipment Mixing that

for

measuring,

blending,

and heating modifiedrange of 127

materials

to specification. Equipment

of the hot

aggregate

with

a homogeneous

SC in the temperature has been successfully

to 300F).

used to prepare

SC includes: (1) A of small-scale SC and unit consisting heated capable of mortar of preparing (Figure 500-lb kiln 33-15). with A SC capacities in the unit mixing Reece unit up to used 16 hot by Inc., 33-16 (228-kg) feeding batches into an

a propane-heated mixer

electrically (2) Heat-jacketed tons before in the

concrete Aggregate with Inc., 33-17 the and

transit-mixers may sulfur one

per batch. mixing

be heated cement. by J.A. of

or added

SULCONTM, and Figure (3) Modified

used

Company, in Figure

commercial

production respectively. asphalt batch

SC are shown

mobile

plants unit of

with

SC capacity in Figure capacities

of 12 to 30 33-18. have been

tons per hour. (4) Hot-mix converted Mixing than used. Preparation, Casting, of using time

A 12-ton-per-hour batch plants

is shown

asphalt

different

to SC production. for preparing homogeneous longer SC mixtures may vary from less

one minute

to considerably

and depends

on the type

of equipment

and Finishing SC is done a concrete flaked instead by of mixing molten hot aggregate 127O to to obtain and 149C modified-sulfur (260 to 3OOF) SC tempertemperature

Production cement range. of 171 ature to to When range.

produce 193C

material

in the

cement,

an aggregate the desired

(340

to 380F)

is necessary

410

Corrosion and Chemical Resistant Masonry Materials Handbook

Figure 33-15:

Small-5cale (500-lb) batch plant for SC (USBM)

Figure 33-16:

Sulfur-concrete

mobile mixing unit (SULCONTM,

Inc

Polymer Concretes

411

Figure 33-17: Sulfur-concrete ity (J.A. Reece, Inc.).

transporter

with

heating

and mixing

system,

10-cu-yd

capac

Figure

33-18:

Mobile

12 ton/hour

SC mixing

unit

(Wylie

Manufacturing

Company)

(USBM)

Casting the SC is accomplished either by discharging it directly from a mixing unit into forms or by transporting it from the mixing unit in concrete buggies with insulated hoppers. Sufficient SC should be prepared or available to make a complete pour. This is necessary to prevent heat loss from the material so that it can be finished before it starts to solidify. Sulfur concrete must be poured on a dry base, because moisture will be vaporized by the hot concrete,

412

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

form tration of

minute

channels coating, from the

through should

the

casting, casting

and SC over

render

it susceptible

to

penesuch

by corrosive

liquids.

When

existing

PCC, a barrier, between reported

as a bitumastic moisture materials.

be installed

over the PCC to prevent a corrosion barrier for commercial Yarbrough between types from

vaporization the two has on the use the use of materials to slab

PCC and to provide of construction to provide between waterstops adjacent of

Development membrane

practices both the

installation

been described of a slip plane effective polyvinyl waterproof of A vibratory or metal forms. vent mold Metal premature

by YarbroughM plan

and by Pickard.35 two

a barrier

PCC and SC and an

stress relief chloride joints probe forms forms

materials.

He described of sealant casting one end

(PVC) between pour may

and different pours be made consolidate SC. Mold sulfur

of SC. When

a horizontal

SC, a continuous may

SC should

to the other. Wooden to pre-

be used to help be preheated of a skin of may

and level the pour. release agents 95C at the by (203F)

be used in casting should

are used on the of a cold using accomand of the should be on the wooden a

to approximately cement

freezing of

surface rodding,

~
Consolidation SC castings with be accomplished table. Finishing vibratory screed probe, by first trowels. When or casting screeding If further All finishing with finishing the hot on a vibratory a wooden, of SC should finishing SC is generally

vibratory plished or metal concrete. kept trowel. Quality

to consolidate solidification

level the concrete.

is necessary,

it may be done with the trowels

cease on any solidification

the surface

of SC using trowels,

in contact

SC to prevent

of the concrete

Control of durable, corrosion-resistant SC requires In addition, site. the SC materials before adding in the the SC steel cylinder and bar molds. are cast from ASTM 106C cylinder good quality control prac-

Preparation of all components tices are necessary Sampling working The molds tip as the

used in its production. at the mix plant Analysis: range into with Specimens standard a heated Both

good

construction

and construction

and

temperature

are preheated by tamping SC is added Samples

to approximately

(22OF)

and compacted vertical position

3/s-inch rod with temperature should

a hemisphere-shaped are cast in a from of in before removing

to the mold.

and bar samples be cured

and allowed testing. Strength: ASTM

to cool to room measurements

the molds.

for strength

to a minimum are made

one day before Compressive accordance Flexural with ASTM Splitting accordance Air methods. 457 Voids: One with

Compressive strength Tensile of

strength

measurements

C 39 on 3- by 6-inch Flexural Strength:

SC cylinders. are made in accordance are made by ASTM in two C

Strength: Tensile with ASTM Air is by linear

determinations SC bars. strength

C 78 on 3- by 3- by 14-inch

determinations may

C 496 on 3- by 6-inch content microscopic determination

SC cylinders. be estimated with in accordance and the other

void

SC materials method, mixture.

using the gravity

traverse from

(Rosiwal)

is by calculation

of the void content specific

the actual

specific

gravity

of the SC and the theoretical

of the aggregate-binder

Polymer

Concretes

413

Void content,

% =

(Theoretical

sp gr

actual sp gr)

x ,oo

Theoretical

sp gr

Absorption: mens by weighing 21C (70F)

Moisture

absorption

is determined immersing

on 3- by 6-inch the specimen (wet weight)

SC speciin water at

a specimen

(dry weight),

for 24 hours, surface drying,

and reweighing

Wet weight Moisture absorption, % =

dry weight x 100

Dry weight

Aggregate: from for swelling

Aggregates constituents.

should They

be of high crushing should have less than 1% moisture is estimated

strength,

clean, and free in 10% HCI soaking for after

1% solubility

acid corrosion Cement

use and less than Cement content

absorption by burning Initial

24 hours. Content: until off the cement combustion is at is from 15OC a crushed (302OF) 100 g sample of SC in a muffle furnace.

the bulk of the sulfur is volatilized; cement. Plant: Quality control cylindrical control

then the temperature

raised to 4OOC (752OF) in grams equals percent Control two sets of at the Mix triplicate, daily

and all carbon and sulfur are burned off.

Loss in weight as often of for on a

samples should be taken samples should samples should should strength

as necessary to insure proper continuous moisture production cement Production

composition basis. The content,

and mixing

of the SC. A minimum be taken be tested

3- by 6-inch

absorption, control

and compressive

and should meet for proper to SC

the specifications. temperature Control insure prior plete, with proper it should a heating

at the mix plant of the SC. Site:

be monitored

and mixing of

at the Construction preparation be removed unit

The casting site should starts to solidify reheated heater. before

be monitored of the finishing

the site and placement or immediately

and finishing to working

to solidification.

If the material

is comof water-

temperature

such as an infrared

Correct

installation

stops and slip joints, Safety Construction those Normal workers sulfur encountered precautions wearing have been

and sealing of expansion

joints should be monitored.

of SC materials in for proper paving handling

involves hot fluid

precautions with materials safety Safety

and practices asphaltic

similar

to

operations

hot-mixed

concrete. such as or face these

must be observed, glasses, goggles Council,37,38 SC.

protective by the

clothing, National material,

shields, gloves, and hard hats. Practices for safe handling established practices should be observed must be recognized. exposure aggregate to a direct will above Sulfur flame 96C point in preparing concrete, source, (205F), and handling

of both solid and liquid and

When using SC as a construction

its limitations prepared

and its advantages will burn on to exand

like wood or plastic materials, of the heat source. lose strength. it will

but properly it will

SC using dense-graded If it is exposed If the temperature with its strength

cease burning

on removal

temperatures integrity.

ceeds the melting Also, thermoplastic

of the sulfur

cement,

start to melt and lose its

SC must be used in applications properties.

consistent

414

Corrosion and Chemical Resistant Masonry Materials Handbook

When SC materials are produced in the recommended mixing temperature range of 127 to 149C (260 to 300F), gaseous emissions of sulfur dioxide (S02) and hydrogen sulfide (H2S) will be considerably below the allowable threshold limit values, and sulfur vapor emissions will be minimized. Threshold values established for S02 are 5 ppm for short-term exposure and 2 ppm for time-weighted average concentration for an 8-hour exposure. Corresponding values for H2S are 15 ppm and 10 ppm respectively .39 Monitoring and measuring S02 and H2S may be done with commercially available instruments. Monitoring of sulfur emissions from SC production with portable recording instruments is shown in Figure 33-19.

Figure

33-19:

Recording

instruments

for measuring

H2S and So2 concentration

Sulfur vapor crystallizes, on cooling, into fine dust.like particles and is nontoxic. Sulfur dust may cause eye irritation which can be minimized by requiring goggles in areas where sulfur vapors or dust may be emitted. The toxicity of modified-sulfur cements, sulfur reacted with 5% of DCPD and oligomer mixture, has been investigated.40 The results were similar to those for sulfur. Two-hour inhalation tests of vapor from cement heated to 141C (285F) have shown no toxic effects.

ADVANTAGES

AND DISADVANTAGES

IN USING SULFUR

CONCRETE

The main advantage of corrosion-resistant SC is that it is a construction material with excellent mechanical properties that can be used without damage in applications where other materials presently being used fail. Its main use is as replacement for PCC in industrial plant areas where acid and metallic salt environments result in destruction of PCC. The most advantageous use of SC would be in new construction in areas subject to corrosion. Installation cost would be less, quality control would be simplified, and time lost in maintenance and replacement of deteriorated concrete would be nearly eliminated. While ultimate life or durability of SC has not been completely established in many end-use areas, enough evidence of its corrosion resistance and durability has

Polymer

Concretes

415

been accumulated materials of being SC is its fast a day, curing than

to show that setting forms time.

it has at least three corrosive Since it achieves is not

times

the life of construction Another advantage strength for PCC

used in the tested

environments.22 most and it can be placed intended In-place cost of

of its mechanical as a replacement

in less than a long higher The crete. coatings,

can be removed concrete durable.

in service without SC is considerably of the project. corroded it will conburn

period. that of

Sulfur

in uses in which initial higher plant

PCC has proven

PCC and varies according and repair and

to the magnitude costs for

cost of SC is countered

by elimination replacement to wood

of need for protective

downtime, of using cement, it will fire

A disadvantage if exposed point thermal peratures. nitrate Another terials. SC with of the sulfur

SC is that, it will

similar

and plastics, Since such

to open flame.

If exposed not

to prolonged lose structural oxidant Production lack of

temperatures integrity. chemicals with exposures

over the melting SC is a poor temfor to elevated techniques for

conductor, Potential could

be destroyed with

on short

interaction as more has been Concrete of developing

as ammonium use of SC. SC maon

promote improved

hazards.41 the

and placement specifications

SC are being

experience Institute

is gained standard

increased

disadvantage The American the purpose

has established report

a new subcommittee and users guide.4*

a stateof-the-art

SUMMARY Technology materials. with ment has been developed cement designs were materials resistance strength to prepare of chemical-resistant in which to form sulfur construction sulfur is reacted a stable concretes were ceand for pro-

A modified-sulfur Mixture cements excellent

was developed

dicyclopentadiene product.

and oligomers developed

cyclopentadiene corrosion-resistant to prepare by most stable Sulfur to with

utilizing

aggregates concretes by

modified-sulfur duced good cycling, The sulfur testing for tries. with

use as corrosion-resistant mechanical

of construction. resistance compatible steel.

to damage

acid and salt environments, damage those freeze-thaw materials, in the on of other

properties,

and coefficients technology of the

of expansion

of construction manufacture concrete

such as PCC and reinforcing has been demonstrated modified-sulfur materials. environments cement indicated

on a commercial and that evaluation concrete

scale both with

in its utilization

in producing industry

construction applications

Cooperative sulfur

in corrosion

has the potential indus-

widespread

in the chemical,

metallurgical,

and fertilizer

REFERENCES 1. Sheppard, W.L., Jr., Su/phur

Mortars: A Historical Survey. Sulphur Institute Journal, Vol. 11, No. 34,pp 15-17 (1975). [See also his book,Chemica//y Resisfanf Masonry (2nd Ed., Marcel Dekker, NYC) pp 163-174 (1982)l. Rybczynski, W., Ortega, A., and Ali, W., Sulphur Concrete and Very Low Cost Housing. Presented at the Canadian Sulfur Symposium, Alberta (May 1974).

2.

476

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

3. 4. 5. 6. 7. a. 9. 10.

11.

12. 13.

14. 15. 16. 17. 18.

19.

20. 21.

22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29

Bacon, R .F., and Davis, H.S., Recent Advances in the American Sulfur Industry, Chem. andMet Eng.,Vol.24.N0,2,pp65-72 (1921). Kobbe, W.H., New Uses for Sulfur in Industry, Ind. Eng. Chem., Vol. 16, No. 10, pp 1026-28 (1924). Duecker, W.W., Admixtures Improve Properties of Sulfur Cements, Chem. and Met Eng.,V0l.41,N0.11,pp583586(1934). McKinney, P.V., Provisional Methods for Testing Sulfur Cements,ASTM Bull., 96-107, pp 27-30 (1940). American Society for Testing and Materials, 7933 Book of ASTM Standards , Section 4,v01.04.05 (1983). U.S. Department of the Interior Under the Mining and Mineral Policy Act of 1970, PL.91631,pp34,104(1972). Vroom, A.H., Sulfur Utilization, National Research Council of Canada, Ottawa, Canada, NRC No. 1241 (2nd Ed.) (1971). Dale, J.M. and Ludwig, AC., Feasibility Study for Using Sulfur-Aggregate Mixtures as a Structural Material, Southwest Research Institute, San Antonio,Texas, Tech. Rep. No. AFWL-TR-6667 (Sept. 1966). Dale, J.M. and Ludwig, A.C., Advanced Studies of the Sulfur-Aggregate Mixtures asa Sfrucfural Material, Southwest Research Institute, San Antonio, Texas, Tech. Rep. No. AFWL-TR-68-21 (Oct. 1968). Crow, L.J. and Bates, R.C., Strength of Sulfur-Basalt Concretes, BuMines RI 7349 (1970). Sullivan, T.A., McBee, WC., and Blue, D.D., Sulfur in Coating and Structural Materials, Ch. 4 in New Uses of Sulfur, (J.R. West, ed.), Advances in Chemistry Series No, 140,Am. Chem. Sot., Washington, DC., pp 55-74 (1975). Sullivan, T.A., and McBee, WC.. Development and Testing of Superior Sulfur Concretes, BuMines RI 8160 (1976). McBee, W.C., and Sullivan, T.A., Development of Specialized Sulfur Concretes, BuMines RI 8346 (1979). McBee, W.C.,and Sullivan,T.A. (assigned to U.S. Department of Commerce), Modified Sulfur Cement, U.S. Pat. 4,311,826 (Jan. 19,1982). McBee, W.C., Sullivan, T.A., and Jong, B.W., Modified Sulfur Cements for Use in Concretes, Flexible Pavings, Coatings, and Grouts, BuMnes RI 8547 (1981). McBee, W.C.,and Sul1ivan.T.A. (assigned to U.S. Department of Commerce), Concrete Formulations Comprising Polymeric Reaction Products of Sulfur/Cyclopen tadiene, D/igmer/Dicyclopentadiene, U.S. Pat. 4.348.313 (Sept. 7,1982). McBee, WC., Sullivan, T.A., and Jong, B.W., Modified Sulphur Concrete Technology, Proc. SULPHUR-87 Inter. Conf. on Sulphur, Calgary, Alberta, Canada, pp 367-388 (May 1981). McBee, WC., Sullivan, T.A., and Jong, B.W.. Corrosion-Resistant Sulfur Concretes, BuMines RI 8758 (1983). Funke, R.H., Jr., and McBee, W.C., An Industrial Application of Sulfur Concrete (Ch. in ASC Symposium Series No. 783), Am. Chem. Sot., Washington, D.C., pp 195-208 (1982). McBee, W.C., Sullivan, T.A., and Jong, B.W., industrial Evaluation ofsulfur Concrete in Corrosive Environments, BuMines RI 8786 (1983). Sullivan, T.A., Corrosion-Resistant Sulphur Concretes-Design Manual, The Sulphur Institute, Washington, D.C. (1982). Vroom, A.H .I Sulfur Cements, Process for Making Same and Sulfur Concretes Made Therefrom, US. Pat. 4,058,500 (Nov. 15, 1977). Vroom, A.H., Sulfur Cements, Process for Making Same and Sulfur Concretes Made Therefrom, U.S. Pat, 4,293,463 (Oct. 6, 1981). Leutener, B., and Diehl, L., Manufacture of Sulfur Concrete, U.S. Pat. 4,025,352 (May 24, 1977). Gillott, J.E., Jordaan, I.J., Loov, R.E., and Shrive, N.G.,Sulfur Concretes, Mortarsand the Like,U.S. Patent 4,188,230 (Feb. 12.1980). Schneider, R.A., and Simic, M., Plasticized Sulfur Composition, U.S. Patent 4,308.072 (Dec. 29,198l). Woo, G .L., Phosphoric Acid Treated Sulfur Cement-Aggregate Compositions, U.S. Patent 4,376,831 (Mar. 15,1983).

Polymer

Concretes

417

30. 31. 32.

33.

34.

35. 36. 37. 38. 39.

40. 41. 42.

Nimer, E.L., and Campbell, R.W.,Sulfur Cement-Aggregate-Organosilane Composition and Methods for Preparing, U.S. Pat. 4,376,830 (Mar. 15.1983). Gregor, R., and Hackl, A., A New Approach to Sulfur Concretes (Ch. in Advances in Chemistry Series No. 765). Am. Chem. Sot., Washington, D.C., pp 54-78 (1978). Bright, L., Currell, B.R., Nash, B.J., Scott, R.A.M., and Stillo, C., Preparation and Properties of Modified Sulfur Systems (Ch. in Advances in Chemistry Series No. 765). Am. Chem. Sot., Washington, D.C., pp 13-30 (1978). Bordoloi, B.K., and Pearce, E.M., Plastic Sulfur Stabilization by Copolymerization of Sulfur With Dicyclopentadiene (Ch. in Advances in Chemistry Series No. 7651, Am. Chem. Sot., Washington, D.C., pp 3163 (1978). Yarbrough, R.L., Specialized Construction Practices for Sulfur Concretes. Presented at Sulfur in Concrete Symposium, American Concrete Institute, Los Angeles, California (Mar. 23,1983). Pickard, S.C., Sulfur Concrete at AMAX Nickel: A Project Case History, SULCON, Inc., Champaign, Illinois (1983). The Asphalt Institute, Mix Design for Asphalt Concrete, Manual Series No. 2 (MS-2) (Mar. 1979). National Safety Council (Chicago, Illinois), Handling and Storage of So/id Sulfur, Data Sheet 612 (1968). Illinois), Handling Liquid Sulfur, Data Sheet National Safety Council (Chicago, 1-592-78 (1979). American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists, TL Vs, Threshold Limit Values for Chemical and Physical Agents in the Workroom Environment With Intended Changes for 1987,Cincinnati,Ohio,4th Ed. (1980). Tox Monitor Laboratories (Oak Park, Illinois), Plasticized Sulfur, Rep. TM82358 (Jan. 1983). Mason, C.M., Forshey, DR., and Perzak, F.J.P., Fire Hazards of Ammonium Nitrate, Sulfur Systems Agricultural and Food Chemistry, Vol. 15, No. 6, pp 95466 (1967). SULCONTM, Inc., Roadshow Report (Newsletter) SULCONTM Systems, P.O. BOX 427,Champaign. Illinois (June 1983).

PART B EPOXY AND VINYL AND POLYMER ESTER GROUTS CONCRETES

William The Ceilcote

Slama Company

Berea, Ohio

HISTORY The been use of polymer for concrete in 1957 other in the form even though of epoxy machinery mortars for grout for had

compressors used

probably previously

began

aggregate-filled

polymers

purposes

such as bonding

masonry

418

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

and

troweled Large,

monolithic

surfacings, compressors that

both

discussed

in other

chapters

of this of and is

publication. integral-engine were and still are used for transmission from the actual within initial wellhead plants mounting chemical natural refineries. necessary ment of mounting failure. Prior the shim below. filings cement drawbacks fluid not get complete have good nor dations operating face from for with plant that and better to equipment gas in pipelines serve areas remote of this equipment, areas.

These large compressors to insure This 1957, after the to special These proper can fluid piece

are also used for applications operation. be costly mixtures of Changes from in terms of

Due to the nature

precise,

permanent alignment resulting as well

or looseness equip-

can cause misalignment downtime.

of the crankshafts, repair

in major

as unanticipated were flowed under

of sand, cement, precisely and were the

and water massive shrinkage

equipment between Some to help mixes. and tended

it was aligned inorganic materials

in place to provide produced using iron of

a pour-in-place foundation or aluminum sand but and had to do need

equipment grouts for for the

concrete these

compensate a lot of room

inherent fulfilled a great

generally so that

an important The mixtures

and left contact do they

improvement. of the equipment.

were not truly grouts

to be thixotropic to the surface have good oil,

deal of care was required Inorganic-based impact leaked and vibration or to the concrete onto the grout

adhesion

to the steel equipment resistance to or chemicals of a major their large

surfaces the which

founof the sur-

equipment the operating methods

or the

equipment. group chemical company They material They they was searching were familiar used in the considered strength had been could long site to The for grouting adhesion in the installation, effort the and material it was compressors. flooring properties. grouts water and, slightly the

In 1957,

the engineering

a corrosion-resistant, and its tremendous the very along them life. it flooring more fast (not with with strength available quick adhesion

aggregate-filled, development,

epoxy

and mechanical inorganic, strength low with

accompanied iron-filled and low downtime,

by high-tensile absorption,

using), provide service resistant make long

highcompressive of a joint

presumedly, on the job compressor.

As a result flowable, service of

the manufacturer underneath grout

of the chemical-

material,

was modified

installed to the fairly

installation product pressors.

was successful,

resulting compared spread

in a great savings in downtime inorganic to create rapidly, a grouting particularly

and providing used. The and the comlarge

trouble-free type

previously material, for

used was permanently material

modified

use of that

SCOPE This ment filled filled) nology minimum chapter downtime and used for covers aggregate-filled repair, is vital. vinyl or especially Much ester grouts epoxy grouts generally discussed grouts underlying used for equipto

bases or concrete polyester

in areas of chemical information also, liquid The and, cracks.

exposure (not

or where aggregate techareas

of the

is relevant polymer in other

injection

concrete

is not within

the scope of this chapter,

but may be covered

Polymer

Concretes

419

of this

publication term Polymer

and is the subject concrete as the (binder) hardens

of basic texts to a material of

such as Handbook of construction and hydraulic material

of Epoxy
which inof form cement

Resins by Lee and Neville. The corporates binder. a continuous polymer concrete phase filler refers binder of a polymer in p/ace water polymer, Polymer concrete, concrete,

is best defined

as a construction is applied state.

composed

a thermosetting rigid

and a discontinuousor nonrigid concrete and this trowelable, is generally information monolithic agents,

phase particulate and, subsequently, Epoxy does not polymer tile grouts grout relate

such as silica, which to a strong with type of of

in a fluid concrete.

used in place of or in conjunction is a specific to other epoxy forms

Portland polymer polymer

Cement

surfacings, or mortars

or other

polymer-based construction.

adhesives,

bonding

for acidproof

brick

FUNCTION The durable, must form

OF GROUT function a strong, aligned The grout loads bond of aggregate-filled shim position should underneath stable while and must adhere dimensionally epoxy machinery or layer so that attack grout the is to equipment provide The grout is held forces or other static not be a

pour-in-place

machinery

equipment.

in its initial, chemicals. and sile could or utilized and tensile to

be able to transfer resisting substrate

the operating by lubricants Grout to should function is desirable. design operating foundations and transfer exhibit

of the equipment dynamic

to the foundation in a compression

to the concrete and/or should to itself

shear mode. not be allowed

the equipment properties,

down they

and, although prevent Proper into with

grouts

good tenin the This base should cycles. when in

adhesion mode,

though in failure the grout

anchor-bonding of the grout surface of the in compression Fast cure

movement anchor-bolt concrete high

result the grout bolts

or loss of bond

to the equipment

fracture

of

concrete. throughout anchor bolts for for with combined

maintain Epoxy new make

all anticipated

is also used to bond be added. choice. may also section.

must

strength grouting

and adhesion are included applications They can be

it an excellent Epoxy grout not fast,

Guidelines be utilized repair

anchor-bolt concrete machinery which

the installation may or may

repair. may

These

be in conjunction causes: conditions or thermal

foundations.

used for

high-strength by various

of concrete

have been damaged

or destroyed (1) (2) (3) (4) They acid-brick Where

Extreme

weather

such as freeze/thaw shock

cycles.

High temperatures Attack

by oil or chemicals. damage for the by explosions rebuilding is desired, or falling or repair flowable objects. manholes or other since

Accidental are useful structures. a sloped

of chemical grouts must

surface

be formed

420

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

they

tend

to

be self-leveling. surface until

Alternately, the grout

a dry-pack

type

may

be used.

It will

hold the sloped Uses Epoxy rails, bolts, blowers, specific

cures.

grouts

are well sole

suited

for

the following pipe milling

general

applications: engines, generators, plates,

crane anchor fans and

compressors, presses, kilns,

plates,

crushers, columns, forging

supports, machines, thrust

diesel

pumps,

building

centrifuges, in Table

shears, 33-6.

hammers,

as well as the

applications

COMPOSITION Most component, filler cluded packaged grouts are furnished component. the curing agent as threecomponent curing In agent some cases, materials having a liquid-resin and a dry products aggregate are in-

a fluid-reactive with

or hardener in the

component, filler or the

(aggregate)

two-component

incorporated

in the resin package.

Resin Component Formulations materials. formulations resulting resins, wetting, strength, sistance, Curing and With to other generally these affect the start with blocks, basic epoxy various of the used liquid material. to affect (polyester/vinyl resin itself ester) as well flow, resin as the

as building properties and

modifiers

are included include

in these modifying adhesion, re-

properties agents modulus

mechanical

of the cured

These viscosity,

additives

and, of course, compressive etc. Agent is also referred

the entire

range of mechanical of elasticity,

properties flexibility,

such as tensile temperature

strength,

This a wide may

to

as hardener, the curing By varying

convertor,

catalyst,

reactant.

As the resin The curing esters).

resin components be made

can vary,

agent can be even more varied the curing of for agent, cure the resulting will affect and and anywhere relatively polyesters

to produce cured

range of properties. brittle of the during these curing initial or

like glass or as soft as putty system cure. Most amides andspeed products (peroxides

in between. standard vinyl

formulation generated agents specific Aggregate Most usually shape, tion flour Here again, such

the exotherm

utilize

as amines

components

can be complex

proprietary

blends

to accomplish

end results. or Filler aggregate components screened, used. other Siliceous are based on high-silica and dried silica mineral fillers content raw materials, in size, purand applicafor most

selectively

washed, Although

sand products.

These vary to enhance

and gradations

are sufficient

poses and cost effective, characteristics.

additives or other

may be incorporated additives coloration.

such as beads, fibers,

are used, as well as pigments,

to produce

Polymer

Concretes

421

Table 33-6:

Applications Steel Industry

for Epoxy

Grout

Main mill housings Spindle carriers Gear boxes Large D.C. motors (4000-10000 Mill tables Shearing Coilers Manipulators Slab pushers, pilers Straighteners Gantry cranes, rail beds equipment range)

Descaling

pumps

Acid pumps Clarifiers Expanders Structural Crushers Ball mill Steel-making vessels (such as in a pipe mill) support plates

(AOD,BOF,Q-BOP) Mold shake-out Continuous Forges Shapers Car scales Engines (steam, FRP tanks Mining Industry gas, diesel) electric equipment

casting

equipment

Manipulator Transfer

rail beds beds

car-rail

Tension reels Fan housings

Crushers

and vibrators and engines

Conveyor

support and drive equipment

Compressors

Crane raceways Clarifiers Furnaces FRP tanks

Rod and ball mills Pumps Kilns Fan housings

Pulp and Paper Industry Backing drums Acid and caustic Paper machines Calenders pumps Fan housings Compressors Clarifiers FRP tanks Rubber Industry Banbury mixers Calenders Mold equipment Compressors and engines and engines

422

Corrosion and Chemical Resistant Masonry Materials Handbook in prepackaged units to avoid the requirement

Most products are furnished for field measurement.

TYPES

OF GROUT

Aggregate-Filled-Flowable Most are in this category. Heavily filled systems utilize ratios of filler-to resin components between 4: 1 to 8: 1. Some products designed for special vol. ume uses have lower fill ratios. Typical properties are shown in Table 33-7. Table 33-7:
Tensile (ASTM strength C 307-61 modified)

Typical Epoxy Machinery Grout Properties

1500-3000 psi {10-20 MPa)

Compressive (ASTM Flexural (ASTM Flexural (ASTM

strength Method B)

10,000-15,000 psi (69-103 MPa)

C 579-75 strength C 580) modulus C 580)

3000-5000

psi (21-34

MPa)

of elasticity

1.8-3.0

x 106psi (12-20

GPa)

Bond strength Tensile Density Shrinkage, (ASTM Coefficient (ASTM

to sandblasted

steel

1500-3000

psi (10-20

MPa)

125-140 Ibs/cu Ct {2-2.24 gm/cc)

unrestrained, D 2566) of thermal expansion 15-30 X 10-6 in/infOF (27-54 X 10-6 in/infOC) Stronger Better Better than concrete than concrete than concrete linear

.001-.002 in/in

C 531-68)

70-140oF

Bond to concrete Impact Abrasion strength resistance

Aggregate-Filled -Dry -Pack Special dry-packing versions are available where flow is not desired. These are used in cases where sealed forms cannot be conveniently utilized, and the grout will be rammed or packed in place. These products are extremely thixotropic so that they do not flow or sag after placement.
Low-Viscosity. Crack-Repair Grouts intended for pouring or pumping into cracks in

These are specialty

systems

concrete or very shallow voids underneath equipment or plates. These systems are generally resin and hardener component only and may not incorporate the use of fillers.

Polymer Concretes

423

Underwater Grouts A few manufacturers have special grouting products for use underwater . These products vary in their actual composition but are formulated to be pumped, poured or otherwise applied in underwater applications. These are unique specialty products and, as a result, each application should be discussed specifically with the grout manufacturer . Polyester/Vinyl Ester Grouts

Epoxy grouts generally have good chemical resistance to oils and chemicals. There are some applications, however, where concentrated acids such as nitric or sulfuric or other aggressive chemicals may be too severe for epoxy grouts. For these applications, polyester or vinyl ester resin-based grouts should be used. Very few of these grouts are available, and they should not be substituted for epoxy grout unless the service conditions dictate. Available polyester/vinyl ester grouts are generally aggregate-filled, flowable types and may be used in a manner similar to epoxy grouts. The physical and mechanical properties of the filled polyester/vinyl ester grouts are similar to the properties of epoxy grouts with one very important exception. Polyester/vinyl ester-resin systems have higher shrinkage during cure than epoxy grouts, and in thick pours or hot conditions, this characteristic is exaggerated by increased exotherm temperature. For this reason, the size and thickness of polyester or vinyl ester grout pours should be kept to a minimum with thickness restricted to a maximum of two inches (5 cm). Even with this restraint, these grouts are still very likely to crack. Since their use implies very severe chemical or acid conditions, the cracks can allow the corrosive to penetrate through to the concrete substrate. To prevent potential attack of the concrete, a glass-reinforced monolithic surfacing is installed prior to application of the polyester/vinyl ester grout. Because of the h igher shrinkage and more costly installation procedure, polyester/vinyl ester grouts should only be used where the chemical conditions dictate . Properties of an acid-resistant polyester grout are shown in Table 33-8.

PROPERTIES Compressive Interest strength This tions actual which property and twice operating

AND Strength

TESTS

in epoxy generally is three measure

grouts to four

was initially times that

generated of standard grouts. usually

by their concrete

high floors

compressive and foundais a good since

ranges between of inorganic

10,000

and 15,000

psi (69 and 103 MPa). strength lower .

the strength compressive

Compressive a primary

comparative

of strength.

It is not

requirement

stresses in actual

service are much

424

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

Table 33-8: Tensile strength

Polyester/Vinyl

Ester Grout

Properties

2,400 psi (16.5 MPa)

(ASTM C 307-61 modified) Compressive strength 13,700 psi (94.4 MPa)

(ASTM C 579-75 Method B) Cure time to reach 10,000 psi compressive strength

@90oF
@ 7OoF @. 500F

16 hours 24 hours 36 hours 4250 psi (29 MPa)

Flexural

strength

(ASTM c 580) Flexural modulus of elasticity 1.8 x 106 psi (12.4 GPa)

(ASTM C 580) Bond strength Tensile Specific Shrinkage Unrestrained, linear Gravity 2.12 .004 in/in to steel 2400 psi (16.5 MPa)

(ASTM D 2566) Coefficient 70-140F (ASTM C 531-68) Bond to concrete Impact Strength Abrasion resistance of thermal expansion 15.3 x lO%/in/oF (27.5 x 10-6 in/in/OC) Stronger Better Better than concrete than concrete than concrete

Compressive utilizes gate. minute minute facturers This can affected l-inch The It should specimens.

strength smaller be noted

is generally (2.5 x 2.5 cm)

tested right

by

ASTM

C 579. or 2-inch

This

method cube

x l-inch

cylinders

(5 cm)

cylinders movement in either

are generally of 0.20 manner, to 0.25

used for grouts with inches (0.51

fine aggrepsi per cm) per

that the method is running

specifies a test rate of 6,000 to 0.25 load. which to 0.64

or a crosshead be obtained be important

when the machine

without

(This implies that the same is not the case.) Most manuto 0.64 cm) per minute. of most grouts is strength

results will

test at a range of 0.20 by rate of application

inches (0.51

since ultimate of stress.

compressive

Polymer

Concretes

425

Tensile Strength The strength. tensile strength ASTM of epoxy Method grouts ranges from epoxy 1,500 to over 3,000 psi

(10 to 20 MPa). tensile strengths, Bond Strength Excellent portant those cepted of

C 307

is normally

used to determine in the tensile mode.

the tensile

It should

be noted that

even though

grouts are capable of high

they are not designed to function

adhesion

to materials which for

of construction grouts distinguishes these highly

such as properly

prepared from ac-

steel or concrete

is the forte factors methods grouting

of epoxy materials.

and is probably there

one of the im-

performance cementitious test adhesion

the service capabilities are no standard filled systems, strengths. concrete material

Although adhesion

manufacturers surfaces since adjacent to the

have utilized the result

various procedures

to determine adhesion

It is impossible bond of the epoxy the concrete Adhesion on the When hesive blasting testing failure

to determine grout.

to prepared simply

of the test will substrate.

be a failure This type

of the concrete

of test will

measure the strength of will probably be

to sandblasted adhesion

(abrasive-blasted) as the tensile surfaces, procedure adjacent Painting and

steel surfaces the failure

same order

of magnitude material

or shear strength mode

of the grout. may be a coAbrasive is

to sandblasted and optimum Structures

of grouting Steel

to the sandblast for obtaining Council metal

profile.

is the preferred objective.

strong adhesion SSPC-SP-5

to steel surfaces. the preferred of the mended. Typical surface

Specification blast. mm)

It calls for a white

Roughness or profile profile is recom-

is also important

a 3-mil

(0.0762

test results are: bond to sandblasted by grinding-l,000 adhesion bonding be pulled force force to concrete some type upward until failure

steel-2,500

psi (17 MPa); bond steel with which

to steel prepared For testing generally with monly involve may crete which dividing the

psi (7 MPa);

bond to hot-rolled

mill scale, solvent wiped-400

psi (3 MPa), mill scale pulled from steel. surfaces there of test fixture perpendicular occurs. for The are various methods to the surface of the constrength is called is then calculated One comad-

to the plane of the concrete

a measurable pulling available

by the area of the test plug or button. designed coatings smooth more

instrument

the elcometer

hesion tester. most rupture grout The The epoxy the

It is useful for fairly surfaces which will provide of the would then grouts surface would strength

surfaces, but will not provide reliable Under normal strength is broken; conditions to most enough and adhesion hence,

results on concrete

have been chipped. than before the bond

concrete list bond

manufacturers method surface

to concrete strength concrete

as stronger

than concrete. in tension. one-tenth

test the

surface prepared

of the concrete should approach

of properly

of its compressive Shrinkage Epoxy Epoxy grouts

strength.

cure or harden These reactions regarded

by reaction result

between

their

resin and curing (shrinkage). and, because of

agent components.

in a reduction

of volume

grouts are generally

as low shrinkage

materials

426

Corrosion and Chemical Resistant Masonry Materials Handbook

their excellent adhesion, shrinkage is not usually apparent. The shrinkage of epoxy grouts during cure normally has two separate effects. First, the shrinkage during the early portion of the epoxy cure (while the material is still fluid) results in a reduction in volume. Further shrinkage occurs as the grout gradually changes from a plastic solid to a rigid, more elastic material. This shrinkage results in dimensional changes or built-in stresses. The early volumetric shrinkage of the epoxy grouts is not generally a problem, since the effect of th is is a slight lowering of the grout surface in the open areas of the form. The fluidity and adhesion of epoxy grouts are such that the grout does not pull away from the bottom of the equipment being grouted. There are, at present, no test methods for measuring the early volumetric shrinkage of filled epoxy grouts, but work is being done by ASTM Committee C-3 to develop an acceptable test method . The linear shrinkage or solid-phase shrinkage is of more interest since it can result in shrinkage strain or residual shrinkage stress. Two ASTM methods have been employed to measure "unrestrained linear" shrinkage: ASTM C 531, which utilizes a 1 inch x 1 inch x 10 inch (2.5 cm x 2.5 cm x 25.4 cm) bar specimen, and ASTM D 2566 which uses a 41/2-inch diameter x 10-inch long (11.4 x 25.4 cm), half-round casting. Both methods allow the grout to cure without restraint, measuring the actual dimensional change as shrinkage. These tests must only be used for comparison values since most epoxy grouts are very creepable during their early cure stages. In actual installations, when the epoxy is in bonded contact with concrete or steel, as little as one-tenth of the free measured shrinkage may actually result in residual tensile stress. Coefficient of Expansion

Cured epoxy resins exhibit coefficient of expansion on the order of 60 x 10-b per oF (108 x 10-b per oC).The presence of the aggregate fillers lowers the coefficient of expansion of the composite grout. Coefficient of expansion is tested by ASTM C 531 (above) using a 10-inch bar specimen with metal studs bonded in the ends. The length is compared in an accurate dial gauge comparator at various temperatures. The coefficient of expansion of filled epoxy grouts ranges from 15 to 30 x 10-b per oF (27 to 54 per C). Epoxy grouts are normally in bonded contact with concrete substrates and steel equipment. These materials have coefficients of expansion of 6 x 10-b per oF (11 x 10""6 per oC), and 6.5 x 10-b per oF (12 x 10-b per oC) respectively. As a result, temperature changes are significant and must be taken into consideration. Some results of thermal stress include: (1) Heat generated during curing can result in a trapped thermal strain. As the epoxy grout cools after installation, it will attempt to contract more than that of the steel or concrete surfaces. (2) At elevated temperatures, the epoxy grout tries to expand at a rate greater than that of the concrete and steel it is adhered to, and, as a result, it is held in a compressive state. This has not been found to be a problem and serves to prestress the grout in compression (its normal operating mode).

Polymer

Concretes

427

(3)

When the grout pending in the can

is exposed

to lower

temperatures tensile by of the grout

after

installation De-

as in summer-to-winter on the physical installation, in cracks for more the

weather stresses grout

cycles, produced

stresses result. lower

configuration

and equipment temperatures on

result

in the

or concrete. on this subject.

See the section

installation Temperature Grout for long-term mechanisms embrittlement, Even ranges, machinery when grouts physical

information

Resistance manufacturers materials. of the thermal the stability of generally grout establish which maximum operating limits to temperatures several possible

the grouting

Recommended breakdown,

temperature includes resulting their

can be based upon shrinkage, temperature Widely used

resistance

generally within by strengths

in continued

and loss of properties. grouts are utilized are affected compressive recommended temperatures. properties exhibit elevated

as follows:

140F 170F These (93C). formance fill shallow shown grouts 33-9 up to in Table

(60C)-4,000 (77C)-2,000 are generally shows

to 10,000 to 5,000

psi (28 to 69 MPa) psi (14 to 34 MPa) for temperatures grout injection the up to rated 200F for perto has

recommended of a high

Table

properties by

temperature

300F 33-10,

(149C). voids

A high-temperature pumping, achieves

grout,

utilized properties

base-plate

compressive aggregate.

even without

the use of coarse

This grout

been used in nuclear Table 33-9:

applications. High-Temperature Grout Properties (ASTM C 579

Typical

Using 1%. Inch (3.8 cm) Cubes)

Cured 7 days @ 77oF Tested @ 77oF @ 1400F @ 170oF @ 235oF 19000 psi (131 MPa) 11000 psi (75.8 MPa) 9000 psi, (62.1 MPa) 3000 psi (20.7 MPa) Cured 16 hrs. Ca 190oF 20000 psi (137.9 MPa) 15000 psi (103.4 MPa) 12000 psi (62.7 MPa) 5000 psi (34.5 MPa)

Table 33-10:

High-Temperature (ASTM
Compressive Strength (psi) 15,600 14,200 13,800 10,500

Epoxy

Injection-Grout A)

Properties

C 579 Method

Compressive Temperature 250oF 3000F 350oF Strength (psi) 6,150 3,640 2,620

Temperature 73oF 125oF 150oF 2000F

428

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

Resistance Creep, time creep This

to Creep also referred which to as cold load. is increased a function A wide hard, very any flow, refers to strain or deflection a slight which amount though is available suitable materials is of the by for

dependent deformation property will

at a constant is primarily

Polymer of the

grouts

undergo

by elevated

temperatures

and high stresses.

polymer lowcreep soft, grout grout

formulation resistance materials applications Necessary creepable used.

aggregate formulation would mand for more. proper but

have some effect. ranging from for may high-stress resistance

range of creep brittle, to very use. Many

high-temperature, highcreep Some

conditions, grouting from

which

be unsuitable operations very

do not detolerances compresfor

the polymer

proper

range from tolerances ASTM

10 to 30 thousandths of large integral a few creep thousandths of epoxy own (within

of an inch or even engine of an inch) machinery test equipment

applications precise

such as the grouting service. tests for

sors require There some methods Density The lb/f? filler density tant and

operation grout

and long-term manufacturers

are no standard to determine

grouts, and

have

developed

their

creep at various

stresses and temperatures.

density have

of

most

flowable Pumpable, ranging

machinery from 70 to

grouts 100 lb/f?

ranges grouts (1.1 Density This

from utilize to

125 little

to or

140 no This be

(2.0 to 2.25 g/cc). densities tested accurately Grouts, by is easily

crack-injection C 905 Apparent Surfacers. prism curing.

1.6 g/cc). can

by ASTM and casting volume

of Chemical-Resisalso and dividing

Mortars,

Monolithic after

property

determined its weight Fill Ratio Most of concern or aggregate of aggregate

a rectangular

of the grout

by its measured

epoxy to the

grouts

are premeasured ratio to the polymer)

and

prepackaged of

so this

need not of inert

be

user. The fill is added pound of ranges from of polymer).

is the term mixture

used for the ratio resin and hardener 4 to 7 on a weight

filler

which per

at the time basis (pounds (gallons of

of use and generally aggregate Radiation This polymer modulus properties Electrical There is a very support per gallon Resistance

approximately

or 2 to 4 on a volume

basis

is of concern grouts of

when

grouts

will

be used in nuclear for this resistance flexural exposure. No

applications. by exposing effect upon strength

Some them these

have been specifically radiation, and before

tested after

to 2 x IO8 rads of gamma elasticity was detected. Resistivity are many

and comparing the

and flexural

applications An epoxy under

where grout

the electrical was selected reduction

resistivity solely facility.

of epoxy

grouts to

useful building

property. columns

for this property The nonporous

an aluminum

Polymer

Concretes

429

high-resistivity when a standard One (ASTM D 257),

grout

eliminated grout tested

loss of

stray

current resistivity

which

had

occurred ohm cm

cement-based and a dielectric

grout was used. has a volume of 9 x IOr D 149). strength of 197 V/mil (ASTM

machinery

INSTALLATION Most epoxy-grout procedures This section the important Safety Read in detail. allergic bustible working the safety Epoxy or section Some first. Follow the manufacturers cleaning should safety instructions or other be comthe for their should manufacturers materials provide produce complete a better and specific be closely installation followed. of some of

and these, of course, the reader with for the installation

should

understanding

considerations

and the reasons for them.

resins and curing agents can cause irritation, materials, Appropriate Follow especially restrictions

dermatitis may

responses.

solvents,

flammable.

be placed

around in detail.

area. Protective

gloves, clothing,

and goggles should be used when mixsafety instructions

ing and pouring grout. Foundation Properly strength grout recommended will This operation so that designed for

the manufacturers

concrete results.

foundations The top

should surface

be clean and dry and have a is normally which the

of at least 3,000 best contact should

psi (21 MPa); 5,000 be chipped laitance

psi (34 MPa) concrete of the foundation

to expose the aggregate or float

in the concrete. reason concrete a

offers

a very rough surface for bonding,

but the primary As poured,

for it is to remove the grout

any weak

on the surface of the concrete concrete.

may bond to the full-strength low surface strength. the concrete that

may have an extremely It is important good bond. may not accomplish procedure well-wetted oughly used. Anchor-Bolt Grouting for for

be dry at the time of grouting with or which tolerate typically

to obtain moisture opposite

Even grouts which installation

are compatible

a strong bond to a wet surface. This is exactly of hydraulic-cement prior to grouting. of the grout, grouts which If the surface cannot special damp-surface

the a thor-

require

foundation

be dried primers

the application

may be

Recommendations turers, but the followng (I)

for

anchor-bolt

grouting

vary

among

grout

manufac-

guidelines

are typical: Formed-out surface holes should Concrete

Rough, impactdrilled be well scarified

holes are preferred. any weak,

to remove

cement.

should be clean and dry at the time of grouting. (2) Bolts should Sandblasting be clean and dry and free from rust, oil or grease.

is recommended

for optimum

adhesion.

430

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

(3)

mechanical

interference

such

as a nut bolt

and

washer rod.

should

be

placed (4)

on the bottom length and

of the anchor of the bolt the hole

or threaded

The grouted bolt diameter, diameter.

should diameter

be at least twelve should be twice

times the

the bolt

Equipment

Base or Plates subject to bond to high the with shear or dynamic vibrators, equipment pushers, bases or blasting grease, to waxes, Other loads such as reciprocating forges, mounting produce including surface and shapers, with that it is the any plates a coarse

For equipment engines generally grout. metal forms paint will they tion ment Forms Flowable tight. found top They during grouts should or The of desirable best surface materials

compressors,

crushers,

preparation in accordance such as red-lead or grinding provide where such

is abrasive as oil,

white

SSPC-SP-5.

It should etc., must

be emphasized be eliminated a clean is low,

contamination

miscellaneous since they meththough preparait is move-

shop primers,

also serve to release the will generally

bond

to the grout. bond

preparation surface, surface to permit

ods such as sanding For application of the always recommended. of the equipment

can be used to produce lower strength. may not or shear loading

much so critical

the dynamic

base is not

and bond

be required,

though

In some cases, base plates may be waxed at some later time.

penetrate can

well

into

small crevices of putty stiff with

so forms

should

be liquid leaks is an

be sealed with by proper

some type caulking

or caulking.

Form

installation

be sealed grout

putty grouting. should

or rags, but this establish

operation during worked

best avoided grouting,

before

It is best to set the the level need to be the grout

of the form

at the finished 33-20)

elevation

since this will

and also maximize

the accessibility

.I (See Figure

EOUIPMENTBASE

FORM

IVE SEAL

CONCRETE F&JNDATlON
Figure 33-20: Typical a stretching length. equipment base/grout detail-anchor-bolt sleeve is sealed to maintain

Polymer

Concretes

431

Where away This by from shrinkage into

possible, the edge

keep of

the each

form

approximately base, occur Figure rail grout which plate (See use and or rail

4 to or reduces the mounts, 33-21)

6 inches plate resulting

(IO being

to

15 cm) grouted. caused or

individual

sole

procedure

minimizes and thermal For changes.

excessive stresses some foundation. sole

stress

when

installation a pocket

undergoes is cast

temperature chipped

the concrete

SOLE PLATE OR RAIL GR

:VESEAL CONCRETE FOUNDATION w

Figure 33-21: Creating pockets minimizes stress buildup. in the concrete for sole plates eliminates excess grout and

Large, metic stress chemicals cracking. Where expansion 33-22).

open which

foundation may especially leak from

areas the

are

sometimes areas machinery they may potential from

covered the however, grouts,

with effects this and may

grout

for

cosor stress

reasons buildup,

or to seal the

nonsupporting

of lubricants practice increase

equipment;

increases

in low-creep

multiple joint

base plates

are used,

be separated thermal

by some stress. (See

type

of

or stress-relief

gap to reduce

Figure

EXPANSION JOINT

2 MIN CONCRE.TE f
Figure 33-22: joint. Suggested grout dimensions for sole plate installation including

4 MAX
expansion

In order pours grout tail to to with

some avoid avoid from

installations, the curing 4 feet grout 1 to (0.3

large time to

or 1.2

deep for m) but

pours in depth

of

grout been

may

be desirable repairs. Grout epoxy using

in

required These

concrete

foundation have made should

costly

downtime. supplier,

procedures generally

be discussed

in de-

the epoxy

require

extensive

use of heavy

432

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

steel

rebar

within the

the

pour

of grout foundation. during The

including Even cure, large,

vertical so, these resulting rebuild

bars continuous large pours of epoxy of in high thermal pours prior and preferably to making

with grout grout longer,

or inare so

doweled potential generally that pour

into for

existing

crease the exotherm allowed to

temperature cracking. cure

stress and

excessive

and cool strain the grout offer lower

at least 24 hours, can be minimized Once again, plates.

shrinkage of grout Some

and thermal under in detail with

the final should These appli-

the equipment

these procedures for deep pours.

be discussed are generally cations. Mixing Most The bined the units with The chanical reaction after poured where For grout. only the

manufacturer. exotherm products or less critical supporting

manufacturers recommended

for non-load-bearing

grouts typically

are packaged contain

in units

so that

no field a curing cases, the

measurement agent aggregate mixed

is required. and may be comto adding A mecuring be the

a resin component, although, in some agent. should for these not

component,

an aggregate

component,

the resin or the curing resin and curing since this mixer resin is very

agent component important Once should mixing aggregate

be well

prior

aggregate

a uniform, materials be mixed

complete are mixed, in advance. the material For mixer mixer stop. be used buildup being added.

cure.

is recommended. so materials curing-agent and the are though a wheel the working required, mixer, units and

is initiated, into multiple the

Immediately should large pours used. the will in-

is complete, component

a paddle-type, a rotatingdrum, or mortar wetted, because on the limit. of

mortar cement box can then heat

is generally is often to mix and may

recommended small Mix until

or favored,

installations, shorten the

barrel time

the aggregate

is thoroughly

Overmixing

serve to Observe

corporate should

air in the mix

unnecessarily. restrictions grout used. The grout this time

working-time

be poured

in place well within Conditions for

Installation Most though flowability improve which terials tion for will

Temperature grouts

are designed and lower grout, residual of the

best

installation

and

cure

at approximately is generally grout. decreasing good, Lower the

75OF (24C). higher of temperatures

Tolerance

to varying

temperatures of the

of installation

temperatures and, also, rate,

do cause changes resin system the cure can cause equipment, slowing rate.

in the Higher

cause the viscosity the and cure

to increase, high-exotherm as well

temperatures temperatures

flowability increase

but and

stress and may cause settling foundation

of the aggregate. as the grout maFor cold-weather and foundaand machinery (IO0 to curing

Temperature temperature, installations, temperatures. versions exception which

is just as important be necessary period of on the time

as the air temperature. to raise the foundation

it may

to close and heat the equipment installation, a minimum have special or below. environmental

an extended Depending will

of 50 to 60F low-temperature control.

16OC) is recommended.

Some manufacturers to freezing

cure down

These should

be used on an

basis and not in lieu of proper

Polymer

Concretes

433

For hot-weather Sunlight therm. Placement For equipment the grout strips of hinged maximum recommend many must %-inch hitting

installations, directly

the area should be shaded from installation during cure can result

direct sunlight exo-

for at least one day before the grout

the grout

and for at least one day after. in exaggerated

installations, flow, (64 which use of it may Various mm) open

gravity However, tools upon

alone

will

flow

the grout the grout

underneath under the

the base, built, for not

to be grouted. tools.

depending

on the thickness

and distance flow such as

be necessary

to work

using pushing pushers

can be used to assist in grout sheet-metal pushing grout. because and Most they strips, collapse grout may upon

plywood,

rods or specially withdrawal manufacturers

effectiveness the the grout.

in pushing vibrators box

do

cause settlement

of the

aggregate within grout inches head flow, flow.

In some cases, a head of the equipment box from

may be utilized

to create

pressure to assist in on one side 6 to 24 over-

This can be done by extending deep. As the grouting may

the height

of the form

a few inches to as much lowered to the elevation be necessary

as a few feet, generally of the forms.

(15 to 61 cm) is gradually some other

nears completion,

the level in the To prevent

measures

such as sealing the forms to the dams where overflow continuously is likely from

equipment

near the head box or adding temporary the grout

due to the added pressure of the grout head. For open plates or equipment, one side of the equipment air entrapment. of the form. the equipment Grout the forms). surface with placement When The so that form through grouting should can be poured to the other side to prevent is worked any potential back under object in

closed areas, the grouting be kept full potential as the grout the entrapment under

should start at one end The

air is not trapped to the final troweling, liquid

base plate. of air.

technique should

is to exclude be brought

desired elevation esthetic brushing to provide

(usually appearance

the top of is necesthe surface, treating

For some installations, require a solvent or smoothing

a very smooth

sary. Some manufacturers and aid in breaking Curing Epoxy be loosened manufacturers strength and concrete

or otherwise a very

smooth

air bubbles which

may rise to the surface during cure.

grouts are generally or shims removed specific

fast-curing should dependent

materials. be followed

Normally
in this

jack screws may The grout of the base case. The rate of

in a day or so after the grout is poured. upon the temperature near the equipment.

instructions is generally

development

more than the air temperature

BIBLIOGRAPHY
1, Draft Report of Subcommittee 351.4 of the American Support of Equipment and Machinery (April 1983). Concrete Institute, Grouting for

434

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

2. 3. 4. 5.

Bemiller, C.C., P.E., Advances in Setting and Grouting Large Compressor Units, presented at the American Gas Association Transmission Conference (May 27-28, 1968). Rowan, R.L., Jr., New Epoxy Grouting Techniques and Materials, Pipeline Industry Magazine (December 1968). How Champion Tested and Installed a New Grout, Paper Trade Journal (December 25,1972). Lee, H., and Neville, K., Handbook of Epoxy Resins, McGraw-Hill Book Co., New
York (1967).

PART C FURAN POLYMER CONCRETES

Joseph M. Walters J. M. Walters Chester Springs, Company Pennsylvania

As previously lithics, furan used q.v., monolithics in polymer than

mentioned also apply concretes is possible of expansion. concretes

furan in greater to furan which with

polymer polymer makes

concretes Many concretes. resulting alcohol the liquid

are similar

to furan

monomay be

but are applied

thicknesses. possible

of the comments Larger aggregates with cost, in lower monomer binder contents Coal,

made on

formulation

even better shrinkage,

properties Furan alcohol with Since these binder concrete cinders materials must The making cretes where thermic,

monolithics, furfuryl

and coefficient

polymer

use both

and furfuryl are possible slag and The materials concrete furan con-

containing content also for

a crosslinking running gravel, been this as they

monomeras

for the concrete. in the polymer lignite, aggregates.

monomers

have a very silica

low viscosity, and ground

high filler silica. inert

in the 7 to 13% range. The aggregate sand must inhibit in the literature as possible

is usually have used

mentioned purpose would

be chemically the cure.

and alkaline of existing They that

be avoided reported precast cure very downtime the heat

uses of polymer of new concrete concrete rapidly must produced is not tanks makes be held

concretes from of

are the repair attack. tanks.

and the protection

chemical interest This

are also used for facilities is exohave

or cast in place them to a minimum. conditions.

The fact

in repairs is of value work

to existing reaction where

Since the curing

speeds the cure. a new concept. the economics could

repairs

to be made under Furan products 1969 concrete in the

cold weather 196Os, but

Development were

was done on these at that methods3 time. In was re-

not favorable by gunnite

a furan

concrete

which

be applied

Polymer

Concretes

435

ported. concrete.

The

same paper

mentions

casting

of tanks of installations.

and sewer pipe from Los Angles, about ten

furan in

The

sewer pipe was tested of furan concrete.

by the city concretes

California years.

laboratory Little 1980s offer

tests and also in actual pipeline was heard polymer polymer Its growth in this material case histories believe metal

for

In the

interest a furan

was revived4J are available

and now a number at this time. future

of formulators of furan hope the

has been slow over the past two years The producers for great growth. markets. the petrochemical Precast and cast in The producers industry and

and rather limited polymer to concretes the place tanks penetrate Some minute acid pickling ance of furan

it has potential industry,

are felt to be one of the major refining operation in the steel industry interest

with such tanks. do not involve the chemical a program in airfield resistto develop a 30 runways of a landseveral

of the areas of potential which could

resins. In 1970 the Air Force initiated The ideal material hours after would

concrete

be used to fill bomb craters conditions, installation. laboratory concrete and would Research and

after an air attack. cure rapidly ing jet plane different

fill craters up to 75 feet in diameter, bear the weight was started testing with

under any weather a few concretes. that furan find

polymer

Much polymer

field

has been done for this use It would be

and it is reported would period sisting probably of time. polymer resin,

is among repair

the leading contenders developed material.

to be chosen as material of particular Furan of interest

for this application.

The material

extensive

use as a highway

in areas where traffic concretes and

could not be diverted as three-component catalyst is first

for an extended systems mixed into conthe is the maxia chart so hot it

are furnished catalyst. The

aggregate is then

aggregate which into the mixed maximum mum the that with the

mixed with the resin. If the catalyst exothermic the heat reached by reaction capacity the could occur. reaction. Most The

were mixed

directly

resin, a violent temperature

When the catalyst moderates amount

aggregate,

of the aggregate

during the

of catalyst

used, the ambient temperature showing

temperature reached of catalyst occur

and the thickness concrete.

of the pour determine producers will not furnish become and conditions. weather,

the amount can may

to use under different so that the concrete in hot section

In this way making

reaction spalling

be controlled

on a thick

to obtain

a full cure in very cold weather.

REFERENCES 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Horton, L.C., U.S. Patent 4.373.058,assigned to Joe G. Hosner (Feb. 8,1983). Akerberg, D.W., and Watson, D.D., U.S. Patent 4,391,946, assigned to The Quaker Oats Company. Munger,C.G.,Maferia/sProrecrion,Vol.8,pp 19-24 (Jan. 1969). Boshong, R.M., Furan Polymer Concrete, presented at the Third International Symposium on Corrosion in the Pulp and Paper Industry (May 1980). Akerberg, D.W., Watson, D.D., Geye, S.G., and Flora, R .W., Furan Polymer Concrete: The Answer to Corrosion of Concrete, presented at the 37th Annual Conference, Reinforced Plastics/Composites Institute, SPI (Jan. 1982).

436

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

PART

D CONCRETE

SUPERPLASTICIZED PORTLAND CEMENT FOR SPECIAL PURPOSES

Anthony

J. Stump0 inc.

Burmah-Castrol, Hackensack,

New Jersey

BACKGROUND Despite short surface as sulfate chemical this trinsic with its hardness performance that and durability, characteristics. by sodium occurs of in nature. project could was instituted by to improve the the that inportland cement to concrete. simply that to It was hoped changing the portland Among cement these concrete shortcomings deicing often falls

in critical

are the

deterioration groundwater of resistance character of

of concrete years ago,

and calcium

salts, as well

A number chemical a chemically This chemical calcium ment into tant

a research

properties the

resistance resistant

improvement concrete resin.

be achieved

as opposed

coating

concrete

part of the chapter resistance chloride, sodium during or

deals essentially of sulfate, etc.) with

with

concept, (i.e.,

i.e., the intrinsic sodium this being chloride, improvethe resisingrediproperin calcium Other inis added introduced

improvement

concrete result water

salts

deterioration. of the and not

We hoped admixture due simply with

could

be accomplished mixing by the is very than usual weak up the results additives to

as the

the concrete surface concrete other

to painting chemically

concrete Good

impregnation work. intolerant

of the concrete

resins as indicated

in previous

of contamination are added concrete. that The

by water-soluble to concrete, even excessive tolerable in their portland when physical use of limits. cement a particular in many amount require used. more if water

ents. When excess, chloride exotherm organic It would This ture crete which tory intolerant this

ingredients unusable cure in high say

ties are often

adversely produces this

affected.

It is well-known of concrete shrinkage that with

in speeding and and organic of additives. section

sometimes beyond and shows

produces effect

an excessive on concrete. are very admixcon-

are often

cataclysmic concrete data that

be appropriate

deals primarily cubic yard)

is used

at 5 to 40 fluid The only related test experience negative results, before

ounces effect

per sack in Type observed very

II portland

cement

(6 sacks per is directly These positive and field

a substantial

improvement is a small encouraging,

properties

is achieved.

of shrinkage labora-

to the amount although

of the admixture

any hard conclusions

can be drawn.

Polymer

Concretes

437

THE ADMIXTURE
The additive original developed research effort centered around the use of a portland sodium The sulfonate product cement salt of a for

and produced

in Germany-the resin. cement. weight

formaldehyde was available

condensed in a number

trimethylolpropane of molecular types of portland (powdered) in the 25%

in question for use Water

ranges and was recommended It was recommended cement.

use in the five available reduction concrete The excessive stantially able product was typically treatment lower

at about 270 grams of admixture was being developed.

per sack of portland

range produced yard

when a 3 to 3l/2 inch slump was considered material After to be

cost per cubic

of this additive a chemically sodium

and an immediate treatment a condensed enough,

search for

similar sulfonate

at a subconsiderThis

cost per cubic yard was undertaken. naphthalene using mortar we were

searching,

was found.

produced

the kind of results in which reducer further. of handling, the admixture that There

interested.

Preliminary the potential so that with or to

tests were interesting use of this water it could waterlike odor. The For convenience be easily aqueous consistency

samples, to investigate was dissolved solid

in water

handled. solution

We found

a 47% safe.

aqueous

solution

was adequate.

was no foaming,

excessive color corrosive

was considered stiffness with slump,

It was neither

people nor to equipment. Because of the inherent required fully to reach a certain until water the of hydrated one-half cement mixes, we found that amount of water of and then careat a given con5 to 40 fluid to be very effiit was best to mix the admixture add water the desired reducing the theoretical

mix with slump efficiency

the dry ingredients of the admixture was found

was reached.

This was also a way

determining centration ounces cient.

of admixture.

This admixture in a typical

in all cases, i.e., from 6 sack mix,

per sack of cement

OBSERVATIONS
When the admixture in a 6 sack ordinary following . was reported: Concrete age. shrinkage varied with the amount of admixture. The was used at 5 to 40 ounces per sack of portland concrete mix made with Type II portland cement the

cement,

higher the amount

of admixture

the greater

the amount

of shrink-

Steam the

curing

of the concrete in the concrete.

was unaffected

by the inclusion

of

admixture

This was at concentrations

from

5 to 40 pounces per sack of cement.

. .

Because of the higher strength was less in the admixture-modified Saltwater measurably and deicing

obtained,

the creep of the concrete

product. and water product. absorption were

salt permeation

less in the admixture-modified

438

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

It and

is expected saltwater rods

that

admixture-modified will Experience require extensive

concrete, has shown actual that tests

because

of

re-

duced

permeation adhesion will

have less corrosion

of steel mesh in the higher increased. to in the field

reinforcement.

level of additions, This, of course, ascertain.

to the reinforcing

is greatly

Immersion surface

for

12 months of the product.

in

sodium and

sulfate

solution

produced on the ad-

failure

control,

showed

no attack

mixture-modified

No abrasion concentration petted.

resistance of the

improvement admixture

was found used. This

regardless totally

of

the

is not

unex-

DISCUSSION Although impressive, experiments tion. It is this writers sentative possible to develop personal products I further belief that that this interesting could these be further with improvements chemistry admixture developed. highly is only reprebe of a class of admixtures It should the can properties should be conducted of the admixture-modified until longer extensive as more concrete duration field are indeed

conclusions

be withheld as well

laboratory experimenta-

of similar believe

specific concrete.

performwith-

ance improvements. out deterioration

can be achieved

in the performance

of the admixture-modified

TESTING Throughout used with Type this program, only according typical concrete aggregate and sand were

II portland

cement. to standard ASTM methods.

All tests were performed

Acknowledgement This paper is based on research conducted for the Pennwalt the writer thanks that company for permission to use it. Corp., and

REFERENCE
1. State of California, Highway Research Report: Evaluation Report: CA-NY-MR-5268-l-73-14 (June 1973). of a Polymer Admixture,

Section VII Monolithics

439

34 Trowelled Epoxy, Polyester, Vinyl Ester Monolithic Linings

Wesley

A. Severance Company

The Ceilcote

Berea, Ohio

INTRODUCTION Definition A monolithic by and tion, its tough physical but, lining is a corrosion-resistant nature that and continuous provide not necessary resins, surfaces, will overlay coverage. only for special a coarse is a fine strength, characterized It must bond, principally have chemical protecand mechanifillers,

stone-like properties with

the desired

chemical

also, the

internal

qualities

cal compatibility mixed thick. improve linings, thickness fabric lithic density, History The late ring 1930s first true for forms to plaster For floors

the base. of thermosetting hardeners, silica

14

It is composed

and inert

consistency and surfaces, l/s inch tensile,

and trowel strengths.

applied

Is to l/4 inch inch require chemical

(3.2 to 6.4 mm) is used to In tank (6.4 mm).

horizontal

aggregate

wear and compressive vertical better to about

Thickness work,

and some floor (3.2 mm). unjointed flexural,

aggregate

is used to limit glass reinforcing a monohigh inertness,

Some applications properties. broad lining with

and thermal

When cured,

a continuous,

good abrasion

resistance,

and low thermal

expansion.

monolithic

linings asphalt

for

chemical products.

protection These were with

were

used in the occurmaterials with

and were coal

based on bituminous petroleum. fibers, then They applied

naturally

materials from and

such as Trinidad and asbestos

and gilsonite were mixed molten,

or manufactured fillers after or cold,

derived carbon, solvent.

such as sand, dilution

440

Tro welled Epoxy,

Polyester,

Vinyl

Ester Monolithic

Linings

441

These monolithics products in the early vinyl

are still in use today,

but have been largely replaced with and epoxies were first used polyesters, discussion Although other thermosetting therefore,

based on thermosetting

resins. Polyesters have found

1950s; vinyl esters in the early 1970s.

resins such as furans and polyurethanes esters, and epoxies will be confined to these three.

some application,

have been used most extensively;

THEORY The

OF THERMOSETTING-RESIN, technology of formulating

MONOLITHIC and using thermosetting

LININGS resins in linings is

built around five basic properties (1) (2) (3) They exist as relatively

of the resins: low viscosity liquids.

They shrink during cure from After cure, they adhere

liquid to solid state. the shrinkage thus

to most materials;

causes a stress on the substrate. (4) After cure, they have a coefficient of the common of thermal expansion several

times that and steel). (5)

materials

of construction

(concrete

The cured resins have a high rate of water which

permeation reinforcements, applying minimizes layers; they

Formulating, the influence Fillers they lower After must deal with exposed. between

involves adding fillers and/or on application viscosity then reduces increase which

of these properties the shrinkage, of thermal

and use of the resins in linings. thicker stresses on the substrates;

and reinforcements

to permit

lower coefficient

expansion

and decrease permeation. into linings, the same basic properties These parameters to which must it is bonded the linings the consider generally may be 34-l). difference

the resins have been formulated in establishing and maximum to clearly the and surface minimum In order the lining

be considered

use parameters. temperatures this, to one which

explain

(see Table

Table 34-l:

Properties

of Linings and Substrates Linins

(approximately) concrete
6.0x lo-6

Steel
6.5x

Coefficient (in/in/oF)

of

Thermal

Expansion

15-25x10-6

Io-6

Tensile (psi)

Strength

2,000

30,000

400

Now ature

let us examine the stress. At

what

happens

during

temperature rate than then, there

changes. the

As temperand

increases,

lining

expands

at a greater

substrate

relieves the and vinyl

a certain

temperature,

is no stress. Polyester then, the higher

ester resins shrink

more than epoxies.

Theoretically,

442

Corrosion and Chemical Resistant Masonry Materials Handbook

shrinkage resins should stand more heat than epoxies because there is more stress to be relieved. For some reason, the theory breaks down at this point and epoxies work better on concrete at the higher temperatures. This may be because epoxies soften more than polyesters and vinyl esters on heating so that stresses do not increase to the point at which they could fracture the bond. As temperature increases, the lining contracts at a rate faster than that of the substrate; therefore, the stress already in the lining/substrate interface is increased by the contraction stress. When the combined stresses exceed the strength of the concrete, the concrete fractures. When the stresses exceed the bond strength to steel, the bond fractures. Theoretically, then, a polyester or vinyl ester would fail much sooner than epoxy because of higher shrinkage stress. This theory becomes fact with concrete linings because the concrete is weaker than the lining. It has not been a problem with steel linings; combined stresses apparently do not exceed the bond strength to steel if the lining is properly applied. This theory was developed around filled, unmodified, aliphatic amine-cured epoxy and filled, unmodified, peroxide-cured polyester or vinyl ester systems. Modified resins and those cured with agents that result in lower softening points (Tg or glass transition temperatures) may act differently. It is obvious that performance of these linings on substrates with higher expansion coefficients such as glass-reinforced plastic (approximately 20 x 10~) and aluminum (approximately 11 x 10~) might be better during large temperature changes. Use on wood should be approached with caution because of its swell from water absorption or shrink from water loss.

RESINOUS MATERIALS Epoxy Resins

USED IN MONOLITHIC

LININGS

There are two basic types of epoxy resins used in formulating linings: (1) The bisphenol A type, resulting from the reaction of epichlorohydrin with bisphenol A-this is the most widely used-and (2) Less used is the epoxy novolak, a reaction product of epichlorohydrin with higher homologs of phenol. The resulting resin has more reactive sites, thus, achieves better chemical resistance than the bisphenol A type. Both resins are viscous and require modification to make them easily workable. The novolak is more viscous, thus requires more modification. It is also more expensive; its use has, therefore, been limited to very severe chemical applications. Within each classification of resin type, there are many variations, depending on the modifiers and curing agents. These curing agents, in descending order of chemical resistance, are: aromatic amines, cycloaliphatic amines, aliphatic amines, amido amines and polyamides. Polyamides are commonly used in systems requiring water tolerance during cure; however, their high viscosity may lead to more resin modification to control viscosity, with resultant easier handling.

Trowelled Polyester Resins resins

Epoxy,

Polyester,

Vinyl

Ester Monolithic

Linings

443

Polyester

are a family

of thermosetting

resins

produced

by the con

densation and polymerization of saturated and unsaturated acids and polyols. Most of the acids and polyols used are dibasic. The esters so formed can be crosslinked with unsaturated monomers such as styrene. through the action of numerous polymerization catalysts. to form a three-dimensional network. Some commonly used types of polyester lining resins are as follows: Bisphenol Types- These are reaction of bisphenol A or derived from bisphenol A These resins may also contain unsaturated polyester resins based on the hydrogenated bisphenol A and/or glycols with fumaric acid or maleic anhydride. aromatic dicarboxylic acids.

Halogenated Types- Typical starting materials include tetrachlorophthalic anhydride, tetrabromophthalic anhydride and other proprietary halogenated acids and/or glycols. The halogenated materials are reacted with either fumaric acid or maleic anhydride or a glycol and fumaric acid to form the unsaturated polyester . Isophthalic Acid Types- These unsaturated polyester resins are based on the reaction of isophthalic acid and propylene or other glycols with fumaric acid or maleic anhydride. Vinyl Ester Resins

These resins could be classed as polyester resins because they also cure through the reaction of carbon-to-carbon double bonds. They are made by reacting a monofunctional vinyl acid with epoxy or novolak resins. There are subtle but real differences between vinyl ester and polyester in handling, flexibility, chemical resistance, and adhesion to construction materials. They deserve to be classed separately. Polyester and vinyl ester resins for use in linings are cured with organic peroxides, either methyl ethyl ketone peroxide, cumene hydroperoxide or benzoyl peroxide. The latter is probably least used, but does have one major advantage for use on concrete: resins cured with it, particularly certain vinyl esters, are not influenced by the presence of water during cure.

TYPES OF LININGS Epoxy 1/8-lnch (3.2 mm) Silica or Carbon-Filled Lining

This is the simplest of linings and least expensive. It usually consists of one part binder resin to two or three parts filler. It is not the best for severe chemical services, mostly because it has a low safety factor in the application phase. Whether trowelled or sprayed, it is easy to get less than the desired 1/8inch, and this could result in weak areas. Unreinforced 1/4-lnch (6.4 mm) Lining

This type can be based on epoxy or polyester. Vinyl ester could also be used if it were plasticized, but there has not been much activity in this direction. Epoxy is preferred because it has less shrinkage and can be plasticized to minimize what shrinkage stresses that are. Polyester resins can be plasticized; there-

444

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

fore,

they

have

been

used successfully.

Application stresses.

is much

more

critical

than

for epoxy

because of the high shrinkage /s-Inch (3.2 mm)

Fabric-Reinforced

Lining or vinyl-ester (1.6 mm) used for resin, filled fabric. with The silica reincon-

This can be based on epoxy, or carbon, forcement crete fabric and reinforced between lining with two is placed

polyester either %6-inch

fiberglass

or synthetic

layers of filled floors.

resin. of glass

This type results (a)

has been successfully steel,

25 years for protecting Inclusion linings: of lining, thus lining. mini(The

and steel vessels; also, concrete, in severaladvantages it necessary the possibility used with a minimum basecoat to

and wood

over unreinforced apply of multiple

Makes mizing

layers

pinholes thinfilm

through coatings.).

the entire

same principle (b) Insures imbedded the fabric. (c) Increases reinforced concrete. (d) Coefficient substrate, of than client

thickness and having

by virtue to trowel

of having a finish

the fabric coat over

in the

strength linings

of lining, will crack

allowing

it to bridge surface

minor shrinkage

cracks. cracks

Unin

even over

thermal

expansion lining.

is lower,

closer

to

that

of the

unreinforced

Mat-Reinforced A typical oz/sq (26 lining, ft mm), or and

Epoxy,

Polyester calls m), coat one of

or Vinyl for layer pure two resin

Ester-Based layers 5 to of

Linings chopped grade (13 strand mat to mat (1% This

specification 430 gm/sq a finish

of chemical

surface

10 mils

10 mils

26 mm).

used mostly

on steel tanks,

is closest

in chemical

resistance

to an all-fiber-

glass tank. Glass-Flake-Filled These with plied most ing. other generally additives Lining-Polyester consist to or Vinyl Ester with coats Several l/s inch approximately This type to a thickness (3.2 mm) small 30% glass flakes of lining is apof 40 to 100 mils

of resin filled handling

improve

properties.

by trowel common The other Linings

or spray is angular with commonly

in at least two on the service. in shape about

(1 to 3 mm) It requires orients

depending

sizes of glass flake the flakes flakes in two after flake

are used-the or sprayapparently as with the

in its larger dimension. troweling which

rolling

a paint

roller

to orient

used similar

type

is a very

itself

in a manner usually

to aluminum

so that coats.

it does not have to

be rolled. larger flake,

made with a nominal

this size flake

are not applied

as thickly

40 mils (1 mm)

SERVICE

LIMITATIONS

OF LININGS linings is limited by two major factors: chemicals

Performance

of reinforced

Troweled

Epoxy,

Polyester,

Vinyl Ester Monolithic

Linings

445

and temperature. facturers observed, The two there effect

Chemical will of seldom

resistance

has been reliably If their failure. difficult

reported

by lining

manu-

and suppliers

of the base resins. be a chemical is more

recommendations to define.

are carefully affects

temperature

Temperature

factors: Physical Properties. usually tion cause slight age, and expansion. because the High temperatures, which from weakest 16Oto relieves 212F (71 to lOOC), shrink-

softening Lowering

stresses of curing,

of temperature

adds the stress of contracon concrete of concrete-tensile It is not serious and stresses do not ex-

to the stress already

existing may result

cure. This is serious properties failure.

stress acts on the

and shear strength-and ceed the bond, Permeation.34 other erate the exert effect. linings. small the vapor rate will temperature the substrate peated assuming All

in concrete is very strong

on steel vessels because the surface surface are vapor

preparation more or

has been adequate. less permeable to water acid). increases (and

linings the than

molecule increases, of is colder

chemicals

such the

as hydrochloric of water lining. One theory in the of water bond

As the to accelif re-

pressure

passage through at

states that line. the for With

the water these in clearly

on the exposed

side of the lining, increase in size to cold-wall different re-

condense that reaction

imperfections pockets blisters-this at different defined; strength.

temperature pressure This The

changes, results occurs is not

is called temperatures it appears

reason

to be largely

lated to permeation It should with tect 26OF large the illustrated be obvious,

rate and bond then, that

linings

for high concentrations at higher 85% (83C)

of chemicals This nitrate is at to pro-

molecules by the fact welds of The Limits reading factor

should that lining

be able a flake-filled

to operate polyester containing rated

temperatures. ammonium in dilute

was used successfully

an aluminum

vessel

(127C).

is usually

at 18OF

chemicals.

Temperature After the limiting strength.

in Immersion the above, one can conclude of water; that on when rating linings on steel,

is permeation

concrete

vessels,

it is surface

SELECTING Most for these quest that

THE lining do

LINING have printed sufficient the limits forms which list all the important of such a form. Consider, for In many example, (93C). criteria cases, a reThis the

suppliers not supply than

selecting forms for most

a lining.

Attachment

1 is an example information. for to any store

lining

a concrete

vessel. The service

temperature monolithic and treat

is 200F on concrete. wastes;

temperature temperature

is higher concrete

We know

vessels are used high.

we suspect

may not be that

So we ask questions:

446

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

Table 34-2: I_inins

Temperature

Limits

in Immersion

Steel Maximum Minimum0 -4OoC(-4OoF) -4OoC(-40F) -4OoC(-40F)

Polyester--mat Polyester--silica--glass Polyester--gloss 80 mils (2 mm)b Polyester--glass 40 mils flake flake fabric

7loc(l6ooF) 7 I occ I 6ooF) 82oC( I8OoF)

49OC( I2WF)

-4WC(-4oOF)

(I

mmjc 93C(2000F) fabric 82OC( I 80F) Concrete 2.06 mPa (300 psi) surface strength Maximum Minimum - I2oC( I OoF) - I7oC(OoF) - I7oc(ooF) -40C(-40F) -4oOC(-40F)

Epoxy--mot Epoxy--silica--gloss

Polyester--mat Polyester--silica--glass Polyester--glass 80 mils (2 mm) Polyester--glass 40 mils (I mm) Epoxy--mot Epoxy--silica--glass fabric flake flake fabric

6OoC( I4oOF) 7 I OC( I 6ooF) 7loC(l6oOF)

54oC( I 3oOF)

- l7oC(O*F)

76oC( I7oOF) 76oC( I 70F)

-23OC(8-

IOF)

-23oC(- I OF)

Minimum based on exposure to weother. bLorge flake, oriented by rolling. cSmall flake, not oriented.

(1)

Is this

design

or

operating

temperature?

If

design,

what

is the

actual? (2) (3) Is 200F How much (4) (5) the temperature does enters? some depth is the of cold of liquid the in the vessel? 2OOF stream? How much of all streams the 2OOF entering enter the vessel? the vessel? How

frequently volume always away

stream

Is there How will

far it cool

source

in transit?

Trowelled

Epoxy,

Polyester,

Vinyl Ester Monolithic

Linings

447

In most cases, we determine stream and 140F higher system The the given more usually is low or than should volume, into flows cold always flows

that

the lining hundred be We conclude

will feet

never feel 2OOF because the from process If the and to waste vessel, will be is brick and temperature acid-proof for steel,

several liquid. will

the actual

below-most a monolithic be used.

linings

should withstand,

satisfactory. a membrane considering Failure

temperature

same questions temperature with the

may is higher

be asked when than the rating of

a lining of

of the lining.

In this case, we are a lining on steel is On concrete, of shrinkage processing to steam to 212F lining

concerned

duration which function,

exposure.

due to permeation, a temperature expansion lined is illustrated Certain 30 to In one three

is a time/temperature depending that occurs of the is done indefinitely. same lining strength. regularly with once lining

function.

it is simply This industry. is usually (IOOC). rated tion

on the relationship

stress, thermal

stress, and concrete by a situation

in the corn Exposure rises rapidly process, repair

steel vessels are sterilized temperature sterilization per week-the

steam.

60 minutes; process, times

per week, In another needed

and the

at 180F is done

(83OC) has lasted almost

steriliza-

in one year.

DESIGNING Vessels-Steel

FOR

MONOLITHIC

LININGS

or Alloys more could and correctly any other be called ducts, structures component scrubbers, exposed structures chimneys, of systems, storage agents. structures. interior for the metal lining surmatein manufacturers be considered tanks, Atten-

Vessels could which tion means they tanks, The must processing Rigidity: recommendations rial should the structural of pressure, be given

be ventilation

to corrosive the

be given to a number structure rigid for design wind,

of design factors should be designed lining

for component so that material. limits should Special system Lining should

faces are sufficiently

for the intended strains The weight and other

maximum

or deflection The design

be followed.

of the lining design

of the component.

consider

the effects should areas, is botbottom

seismic, and

loads. weld

consideration bottom Where

to all areas of potentially foundation, may Design surface for lining grouting not all

high strain may stable

such as unsupported joints, etc. not to correct

out-of-roundness, on a concrete tom areas. support. Accessibility: accessible corners entrance tures the for during accessible Sand-fill

sidewall-to-bottom remain interior and The of two should 180apart. and

structure

be done

unsupported be used for to

and should of the

surfaces lining minimum manways: material

structure Make diameter (610 mm).

be readily and strucmay be lining will except not as for working one near the

preparation grinding. application located ventilation

application. manway one

all fillets Closed

be 24 inches Additional

should bottom, to

have a minimum preferably facilitate

near the top,and or larger openings Consult

required

handling.

material applicator for specific requirements. Joints: All welds must be continuous; be permitted. Internal bolted or rivetted

intermittent joints should

or spot welding not be used,

448

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

required

to facilitate joints

installation should be

and avoid welding alloy avoided wherever be full-fillet (Stiffeners): should

on an already possible. welded

lined surface. be used. lap-welded

ln these cases, a corrosion-resistant Lap-welded joints ground. Structural members members lining should are Reinforcement be installed installed are used, the interior

or nonmetallic

bolts should Where

lap should Members they

and the edge radius reinforcement if such closed the to the during and

Structural

on the vessel exterior,

if possible; however, of simple, be vented

internally, chambers point,

be fabricated they should

shapes such as round material. atmosphere operation lining other at the

bars, pipe or rounded lowest so that

box beams for ease of applying pressures are not developed

If closed

are formed,

and possible curing can be observed shapes should must be fully

procedures, early. be avoided. seal welded,

and so that corrosion If they

due to localized l-beams, internally,

failures complex

The use of angles, channels, and the edges ground.

must be installed

these members

Reinforcement

pads and members Appurtenances reinforcement piping, not from from on elements ladders, should Such appurtenances be lined, they

should be installed Inside Structures: include should agitators, brackets. be made with

externally. Requirements anti-swirl of in the section on structural inside a structure to be lined. internal canmm) in Heating the lining may occur gaging devices, materials. to protect should damage

members

apply to any item installed

baffles,

and support be attached

If appurtenances clearance

inside the structure of 6 inches (152

corrosion-resistant may be required Special precautions

a minimum

the vessel surface. containing tank The

Greater mixers.

clearance

excessive temperature agitated Welds: bottoms

conditions. and/or walls

be taken

lined tanks

Severe abrasion/impingement unless precautionary are specified. prior to lining

design measures, depends upon the rela-

such as wear plates or added coating thickness, degree of weld preparation type tively welds of lining smooth should to be applied. ripple-finished be ground display For liquid-applied

and cementitious For elastomeric

linings,

welds are acceptable. and after

sheet lining, metal. When-

smooth,

but not necessarily grinding welds with a minimum

flush to the parent required shop. rework.

Use of weld fabricator

samples before acceptable

may help the equipment

to supply

ever possible, welds should be inspected Surfaces metal mental grinding to be lined should contain slivered stamp marks, spatter for finish.

in the fabricators

no gouges, dents, be repaired may

pits, deep scratches, be detrigrindby adjaby and/or applied

steel orother Flaws should

surface flaws which would by welding be utilized coating

to the lining system. must

ing. Weld

be removed.

Chipping

if followed

The use of a nonsilicone,

anti-splatter

cent to weld areas is suggested. This coating the final blast cleaning. Pinholes, should after pits, blind All holes, porosity,

must be of a type easily removed undercutting be ground weld metal. or similar to remove Chipping

depressions before and sharp edges. can be used and similar to a /s-inch or changes in

not exist in the finished blast cleaning. and pinholes should should

welds. The welds should be inspected should with be filled off

rough welds

Undercuts to remove abrupt (3.2 contours mm)

sharp edges if followed be rounded minimum is preferred. radius.

by grinding. (6.4

All edges and fillets or machining at fillets radius

contours

by grinding mm)

A %-inch

Tro welled Epoxy,

Polyester,

Vinyl Ester Monolithic

Linings

449

Shell Penetrations: should be flanged. and greater in diameter,

All connections length should

or openings of flanged

in the vessel or component nozzles, 4 inches 34-3. Nozzles (100 mm) in Table

The maximum

not exceed

the dimension

Table 34-3:

Dimensions

for Maximum

Length of Flanged

Maximum Nozzle Length-Nozzle Nominal Size 4 in. (101 mm.) 6 in. Shell-to-Face of Flange

8 in. (203 mm.) 12 in. (304 mm.) mm.) mm.) I6 in. (406 mm.) 24 in. (609 mm.) Any length

(I 52

mm.)

8 in.-24 in. (203-609 24 in.-36 in. (609-914

Over 36 in. (9 I4 mm.)

Use only bility. ceramic inserts

4-inch

(100

mm)

diameter compatible,

and larger See Figure

nozzles for

for

maximum Lining rates.

reliaor thick-

As an alternate

to lining, may in nozzle

prefabricated, 34-1 to achieve

RAISED FACE

reinforced details. design flow

plastic

(sleeves) changes

be used.

ness may dictate

dimensions

FULL FACE

RESIN/SILICA

PASTE

Figure 34-l:

Design specification-FRP

nozzle insert.

Concrete It concrete design linings.

Vessels our intent to supply trench complete or fume specifications duct. We wish performance categories to the for constructing to alert of of monolithic concrete: difficult and cona the

is not engineer

vessel,

be it a tank, to those

only

factors

important

Surface to control

Quality: than formed.

Vessels

generally

consist

of two with

cast, as in the floor,

and formed,

as in the walls. can vary

Cast concrete

is more

The surface

degrees of finishing

450

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

ditions should surface tions

during

cure.

It is sufficient a load-bearing laitance. is relatively and troweled

to say here that member, right at the uniform

the surface to

must be finished Concrete in a densified subject (indicating to variahidden methods walls in

and cured with

as if it were minimum concrete

such as a process floor. intervals result

be floated

Formed

in quality. Defects (bug holes),

It is not that pinholes Forms floors into

in finishing tie

and curing, holes, form

as is the floor. burrs, Too that while

influence

performance,

also cost of installation, air pockets), should backfilled water. very is high, Wall sewer lining bonded Concrete to costly Exterior be planned without

are: air pockets

and honeycomb. frequently, eventually water vessel is leaking it above sumps sewer

and pour

to minimize considering can be appled be most

these defects. are cast and the vessel may in an area where ground. This, be submerged the water of course,

Waterproofing:

No lining it might

the vessel; at least it is table will to the be

to do so. If the tank practical underground Many planning

is to be placed to put sewer systems.

not accommodate lines. Before

Penetrations: be used

underground such a system, with the

and tanks pipe. If the

are connected whether cannot lining

it is wise to consider defect in the system.

is compatible could

to the pipe, there and Steel Vessels practice

be a permanent

It is common and steel wall. Construction

in construction

of large vessels to use a concrete (60 meters) three for steps: which includes an em-

floor

Such

vessels range

in size up to 200 feet

in diameter.

of such vessels involves foundation

(1) Casting a concrete

bedded (2) (3) The lithic Attaching Pouring floor steel channel the wall the floor.

the wall, the wall.

for attaching by welding

to the embedded

channel.

is so large it must construction joints. can that usually can

be poured For this moving so they with.

in several reason, cracks.

sections;

therefore,

there

are numerous lining The troweled, is concrete, changes join the two Floors?r7 demanding have slopes, expansion Design sider curing struction joints walls

it is necessary expansion system,

to use a monothe consprayed temperature be used to 34-2. much floor more may or conor

system are

bridge

As an alternative, joints. either

may be enlarged lined on severity

can become a flake-filled

depending they and loading. surfaces. The for drains, factors than joints,

of service. to move reason,

Since the wall at different flexible floors

is steel, and the floor rates with must are

be expected For this The makeup

a special for

system and slabs

of such a system

is shown

in Figure a process

design trenches, important

requirements column joints, to vapor the

vessels. A vessel has walls and control

and a floor; joints.

bases, pump

bases, tank

pads, isolation should

construction

use of monolithic concrete

protection finishing

subbase methods,

preparation, and joints.

barriers,

quality,

methods,

Trowelled

Epoxy,

Polyester,

Vinyl

Ester Monolithic

Linings

451

2 Layers l-112 oz. Chopped Strand

lbnolithlc Lining

Typfcal Steel Tank>

Typical concrete L7ottc0

Figure 34-Z: Subbase settling will after minimize

Lining detail for steel tank wall/concrete bottom junction (exploded view). Preparation: concrete cracking. to inhibit necessary cases: ideal and acid (I) Soil should be well-compacted equipment of sand layer directly so there loads under will the be no this is floor Vapor can be a of

is cured capillary

and normal flow

are in place;

A three-inch

recommended barriers detriment time, move ficient under time

of water

up through be cured must

the concrete. in fact, only they

are not in two the for

if a drainage If the

bed is provided, can may

concrete

a minimum with

28 days, etch

excess water and

cause problems preparation be 3,000 for of surface is tested required

since it cannot insufis not psi practical; minimum; The a it. has

downward,

(2) If installation to dry, move

of flooring mechanical

be rushed,

again, excess water Concrete however, with tensile for The metal a high this strength test force piece should flooring. performance

cannot

downward. strength integrity, preparation This most water should but not of the quality of concrete is the property the force applications. content, thus, containing most consideration strength. property

Quality: is only It

Compressive one measure of after

is a measure of to monolithic the surface

of the surface

important

flooring. psi for high

by adhering to remove

and measuring means

be at least 200 usually A large resulting Proper

If the concrete compressive

slump,

which

strength

is normally possible dries face, curing with too

decreased. content.

amount in a weak curing

of water, surface; is exceedingly performance. before alternative a vapor

sand and cement, When cement to use a concrete film.

bleeds to the surface, water rapidly, since

it is best to use the lowest important. this occurs unless on the sur-

it does not a detriment it must therefore,

gain all its strength. to flooring

Since priming,

it becomes sealer the flooring;

It is not desirable is to wet the new

be removed the best it with

it is compatible

frequently

for 72 hours

or cover

seal such as polyethylene

452

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

Surface linings that by applying ing, floating, passes result which they Joints: are the %-inch

Finish: the full and

It is obvious
number

from

the

section

on theory

of monolithic or darbyMore

the maximum troweling.

in surface Only

strength

is needed.

This is best obtained bull floating is needed.

of finishing one

steps: screeding, pass with

the trowel

in a dense, hard surface that does not respond well to acid etching, method joints of preparation. be kept to a minimum They should possible. flooring. approxithan (more because be sized fiberto protect. Isolation most or expansion difficult part by I%-inch should

is usually the most economical

of the floor (32 mm)

(19 mm) wide

deep, above the conventional

board joint.

They should also be placed at high points whenever joints-It later as expansion joints-These cracking. without the conventional monolithics. to obtain excessive joints should

Construction Control mately

is best to design so these are at high points of the in the monolithic be located ratios to form

floor; they may be treated square panels. should

or construction

Panels with be formed

length-to-width

1.5) are likely to show random Trenches should be sandblasted

steel angle edge. Steel Unless the entire the equipment for a White SSPC #5, floor for such Metal 3

for best results with trench Steel: angles. Most

is being prepared Surface blast, Association mils (0.08 powdery Concrete,

by blasting,

it is impractical

a small part of the job--the Preparation: of Corrosion mm). cement New: film Any as described in Steel

specifications Painting #I, floor with

call

Structures

Council

or National

Engineers newly

NACE finished

a profile

of greater than with film a weak

The steel must be primed called laitance. during thick finishing

or lined before rust can form. is covered and is caused by water-rich The laitance before monolithic lightly cement

This film procedures.

rising to the surface mils (0.1 to 1.3 mm) Mechanical or chemical

is 5 to 50 is applied.

and must be removed may be used. method

methods

The most common include careful

mechanical

is sandblasting Other with

with 40 to 50 methods being Baume Scrub the acid may be can

mesh silica sand using 90 psi pressure at the nozzle. vacuum gritblasting, treatment, in two with not to scarifying, the floor A solution bristle and scabbling. is first For chemical hydrochloric two to three will If there acid)

mechanical

wetted

clean water, acid (20

leave puddles.

of one part muriatic brush.

parts water a stiff

is spread uniformly products removal

over the floor.

minutes

In three to five minutes with water the of acid, surface

stop effervescing. is any

Rinse off the reaction about floors complete may

under pressure.

question Old: Old

tested with range from of exposed

litmus paper. a smooth, aggregate.

If acidic, rinse until neutral. present a variety of surfaces, with which amount

Concrete,

dense finish to a rough finish with a considerable The concrete may be contaminated or covered with a monolithic fats may be removed commercial and foam, lining.

oils, grease, tar

or other chemicals. concrete. etching Vegetable with and rinse.

It may be painted oils and animal a strong

In all cases, the surface in conjunction

must be cleaned alkaline

until it has a color almost like new with a power scrubber followed by acid there is still too much detergent,

If the acid does not bubble

oil left in the concrete. Mineral base oil, grease or tar may be removed with solvents such as naphtha

Tro welled Epoxy,

Polyester,

Vinyl Ester Monolithic

Linings

453

or perchloroethylene. masks. Old Old impossible factory the old. If the necessary floor case, bond coatings to may may remove

Most

solvents

are toxic; by with

it may

be necessary or

to use vapor removers. be satisit. In this with be

be removed be attacked the monolithic

sandblast, scarifiers apply the without

scarifying

paint it may over

monolithics

or air hammers. concrete, the new new monolithic

If it appears

pulling

to sandblast

the surface,

then

tests should cannot

be performed be cleaned

to be certain with

is compatible methods,

any of the above

it may

to remove

it and pour

new concrete.

PRACTICAL Ventilation Ventilation application maintain creating or monomers of

CONSIDERATIONS

DURING

INSTALLATION

is an obvious linings during (styrene

necessity any

for

personnel

comfort

and safety

during to

containing the curing from hazard.

volatile

components.

It is necessary

air flow

phase.

If not, high concentrations can concentrate

of solvents

polyesters)

in the vessel bottom,

an explosion

Temperature Temperature personnel. tors more slowly, At cure harder linings perature below too high At low do not work can influence temperatures, efficiently when resins may before the quality they thin they of the lining and the performance Materials handle, but of

resins thicken may vary. and

and are hard to handle.

Applica-

are uncomfortable. are easier to

cure much they may

and the end product temperatures, Applicators materials

rapidly.

be just

as uncomfortable

and have to work temperatures, surface tem-

to use the

cure solid.

At high surface a minimum (49C). For be consulted.

may cure and bond reasons, of 5OF (IOC),

improperly. generally of supplier call for 120F should and a maximum the lining temperatures

For these

specifications

and above these limits,

Humidity Humidity (1) can be a problem in several ways: blasted areas, as can steel surface soon it enough is necessary be primed if a primer differs to within is in limit an

It can cause rusting not the applied area soon to different eight-hour climates. blasted period.

on a freshly enough. In very only

Obviously humid as much

(2)

Humidity be very hours warms

can condense difficult to tank slowly walls

on the primer This are cold, steel, and it can

or on intermediate occurs air the

coats and warm. problem.

detect.

generally

in the morning Because concrete

when more

is becoming a serious

Condensation

has been observed than

on bare concrete. present

454

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

(3)

Humidity Some water. hibited intercoat

affects bonding. The cure

the The of

cure film

of

some film

linings or blush, and

in the which

uncured

state.

epoxies

cure with

a dull

may influence cases, with may be in-

can

be removed, vinyl or humidity. practice not

in most esters

some

polyesters

permanently reasons,

by moisture it is common should

For the above the air in the work the surface

to measure until of the air.

the dew

point

of of

area. Work

proceed

the

temperature

is at least 5OF (3C) above the dew point on Steel of linings detection. pulloff volume on steel consists The most

Inspection-Linings Final pinhole thickness Council enclosed a very numbers which in each testers Eddy and the for current Final pinhole current) or inspection holiday

of dry-film used

thickness device

testing for

and

commonly

dry-film Painting

is a magnetic Painting low Manual,

gage (as described I, page 199). dial with against is then Lining

in Steel Structures with is the

The end of this gage has a magnet the lining slowly thickness the dial showing toward dial should There operate higher at reading advanced

in it. The magnet thickness the square lining inspection detectors. electrostatic magnet until 100 magnet breaks foot thickness for

end is placed The pulls contact on loose.

number.

the surface. readings

Five spots per spot. These

be tested are several on the holiday output thick-

area, with

three

nonmagnetic on steel

substrates. with

principle. linings These types. sparks is performed DC (direct high-voltage or AC for voltage of lining are either in the power current) (alternating

Better

instruments

are adjustable volts).

and are set to deliver This writer current readings, spark lining way testers ever, that

range of 100 volts/mil for either corona

ness (i.e., 125 mils would does not since both

require

125 x 100 = 12,500 preference more the same result. contamination. electrical a void spark.

have a strong accomplish is surface high lining

alternating

or direct how-

It should and may

be noted,

in some cases, AC will particularly there and the will if there since lining usually the is a relatively is thin break in a visible existing

produce

give erroneous lining areas not during in the

Because testing where through

stress put dielectric exists but

on the strength, does

has a finite

or where down. holes, strong

go all the

This may cause a hole all the way through ln essence, when you spark test, breaking down the lining, completion of is exceeded. of the lining. will Where at you are actually strength

to the steel, in addition making the after For this lining equipment that time.

resulting to finding

new holes where the dielectric (or area) and before prior any

reason, spark testing should be done only once, after immersion to final damage or contamination it is advisable due to handling erection,

is to be lined so that

to spark test only be discovered

erection

lining

Inspection-Linings Inspection appearance. linings. of There

on Concrete linings are no on concrete a section is usually instruments and measure limited to test with to the careful thickness study of of such

practical

One can only

remove

a micrometer.

In most

Tro welled Epoxy,

Polyester,

Vinyl Ester Monolithic

Linings

455

cases, this bonded voltage cult

is not practical bottom

because there

will

probably with

be a layer thickness results, there ground

of concrete tests. Highbe and diffishould

to the

of the section on a sunny day.

to interfere

spark testing primer

can be done on concrete, under the lining. carbon, that

but the spark is weak primers

to see, especially a quantity

For consistent Conductive such as finely containing

a conductive adding to a polyester It should

have been made by petroleum fillers coke, cannot

of conductive

or epoxy

resin system. linings conductive

be remembered

be spark tested. Troubleshooting

Problem Cracks in lining on steel 1. 2. Cause Lack of bond to steel or intercoat Deflection of steel from oil-canning or insufficient wall support Excessive lining thickness

of bottom

Cracks in lining on concrete

1. Lack of bond 2. Weak concrete surface Cracks in concrete Excessive lining thickness 1.
n

Surface Attack

Poor surface cure on lining Wrong material for job Lining installed in sunlight Lining installed over bugholes not previously filled

Visible Pinholes

Blisters

1. Moisture in concrete 2. Disbonded areas 3. Excessive service temperature 4. Permeation to steel 5. Swelling due to organic solvents Surface 1. 2. 3. Blush in epoxies In polyester and vinyl ester-monomer inhibition due to insufficient ventilation Insufficient curing agent

Tacky

Maintenance Linings should be inspected periodically, a one-year especially guarantee, during the first year.

Most monolithic In concrete which could

linings are sold with and workmanship performance structures,

based on the theory

that flaws in materials affect that of leaking

will be revealed during the first year. linings, i.e., concrete cracks that cause one of the In the the latter, lining mi-

the first year may also reveal flaws in the concrete of the

the lining to crack. A flaw advantages corrosives and appear is detected through as a leak in a steel vessel demonstrates lining a hole over in the a bonded lining sheet lining. can migrate behind a monolithic

elsewhere

in the vessel.

In a monolithic, repaired

the corrosive

seldom

grates; the leak in the lining and tank are at the same place. If flaws are detected early, they can be easily and rapidly before damage is extensive.

456

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

Attachment

I:

INQUIRY

FORM--FLOORING

By: Representot Customer: Address: City: Attention: CC: CC: Subject: Operating Operating Conditions: Temperature OF. Maximum Temperature state: Discussed Date With: ive: Jobsite:

Date:

Zip:

Bid Due: No:

Telephone

OF.

Recommendation: Price Other discussed bidders (if any) (if known) and materials: materials and furnish electrical ( ) Yes, service ( (I IOV) for hand tools ( ) Yes ( ) No Estimated start dote:

Customer Customer Describe

to unload and store will provide

compressed safety

air if necessary fumes

1fQ.l

any special

requirements,

contamination,

etc.:

If this a union job? Location? (

) Yes, (

)Na Explain:

) Inside,

) Outside,

Square

footage? ( ) Yes, ( 1 No, Explain:

Any impediments?

Equipment

in area?

) Yes,

) No, Explain:

Will plant

area be in operation? of working time,

) Yes, i.e.,

) Na holidays, shutdowns? ( ) Yes ( ) NO, Explain:

Any restrictions

weekends,

Surface

to be topped ( sealer

is: (

1 Concrete, ( (

) Wood, Or: ( ( ) Fair, ) Na

Surfaceconditions? Was a concrete

) New, applied?

) Good, ) Yes

)Pcor,Explain:

What type surface If necessary Is concrete Number Coving

preparation? ( ( ) Yes, ) Yes, ( ( ) Na ) No, Explain: Expansion ( ) Na ( ) Yes, ( ) No Joints?

CM we sondblost? repair necessary? drains? ( that 1 Yes, would

of floor detail?

Any drawings

be helpful?

Show any drawings

or sketches

on back of page.

REFERENCES
1.
2.

Clement,
Roark,

3.

G.M., H.W. Case Sales Corp., Palmer, Massachusetts. Formulas for Stress and Strain, McGraw-Hill Book Co., 4th Edition, pp 416 and 418. Brown, P.T. and Garnish, E.W., Adhesion as a Factor in Performance of Surface Coatings, J. Oil Col. Chem. Assoc., 50, pp 331-354 (1967).
R.J.,

Tro welled

Epoxy,

Polyester,

Vinyl Ester Monolithic

Linings

457

4. 5. 6. 7.

Register, R.F., Behavior of Fiber-Reinforced Plastic Materials in Chemical Service, Corrosion, Vol. 23, No. 4 (April 1969). Extract from an interim draft written by ASTM Subcommittee D 33.09, Linings for Flue Gas Desulfurization Systems. Guide for Concrete Floor and Slab Construction, ACT 302.lR80, American Concrete Institute, Box 19150, Redford Station, Detroit, Michigan. Spears, R.E., Concrete Floors on Ground, Portland Cement Association, 5420 Old Orchard Rd., Skokie, Illinois.

35 Spray Applied Epoxy Surfacing

Harlan Ameron-Protective

H. Kline Coatings Division

Brea, California

HISTORY Epoxy over

OF EPOXY surfacing

SURFACING materials materials at 1s inch of resin, and

MATERIALS concrete surfaces concrete had for sur-

have been used to protect were trowel applied The early at 70F at 14 inch thickness

30 years. on time

The first walls

to prepared products and were working in small quantity tried

faces using one formulation formulation working three mixing, typically Quick followed successful, pecially placed. more order vent in serious resin which, Advances after mixing (epoxy agent

on floors

and a second

different a typical as

thickness. cure agent

20 to 60 minutes modifier technology

packaged time

components in cure up to

and filler) larger

15 to 20 lb units. after unit packaging, using a

increased

2% to 3 hours, of epoxy

and also allowed several units surfacing was followed surface. willing were

50 to 75 Ibs, and mixing Spray. by The spray rolling only damage than with a few to did the application applicators the the

at one time. was first While to in 1958, by a single pass of the trowel, these applications the until technique, use could it could after were esresult be remix. In master

Application

monolithic

to provide to clean

a smooth

since failure The mix to make

the equipment fluid Hence,

immediate/y on the job in order

equipment trowel of this mix.

and delay

used had to be more more advent fluid,

to spray well

and contained some solobjecduring in the equipto on

it was a more formulations activity, did not

expensive contained

the mix

these early environmental

was considered catch

tionable. the early By marketing ment.

For these 1968/1969, Although

reasons, renewed

type

of application in spray objections 458

years, and by 1965/l of a different

966 had been largely interest and somewhat

abandoned. had resulted application modified

application (except

formulation

some of the earlier

for the one relating

Spray Applied

Epoxy Surfacing

459

solvents) still remain, today a large number of applicators are willing to face them because of the higher productivity which is attained by this method, especially for large floor areas, walls, and ceilings. This combination of spray and trowel improved the application rate per man-hour on walls by a factor of two. The next major advancement in epoxy surfacing application occurred in 1972 with the introduction of spray applied products which needed no further treatment. These materials were designed for application on walls and floors and both concrete and steel at 1/8to 3/16inch thickness. The application rate per man-hour improved by a factor of 3 to 5 for these spray applied products as compared to the earlier trowel applied materials.

APPLICATION

EQUIPMENT

Epoxy surfacings designed for spray application may be applied with a variety of commercially available equipment. A hand-held hopper gun (Figure 35-1) is the most simple spray equipment available and is suitable for small areas.

Figure

35-1:

Quick

spray

hopper

gun-hand

held

A bottom

feed pressure 35.2)

pot with

1 inch minimum production

diameter rates.

hose and mastic

spray gun (Figure

provides

reasonable

Model

125

Figure

35-2:

Mastic

spray

gul

460

Corrosion and Chemical Resistant Masonry Materials Handbook

The Quick Spray Carrousel Pump or Spray Force rotor-strator pump with associated spray guns (Figure 35-3 and Figure 35-4) provide the more efficient application rates for large projects.

Figure 35-4:

Spray force rotor stator pump.

Typical equipment spraying rates are listed in Table 35-1.

Table 35-1: EQUIPMENT Bottom Feed Pressure Pot 1. Spray Applied Epoxy Surfacings HOSE diameter Mastic & GUN material Spray hose gun Equipment Application SQ.FT. Rates PER BQ HOUR

Paint Quickspray Bottom Feed Hopper Pressure Gun Pot l'

120
diamet~r gun* material hose material hose

200

Gunnite Quickspray or Spray Force Pump Carrousel or Spray *Gunnite Force Gun Pump -Quickspray Pole Gun, Spray Pump
1 114.

Carrousel

Pump

l' diameter Gunnite gun*

400

Quickspray

diameter Gun

material

hose

600

Gunnite

Force

Gun

Spray Applied

Epoxy

Surfacing

461

CONTROLLING A surface material material 6OF) will assist output a light

SURFACE finish from and

FINISH smooth applied to rough thickness. a short surface finish may At be controlled will lower by adjusting (50 surface the to is

and atomizing

air. These adjustments nap roller when

be influenced temperatures spray

by the

temperature surface in achieving

treatment-using a smooth

after

application-

a rough

texture

not desirable.

APPLICATION The spray may typical

TEMPERATURE environmental epoxy 150 to surfacings 17OF.

RANGE and The surface application however, temperature temperature surface range for for film and

applied be up to Substrate

is 50 to ideal

100F; material

temperatures

is 70 to 95F at which (8OF

pumping continuity thickness above) which Table

and spraying. or surface temperature At lower continuity of will influence the thickness 60F, of
%2

is achieved. normally

temperatures, while application epoxy surfacing at applied

50 to at higher thicknesses problems

a /s-inch

applied

provides lists

temperatures and

continuity 35-2

may be achieved a number with

to %6-inch. probable causes on concrete.

have been encountered

applications

TROWEL There having resin/cure surfacings Spray cations where platform and deck heads, trowel during the spray

AND are

SPRAY numerous

APPLICATIONS trowel applied resistance epoxy Typical surfacing physical products properties all those available of service epoxy applishapes ship hull

a broad

range of chemical in Table epoxy epoxy legs applied 35-3.

properties

depending

on the epoxy

agent/modifier are listed applied applied jacket trowel

composition. surfacing surfacings would splash

materials have found be difficult zone,

are used for

where trowel

products

have been found or

satisfactory. such

In addition, as offshore and overepoxy whereas in place

uses on steel or concrete impossible: structure The spray and tube piling, drill walls surfaces,

application

in the or tunnel

sheet

areas, pipe

interiors, covers

and concrete

i.e., underside applied

of roofs,

and on ceilings. on vertical to apply

applied

surfacings

are formulated materials

to remain are difficult

and overhead and often

do not remain

application.

CHEMICAL

RESISTANCE resistance of spray test applied epoxy surfacings with is determined by

The chemical ASTM-C measured 579, after

an immersion various

on cast cylinders times.

compression

strength

immersion

462

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

Table 35-2:
PROBLEM Poor adhesion -NO concrete sufacer -Thin layer of concrete adhering t0 Surfacer Large blister or delamination with l/D" or more of Concrete adhering Cracks to surfacer adhering

Epoxy

Surfacing

Application
PROBABLE

Problems
CAUSE

to Concrete surface not clean

Insufflclent surface preparation Weak concrete surface Low strength of subsurface localized

Thermal cycling - severe expansion or contraction. Crack in concrete. Surfacer applied over

expansion

joint

Small

blisters

or

pinholes

in

surfacer

Entrapped air in the surfacer mixture Localized increase in substrate or surfacer temperature while surfacer is fluid.

Softness -Throuqhout

Surfacer

Incorrect mix of resin and cure Low temperature retarding cure. Solvents added to mix. Inadequate mixing Patches exposed to water, or solvents before setting. condensation or staining

-Patches

chemicals

Discoloration

Exposure

to water

before setting Exposure to strong chemicals Rough surface

Inadequate air pressure or materidl to cold when spray applied surface Mix is binder rich - portion of filler left out. Substrate too warm - filler settled leaving binder rich surface. Binder absorbed into porous concrete.

Smooth

glossy

Dull

surface

Table 35-3: Trowel

Typical Applied

Epoxy

Surfacing

Physical Properties Epoxy Surfacings

SPRAY APPLIED 116 2100

vs. Spray Applied

TROWEL HORIZONlAL

APPLIED VERTICAL 121 2100

Density Tensile (ASTN

(lb/tuft) Strength C307) (psi)

128 2300

Compression Strength (ASlM C579) Modulus (ASTM of elasticity c580) (wt%)

(psi)

1100

10,000

7500

(psi)

13X.105

16X105

5.9x105

Absorption Coeficient (in/in'F

0.04

0.1

co.15 32x10-6

of Thermal Expansion - ASTM C531)

21x10-6
0.05

19x10-6
0.18

Shrinkage (%) (ASTM C531)

0.12

Spray Applied

Epoxy

Surfacing

463

Figure various overall epoxy cure agent

35-5

shows

strength Aromatic 354

retention amine

vs time is primarily cured

for

an epoxy a function surfacings

surfacing

in

chemicals. chemical surfacings

100

The degree resistance (Table

of resistance

of the epoxy have the best amine cured

and modifiers.

epoxy

as compared and Table

to polyamide 35-5).

or aliphatic

50% H2S04 @ 150F

80

60

25%

@200F

40

20

50% H2S04 @ 203F

Ethylacetate @ RT

-I
0

6 EXPOSURE TIME (MONTHS)

12

Figure 35-5: Chemical resistance-compressionstrength retentionaromatic amine/modifiedepoxy surfacingcement.

Table 354:

Epoxy

Surfacing

Chemical

Resistance C-267

Compression

Strength

Retention

by ASTM

ALIPHATIC AMINE ANILINE ACETIC ACID - 100% BENZENE SULFURIC ACID - 25% TRICHLOROETHYLENE F P F F P

POLYAMIDE F P F G P

AROMATIC AMINE P E E E G

E G F P

Excellent Good Fair Poor

>70% 50% 30% <30X

Compression Compression Compression Compression

Strength Strength Strength Strength

Retention Retention Retention Retention

464

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

Table 35-5:
R - indicates that the surfacer is recommended for this service.

Chemical
-

Resistance
indicates that sufficient data are not

- indicates that the surfacer is not

recommended for this service.

available at the time of this printing. Contact Ameron for a specific recommendation.

1- use silica-free grades only.

AROMATICAMINE CURED EPOXY SURFACING ALIPHATIC AMINE CURED EPOXY SURFACING

Spray Applied

Epoxy

Surfacing

465

Table 35-5 Continued

AROMATIC AMINE CURED EPOXY ALIPHATIC AMINE CURED EPOXY

xhyl isobutyl Nickel chloride Nickel mtrale Nvzkel wllate Nitric acid

kelone

(MIBK)

R Ft-1 R R

- 5%

R
Ft-

Nitric acid - 20% _&z Nftrlc aad - 30% NWc acid - 40%

466

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

Table 35-5 Continued

SURFACING

In addition,

the 35-6).

polyamide

cured

epoxy

surfacing

has poor thermal

cycle

resistance (Table

Table 35-6:

Thermal

Cycle-E,poxy

Surfacing

on Concrete
/ HODIFIEO PRODUCl B

POLYAMIDE

AROMATIC AMINE PRODUCT A

Thermal Cycle 65F to 212F Thermal cycle 65'F to 340F Tensile strength (psi) Modulus (psi) Coefficient of thermal expansion

Failed at one cycle

No defects at 6 cycles

No defects at 6 cylces No defects at 1 cycle

2,400 10x105 21x10-6

1.400 5x105 32x1--6

2,300 6~10~ 20x10-b

Spray Applied

Epoxy

Surfacing

467

Epoxy surfacings achieving to achieve

surfacers a continuous good flow

normally filled

use silica with layer

sand as the filler. silica, which in spray special resistant

Spray improves

applied

epoxy in size or as for as

are not as highly

graded

reliability

protective silica filler for pumping are

to chemicals. applied chemical should Formulations

The particle epoxy service using carbon such be requested chemicals concrete such

and shape of the graded barium specific strong must natives from where sulfate chemical mineral which as the acid.

is also important and spraying. available for

surfacers

hydrofluoric Epoxy

Manufacturers for when

recommendations service

service conditions. immersion being in aggressive for protecting avoided, protect acids, with are considered or steel, alterwalls

surfacings

be evaluated Epoxy epoxy

caution

and normally used of to

as there concrete

are other floors are and

can be more cost effective surfacers surfacers epoxy factors, normally and spill splash

and reliable. chemicals. satisfactorily However, in chemical there instances is de-

occasional The use of by many

have performed surfacers including:

in immersion. environments

on concrete

termined (1)

The resistance as type

of the epoxy

surfacer

to the service conditions: abuse. not prevent

such

of chemicals,

temperature if the epoxy

and mechanical surfacer does

(2)

The

consequences from

the

chemical

contacting

the substrate.

PERFORMANCE Key concrete (I) properties include: Epoxy concrete change, (2) Holidays deficiencies chemical. (3) To

OF EPOXY which

SURFACERS influence the performance of epoxy surfacers on

surfacers earth or

will

not as a

bridge result

cracks of

which loading. spots or

may

develop

in the thermal

substrate

concrete

shrinkage,

movements pinholes may go

or mechanical due to thin

other

application to the

undetected,

exposing

the

substrate

maintain

satisfactory periodic epoxy

performance inspection surfacings where In-service

in service, and repair. on concrete

the

epoxy

sur-

facer will Generally, jected and to thermal delamination Because pits, with with trenches other The

require

spray

applied occur.

should

not

be subfor

shock may

conditions

temperatures experience of epoxy linings

exceed should surfacers considered or acid

1 60F as cracking be established for tanks, brick and

severe temperature or

cycling retaining

conditions. the selection basins must such may sumps, mortar for be carefully in comparison

of these protection

factors, systems

as sheet

a membrane. following guidelines assist in the selection of epoxy surfacers

such applications.

468

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

EPOXY Situations

SURFACERS Where Epoxy

ON CONCRETE Surfacers on of the concrete concrete results Are Not should will of rapid Used not occur attack be used if the for service surfacer conditions cracks or to the sub-

Epoxy where contains strate rapid and/or Examples Tanks, chemicals bisulfite, In these service; considered. Situations

surfacers attack

epoxy

holidays.

Possible

are severe damage are: basins acid, when

unsafe operating of applications sumps, pit,

conditions. not recommended and retaining nitric chloride. depending with on the severity of the be

trenches

exposed

to

such as: hydrochloric hydrofluoric

acid,

sulfuric

acid, calcium

acid, aluminum protective or acid

cases use other i.e., sheet lining

systems, brick

and mortar

a membrane

should

Where

Epoxy

Surfacers

May

Be Conditionally

Used

Examples Tanks, chemicals

of conditional sumps, such pit,

use are: trenches acids which systems and retaining attack basins 1%) other concrete when than exposed HCI, to

as: dilute chemicals reliable 35-7).

(less than

nitric,

HF or some other In these with

slowly. or acid brick and mortar

cases, the most (Table

are sheet lining

a membrane

Table

35-7:

Summary

of Lining

Materials

Spray Applied

Epoxy

Surfacing

469

Epoxy those service tion (a) the possibility

surfacers, where

however, periodic

have

been known

to function is not cracks,

adequately rapid and at the

under the locais a

conditions conditions surfacer of a holiday,

inspection attack

and repair

are possible

and when

are such that pinhole will crack

of the concrete substrate avenues

or crack if the pinholes

in the surfacer. concrete or other

The user must for attack

be aware that: (b) there in the surfacer.

of such holidays,

TYPICAL Epoxy with ance chart, Table facings

USES OF EPOXY surfacers Table 358

SURFACERS and walls for contact (refer spray (splash and spill) Resistsur-

are used on floors the surfacing range of

all chemicals

to which 35-5). lists the

is resistant uses where long term

to Chemical applied epoxy

broad

have been used to obtain

economical

protection.

Table

35-8:

Spray

Applied

Epoxy

Surfacer

Use History

CONCRETE

STRUCTURES

TYPES

OF SURFACES

INDUSlRIES Chemical Processing Electronics Food & Beverage processing Mining & Minerals processing Metals Power Generation plants Pulp & Paper processing Waste Water lreatment Automotive

Floors Walls (Ceilings) Overhead Trenches Sumps Tanks Ponds Tunnels Pipe

STEEL STRUCTURES TYPES OF SURFACES zone INDUSTRIES Oil and gas processing Harbor and dock facilities Marine

Pilings - Sheet and pipe - splash Offshore platform-jacket legs -splash zone -Decks -Helicopter decks -Mud rooms Ships - Drill decks

Figures 35-6, 35-7, 358,35-9,35-10,35-11 examples of spray applied epoxy surfacer uses.

and 35-12 show

a number

of

470

Corrosion and Chemical Resistant Masonry Materials Handbook

Figure 35-6: Offshore platform-jacket on offshore jacket leg. (b) Completed shore platform jacket leg-1982.

legs-epoxy cladding-applied 1972. (a) Application jacket leg-epoxy cladding at splash zone. (c)(d) Off-

Figure 35.7: Pilings-epoxy cladding. (a) Application epoxy cladding at splash zone. (c) Piling installed.

on the piling. (b) Completed

piling-

Spray Applied

Epoxy Surfacing

471

Figure 35-8: piling-epoxy

Sheet piling-epoxy cladding. (a) Application on the piling. (b) Completed cladding at splash zone. (c) Piling with epoxy cladding installed by driving.

Figure 35-9:

Sheet piling-repair.

(a) Epoxy cladding. (b) Application.

(c) In place

472

Corrosion and Chemical Resistant Masonry Materials Handbook

Figure 35-10: Piling-shop application-epoxy cladding. Completed piling-epoxy cladding at the splash zone.

(a) Application

on the

piling.

(b)

Figure Epoxy

35.11: Waste water surfacing 1972.

treatment

plant.

(a)

Epoxy

surfacing

application

1972.

(b)

Figure

35-12:

Chlorine,

cell house epoxy

surfecing

floors,

trenches,

sumps.

REFERENCE 1. ACI Committee 515 Report, Guide to the Protection of Concrete Against Chemical A ttack by Means of Coatings or Other Corrosion Resistant Materials.

36 A Note on Other Monolithics: Epoxy-Phenolics and Urethanes

Walter

Lee Sheppard,

Jr.

C. C. R. M,, Incorporated Havertown, Pennsylvania

Over polymers western supply long with cut and

the of

past

three The for

decades, and principal this

monolithics have producer because, many years, are about

based on phenolic been manufactured materials these of these though

resins and coand sold in the to has declined

phenolics section

epoxies book under and hard in recent

hemisphere. a short satisfactory who

materials of floor

have given surfacing and the

service

difficult these

conditions, materials

he advises that,

the heavy in price Because that

competition their have

sell of the large number unprofitable, of these Table 30%

vendors modified

have appeared

have been so underand phenolic materials 36-1, giving over

manufacture been

has become

phenolic there decades, exposures, that nitric is flushed Although in those

resin monolithics the editor is taken acid promptly thought from with

to be phased out. for the readers of this volume recomif the be anfor the literature. staining Footnotes is to

so many

installations it important materials. 5 and that

past three mended indicate surface ticipated. pated formic of

to have at least some

information exposures

on these the between water, in heavy

manufacturers but acid, surface areas, flushing traffic of

are acceptable is to peroxide; water finished 32+ above mil are

acceptable

traffic

staining with

be antici-

areas traffic

in 10% phosphoric to be acceptable, areas, with been of the used. a trowel. The

3% hydrogen recommends areas, thermal the

acid exposure applied have not from that have

prompt In light

is required. thicknesses thicknesses, for surface is stated figures although 195Os,

In heavy /32-inch, applied, brush to are these

manufacturer

recommendations no exact and

temperatures approximate available materials

exceeding the

15OOF. Coefficient However,

expansion property that the mid writer since

concrete. manufacturer

physical

and he informs

been

manufactured 473

marketed

474

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

no

tests

using

ASTM

standards strength,

have

ever

been

run,

nor data

have

any

figures

for

compression or included

or tensile

or any

other

physical

ever been obtained

in the literature. Table 36-1

Heavy R R NR NR R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R without R R R R R R R R R Traffic Light Traffic _ R R R NR R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R

Chemical -~ Acetone Acetic acid, 5% Acetic acid, 10 to 20% Glacial acetic acid Ammonium chloride, 25% Ammonium hydroxide, 39% Ammonium nitrate, 50% Beer Boric acid, 10% n-Butan Butyl acetate Calcium chloride, 3 % Carbon tetrachloride Chlorine water, Chloroform Chloracetic acid, 5% Chromic acid, 10% Citric acid, 10% Copper chloride, 20% Copper sulfate, 20% Detergents,in Ethyl acetate Ethyl alcohol Ferric chloride, 30% Ferric sulfate, 10% Formaldehyde, 40% Formic acid, 30% Fruit juices Furfural alcohol sat'd

water or

A Note on Other

Monolithics:

Epoxy-Phenol&

and Urethanes

475

Table
Chemical Gasoline Glycerine Heptane Hydrochloric, 5% to 37% Hydrofluoric, 5% Hydrofluoric, 40% Hydroqen peroxide, 3% Hydrosilicofluoric acid, 10% Lactic acid, 10% Methyl acetate Methyl alcohol Methyl ethyl ketone Milk Monochlorobenzene Nitric acid, 5% Oil, mineral Oil, veqetable Phenol, 80% in ethanol Phosphoric acid, 10% Phosphoric acid, lo-80% Potassium permanganate, 5% Sodium chloride, 30% Sodium hydroxide, 50% Sulfuric acid to 20% Sulfuric acid, 20%-65% Tartaric TOlUene Tricresyl Turpentine Wine xy101 phosphate acid

36-1

(continued)
Heavy Traffic R R R R
NR
R

Liqht Traffic

NR R R R R R R R R R R R R R NR R R R R NR

NR

R R R

R
R

R R R R R R R R R R R

476

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

Urethane by a major discontinued substrates formed licensed promoting surfacing food and The vinyl to

floor rubber

surfacing company, later after were market

materials but

were

first

introduced and disbonding afterward, surfacing territories. along with

in the from

late

1950s was was also

manufacture Shortly floor years

installation

of them a company

a few years about a year and who the formulate from it. With materials,

due to problems installation. urethane a few granted after

with

concrete through

market

materials This the

operators

exclusive

product

disappeared in knowledge,

corporation increase as in the

the passage of time are now having claims industries, that after become

and research, established

and a considerable in this in Europe, unlike primarily epoxy,

urethanes

returning

to the market

hemisphere

and pharmaceutical manufacturer ester materials, urethane

and in some chemical urethane surfacings, at application be formulated sterilize under the the other types

process areas. polyester and so point of and during cure,

are odor-free of foodstuffs. surfacing to clean resilient can or than

cause no contamination In addition, 266OF, and live making steam.

to a softening with abuse. boiling of monolithics,

it possible It is more resistant properties psi psi

surface

water and so

is said to be more range of physical Flexural Tensile Modulus Vicat Thermal Density, Coefficient

to cracking is reported.

mechanical

The following

strength, strength,

1,800-2,600 800-I psi 1.5-1.7 266OF Btu/ft/hr/F/in expansion (per OF) 6-9 123-140 1 .I-2.2 -0.05% stated from the to have coefficients than of thermal expansion internal and 1980 to x 1o-5 ,000 x IO5 6,700-7,300

Compression softening I b/ft3

strength, point

of elasticity conductivity, of thermal variation are

Cure shrinkage These stresses vinyl Herbert cement, agents. that formulations

close to that esters.

of concrete, delaminate They

and therefore,

to have iess tendency do epoxies, granted 4,211,680 This covers resin containing

to build 8 July and

and to

substrate

polyesters

are made under of Manchester, filler with and a variety surfaces, silica

U.S. Patent England. synthetic

J. Shearing water, The examples

a mixture anywhere

of hydraulic hardening from points systems 30 to out exfor for

intermediates

given are for formulations (containing service. chemical resistances, hydraulics) and are not

40% portland these of posures

cement, floor

of resin types.

The manufacturer intended as lining

formulations

are designed

for the wet/dry

and wall giving urethane

vessels or for submerged Table 36-2, the silica-filled

is reported

by the manufacturer

monolithics.

A Note on Other Monolithics:

Epoxy-Phenolics

and Urethanes

477

Table 36-2
Key: R -Resistant,
Acetic Acetic F%cetone ncrylic Al"rnl""rn nmmonium Ammonium Ammonium Aniline Beer Blood Boric acid. 5at'd Monochloro Monomethyl 20% Nitric Nitric oleic acid, acid, acid benzene amine 30% 709 acid, 100% 50% Methylated 50% 50% "ethylene Methyl Methyl Milk spirits chloride ethyl ketone acid, acid, to 25tx

subject to housekeeping;

L - Limited
Lactic

with possible wash damage

25% 50%

acid,

100%

Magnesium Maleic Malic

nitrate, acid, 30% 50%

acid,

sulfate, hydroxide nitrate, sulfate,

methacrylate

Liutlnol Caprolactam, Carbon Carbon Cast~)r

disulfide tetrachloridc oil

Chloroform Citric Copper Cresol, Crude acid, 60% sat'd Fhenyl sulfuric acid, acid, 80% sat'd 10% 68-F 68-F 68-F R R H

sulfate, 5% oil

Phosphoric Potassium

dichromate,
glyc01

(Kuwait)

Propylene

CyClOh3Xa"Z Ethylene dichloride

Sodium Sodium Sodium

hydroxide, hydroxide, hypochlorite, 30% acid, acid, 30% 98%

32% 50% 15%

Formalln Formic Formic Fumaric G.3*Oll"e Glycerol Hydrochloric Hydrofluoric Hydrogen Kerosene acid, acid, 36% 4% acrd, acid, acid, 40% 100% 1%

Suqar, Sulfuric Sulfuric Styre"e

Thioglycolic Toluene Trichlorobenzene Trichloroethylene Turpentine Urea, Xyle"e 50%

peroxide

*18!?F I_

NOTE: Since this chapter was written, urethane monolithics not containing any hydraulic cement have become available in the United States. In a future edition we shall include data on this additional material.

37 Gunned Linings

PART A GUNNED LININGS-HYDRAULICS

Richard

J. Smith Company Pennsylvania

Patterson-Kelley East Stroudsburg,

Harsco Corporation

A hydraulic to permit in the Gunned duct work, (1)

mortar

is the type requiring

only the addition is needed.

of water

in order

hydration

to take place. No other liquid linings are very frequently (boiler

hydraulic

used for corrosion

protection tanks,

interior

of large structures

stacks, scrubbers, advantages:

breechings,

pipes, etc.) and have the following formulated and used

Properly

in the correct against corrosion.

environment,

they

can give long lasting protection (2) (3) They are relatively They mum. (4) (5) They are relatively They are unaffected

easy to field apply. short time, keeping downtime to a mini-

cure in a relatively

easy to repair should defects occur. by high operating temperatures and/or changes

in temperature.

478

Gunned

Linings

479

ADVANTAGES Gunned placement of hydraulic mortars as compared to hand application

has three distinct (1) The

advantages: mortar is dense, when thus reducing the absorption of

resultant

moisture.

This is important may condense.

the lining

has to protect

against

a gas which

The action of the condensate

is only on

the surface of the lining. (2) Gunned breathing placement or the of the mortar inspiration of precludes acid-laden the formation vapors which of open may con-

spaces or voids between dense and corrode (3) The gunned

the lining and the substrate.

This prevents

the inside surface of the substrate. mechanical abrasion qualities, i.e., high cometc. There-

lining has superior tensile

pressive strength,

strength,

resistance,

fore, the gunned lining is resistant to rough treatment. The American or concrete placement (usually or wet tion to the product, (water that pump handheld) which Concrete or screw) Institute through defines gunned linings as follows: (by regulated onto a hose and discharged a suitably either dry prepared (water through inflexible Mortar a nozzle surface;

has been conveyed at high velocity

air pressure or by positivedis-

has been premixed without

added at the nozzle) stiff at impacor sloughing surface

added prior to entry itself base.

into the hose),

is sufficiently

support

sagging from

an overhead

from a vertical

Basically there are two types of gunning procedures: (1) Dry Guns-The cementing premixed matrix and all additives and aggregates is added by the personnel. the If resulting Dry guns

are thoroughly nozzle mortar

and then conveyed

by air pressure to the

nozzle where all (or mostly man. This method man adds too will have severely the nozzle

all) of the mixing water much reduced or too little water,

requires highly experienced mechanical

properties.

have two advantages: (A) The Since gun does not just dry have to be located close to the nozzle. long lengths

materials

are being conveyed,

of hose can be used. (B) Generally, hour and, structures A disadvantage they will produce are more utilized finished for product guniting per large

consequently,

such as dams, swimming with dry guns is that wetting rebound

pools, etc. excessive rebound loss can also

occur due to incomplete to losing material results in incomplete the mechanical and tensile strength

of the dry ingredients. loss, incomplete lining.

In addition wetting

through

hydration,

and this can result in a decrease in The compressive which in turn can affected,

properties

of the gunned

can be adversely of the lining.

result in severe cracking

480

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

(2)

Wet Guns-The rect amount additional cement. linings bound which through the hose where water Wet will

dry ingredients of water

are thoroughly of water

mixed with the corpressure through and/or to thin gunite ratio of water relatively

and then conveyed to give the

under

a slight addition is added thickness

for atomization

proper

guns are

recommended can

for guniting controlled

since the occur.

be better is that

and less re-

A disadvantage

since the wetted

is heavy, it cannot the work.

be easily conveyed wet gunning no longer

through

a long length of hose, located close to when shooting and horizontally

means that the gun itself must be physically Generally, hose lengths is recommended than 100 feet

50 to 75 feet vertically.

COMPRESSIVE, Generally, pressive, concrete 2,000 1,500 of

FLEXURAL,

AND

TENSILE

STRENGTH results in a lining with higher complaced by hand. of 1:4 Conventional strength of proportions, strength is an average compressive mortar

the use of guniting and tensile 1:2:4 mix proportions

equipment exhibits

flexural

strength

vs linings conventional concluded with

to 3,000 to 2,000

psi at age 28 days!

psi at age 28 days; guniting applied of mortar

a 1:4 mix proportion

results in 5,000 strength

to 7,000

psi at age 28 days. Swenson better than that attainable

that the compressive and the tensile placed method mortar.

of pneumatically 20 to 25% tion to its speed

is 20 to 70% better manually using the guniting

So in addi-

application, properties.

can also help to

improve these mechanical

MANUFACTURERS Following Dry Guns (I) Allentown Allentown, (2)

OF GUNITING

EQUIPMENT of guniting equipment:

is a list of some manufacturers

Pneumatic PA 18105

Gun Co., Inc.

P.O. Box 185

Reed Manufacturing 655 Brea Canyon Walnut, CA 91789

Co., Inc. Road

(3)

Shotcrete 10627

Plus, Inc. Drive TX 78217 work, the Reed gun has gained widespread lining be predampened is then added acceptance. It before being

Sentinel

San Antonio, For field is generally introduced

application recommended

Its rugged construction

and speed of operation that the mortar

results in increased efficiency.

into the gun. The balance of the water

by the nozzle

Gunned

Linings

481

man. fully sitting

Since shoot

mostly through

dry 500

materials feet

are being transported In this

through intance, down.

the hose, it is the gun was foot boiler In this case, man and the

possible to work

with

long lengths of hose. We have seen the Reed gun successof hose vertically. nozzle and the man was at the top of a 500 between the nozzle

on the ground

stack, which was then it is necessary

lined starting

at the top and working

to have radio

communication

crew at the gun since the crew is controlling Wet Guns (I) Refract-All 3939 E. 36th Tulsa, OK (2) Manufacturing Street North 74115 Co.

the flow of material.

True Gun-All Detroit Tool Custom MO 65536 PA, we have used the True Gun-All for Mfg. 100 True Street Lebanon,

At our factory almost

in East Stroudsburg,

40 years. We have found

it to be extremely

reliable and easy to operate.

We use it for lining hot water tanks and can place the gun right next to the tank. Consequently, on a relatively ticular situation since minimal we never have to gun through thin % to /s lining. since rebound more than 50 feet of hose. We gun Gun-All works well in this parThe True

is kept under 5%. The thin lining is easy to install

air pressure is needed because of short hose lengths.

TERMS

OF REFERENCE of the cement Museum related gun was discovered History. to building mounts in 1907 by Carl E. Akeley was a reof the The carcasses frame

The principle of the American

of Natural

The device he invented for trophies. metal an expanded

sult of his experiments were formed required plying Pneumatic PA to (later the mortar. by spraying Within

plaster of paris onto

shape. He soon concluded three Gun Company known the dry materials terms

that this apparatus

was better suited for apby Allentown Allentown, used to other the

years, the device had been improved

and has been in existence since then. The term gunite President of Cement Gun Company, Pneumatic hydraulic Gun Company) gunite mixture. The term mortar and was Numerous mortars, Institute.

was first used by Byron C. Collier, as Allentown method making have up the been describe

of application.

has no correlation

descriptive

used to describe

gunned

hydraulic Cement

most common

being Shotcrete

as used by the American

COMPONENTS A hydraulic lining consists of three major components: cementing matrix,

aggregate and additives.

482

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

Cementing The in which from cement, cement, advisable cause become

Matrix function it will natural masonry of the cementing appear. the five cement, cement, There matrix is to bind types portland white process, all the particles cements as well together. to choose slag

The cement

selected

must have chemical are many of basic types oil well the

resistance

to the corrosive cement cement for any

environment as pozzolanic It is not If there could then

of hydraulic portland

including

calcium-aluminate cement, gunning stiffen cement

cement,

blast furnace and others. mix. delay

to use a fast-setting failure during mix

as the matrix

a gunning significant

is a chemical

a fast-setting impossible.

to quickly

and restarting

of the gun might

Aggregates Aggregates occurring together qualifications There siderations (A) are are: Resistance highly sential ing the to the corrosive rather than to determine environment also have full mixture. of which processes environment. inert. the suitability to which compatibility may Some aggregates activity may be into are relatively The usual a conglomerated of aggregates gradation. types of aggregates to choose from. Important connumerous inert filler material is inert be clean, generally material forms hard, composed which of natural when strong, bound durable

minerals.

definition they

mass by a matrix are that

concrete. tough,

The principal

and of the proper

reactive in order corrosive must

Knowledge

of this

is esregardThe other

of the aggregate it will with the various

be exposed.

aggregates ingredients i.e., the result industrial weathering and crushed and that

in the

Aggregates the particles or it may of running from types, geologic material.

be natural

or artificial, may be the by some of sands be

substrate process. stones of any

are composed

of natural

have been produced water natural Natural however, groups while rock

The natural are reduced quarried or all rock of these

sands and gravels are the product the stone

and the action

by the crushing may be noted

screening from no

aggregates it should make

derived

members

satisfactory

aggregates Artificial Some

for concrete. aggregates are usually clay produced for for some special lightweight of slag. of aggregates from surface shrinking, too to fine the to is to surlarge obtain unrelated purpose, concrete. industrial

such as expanded artificial processes, (B) Gradation. the which face will coarse. Too

aggregates

making

aggregates

are by-products and blast furnace important must will which when

such as cinders One

of the more which fine other

properties increase can applied lead features.

size distribution many and from increases cracking rebound water

be suitably

graded

particles detrimental

area,

demand,

Particles In order

the substrate an important

by gun. Shape of the

aggregate

is also

consideration.

Gunned

Linings

483

maximum and irregular Following properties:3 (1) Natural terials

cementing form

qualities, than

the round

aggregates and smooth.

should

be of sharp

rather

is a listing

of some types

of concrete

aggregates

and their

general

sands

and gravel-The wide

most

commonly

used class of mathroughout

because of their

distribution States.

and availability

most regions (2) Crushed extensively breaking particles screening factured a higher aggregate (3) Talus-Talus The tions only gate source of nature. (4) Coral

of the United

stone down

and manufactured materials. the natural of a series usually

sand-These bedrocks blasting, higher into

are the second are produced satisfactorily rolling, made with than

most by graded

used through aggregates degree concretes

Crushed

aggregates crushing, Concretes

milling, manunatural

and classifying

operations. develop

strengths and thawing ratio.

and frequently

of resistance

to freezing

of the same water/cement used as a source talus from

is sometimes feature is the fact that

of concrete a bedrock

aggregate. as an aggreoperaby forces

distinguishing

the blasting

and initial

quarrying

in the case of talus have already

been accomplished

aggregates-Coral the tropical from loose

is now

a recognized islands to

aggregate occur hard in many

material the limeforms,

throughout Caribbean varying stones. (5) Blast cially furnace

and subtropical in

of the Pacific, compact

Sea and in Florida. sediments

Coral deposits lagoons

slag-Originally for in that various Slag has many

a waste purposes of the

product, but

slag is now commermainly for concrete characteristics

produced rock

aggregates. of crushed (6) Lightweight pumice, are the These sulating Additives Additives lining.
l l l l

concrete-making are angular natural shales, product clays, with

the particles

and harsh. materials include

concrete most

aggregates-Typical Expanded a finished manufactured

volcanic aggregates qualities.

cinders. commonly produce

slates and slags aggregates. excellent in-

lightweight

are selected the purposes

to perform for which

various

functions

to improve

the mortar used are:

Among

admixtures

are most commonly

To improve To reduce To improve To accelerate

workability. the water durability setting required. by entrainment and/or hardening. of air

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

To aid in curing. To impart water repellent or waterproofing properties. particles when mixed with

To cause dispersion water. To retard To improve To reduce To cause steel. To aerate the mortar To reduce To reduce To offset Quite lationship mixing throughout Many purposes. claims is desirable (1) be often, to the used additives On the bleeding. setting.

of the cementitious

wear resistance or offset expansion shrinkage of the

(hardness). during mortar setting and and hardening. prestressing of

automatic

to produce

a lightweight

product.

the evolution or reduce the total to

of heat. chemical will reaction. small proportions in re-

some adverse selected the

additives mixture. insure that

be in very that are

It is necessary additives holidays have

some defects

form

of mechanical distributed their intended

homogeneously

the mixture; other additives.

otherwise, hand, there

and other been

can occur. unjustifiable

can be useful

and effective decisions factors

in accomplishing some extravagant, as to whether should receive

made for

In making the following of

or not an additive consideration: by a small

or necessary, possibility

The

accomplishing

the

desired

results

modification (2) (3) The additional The possible

in the basic mix. cost of using the additive. adverse is intended to remember also effect on properties other than those which

the additive It is important additive, negative stances age of retarder there effect. which the may For

to improve. that some for each beneficial opposite additives, which For workability, reaction especially will example, can result action which finely derived may from produce an a sub-

be an equal, to improve upon

example, mixture

powdered

are designed

also increase the shrinkin cracks. much Doubling use of a set too

gunited

drying,

up on an additive may delay

can also cause problems. set indefinitely.

APPLICATION

OVER

A STEEL lining

SURFACE has been selected, the following application may grease,

Once the proper techniques (I) etc.) be required. before should Cleaning

material

be followed: of the surface to be lined. to remove lining. the gunned On old rusty steel, sandblasting (oil, paint, all foreign contaminants

It is necessary applying

Gunned

Linings

485

(2) utilized. (A) (B) (C) (0)

Mechanical

anchoring.

Generally are:

a reinforcing

wire

mesh

system

is

Factors to be considered

Type of anchors and method Size and type of wire mesh. Fastening of mesh to anchors.

of attachment

to steel surface.

Length and spacing of anchors.

The wire mesh must be installed (A) (B) Concentric Properly when

so that it is:

to the surface being lined. anchored so that it doesnt takes collapse place, against the substrate to the operation nor does it float

the gunning

surface after gunning. The lining forces mortar (3) to addition wire to mesh should it from providing be covered corrosion by a sufficient the wire thickness mesh of the mortar In reinlow steel

protect

and expansion anchoring, strength

from

high temperature. also

mechanical

the mortar linings

lining to give it more resistance to tensile stresses. Typically, but usually have relatively

have high compressive During placement,

tensile strength. Application. mortar the lining operation. and the nozzle of the gun is held at a slight the wire mesh. To avoid back lining of a gunned in a continuous thickness the gunned angle to permit lamination, and forth lining should is 4 to get firmly is applied Under normal impacted conditions, For behind

to the required

thickness maximum

minimum

is 11/2" to 2.

best results, evaporates. rebounded material

not be troweled

off since excessive troweling that water should

will bring water to the surIts best to leave material be usled. resmooth. should never be

face and hairline (4) worked (5) not lost Rebound,

cracks can occur when Under no conditions started, cements Premature properties

the surface of the gunned lining as is, provided Since hydration Curing. has already Hydraulic water

it is relatively

rebounded cannot

because its mechanical which mortars.

can be adversely be allowed will

affected. of the cement soft, by: resin-based hour. dusty is

to air cure. It is essential produce sur-

that the mixing

is necessary for proper evaporation Curing is generally compound. which

hardening

by evaporation.

faces and low-strength (A) Using liquids

accomplished are clear, within

a concretecuring which are sprayed

These is usually airdries in mind

on the mortar

lining as soon as the surone-half and forms a seal which to cure to high the curing to apply will comanother have to that

face water holds

has disappeared, mixing water,

The curing compound in the strength lining. At without affect that

immediately Keep

allowing

the cement

shrinking. adhesion point,

pound will

later on, if you want

the concrete-curing

compound

be ground off. (B) Moisture damp mortar for curing. In this case, the gunned after application. Once intervals lining is kept cool and is started, the the

24 hours water

curing until

surface should be kept continually spray at frequent

moist by the application lining is 24

of a light

hours old, at which time it should be hard enough to be placed into

486

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

service. an effect

However, on setting

temperature time

and humidity

conditions into

may

have

and must be taken

consideration.

In this case, one of two methods must be used (6) Guniting over concrete. to assure adhesion to the old concrete. The gunned lining must be mechanically or chemically attached to the old concrete. There old are numerous to old. however, carefully. sound products These In all on the market may be utilized the old

(A)

Chemical designed when

attachment. for bonding over

new concrete concrete,

guniting must

be sure to follow cases, the

manufacturers concrete

recommendations be structurally

and all dirt,

grease, oil, paint,

etc., must be removed.

(B)

Mechanical crete type the

attachment.

Anchors

are driven

into

the existing

con-

and a wire or power gunited to lining give

mesh system in place

is then anchors

installed.

Usually

expandingmesh holds to the

actuated-type

are used. The wire slumping. mesh also wire

and

prevents the to tensile

In addition reinforces

insuring gunite sketch

mechanical illustrates

anchoring, resistance

it more

stresses. The following

the application.

(7)

Corrosive

environment.

In some

instances,

when

applying

gunite

over lining occur

steel in a very corrosive under the gunned lining in the surface. facturers gunited gunited The lining lining. membrane is installed.

environment, it is suitable to install a membrane to act as a safety factor in the event that cracks In this coating application, is then system Wire mesh The final anchors installed is then looks are first welded with in accordance attached like this:

to the steel the manuand the

recommendations.

to the anchors

Gunned

Linings

487

MIXING Water stance acceptable in mixing and

WATER used for can for water mixing have the materials effect gunite to be gunited upon if they for the for should ingredients. use as mixing contain Water water. no subthat amounts matter have is always is Sub-

which

a harmful purposes affect acids, of the limits

drinking

is satisfactory alkalies, tolerance use of

stances which sewage.

can adversely are silt, oil, No general

are present degree

in sufficient organic water

and salts of alkalies, acceptable drinking

of contamination

been developed. recommended.

Consequently,

SUMMARY Gunned corrosion cedures rosion must hydraulic problems. protection. linings As have proven case with installation good the how to be an economical most protective in order product Gunning rainy difficult, solution linings, to many procorcan day is

is the during

proper

be followed results. than weather

to insure is, faulty installers on a hot, day.

maximum application who sunny other

No matter in job

lead to disastrous considerable a lot gunning draulic tions. occur. more difficult

It is, therefore, gunning can

best to utilize

have had hand,

experience

site conditions. on a cool, be extremely affected

On the if not

in freezing cements

impossible.

Hycondi-

are also greatly

by temperature

and humidity

In addition, mechanical problems Only an experienced crew knows

and other job-site problems best how to cope with them.

can and do

488

Corrosion and Chemical Resistant Masonry Materials Handbook

Figure 37-1: Masonry li ning being pneumatically apRlied to a breeching. A wire mesh anchoring system is used and lining is applied 11/2" to 2 I thick. Anchoring system holds lining in place while it is gaining strength and provides steel reinforcement case the breeching is subj ected to physical flexing or twisting. to minimize cracking in

Figure 37-2: Pneumatic application of masonry lining in an ASME designed storage tank. Relatively small tank diameter results in keystoning action whereby the lining supports itself. Due to size and thickness of tank, no metal anchoring system is needed. Lining is applied 1/2" to 5/8" thick.

Gunned

Linings

489

REFERENCES
1.

2. 3.

Lorman, William R., Engineering Properties of Shotcrete, NCEL Technical Report R429 with Addendum. Report prepared by U.S. Naval Civil Engineering Laboratories, Port Huenema, California, published by American Concrete Institute, Detroit, Michigan (1968). Bank, Robert F. and Kennedy, Henry L., Technology of Cement and Concrete, Vol. 1, pp. 265-271, John S. Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York (1955). Troxell, George Earl, David, Garmer G. and Kelly, Joe W., Compositionsand Properties of Concrete, Second Edition, pp. 6092, McGraw-Hill, New York (1956).

PART f3 SILICATE MONOLITHICS, GUNNED SODIUM SILICATES

Robert
Horseshoe

L. Trinklein
Bend, Arkansas

Silicate book grades gun. two-part

corrosion-resistant as gunite type which pneumatic setting by machines than mixes rebound either with

cements grades. and mix the gunning

as described The sodium one-part systems

in other silicate

sections The

of this the the of the that gunite

are also available chemical are applied

systems system.

include

modified such and liquid of coarser

as the

Allentown, mixes

Reed, or similar set much ened where then face wide moved impacted indicates These out inches tected. to

dry powder

at the nozzle aggregate they

This of course, more rapidly these the mix reduce of the with In guniting

necessitates mortar

the formulation or castable dusting.

silicates. that be predampthe dry loader is This is done by placing type machine

it is generaly loss and a small

recommended a conveyor

powder

in a mixer

or through amount is kept

it is dampened mixed more to be lined. rythmically as the material the material that

of liquid.The 3 to 4 feet

dampened from

material

liquid

at the nozzle

of the gun and impacted high and

on the surand is

Usually

the nozzle

the surface

in a series of loops is impacted should mix is too gunite They dry, linings have a smooth

6 to 9 inches shiny surface.

18 to 24 inches The freshly surface that indicates with granular

perpendicularly whereas usually

on to the surface. A sandy appearance large units, from

a rippling are single, Linings wire

the material expansion

is too wet. monolithic joints. or within thickprothe with are applied with studs in thicknesses or with % inch up to several is adequately in contact

depending

on the service system

requirements.

one inch or more

ness should

be anchored

mesh that the lining

The anchoring

is necessary

to retain

490

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

surface of the substrate stresses to control Gunited linings most ature for monolithic stacks, tanks,

during

application, silicates

curing, and service, and to distribute have been used for many years as

cure-cracking. sodium chimneys, sewers, and other advantages equipment. They resist for

acids (except up to 15OOF.

hydrofluoric

and acid fluoride

salts), moisture

and temper-

Perhaps the following

have been responsible

their successful use over the past years: (1) Monolithic scaffolds. (2) (3) Curved or irregular Gunned sodium surfaces can be covered uniformly. monolithic linings display of the liner. applicaa tackiness that gunited linings the can be applied vertically, forms, horizontally, supports, or

and overhead

without

need for complex

silicate

improves the bonding (4) They

and densification

do not give off toxic

fumes or odors during mixing,

tion, and setting. Gunned considered materials, upon ranges from 150 to 400 properties tween high tivity This the substrate; In continuously diffusion is usually In general, specified, monolithic before they silicates of all types have some limitations can be successfully strength used. They, and tend toward and formulation. of thermal this brittleness. Similarly, from expansion possible, should The modulus tensile 1,500 strength to 4,000 that must be of elasticity psi depending ranges from psi. Thermal to that of beis required

like all cementitious

are inflexible

104 to IO6 psi and flexural psi, and compressive however, when

from 500 to 2,000

the densification

strengths is not

such as coefficient

should be matched a membrane

the lining

and the substrate wet conditions rate sodium and absorption silicate

to provide of silicate lining

a slip-plane materials. than that

and prevent cracking. The thermal conducreduces advan-

a membrane

also be used because of the of steel or concrete.

of a gunned

is lower

advantageous sodium

as the lower gunned

temperature

on the substrate and unique

corrosion

and thermal

movement. silicate linings have specific cements; however, they must be carefully formulated,

tages as corrosion-resistant and applied

to make them cost effective. of Gunned Sodium 4,500 0.75% 1.25% expansion 11.8 140 x lOin/in/F Silicate psi Materials

Typical

Physical Properties strength

Compressive Tensile

strength

300 psi

Cure shrinkage Absorption Coefficient Density Flexural Modulus Thermal strength of elasticity conductivity of thermal

Ib/ft3
x 104psi Btu/ft2/hrloF/in

240 psi 2.0 3.7-4.8

Gunned

Linings

491

PART C GUNNED POTASSIUM SILICATE

Walter

Lee Sheppard, Incorporated

Jr.

C. C. R.M.,

Haverto wn, Pennsylvania

HISTORY

AND

LIMITATIONS of ceramic cement coatings began well over half a century The procedures refinement, followed but only experiments primarily considerable expounded about sodium ago, starting equipchanges,

Air spraying with ment hydraulic

formulations.

and the minor

used have undergone are well

over the years. They be repeated the interior lining linings. applications this same procedure

in Mr. Smiths

section, and so will not were run using as a lining for

here. At some time to apply

mid-century,

silicate coatings,

of stacks and chimneys when top temperatures

venting acid-laden

flue gases, and this type of ducting and in many other limits of organic on such current

is now frequently Mr. Trinkleins

also seen in high temperature

are outside the economical

short paper gives the basic information limitations reactions.

sodium silicate usage. The three (in this order) particular quire water cures structure particle the time, most important rather of gunned silicate linings are probably and swelling or growth-in mortars, all silicates rereaction grading that Like hydraulic high absorption, cure shrinkage,

sulfation-hydration in the mix,

both for application formulation

and for the chemical evaporates,

or hardens the material. behind. By careful size, the manufacturer in contact substrate, lining

When the water

it leaves a porous of the of

of the mix and careful it totally. Therefore, penetrate

can reduce the size of these voids and so reduce over a period through that condenses or collects (whether action, on its surthe lining acid or not) it undergoes a hydraulic morboth

porosity, moisture

but he can never eliminate gases and water carrying with

face will

absorb into these voids and so eventually

and reach the As gunned volume change.

it any chemicals

that are dissolved in the fluid. cures or hardens due to chemical occurs in all concrete If no provision creates random Cure shrinkage and other

tars, but is higher in silicates. The shrinkage as it tries to pull itself together. cast concrete breaking The tions-is where totally and gunned up, they are reinforced third limitation--that to all sodium linings can break

stress in the material floors from is followed reac-

is made for cure shrinkage,

up. To prevent concrete

with rod or mesh. This same principle of the sulfation-hydration silicate compositions more details growth

with gunned linings. chemical peculiar and has been discussed elsemay find references for it in it

in this volume. is to eliminate

Those desiring the sodium.

the Bibliography

at the end of this chapter.

The only proven way to eliminate

This can be done by changing from a sodium

492
silicate

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

composition that will

to

a potassium no sodium.

silicate that

one,

and to

employ

a hardener of sodium Potassium with

(a by may

catalyst) potassium form acid. while majority bear this installation. Although including the

contains also

It should complex These

not be assumed, eliminate salts called alums can pick problems, in his study sodium

however, all

the total growth with aluminum, for

replacement reactions. a few other combined will

hydration iron and

alums

in combination water

basic radicalssulfuric So the great should of the available due perhaps manner, silicate comof and grow.

particularly substitution of growth in mind

magnesium, of potassium

up molecular it may not

of crystallization sodium

silicate

eliminate conditions

eliminate

all, and the designer

of the anticipated silicate mixes silicate mixes A gunned research, the

environmental have until been fairly

gunned of lining

continuously recently,

since this type made without employing After ponent) Norman to to difficulty

was first the then

investigated, available hardener

no real effort

seems to have been

produce excessive a sodium mix

a gunned sag and

potassium rebound. of

in getting

to gun in a satisfactory 2component available first through potassium about 1980.

silicofluoride period available Ray Leah,

became

an extended became and mortars is added is added. Huxley

all-potassium the combined 4,227,932 cements), of water, silicate

(single

in 1978,

largely

efforts

and in 1980, and calcium with

U.S. Patent aluminate

was granted when placed is also a to

on the design. Hydraulic by gun, of the water which water (Portland are usually predampened containing a small amount potassium and the balance material

at the nozzle.

The gunned

all-potassium

single component,

spray-dried

and silica powder

COMPOSITION The dry sium silicate, in this in the phosphate.

AND

PROPERTIES silicate gunite silica, formulation contains condensed Masonry, water. only dried potaspolylisted

all-potassium crushed

and graded details,

and the curing and patented materials

or hardening

agent-which, aluminum p 181,

case, is a specially (For further Bibliography) physical There

formulated are no other only after

see Chemically with, clean, placement

Resistant neutral are:

whatsoever potable

in the formulation,

and in application, Typical

it is mixed properties

Compressive Toluene Cured Tensile Flexural Linear

strength, C-579) 3,100 2.9% 138 Ib/ft3 120 I b/fts (2,208 (1,923 kg/m3) kg/m3) psi (217 kp/cm)

28 days (ASTM absorption Wet gunned

density density 14 days 14 days

gunned strength,

Bond to steel strength, shrinkage

160 psi (11.2 425 psi (29.7 0.005 in/in

kp/cm3) kp/cm2)

730 psi (51 kp/cm2) unrestrained

Gunned

Linings

493

Thermal at at

conductivity: 4.4 Btu/ft2/hr/F/in 5.0 BtulftlhrPFlin 5.5 Btu/ft/hrPF/in range expansion 0 to 9 1 650F (9OOC) 7.0 x IO in/in/OF resulting air, (12.6 x IO (0.63 WlmPC) (0.72 W/m/C) (0.79 W/m/C)

280F 620F of elasticity service temperature of thermal has been Water on flat,

at 1000F Modulus Maximum Coefficient All formed were was were data by pH resistance

1.57 x IO6 psi (1 .I x IO5 kp/cm2)

m/m/C)
per-

based gunite

on specimens applicator. mix panels.

from and

actual

gunning feed

a quality

Water, ASTM

material

pressures Gunning applicable, deviation rewith

controlled. performed used for Actual

and gunning vertical of data. conditions only conditions. dry

temperature

were at ambient. where to reasonable yield

procedures, purposes.

determination gunning

All data are subject may vary

and should sults. another venient These

not, therefore, field data

be used for specification

and, therefore,

different this mix

are presented

as ideals and for comparing material, life. it can be stored dry.

under ambient

identical storage

Because temperatures

it is a single have no effect

component

in any confreezing

temperature

as long

as it is kept

Winter

in its storage

CURING The after mix takes and a rapid quickly that set after develops application strength (surface and from for is hard in 15 minutes It is undisturbed for at least this may be the temperlevel for

gunning), prior two

chemical

resistance.

recommended, at 70F the first 5OF ature

however, to placing days. after

it be allowed

to cure

seven days the weather

in service,

and protected to place the unit ambient

If it is desired the first

in service faster, by heating except must that when

accomplished (28C) of 25OF

24 hours

cure,

at not more than

per hour (121C) raising

to the working is reached, it further.

temperature, the temperature

be held at that

six hours

before

APPLICATION Application 60 to 9OF range, detailed the client, tion holes remove and should instruction whose should follow guide inspectors a necessity. Steel should and all welds (SSPC#B). be made normal for will with gunite monitor the substrate below procedures. not only in the temperature and weather The manufacturer of the applicator, Proper reinforcing mill system surface range of provides preparais always no to to a coma

(in no case at a temperature the benefit An anchoring be free of oil, smooth Existing

50F)

in the same but also of

the installation. and/or grease,

is obviously or voids finish

recommended. mercial

scale, rust, be brush

etc., with sandblasted

and continuous, brickwork and loose material.

and sandblasted

should

all surface

contamination

Small deep holes and voids

may require

prepatchings.

494

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

ANCHORS, Unlike chors cure, which stress, structure on both intervals, stresses this to ture. some and/or gunned corrosive

REINFORCING acid-brick reinforcing. linings atmospheres and

AND

MEMBRANES construction, or other shrink, alloys they gunned should build linings require an-

(block) steel

Although stainless and

these are commonly as they

made of carbon be used. up internal

steel, in As they stresses

shrink,

will be distributed through the structure. Sooner or later this shrinkage as it grows, will exceed the tensile strength in the weakest part of the causing it to rupture, below for and a crack will appear. set into be supplied While it will This same action will to help slowly the substrate not causes spread directly some from support the crack, By installing the structure weak at the all shrinkage prevented hold in place or other anchors-is and may material through to and this anchors can spots. from disbondment

disbondment

sides of the crack. accumulating to prevent possible use of helps disbondment mesh

at regular to keep the in and lining the that not

be possible, be reduced,

manner,

cracking, most,

it can certainly progressing if not reinforcing It should effective substrate the surface

degree The

throughout

the struc-

It is also

all, of the cracked also distributes however, because damage over the as a retainer be noted,

material.

continuous only

stresses and restrain saturated rosives substrate. Because crack, the point. based most gunned tion and membrane process The on

to counter

some of them. actually loosely the cracks

loose reinforcing-without disbondment, and cracked-up that have passed

partially hide over

it will by

keeping for cor-

and traveled linings ceramic to

face of the to shrinkconsider portion the a of dewbe in the insulait and to or other down

of this tendency because between in which selection of this the substrate of the be made will

of ceramic high and porosity, any

gunned gunned material

(or surfacings) advisable lining to below if any

it is always

structure

is to be used ever operates be used will, and membrane adequate

membrane from

of course, Where

the

environmental thickness a layer

conditions-chemistry the fluid-applied it may temperature be necessary be insufficient to provide

temperature-and group. thermal between

cases would lining to the

membrane lining

selected,

to interpose

the gunned insulator, an acceptable

of closed

cell foamed

borosilicate

glass block,

to bring level.

the surface

at the face of the membrane

REBOUND A characteristic applied and the fall the signed, off. by nor This of spray they how that will time of gunned must hit well linings out is rebound. between will no matter always more that All ceramic they how well linings enter the that are

be wetted the target. it is operated, dry

the time

nozzle is deleaving or

However, there

the unit material will will

be some and which material Those rebound

nozzle

be too

to stick

to the target, than silicate to a wall. state 10 to 20%,

bounce

is called this

rebound,

and obviously,

fail to stick in the properly struc-

to the underside application made tures, wall

of a ceiling gunned usually

(or roof) potassium

experienced from overhead

applications

runs from

and from

between

30 and 45%.

Gunned

Linings

495

Rebound surfaces.

material

may never be troweled removed

or mixed

in with finished

gunned

It must be carefully

and discarded.

HARDENING Most usually sistant material it will with scrubbing

OR CURING gunned silicate p 177,

AGENT lining materials employ a fluoride Dietz, hardening (Chemically domain. agent, ReThis up in

sodium Masonry, provides liquid

silofluoride

patented cure.

in 1932 However,

by Karl

footnote

6) and long since in the public acid which

very effective or in condensate,

in the presence of strong acid, can, if picked of any stainless steel in contact In addition, hazard. or in a possible health the spray equipment polyphosphate

release small amounts

of hydrofluoric effect

cause etching

it, and can also have a deleterious is on the list of materials in small amounts, in the air around of the application, should present

on the silicate lining.

this material Although the vicinity

EPA considers handling be careful

those

not to breathe

in any of the hardener

mist or dust floating

it. The aluminum no problems

has none of these drawbacks.

At this time,

have been noted to re-

sult from the use of this new hardener.

CHEMICAL Silicate fluorides. effect damage effect facturers resistant, chemical that tection on

RESISTANCE gunned After them. linings are inert waters to all acids except and organic and hydrofluoric potassium alkalies and acid have little hydroxide, show early Some manuto pH

cure, rapidly. a point

neutral Very with

bases, in general, of strong

Strong

alkalies,

such as sodium and silicate

them which make

low concentrations concentration

accelerates

temperature.

of saying that their

linings are resistant

ranges from

0 to 11 .I Whether and whether than

this is true or not depends metal.

on how one defines it can be stated service and pro-

the high pH figure is the result of the presence of some In general, economical lining will what provide

other (except The with

a salt of a strong alkali

a potassium Notes:

silicate gunned for acid fluorides) reader the the specified spray

in the range of pH 0 to 9. the results may be if the application If the substrate is slowed down is too cold, or the and much of the ranges. cure

may wonder thermal is too

is made outside air mixing gunned material If the target of the material bound. In either can be reclaimed)

cold,

will fail to stick to the target and will fall off. and air are too hot, the cure is accelerated, will be partly cured before it seizes of these cases, the rebound should not try to trowel cured and some, or much, and will rematerial the target,

loss (none of the rebound smooth the finish

will be excessive and the work will be unacceptable. left by gunning. tolerances. face from the gunned lining and so to tight thickness thicknesses, but not maxi-

The applicator In so doing, Specifications mums. The information do serious damage

he may drag the partially should indicate contained minimum

to it. Do not expect

to work acceptable

in this chapter

was provided

by the patentee.

496

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Chemically Resistant Masonry, Walter Lee Sheppard, Jr., (Marcel Dekker, NYC, 2nd Edition, 1982). PP 180-181,187, particularly footnotes 13,17; 188-189. A New Inorganic Cement Mortar for Sulfuric Acid Service, Robert S. Mercer, paper presented at 14th Annual Conference of the National Association of Corrosion Engineers, San Francisco, California, 17-21 March 1958; discusses the sulfationhydration problems with sodium and potassium silicates, Power Industrial Chimneys, Brick Lining Performance, R.R. Pierce, D.J. Kessler, Combustion, September 1966. Re: The swelling (sulfation-hydration reaction) of sodium silicate mortars, see also the editors note at the end of Chapter 2 1.

Section VIII Expansion Joint Components and Reinforcements

497

38 Expansion Joint Components

Donald Pennwalt Orange,

J. Kessler Corporation California

Definition a structure as those

of Expansion which caused by thermal

Joint:

A separation to allow small to occur

between relative

adjoining movements,

parts of such

is provided

changes,

independently.

SEALANTS-FLEXIBLE All present structural line of vironment. There Epoxies These are highly strength resistance and and adhesion to chemical they will have are five major chemically system. defense

AND resistant Such joints the

DEFORMABLE must have some type of expansion inherent The chemical joints in any first en-

masonry

to accommodate

the thermal

and mechanical a combination exposed to

movements the corrosive service.

are often sealants

of materials.

rests with

types

of sealants

used in chemical

modified common attack.

flexibilized to epoxy Compounded traffic

materials compounds

which

make use of the great with their epoxy and sealants pounding monolithic epoxy com-

in conjunction modified to brick about edges from

properly, (bond) (usually

are hard enough fracture, they surfaces, superior pounds. Some

to resist wheeled elongate resistance inherent

and keep the joint of 50%

exceptional a minimum

adhesion

lOO%), and their cured

chemical limitations

is equivalent

to that

of amide include

in the use of epoxies

poor

elastic

memory

498

Expansion

Joint

Components

499

and temperature tent exposures. elastic The poor

limits memory

of

140F feature

in continuous exposures

exposures

or 160F

in intermitback pressure

Occasional

short-lived

of up to 25OF

are also possible.

can be advantageous salts and caustics is generally since of from the good. these within. flexible

in reducing

in a spread joint. Chemical lecular weight penetrate weight acids the resistance and to most is excellent, Resistance epoxy Epoxies chemical and to high moto low molecular tend chain to and acids and solvents solvents molecular the most are

is poor interstices

compounds polymer and modified to stronger caulking compounds

cause the sealant are generally alkalis. Epoxies consistencies. of a modified and 38-2 giving Urethanes Sealants larity tensile They and

to swell and disrupt

epoxies acids and

chemical-resistant in pouring

of all the sealants (self-leveling) agent and

available

(thixotropic) consisting 38-1 See Tables

Epoxy

sealants

are always

two-component resistance.

resin base and a hardening physical properties

or accelerator.

and chemical

based have

on

polyurethane excellent recovery resistance ranges from to of

elastomers properties. aging, elongation thermal chemical

have and

enjoyed

increasing have cycles,

popuhigh and used

many good best

They

are

nonstaining, compression

strength, have the

also have

outstanding

shock,

and adhesive

failure.

wide

resistance

of all the sealants sealants they

in corrosive service. One of the most resistance manently elongation Urethanes well exposure) Polyurethanes cals than marketed There that available the sistance some Such the in both for best the to deform and resist or such

important set after degradation ranging

characteristics cold most better -25F flow. joint than to compression

of polyurethane In other or failures all other +250F words, tension.

is their per-

compression compression

set and causes from

do not

Continued in elastomeric sealants. They

repetitive sealants. perform

in temperatures

(depending

on chemical chemiThey are systems. properties process so re-

are limited and two-component

by having

less resistance to withstand a wide

to concentrated wheeled traffic. component of physical

epoxies

are less able formulations Care must

packaging with

and as single variety

are many

urethane

consumer.

be exercised

in the selection

possible may

combination be modified both

of physical with

characteristics compounds

and chemical to

is matched

to the environment. also asphaltic and behind give them form, they masonry. mechanically chemically. chemically systems comparisons. In this resistant that

Urethanes special modified are used both cal reaction. Polysulfide Sealants most frequently applications.

properties, as sealants urethanes

and as membranes are always

two-component

cure by chemi-

See Tables 38-1 and 38-2 for further

based on olefin used sealants

polysulfide for all types

polymers

(thiokol

formulations)

are the

of industrial

chemical

and commercial

500

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

Polysulfides chemical tions discussed like kind requiring above. Polymers qualities of

exhibit but the

good are not

bond,

excellent

flexibility epoxy

and and

reasonably for many urethane

good applicasealants

resistance,

as tough properties

and hard of the

as needed

specialized

composed and can

principally be stretched

of polysulfide some eight in field inherent

elastomers times their installations

have great elasticlength. This wide poor because of work-

original

performance quality,

cannot industry.

be assured

manship

but the qualities are limited heavy foot They also

in polysulfide softness

sealants give them which makes them in vertical such

use in the construction Polysulfides candidates chemical applications. alcohol the latter for

somewhat and/or perform

by their

wheeled best

traffic

areas and by their service -20F polymers reaction to +160F.

moderate caulking as furfural systems parts, and 38-2

resistance. Their may

in chemical with other

service temperature be modified They and epoxies. with with the

range is from are available in the

Polysulfides copolymers by or as a one-part for further Silicones Silicone ago. They rubber sealant

as two-component 38-1

sealant. reaction

The former other

cures by chemical sealants.

of the two

humidity

air. See Tables

comparisons

sealants

were

introduced contact with characteristics:

to the moisture good

construction resistance weathering of plasticity recovery after generate with time after many to

field

just

20 years flexible solvents, They are

cure on having has these service good exhibit

in the air. The resulting organic qualities. to nitric either cycles to +5OOF; very

salts and acids; the only The gation

temperatures strength

from

-200F

low shrinkage acid. tensile elon-

and lack of toxicity; elastomeric silicones

and excellent degree full viable than they

sealants which in respect They will

have any real resistance

the same high remain

and are in the same of extension of acetic are

class as the urethanes or compression. and compression Silicones acid during also limited is required component

to having and harder

and are tougher which

polysulfides. a small amount metals. Silicones

are limited curing, in most systems by a tendency and

by the fact that can attack toward cure details. by

concrete

and certain are always moisture

disbonding Silicone contact with

and the use of a primer packaged air. as single SeeTables in the

applications.

sealants

38-1 and 38-2 for further Mastics and Thermoplastics compounds which are inexpensive

These materials relatively ment sink

are highly

usually filled

asphalt, and limited only will

rubber

asphalts, when

pitch heated.

or coal They

tar are

become

plastic there

and have very recommended They joint (-20F

usage in chemical where push little They

exposures. 5% movememory, so and not limited chemi-

Mastics if subjected back temperature cal conditions.

are usually

is less than the surface to very

in the joint. into the

are extrudable stress, they when stress to +150F)

and have is relieved.

or no elastic

to compressive range

up above only

also have a very mild

and are resistant

Expansion

Joint

Components

501

Mastics their very

are limited

severely

limited or solvent

by their exposures. upgraded

poor

performance chemical

in moving They

joints, should tar, and

temperature

range and poor

resistance.

never be used in organic Thermoplastics various may similar their dry plasticizers than be required. to that limited Mastics joints. and 38-2. Other Types There for wide of Sealants

are basically and stabilizers They have better otherwise

mastics.

They

use rubber, special

to give the sealant resistance their by their performance fair

whatever

properties and solvent is and into 38-1

to organic

compounds in chemical in moving

exposures

mastics,

exposures joints

of the mastics. are limited thermoplastics they performance resistance. melted and poured joints. or pumped See Tables in horizontal temperature range and chemical are usually used are generally

Thermoplastics and Thus

are several other varieties

types

of sealants

available

which, butyl,

although acrylic,

they

have

been seen occasionally putty, and Hypalon

in the past, types. There

are not in general is insufficient in this section. history

use and/or or data

are not suitable Neoprene at this available

of chemical

exposures.

These include

time to include Design and Uses Detailed other best results. Surface covered It their utmost installed. should applicable should mechanical

these formulations

design

and uses of the aforementioned of this book. Some sealants literature foams, that the manufacturers use of cellular understood and the the

sealants require before

are to be found primers on for good primer joints

in or reare

designated

sections

See the preparation,

deciding

quirements. fibers, pads and sliding of expansion into which NACE, in the design sections of this book. placement the system should ASTM, joints, they are chemical of the sealants resistance of the sealants are of the and it or other

be clearly design,

importance be required

in assuring that selected

success of

The recommendations tests or specifications.

manufacturer pass accepted

be followed,

SPONGES In addition compressible tant environment Sponges or contacts, pressible into construction. to sealants, materials They with which most expansion joints contact above. masonry extends, differentials. These comor compressed are surface in chemical with filled, resis-

such as sponges are used both compressible brick

or pads are employed in situ in direct enumerated or thermal can the joint.

the chemical

or as a backup or similar under irreversible

to the sealants growth from

products which

are used where

products

are usually

materials

be squeezed

a small space without

extruding

Table 38-l

: Sealant Properties
Polysulfide Silicone Silicone polymers Humidity picked up from the air Humid conditions or moist air 3-7 days Critical Moderate -200 to +5OOF Mastics and Thermoplastics Asphalts, rubber Asphalts, coal tar Solvent evaporation, cooling Cooling

Type
Composition

Epoxy Modified epoxy polymers Aliphatic amines and polyamides Catalyst curing +5OF 4-7 days Critical High -20 to 160F

Urethane Urethane mers poly-

Long chain polymers *Dichloroethyl methylal or PbOs Catalyst curing +5OF 4-7 days Critical High -20 to +160F

Curing agents

Diisocyanates, humidity Catalyst curing +50F 3-6 days Critical Moderate -25to 250F

Cure requirements

Cure time Surface preparation Toxicity (uncured) use

When cool Important Moderate -20 to 15OF Poor to fair 75% Poor to fair psi Poor

Temperature range Adhesion Shrinkage Dynamic

Excellent 1% properties Good 300-l 100 psi

Excellent Nil Excellent 200-500 psi

Good 5% Good 150-250 psi

Good to excellent Nil Excellent 150-400

Tensile strength, min Compressive min Elongation, yield,

700-1200

psi

UNK

UNK

UNK

UNK

min

50% 50-75 D

200% 30-50 A

200% 30-50 A

150% 20-40 A

Poor Low Adhesive failure

Shore hardness Bond strength

Cohesive failure

Cohesive failure

Cohesive or adhesive failure

Cohesive failure (when applied with primer)

*Polysulfide

epoxy copolymers

are usually cured with tertiary

amines.

Expansion

Joint

Components

503

Table 38-2:
TYPe Water Salts Chlorides Sulfates Others Acids Oxidizing Non-oxidizing Fatty Bases Solvents Note: E = excellent,

Sealant

Chemical

Resistance Mastics and Thermoplastics E G G G

G G P F P

Epoxy E E E E
F E P E G

Urethane E G G G
F G F G F

Polysulfide G G G G
P G P G P

Silicone E E E E
G G F P F

G = good,

F = fair, and P = poor.

Sponge rubber pression can should joints

with

100%

(minimum pickling

90%)

closed cells is often Other similar oxidants.

used in comsponges selection of the

in brick-lined

tanks.

elastomeric Sponge

also be used, such as vinyl be based on the chemical in addition to their thermal

sponge for environment

strong

and the recommendations joints,

manufacturer. Sponges, ket form use in compression the entire brick can be used in blanas a unit. which beyond fibers is from on vessel walls to permit lining to expand without them.

Most sponges have limited gas in the cells may expand the thermal lightly covered limits

ranges, and even if the material high temperatures to rupture

the sponge is made can withstand of available

damage, the air or

sufficiently

In exposures may be used.

sponges, ceramic,

carbon or fluorochemical

packed

into the joint,

then surfaced with a sealant, of expansion

Design and engineering in designated

joints and the use of sponges therein

sections of this book.

SLIDING

JOINTS joints are an essential to expand the expansion than part joint of expansion it must cannot function. joint design, since for a If the

Sliding section fixed from ability pickling

of masonry

or contract,

slide against something. to give expansion joints

at any point, plastic

Sliding joints are made used in

or rubber

in sheet, film, compress. be shown

or felt form Such joints

to slip rather tanks and will suitable TFE

are most commonly

in detail

in the designated Teflon,

design and engineervinyl, polyethylasduPonts (up to l/4 exposure. again be

ing sections of this book. Materials ene, Hypalon, Armalon from thick). The Any or the most entire important structure factor will in selection rests with The the chemical must material used in a sliding joint must fully resist the chemical manufacturer environment thin for sliding joints and uncured include Kynar, Neoprene, rubber. Impregnated felts,such

XT-7700

may also be used. These materials

are used in thicknesses

film to sheet rock of the same thickness

as the brick joint

be in jeopardy.

504

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

consulted selected.

to

ascertain

the

chemical

and temperatue

use limits

of the material

Editors crete the the

Note:

The

reader

should

also obtain Guide study with to the detail information

a copy

of American

Con1, in is and

Institutes tables text.

Report

504R-77, and of the

to Joint Sealants for Concrete sketches on pages 8-l items of these

Structures,

and refer on pages Although

in particular 14-17 much

the discussion chemical and

in the 57 page report protection-only of the designs with many

helpful, making materials

the text a seal

is not

concerned

in a concrete

structure, for chemical

given are unsuitable

construction.

39 Ceramic Fibers

Walter

Lee Sheppard, Incorporated

Jr.

C.C.R.M., Havertown,

Pennsylvania

Although of refractory terials, resinous branes). for they they installations.

most have They

manufacturers (furnaces, of a number

think important

of ceramic etc.)

fibers

only

in the context insulation reinforcing mafor Memas fillers of exsubject sealants mortar, clay In addithe it. inexmasonry

installations

boilers,

or as fireproof is used-as

uses in chemically-resistant 13, Glass Fabric have coatings Reinforced years

are employed-just or membranes glass fiber sprayed the long full

as glass fabric

coatings Chipped

(see Chapter and troweled depth

and glass flakes

been used for packing joints-in

chemically-resistant, have been employed joints-or even

and linings.

In addition,

as a fluffy

compressible of expansion limit

in the bottom masonry, joint resin

pansion

to temperatures and sponges. (not pipe tion, braided) employed fiber

above the top acceptable Of course, rope, roving or

of regular asbestos with

expansion synthetic

fibers--particularly sliver-saturated lines fiber carrying papers

in the form

of twisted

has been used for

40 years and where

as a caulking waste ceramic

seal in the bell and spigot corrosive were used either movement or other the fibers. were including materials materials early

vitrified

in industrial

chemicals.

blankets

as expansion below

pads or as separators bonding pensive, chemicals bon came under rately.) number or seizure little attention the synthetic to the As long

it is important lining readily

to permit

and prevent 1970s-and

of a brick was was paid resistance organic it.

to a rubber available-into ceramic

membrane

as asbestos

to other fibers

In the few cases where encountered, used. When chemical glass, carasbestos besepafrom a glass, came

beyond

levels of asbestos were and the of ceramic fibers, carbon

or a few study For

sometimes

unobtainable,

a number replace above

(Organic

are considered are available

purposes,

following

of sources

and may be considered. 505

506

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

(I)

Low

temperature Typical A,%

SiO Zn& Other

ceramic chemical

fiber analysis:

[temperature

limit

about

1800F

(985OC)]

metallic

oxides

i-25% ?60% *15% <l%

(I I)

Ceramic limit sis:

fibers

designed (12OOC)

primarily in continuous

for

refractory service]

service Typical

[temperature analy-

2300F

chemical

A,(,
SiO ZrOZ, Other

inorganics

43.9% 50.1% 5.1% 0.7%

(Ill)

Ceramic

fiber

[temperature

limit

of 26OOF

(1425OC)l

Typical

chemi-

cal analysis: A,03

SiO UniZdentified 56 .O% 38 .O% 6 .O%

(IV)

Alumina sive,

fiber.

This available

is a patented from only chemical

very

pure,

clean,

and quite [temperature

expenlimit

material

a single analysis:

source

3OOOF (1 650C)] A,(,

. Typical

SiO OthZer metallic

oxides

95% 5% < 1,000

ppm

(V)

Alumina-boric Typical

oxide-silica analysis:

fibers

[temperature

limit

2200F

(1204C)l

chemical A$,
SiO WZ,

62% 24% 14%

(VI)

High

silica

fiber

[temperature

limit

about

2000F

(109OC)l

.Typical

chemical

analysis:
SiO Al,& ZrO, Trace elements 60% 25% 15% <0.2%

(VII)

Chemical analysis:

glass [temperature

limit

23OOF

(1260C)I.

Typical

chemical

SiO TiO Al,& CaO MgO 920, Na-P Fe, Zr, Cr, Cu, Ni

97.85% 0.8% 0.71% 0.23% 0.17% 0.16% 0.63% < 1,000

ppm

Ceramic

Fibers

507

All the above and/or first signer viously, only may ing for woven paragraph. must

types

of fiber the

are readily best material

available for

as loose fiber,

paper,

matt in the

fabric, consider

and may be employed the importance

in any of the ways the specific and chemical and where and a sheet as reinforcing expansion more from

mentioned exposure, resistance

In selecting as well (II)

the dein the Obis

of cleanliness thermal lining least expensive, a brick possibly

anticipated

service Items

as the possible are the between sewers.

range to be encountered. the requirement rubber fibers joint

(I) and

a bond-breaker adequately, in industrial

membrane, in the caulk(a squeeze

serve quite of joints

and quite

A compression

joint) in the bottom of a process vessel requires the vessel contents do not pick up contamination be attacked consideration fibers and and destroyed even membranes. by greater the chemicals. should care

thought to be sure that the fibers, nor the fiber matts require similar in selecting reinforcing

Expansion be taken

for resinous

40

Organic Fibers

Walter

Lee Sheppard, incorporated

Jr.

C.C. R.M.,

Haverto wn, Pennsylvania

Except of course, This the

for

exposures

involving fiber fibers

hydrofluoric reinforcement in chemically thermal

acid and acid fluorides, will have a very short masonry of materials promising with resistant limits

where

glass and ceramic use of organic coupled over two with

life, there available in

has been little past, often For fibers handle asphalt, similarly tion, employing sections and fibers, other future pansion tion of often synthetic joint sote-have or well

construction. of the synother natural

has probably

been due to the lower the higher wool

costs of the more waste-often mixed

thetics. centuries, petroleum the balance felts and saturated with or asphaltic-based of the with from sheets. joint being materials poured mixes. such as creowith or hot tar, and paper, seals,

been used as packing sanitary wastes, or still bitumin, tightly

or caulking packed. made

in bell and spigot sand-cement similar With

clay pipe used to Roofers

waterproofers

employ

natural wastes,

fibers more

saturated, more

as waterproofing volume inert increases

ever greater essential.

industrializapositive In separate as sealants of carbon in of a number for potential as exinformacourse, is

and the geometric this volume, in mat

in chemical

chemically form and

reinforcing, joints, joints. market fiber

have become

we have discussed in expansion from now synthetic

the use of fluorocarbons and the employment both are, deserve table together The There that however, notice fibers,

as fibers

manufactured systems materials packing

as reinforcements

membrane

in expansion on the

employment, on the chemical

as fabric resistances

or simple of many the

reinforcement,

or perhaps with

and gasketing. by

The following of these, manufacturer. 508

gives general author, of

the maximum

temperatures

recommended

Table 40-I
COIlCetJtration

: Chemical

Resistance . . . . . . . . .

of Natural . . . . . . .

and Synthetic . Effect

Acrylic N N N N N N N N IN@100 hr) N N N N D N On

Fibers

. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Exposure lhr) 70 70 70 70 160 70 160 70 160 70 70 210 70 70 70 210 250 210 250 210 210 210 70 70 250 70 70 1,000 10 10 1,000 100 1,000 10 0.1 10 10 10 10 10. 0.1 10 10 10 100 10 1 1,000 10 1 1,000 1 1 0.1 Acetate M C _ (S@lOO hr) (S@lO hrl (Me10 hr) (N@O.l hr) 0 _ S N D M D S C C D(C@7OF) D 0 (D@lO hr) D@70bF N S C N D

. Synthetics.

. .
RC3pn S

.
WOOI M D D IN@100 hr) C D C M ID@100 hr) D M _ C N D S D D D D D (Da10 hrl (D@70F) D C D (C@lOOO) M (D@210F@1

I%) Ammonium hydroxide Chromic acid Chlor,ne Hydrochloric actd 58 10 Satd sol. 1 1 10 10 37 37 10 1 .o 1 .o 10.0 70.0 10.0 1 .o 1 .o 1 .o 1 .o 10.0 10.0 40.0 5.3 1 .o 1 .o 10 70

Polyester D

Nylon 6-6 N C(N-Nomexl D S (N@lO hrl (S@lO hr) (NQ0.1 hrl D _ N S C _ D N N N (N@lOlM N N D(N@lO hr) S N S M(D@lO M(C@lO D hr) hr)

cottonS D C M D (Me10 hrl (CQO.1 hr) C D N S D S M S M M N N M M S M M (D@lO hr) S (C@lO) D

Natural Fabers Silk (raw1 M _ _ M D (S@lO hr) (S@l hr) D N S D N D M D D D D D (Del0 hrl (D@70F) _* M D N D

Hydrofluoric acid Nitric

N N N S N N (S@lOO hr) M S N N N (D@95%) N N N hr)C C M(NGO.1 hr) (D@lO hr) N@70F N N NIM@lOO N@lOOO hr) (S@lO

_ S D (Mm10 (C@O.l D _ S N D N D S N S M M C (D@:OF)

hr) hr)

Phosphoric acid Sodturn carbonate Sodwm hydroxide

Sodwm hypochlorite Sulfuric acid

N M D D (N@O.l hr)C D@lO hr N070F N N N(M@lOO N@lOOO hr)

N@lOO ?I (C@ZlOF@l hrl (D@96%, 7OF. 0.1 hrl and D = degraded

N(C@lOO hr) (D@210F@1 hrl

S D S cc@10 hr) D

hr)

Key:

N = none;

S = slight;

M = moderate;

C = considerable;

*Other Cotton,

vegetable fibers, such as hemp and jute have roughly the same chemical resfstance as cotton. Other an~mal hairs and furs have about the same chemical resistance M in 0.4% @ 7OF in 10 hr, D @ 160;.; Silk, S in 0.01% @ 70F, M @ 160nF, D I 0.4% @ 16OF in 10 hr; Wool, N in 0.4% @ 70F, C @ 16OF I 10 hr.

as wool.

510

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

summarizing users employ to include Missing contain the high is now than yarns are addition hours nylon, strong including tion. 85%

published their from of own this them

data

offered

by

others

and recommends for verification yarns, from chemical which,

that prior

potential

tests of these materials are the spandex polymers (nylon (primarily type) insulation follows fibers

to deciding must and

in design and specification. table aramid polyester by the by definition, the olefins, Nomex@which more closely spandex they has, in 3,000 regular temby organic oxidants, absorpwhich after than ambient is degraded to most long chain polyurethane), duPonts

temperature

being marketed it does

for thermal polyester.

in chemical

exposures. resistance of various Nomex@

The spun-bonded are influenced made, the more higher to the at 350F, although alkali

acrylic

the regular

The chemical classification having limits, at 500F), polyesters to

resistances

generic ones hours less than

of the base from base. retained At but

resistant 300

a polyether better and most

temperature

(90% of strength acrylics. alkalis, resistance

or after

acid resistance

somewhat

peratures, chemicals. Ceramic Natural process Therefore, through chemically, roofing, water natural mind from

Nomex@ Nomex@ chromic and

has good

resistance

at elevated acid. synthetic fibers

temperatures.

It has good to have good fibers animal normally or plant,

resistance

also is reported organic (animal

to strong low fluid

have very on the other through them,

organic

and vegetable),

hand, them

due to the of connect-

of the growth they and will

of the parent absorb fluids,

are constructed albeit Thus

ing cells that

are sustained along ends fibers, the of

in life by the transmission and can transmit fiber even of the

of nutrients. at a slow rate, felt prevent of in

length the

if the fibers on both

have been treated asphalted not

or coated if the penetrating

with

resins. This is called fibers are exposed slow to their

wicking. a roof.

sides, may should

at a very in addition

rate through chemical

This characteristic be kept

organic

resistance,

by the designer.

41 Carbon Fibers

Eugene C. Heilhecker Garlock incorporated York

III

Sodus, New

It has become changeably dustries mally for use carbon defined Some

commonplace content industries,

to

use the

terms

carbon

and

graphite carbon

interis norassay

these yarns and fibers. as 95% carbon

Some refinement In these

has occurred industries,

as a few in-

as the delineation. assay by weight notably packings better

and graphite

is 99% carbon

by weight. termination conductivity, than carbon. its better graphite fibers, displays peak that base line) Fibers ranging strength as they strengths of material and sealing X-ray

and seals, have found conductivity,

the assay deelectrical expansion as well as structure of yarns of and sharp

unsatisfactory. graphite greater resistance exhibits exhibits thermal higher thermal to fracture when resistance to abrasion to mechanical of carbon shear plane To determinethe has been utilized. peak when compared Measurement and, if wider, and than by suspended that wear and lower particles. may fracture or slightly which

In general,

The superiority a natural

lies in its resistance

The crystal

used in packing material

applications. defraction low

degree of graphitization Carbon to graphite state

graphitized

a broad appears

has a narrow

at 26 + 0.5. as graphite million

of the half-width the material 50 million tendency

(in degrees on the An angle of strengths The lower and seals The high variety four

at half-height and yarns 20

determines of carbon

the graphite graphite

of the fiber. is carbon.

3 or less is defined from exhibit

are available acceptable applications.

in various in packings to fracture.

psi to greater flexibility exclusively including

psi modulus.

materials

have been found

to be most and a reduced in aerospace polyethylene

greater carbon

are used almost as precursors,

Although

fibers

and yarns

have been produced and pine

using a wide tree wood,

only

511

572

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

have had significant precursors techniques cipally are: vary rayon,

industrial from

acceptance. one material material greater to maintain pitch

In order pitch,

of acceptance

and use, these are prin-

polyacrylonitrile, of the and time

and cellulose. heat treating.

The manufacturing The heat treating are normally the degree of of pitch have is pere-

slightly

to another. before 8OOF. stability is unique. such required

These variations The processes and to attain The source as sulfur,

in the preparation

is accomplished carbonization Of the troleum moved, reduced bers yield

at temperatures or graphitization.

than

in steps of temperature raw materials Once

mentioned, the undesirable of carbon. method and

sludge. the pitch to attain

elements, The time

been

is a form by the

in heat treating intensive wide and to

is greatly and fiand in the

the desired pitch fiber

carbonization strength yarns of

or graphitization. reduction. have gained

The yarns

produced a more Carbon and The

are less energy

produce

flexible seals

without fibers

and graphite In general, temperature a strength

acceptance chemical than

packings pheres. duced begin duction the decreased where and ureable. bon,will volume.

industry

because packings

their

thermal to 65OF

resistance air atmosin rethey reis where volume effect

characteristics.

and seals are used in other limited limits

is normally

in air and

12OOF

atmospheres. to exhibit occurs.

These established loss or, more resistance

are based on the point for a seal, where uniform

importantly is fairly

The chemical life.

over the total adverse that

range of

pH scale. At the extremes functional leakage Carbon is beyond is affected

of the scale, the most noticeable life of any It should may oxidizers and leakage limits. be noted not which,

The functional acceptable only transfer. but that

seal is defined

as the point all packings or measwith carand rel-

seals leak to some extent cause an electron oxidizing rate The at which

be noticeable in contact will

by those carbon

In such ative strength Regarding agent

atmospheres this

graphite upon

lose strength (1) the

occurs

depends

three

factors:

of the oxidizer, the strength corrosive, and hydrogen:

(2) the pH level, and (3) the temperature. of the oxidizer, causes a reaction hydrochloric resulting acid, a weak oxidizing of carbon in the formation

but highly

tetrachloride

4HCI + C Ccl4

+ 2H,

A moderate bon dioxide,

oxidizer water

such as sulfuric and sulfur

6H$O4+

acid combined

with

carbon

will

form

car-

dioxide:.
3C 3CO2+ 6HzO + 6SO2

The trogen

reaction dioxide,

of nitric water

acid

results

in the dioxide
C 4N02+

most

rapid

electron

transfer

where

ni-

and carbon
4HN03+

are formed:
2H,O + CO,

The pH value is inversely fact tain results a pH in the most rapid high of one but that It can be seen that mum electron

proportional electron nitric acid

to the positive at the strong of hydrochloric

voltage

potential.

This to at-

transfer in mild

acid end of the scale. will yield a maxi-

concentrations

acid are required

concentrations

potential.

Carbon

Fibers

513

Finally, is added graphite include: purpose blocking in dynamic friction exposure, contact corrosion galvanic carbon amount stainless active terial The electron zinc Packings to fibers

in all cases, increased an oxidizer and yarns manufacturers yarns, in the form in increased provide twisted impregnated chemical This additional

molecular of heat. carbon

activity

is generated

when

energy and which fluid used

The oxidation

rate of carbon is increased. forms enhance TFE

as media temperature and graphite with and rovings.

Packing

in various to

braided

yarns,

Constructions lubricants

used for this is used. reduces of media come will in is cause

are normally and extended for applications.

or coated resistance lubricants coating,

such as is the case where to be applied called break-in

It is customary

surface surface up.

to packings lubricant,

and the resultant must

heat build

and seals, in addition also be compatible chamber. steel or electrons lead

to resisting with Carbon

degradation with yarns

as a result which they and fibers

the materials and graphite or flanges. from

in the stuffing of stainless in nature or graphite. of corrosion a metal the zinc in this is then steel, where

linings

This corrosive the stainless

reaction

are transferred Graphite the anode. joint is highly

steel to the vary the series. than maThe steel. no adgrades

Different

grades and hardnesses to the packing,

of stainless noble which

steel will

resistance. becomes

in the galvanic is far less noble

By introducing metals flow

such as zinc

[Obviously, when rather in chemical

the use of zinc, or other the packing service. than that with or fiber (Editor).] creates various

manner

can not be permitted zinc and graphite of the packings. for 18 months,

is being employed is a sacrificial with zinc,

as an expansion between element that

the stainless

is in a concentration in contact

verse effects packings of stainless

to the functionability 100% humidity, steels, resulted

Tests of graphite

and carbon

in elimination

of corrosion.

42 Use of Fluorocarbons in Expansion Joints

Walter

Lee Sheppard, Incorporated

Jr.

C.C. R.M.,

Haverto wn, Pennsylvania

As Mr. terials, joints where

Kessler

has noted materials, materials

in Chapter Teflon@ have into

38 in discussing like, may resistance (As this

expansion to the

joint

ma-

fluorocarbon no other

and the adequate

be used in expansion environment. Viton@ written is the

Few of the fluorocarbon available, author caulking although though In bulk, For able, der many to employ areas where made as of this material at this them they several for with difficult fluorocarbons has been advised which time

resins fall

the elastomer cell foam. from test

class, and only is being

writing, may

as a closed possibly data nor

of the availability no test the

at least one source of a Viton@ joint sealantAlhave been made.)

be used as an expansion installations ability that They made The to cold flow, the usual joint are, however, of Teflon@ envelope with

possess a very

limited expensive.

it is not possible sealers are used. very useful in

in quite

same manner

are also extremely decades, many envelope

sliding joints

are needed. gaskets conditions. sheet, moves have been availas sealers unfor those gasket, types of equipment, folded an inert and designed

different

environmental it, is made of thin

unfamiliar tightly, the

or rolled,

the edges sealed As in squeezpart of it lacks per-

and containing Although

air (or sometimes one part the Teflon

gas) in the center. little gasket stretching

ing a balloon, envelope. elasticity, much

compressing

the contained this

air to another because

@ does very joints rings with joints with

it is possible

to compress 0

by compressing envelope it is possible (but

the air ingaskets, to make not all) of

side of it. By filling reasonably the liquids effective that

all the expansion seals in expansion

Teflon@

haps in the shape of flattened must otherwise

ends lapped, and hold

back most

get through 514

the joints.

Use of Fluorocarbons

in Expansion

Joints

575

DuPont under baghouses taminated pressed, a dry felt liquid. joints, will dimensions

also manufactures name This after Armalon@. to remove material employed gases.

a random Sold is also particulates

fiber

Teflon@ filtration boiler

formulation, felt, fumes since return comes with joints

marketed use in con-

the trade

as a dry from

it finds and other it can in two

used as gasketing it does not Armalon@ memory.

be comkindsTeflon@ so fluids

although

the pressure

is released,

to its original

as it has little of these to

or no elastic

made of the fiber, it must penetrate

and a felt that in mind them bulk

is impregnated that quite neither easily.

uncured

Either although be able

materials be kept through

can be used in compression

or squeeze the fibers they will may

are liquid-tight, However, to which having

themselves be exposed. Sheet release Teflon@ An available as a joint be easily enough sonry, Forth ployed mal

be unaffected Teflon@ to another treatment

by the great makes all the

of the

materials

or film of surface, PTFE Gore

the best of all sliding fluorocarbons. Where to prepare

joints,

the best to bond

characteristics

it is desired

it is necessary by DuPont.

the surface which comes

to be bonded in a deformis in rolls

by a sodium

developed

expanded from filler. pulled to W.L.

(polytetrafluoroethylene) (though & Associates.

able and at least to some degree compressible of considerable length out. and a variety It can, when leaking. reasons,

not elastic)

formulation, material,

This comes as cord-like bond when joint to either

of cross sections,

and can also be employed side of the joint, material, betaken and so can up tightly maof

It does not, of course, However, a leak-free of

used as a gasketing cannot

prevent

used with

chemically-resistant Rubber Company,

for obvious Worth,

be anticipated. %, and as such can be emthe capabilof higher the sponge with the may be used in the thereffects for

Viton@

is made as a closed Texas, closed joints where the

cell sponge l/s, thermal Although

by the Mosites 3/s and

in thicknesses cell sponges.

in expansion

conditions warns data resistance true

may be beyond of adverse is available tables

ities of other ranges and the warning

the sponge

range -lOOF to 400F, of temperature. user is referred that they

manufacturer chemical

No chemical to DuPont

resistance

on Viton@

may not hold

completely

for this sponge.

43 Prefabricated Expansion Joints

Walter

Lee Sheppard, Incorporated

Jr.

C.C.R.M., Havertown,

Pennsylvania

Although tions cally-resistant (I) They

prefabricated masonry

expansion

joints

are widely they

used in refractory rarely

installa-

and in ordinary

building

construction,

are very

used in chemi-

for the following to assemble

reasons: to a masonry structure and the

are difficult points if there tend inner

juncture (2) Thus, will (3) The face

can rarely is much

be made liquid-tight. movement or loading on the repair joints, they

to work surface

loose and require cannot be made only g&es,

frequent a plane, this when

or replacement. to the surdifference service, on ones

and parallel makes little

of the

masonry handling surfaces

lining. such joints

Although

in equipment horizontal

used in liquid I iquid.

cause puddling,

and on vertical

traps and eddies are formed However, when service conditions

in contained

include temperatures

beyond the thermal employed,

limits of the compressible and an expansion Prefabricated been available meric joints, either joint

sponges and deformable

sealants normally

that will provide a better

liquid stop than loosely packed have long elastoof the two,

ceramic fiber is needed, there is little choice but to resort to this type of joint. joints of stainless steel, made in the form of bellows, structures, of a bellows, of a soft hose, or of a combination and thermal resistance. for concrete and various types of plastic and/or

have been marketed

for metal ducting

in power plants for several decades, many

of them made of materials

with high chemical 516

Prefabricated

Expansion

Joints

517

The use of 0 chapter at least Sponges one temperatures temperatures bellows following

rings

as expansion (See Chapter

joints 42.)

has been mentioned earlier) for 42). may many are currently chemical when must

in the earlier available exposures much for, in at a

on fluorocarbons. of various fluorocarbon up to 3OOto

materials 400F

(also discussed suitable (see Chapter joint

polymer,

However,

higher The

are anticipated, sheet type sketches

and excessive expansion show three

movement

be provided

or flexible schematic

have to be considered.

such designs.

n-

Type "A". usually stainless steel. Flanges (thick ends) mortared into the brickwork.

Type ture Flat into

"B". usually high temperaelastomer or fluoroelastomer. thick ends (flanges) mortared the brickwork.

Type "C". Usually fluoroelastomer. Flanges - right angle ends - set around brick so that angular ends are in "radial" or "header" joints.

Bellows-type joints, used primarily where movement of the brickwork creates an off-set at an inlet or outlet. can be made of high temperature elastomer, such as Hypalor@ or fluOrOelaStO"Er.

Joints allow, masonry flexible, usually glass fiber, and Type Joints can easily forced fairly the mortar. go on top Joints where affecting and

of the A usually natural structure.

(accordion) thicker sheet,

type pads but

are constructed at the ends type

of stainless they

steel or other the material, plastic, stainless),

with Joints with

where

are set into or flexible (often

of the 6 a fabric fabric. A low that Type

and C

are made of a softer of fine wire

like

rubber

made of an elastomer can be made B may be identified have almost C is only in tension, faced with

reinforced C pull

or a synthetic made in styles under has very but

as belt geometry, in tension, on the bond C system and of

as flange geometry. and B Type strength type no strength slightly totally Type out loading. better since unreincan operate must and rupture from Vito@ for use

masonry successfully,

relying masonry,

In concrete

construction, in that location. joint,

of construction,

the membrane to damage

of the expansion in that of Types vertical B

and so may be subject are readily available,

or penetration

and C sheet.

made to order type movements

or Fluorel@fluoroelastomer lateral, an outlet or inlet.

In addition,

a bellows

is available

or a combination

of the two

may take place,

518

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

Figure 43-1: Looking up at a lined steel rectangular cross-duct in a power plant. Note the expansion j oint visible just over the guard rail on the right. The flexi ble material between the two steel collars is Viton@, a fluoroelastomer. This kind of joint can operate successfully for years at temperatures up to 350F with occasional short term excursions to near 400F . Courtesy of and used with the permission of E.I. duPont Corp. and the Elastomers Notebook, no.231 (Autumn/84) page 10.

Figure 43-2: Close-up of a j oint similar to that in Figure 43-1 in a cylindrical duct. of and used with the permission of E,I, duPont Corp. and the Elastomers Notebook, (Autumn/84) page 10,

Courtesy no, 231

Section IX Rigid Thermoplastic Fabrications

519

44

Rigid Thermoplastic Fabrications

A. A. Boova
Atlas Minerals and Chemicals, Incorporated Mertztown, Pennsylvania

INTRODUCTION Credit and goes to back the French having scientific 1800s. required confirms until community These nearly 100 for their discovery of the

thermoplastics polystyrene. benefits

in the early

first thermoplastics

were vinyls debut to a

Industry,

years to recognize inauspicious barriers

inherent

in thermoplastics, It wasnt finally

the somewhat preceeding period the

for these new materials. thermoplastics multitude process corrosion United million moplastics of were hostile

the period this

World War II that various European

recognized

as outstanding

corrosion

environments. compared

During

industries States dollar

began accepting

thermoplastics

as formidable alloys,

cost effective of thera multi-

barriers when until

to various metals,

glass and ceramics. represent

process industries post-World industry for

were not as responsive problems,

to the benefits which

War I I. Thermoplastic solving corrosion

fabrications

costs are multi-

billion to industry.

DISCUSSION Polymer science has made available to industry a variety of thermoplastics,

some of which are as follows: Polyolefins (aliphatic polymers) and copolymer

Polyethylene, Polypropylene,

various densities homopolymer 520

Rigid Thermoplastic

Fabrications

521

Nonolefinic Polyvinyl

(aliphatic chlorides,

polymers) homopolymer and copolymer

Polymethylmethacrylate Aromatic Polymers homopolymer oxide terephthalate and polybutylene polyethylene and copolymer

Polystyrene, Polyphenylene Polyester,

terephthaiate Fluoroplastics The following most popular chemical resistant thermoplastic fabrications utilize the

resin systems: Polyolefins (aliphatic polymers)

Polyethylene Polypropylene Nonolefinic Polyvinyl Other nonolefinic (aliphatic chloride and aromatic systems are used and will be presented for polymers)

certain types of applications. Chemical The their Resistance popularity of the aforementioned resistance structure. thermoplastic Generally systems is because of is attributi.e., like in plastics.

general chemical

to a broad range of corrosives which into polar and nonpolar materials hostile environments

able in part to their molecular be divided materials predicting Examples attract, the whereas

corrosives versus plastics may compounds, rule is helpful

on the basis of polarity unlike effects of certain

repel. This general

on the various

of polar and nonpolar Polar Groups OH COOH 0CH3 Nonpolar H CH3 C6H5 Hydroxyl Carboxyl Methoxyl

groups are as follows:

Groups Hydrogen Methyl Phenvl acids, alkalies toluene and salts are polar compounds tetrachloride whereas com-

It is to be noted that solvents such as gasoline, formulas pounds. The skeletal follows:

and carbon

are nonpolar

for some of the thermoplastics

to be discussed are as

522

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

-c-c-c-c-c-c-c-cLinear polyethylene c c c (HDPE) c c

-c-&-c~_c_~_c_~_c_~_ Polypropylene (isotactic)

Polyvinyl

chloride

H H

Polystyrene From all of them hence more of the their the examination have a plurality resistance to speaking, The chain the of these invasion more or skeletal by polar formulas, compounds, the better it is readily methyl i.e., acids, the physical of the molecule weight, to apparent alkalies that and the also rigid

of nonpolar

groups

(hydrogen, symmetrical weight

and phenyl)

salts. Generally crystalline plastic.

geometrically molecular higher effects the

the molecule, will

the molecule, length properties. epitomizes given chain polymer. If the

consequently, The the is for

properties

influence the plastic.

physical

the molecular attributable groups

the more

Polypropylene The isotactic polypropylene

molecular

structure. rigid on both

formula

commercially pendant

available plastic

crystalline

methyl

are alternated

sides of the principal

of the C

molecule,
C

the resulting
C

is syndiotactic.

-c-c-~-c-c-c-~_c_c_c_~_
L
If the methyl atactic. pendant groups

A.
are located

A
(syndiotactic) randomly in space, the molecule is

Polypropylene

-c-;-c-A-c-c-c-;-c-;-c-c-

h
Polypropylene Atactic polypropylene is an amorphousor (atactic)

L
noncrystalline liquid and as would

Rigid

Thermoplastic

Fabrications

523

be expected propylene. Theory preliminary sist certain ability actual of

is far more is the tool judgments corrosive a given for

susceptible that will

to chemical

degradation engineer chemical

than

isotactic

polycertain to reto the to the

assist the corrosion to the selection Whenever be determined process, possible,

in making material resistance

enroute chemicals. should

of an appropriate by subjecting

and suit-

plastic

the plastic answers

process it is expected Further, questions: What chemicals

to resist. it is important to obtain

the selection

following (a)

and their

concentrations provide must

will meaningful

be present?

Process All

pH, although chemicals (b)

helpful,

doesnt

information.

and their

concentrations will

be known. Establish maximums, minilocated introduce

What temperatures mums indoors, certain outdoors weather are the

be experienced? thermal shock. Sun, wind,

and anticipated

Are the fabrications rain and snow will

or both? complications.

(c)

What

physical to

property

requirements?

Will the fabrications abrasives, impact, will the fabrication

be subjected be subjected. (d) Are the

positive Identify

and negative

pressures,

live or dead loads?

all stresses to which

plastic Will

fabrications food, food or contained

expected products

to and

meet potable

FDA

and

USDA be pro-

mandates?

water

cessed, conveyed (e) Will the

in these fabrications? total immersion, fume or splash

fabrications

be used for

applications? (f) Will crete inside establish Fabrication Most wide by available mal and thermoplastic 10 ft. on for long request. stock sheets is available in 4 ft. wide from will molded be subjected tanks, covers by 8 ft. knuckles long and 5 ft. stock corner therprocess good corners. chloride for sheets be should fabrication are required, and low is the of fabrication an existing the structural be self-supporting If the concrete integrity plastic or or supported fabrication tank, it steel by steel, is to is important conto

or other

plastics?

be placed

of the existing

structure.

in thicknesses structures These fabricated that

/a in. to 2 in. Thicker and

Polypropylene

compression corners

are available coefficient equipment. corners, When and under utilized seldom corners

fabricating stresses. for

to demanding and other provides molded polyvinyl be utilized bends chloride

physical

also provide

ease of cleaning brake

of friction Fabricating however, they corners

rectangular corners using that

polypropylene are not on heated For over

on a heated polyethylene, bends

as stress-free brakes

as compression curved

forming

polypropylene, for

it is recommended and

l/z in. thickness. polyethylene sheet requires

h in. thickness polypropylene. h in. thick.

and over, heavier

notched

Polyvinyl

When

thicknesses

are generally

welded.

524

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

Polyethylene, ordinary drilled, controls. better wood routed or

polyvinyl metal and tapped

chloride working with being

and polypropylene hand and power tools.

are easily worked They that are easily

using cut,

these tools. a high

Being thermoplastic, polymer,

these materials have good thermal significantly does polyethylene and adfor

can be thermoformed Polypropylene, control chloride. thermal

using electric during

ovens and equipment crystalline

requires

the thermoforming of joining

process than

and polyvinyl The adhesive hesives mended structural (1) (2) (3) Butt cating objects. ment welds to tensile small of

principal bonding. as epoxies for

methods and

thermoplastics however, The

are by hot gas welding bonded bonding of with is not such

Polypropylene urethanes, applications. are as follows:

has been

successfully adhesive methods three

recom-

structural

heat

welding

applications Butt welding

Extrusion

welding

Hand rod welding welding, Butt sometimes of flat referred stock the to sheet. with rod guns that utilize with for than welding resin pellets or reels of and rod. on Weld Extrusion using guns generally welding utilize pellets is used on essentially vertical
/32

to as fusion as well and

welding, highly

is used when or The thus

fabriequip-

large aligns,

quantities welding holds sheet

as large

cylindrical automated. eliminates temperatures

rectangular insuring

equipment structural

is precise plastic welding. integrity.

and welds edges prior

at precise Butt Weld

outstanding

welding strength

the necessity

chamfer Extrusion

is at least 95% of the

strength diameter

of the virgin welding welding rod.

is done

horizontal overhead Extrusion generated both sheet. strength

surfaces. welding. welding causes

Guns These cannot

are functional thinner Sheets

horizontal,

/a in. and

in. diameter chamfered to welding.

be used on stock sheet proper warpage. method

3h in. because the heat the full depth prior sheet. of the

excessive 44-1 for

are generally

sides to a total See Figure

angle of 60 to accommodate strength

of chamfering of the virgin

is at least 85% of the tensile

Figure 44-1:

Chamfered

joint.

Hand fering

rod welding the other same

is generally methods extrusion

done

for

small

production practical. 44-2

runs and intricate Sheet edge chamwhich illustrates

shapes where is the

of welding welding.

are not

as for

See Figure

Rigid Thermoplastic

Fabrications

525

chamfering of the virgin

and rod welding. sheet.

Weld strength

is at least 75% of the tensile

strength

Figure 44-2:

Rod welded chamfered

joint.

Polyvinyl plastic welded for on than with

chloride, polyethylene hot Laboratory and comparative

during

the

welding

process, Polyvinyl confirm using

is a much chloride

more require quality

forgiving inert gas

or polypropylene. polyethylene repeatedly when strengths studies weld

can be effectively of welds air. Table I.

air whereas

and polypropylene the superior inert

welding.

polyethylene

polypropylene

gas versus hot chloride,

44-1 illustrates homopolymer

for nonflame-retardant and polyvinyl

polypropylene Type

and copolymer, Table 44-1:

polyethylene Thermoplastic Rod-Hand

Weld Strengths

Welding
6" L x l/2" w x l/4" Thick 24 specimens each test Virgin Material Inert Gas Air 74 73 72 95

Specimen Size Average % Tensile

Polypropylene Homopolymer Copolymer Polyethylene Polyvinyl Chloride, Type I 89 89 87 --

Results welders.

of this

magnitude should

are attainable be in the

from

skilled, range.

experienced Minimum

plastic require-

Typical

values

80 to

90%

ments are 75%. Polyethylene Polyethylene industrial problems. such as the various one of the premier Polyethylene cause of the molecule. chain The branching is one of the older thermoplastics and sintering renewed symmetrical used for processes. solving a host of

It can be fabricated molding, corrosion has been extrusion barriers. attracting relatively

by most of the plastic

processing

methods to be bethis short

It continues laboratory with minimum

attention molecule

in the with

virtually

unlimited

variations

and modifications polyethylene

possible (HDPE).

long-chain is referred

to as high density

If the princi-

526

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

pal long chain of the molecule has long-chain branching, this less dense and less crystalline polymer is referred to as low density polyethylene (LOPE). Polyethylene with sufficient copolymer short chain branching to further decrease the density of low density polyethylene (LOPE) is known as linear low density polyethylene (LLOPE). This resin (LLOPE) and further variations of the resin have become a renewed laboratory curio. These new materials possess interesting forming and handling properties as well as good physical and optical properties. Linear or h igh density polyethylene is the principal resin used for producing sheet stock for subsequent fabrication of ducts, hoods, stacks, tanks, dip baskets and many other types of process equipment. Typical pickling and plating dip baskets for small parts is illustrated in Figure 44-3.

Figure 44-3:

Polyethylene

pickling and plating dip baskets.

Polyethylene has performed well in the various process industries due to its low water absorption and high chemical resistance. Its low coefficient of friction has made it very attractive for anti-stick applications. Table 44-2 provides general chemical resistance properties of polyethylene to the various mediums. Polyethylene presents real challenges to the design engineer. It has excellent impact resistance, however, it does not possess the structural integrity of other plastics. The experienced plastics design engineer can incorporate appropriate structural components to accomplish load bearing capabilities otherwise considered impossible. Table 44-3 provides minimum physical properties required by the engineer to design fabrications with appropriate structural integrity. Tank design is the most challenging for the design engineer. Experience has proven to be the best teacher as well as the most expensive for many plastics fabricators. Much of the design information from which the various formulas are derived is proprietary and jealously guarded. Design factors can be voluminous and accordingly will not be presented. To be meaningful, besides the physical properties given, they must include for the various structural thermoplastics creep properties of the plastic in question at various temperatures, all of which must be determined as a function of time.

Rigid Thermoplastic Fabrications

Table 44-2: Chemical Resistance of Polyethylene -!!R C N N N C C R R R R C C N C R C C N C N N N N

527

Acetic Acetic Aniline Chlorine Chromic Ethyl

Acid, Acid,

10$ Glacial

!!.,.!..:. R R R

Gas, Acid, Alcohol

Dry to

and 20$

Wet

N R R R R

Formaldehyde Formic Acid Acid, Acid Acid, Acid, Acid Acid, Acid Hydroxide, Hypochlorite, Dioxide, Dioxide, Acid, Acid, Acid, Dry Wet to 80$ 93$ 50$ over to 30$ 3$ to 10$ to 20$ to 50$ to 20$

Hydrohromic Hydrochloric Hydrofluoric Nitric Oleic Perchloric Phosphoric Sodium Sodium Sulfur Sulfur Sulfuric Sulfuric Sulfuric Toluene Trichloroethylene ~ R.T. H

R R R R R C R R R R C R C N C C

-Room Temperature Up to the temperature where chemical ho1ls intended to be shown Reconvnended C

limitation of the material. In cases helow this limitation, resistance is up to the boiling point. Conditional N Not Reconvnended

Table 44-3: Physical Properties of Polyethylene

Property Tensile Compressive Flexural Flexural Impact (ft. Strength, psi. psi. psi. psi. IZOD notch) % at of x Conductivity
o (BTU./Hr./sq. ft./in./ F.) x 10 -4

~ 4,000 2,500 2,000 80,000 2.5

Strength, Strength, IIodulus,

Strength lb./in.

Elongation, Coefficient (in./in./oF. Thermal

Yield

Expansion 10-5)

3.17
o

Maximum

Usable

Temperature,

F.

528

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

A new generation of polyethylene is making significant inroads into the process industries as a formidable corrosion barrier. Crosslinkable high density polyethylene for rotational molding is being used for tanks of 5 to 5,000 gallon capacity. When compared to other polyethylenes, these resins exhibit excellent physical properties and good weather resistance. The applications for rotational molding has been primarily indoor and outdoor storage tanks for various acids, alkalies, liquid fertilizers and many others. The versatility of polyethylene is further exemplified by its use in producing sintered porous plastic rod, sheet stock and tubing from which a multitude of other products can be fabricated. Sheet stock is available in thicknesses of 1116 in. to 2 in. in filter and fluidizing grades. Tubing is available in diameters of 1/4 in. to 8 in. These porous plastics have many applications in liquid and gas filtration, fluidized bed, powder conveyance, pneumatic silencing and other sound deadening applications, pollution control devices, aeration and food handling. Various porosities are available for most application requirements. Figure 444 illustrates silencers, filter pads and discs, sheet and rod manufac-factured from various grades of polyethylene.

Figure

44-4:

Polyethylene

silencers,

filter

pads, discs, sheet and rod.

Polypropylene Polypropylene is a unique polyolefin thermoplastic that is gaining in popularity due to its outstanding chemical, physical and thermal resistance. Polypropylene is available as flame- and non-flame-retardant homopolymer and copolymer . Polypropylene copolymers, like other thermoplastics, have reduced tensile strength and stiffness, however, impact resistance is substantially improved. Molecular weight control of the homopolymer during polymerization will prorovide materials with excellent physical properties. Filling certain homopolymers with such fillers as glass and talc will contribute to improved tensile strength and stiffness. Table 444 shows comparative physical properties for polypropylene homopolymer and copolymer .

Rigid Thermoplastic

Fabrications

529

Table 444:
Properties Specific Gravity

Physical

Properties

of Polypropylene
Homopolymer 0.902 4.0 Copolymer 0.899 6.0

IZOD Impact - 73O F. (ft. lb./in. notch) IZOD Impact - 64O F. (ft. lb./in notch) Flexural Modulus. psi. (1% Secant)' Tensile Strength at Yield, psi. (Type III Specimen) Rockwell Hardness. R Scale Deflection Temp., 66 psi., OF. Deflection Temp., 264 psi., OF. Coefficient of Expansion (in./in./OF. x 10b5) 32 - 104O F. 104 - 140' F. Weld Strength. psi.

__
230,000

1.0

198,000

5.200

4,450

95 203 (95%.) 131 (55%.)

80 180 (82OC.) 122 (50%)

5.4 6.1 4,200

6.4 7.8 2,700

The plastics mental available V-O mandates in three

industry to

has been responsive fire grades which within burning

to the various are:

corporate

and governis

incorporate

retardancy

in plastics.

Polypropylene

fire retardant extinguish have not

Grade-Must Must below Must

10 seconds total and droplets

after flame-out ignite

each cotton

flame for wad

exIO 12

posure. exposures. inches

less than drop

50 seconds

time

specimen. to V-O Grade except in thickness of less than 18

V-7 Grade-Similar inch. V-2 Grade-Must Must have Burning

extinguish less than droplets is imparted etc.

within 250

30 seconds

seconds total wad.

after flameout

each

flame for

ex10

posure. exposures. Flame ganic they antimony, do properties In the tanks types rosive which of chemical

time

can ig,nite cotton to polypropylene elements restrictions. strip These steel Reactive materials

retardancy zinc,

sheet with may

organic

and inornitrogen, physical of steel with various cora

compounds present

containing aluminum,

such

as chlorine, Table 44-5

bromine, enumerates

also be used, however,

some formulation continuous sheathing. rubber

for fire retardant steel industry, are rubber brick usually lined

polypropylene. pickling lining tanks to lines are constructed being further are then prevent splashing protected with of highly covered and the rubber lined

resistant covers

pickling

acids and to contain varying 2OOF.

the acid fumes

for exhausting.

The pickling acids at

solutions

are usually

concentrations

of hydrochloric

and sulfuric

approximately

530

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

Table 44-5: Physical Properties of Fire Retardant Polypropylene

Properties Spec1/ic IZOD (It. lZOD (It. Flexural (1% Tens11e (Type Rockwell De/lect1on De/lect1on Weld Strength, Grav1ty Impact lb./in. Impact Ib./1n. Modulus, Secant) Strength III at Y1eld, ps1. -64 -73 O F.
..:i=!L 1.139 0.7 ~ 0.93 1.0

notch) F.

notch) psi.

270,000

255,000

3,100

5,100

Specimen) R Scale , , ps1. 66 264 psi. psi. , , OF. a F. 226 138 84 (108oC.) (59oC.) 2,000

Hardness, Temp. Temp.

100 241 (116oC.) 144 (62oC.) 2,800

A major mid-Western steel mill has replaced its steel covers with fire retardant polypropylene covers. The lightweight, structurally sound, fire retardant covers have been in service for approximately three years and have performed well without "call backs," Fire tests shown to engineering and safety personnel from this company convinced them of the benefit inherent in polypropylene covers. Figure 44-5 shows sections of the covers for this 500 ft. long x 10 ft. wide carbon steel pickling line.

Figure 44-5:

Fire retardant polypropylene

pickling line covers.

Rigid Thermoplastic Fabrications

531

The structural integrity inherent in polypropylene has permitted its use in applications heretofore not considered for thermoplastics. In the specialty steel industry, batch pickling tanks and continuous strip pickling lines are constructed of steel which is lined with vinyl or similar linings with the lining being further protected by chemical resistant carbon brick sheathings. The carbon brick is required for its resistance to hydrofluoric acid contained in the pickling liquor. The pickling solutions are usually combinations of nitric and hydrofluoric acids at various concentrations and temperatures of approximately 150F. A major specialty steel producer installed fire retardant polypropylene covers on a stainless steel pickling line approximately four years ago. These covers are outperforming all other covers previously used. Figure 44-6 shows sections of flame retardant polypropylene covers for a stainless steel strip pickling I ine.

Figure

44-6:

Fire retardant

polypropylene

pickling

line covers

A specialty steel tube manufacturer salvaged an old carbon brick lined tank by inserting a drop-in liner in the existing tank. This 55 ft. long polypropylene homopolymer drop-in liner has so far prolonged the life of an old tank for an additional three years and still counting. Figure 44-7 shows polypropylene homopolymer liner enroute to the mill. Polypropylene exhibits outstanding chemical resistance to a multitude of other corrosives. Table 44-6 provides additional chemical resistance data for polypropylene. Figure 44-8 is a black polypropylene tank 15 ft. x 4 ft. x 8 ft. deep being used in a bauxite operation in the Virgin Islands. The tank is in outdoors service. Black polypropylene was selected because of its resistance to sunlight, its total chemical resistance, light weight and excellent structural integrity. The vessel has been in service for approximately five years without maintenance.

532

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

Figure

44-7:

Polypropylene

drop-in

tank

liner .

Table

44-6:

Chemical

Resistance

of

Polypropylene R.T. aR R

Homopolymer H R C R (Wet) N N R C R R R R R C N C R C C N C C N N N

Acetic Acetic Aniline Chlorine Chromic Ethyl

Acid, Acid,

10$ Glacial

Gas, Acid, Alcohol

Dry to

and 20%

Wet

C (Dry)

--N R R R R

Formaldehyde Formic Acid Acid, Acid Acid, to 20~ to 50$ to 20$

Hydrobromic Hydrochloric Hydrofluoric Nitric Oleic Percbloric Phosphoric SodiWD SodiWD Sulfur Sulfur Sulfuric Sulfuric Sulfuric Toluene Trichloroethylene ~y RoT. H Acid, Acid

R R R R R

Acid, Acid Hydroxide, Hypochlorite, Dioxide, DiQXide, Acid, Acid, Acid,

to

10$

C R

over to Dry Wet to 80$ 93$ 50%

30$ 3$

R R R C R C C C C

Room Temperature Up to the temperature where chemical boils intended to be shown Recommended C

limitation below this up to the Conditional

of the material. In limitation, resistance boiling point. N -Not

cases is

RecoDKDended

Rigid Thermoplastic Fabrications

533

Figure

44-8:

Black

polypropylene

pickling

tank.

Figures

44-9

and 44-10

further

exemplify

the outstanding

structural

capa-

bilities of properly aggressive chemical ft. deep carbon steel steel mid-western stainless for an eastern Polyvinyl

designed polypropylene homopolymer environments. Figure 44-9 is a 48 ft. tank 44-10 containing . containing is a 28 ft. 18% sulfuric long mill. Figure tank

tanks for containing long x 7 ft. wide by 4 acid at 180F wide for a x 10 ft. deep acids at 160F

steel pickling

x 9 ft.

pickling specialty

6% nitric/2%

hydrofluoric

steel producer

Chloride

(PVC) chloride (PVC), like polyethylene, has established an enviable record is one of the oldest of success in many cor-

Rigid polyvinyl thermoplastics that

rosion resistant applications. Pipe, valves, fittings, siding, window frames, exhaust fans and blowers, ducts, stacks, hoods and process vessels are just a few of the applications in which rigid PVC has been utilized. Rigid polyvinyl chloride (PVC) homopolymer various improves chemical mediums types of plasticizers. resistance Rigid Characteristic of an otherwise of most im pact resistance is reduced. resins can be plasticized thermoplastics, brittle resin, to oxidizers with ,

plasticizing however chemiand alkaline

somewhat resistance

is compromised-chemical unplasticized

PVC (Type

I) offers

outstanding

cal resistance

to most acids, alkalies

and solvents.

534

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

Figure 44-9:

Polypropylene

tank for pickling carbon steel

Figure 44-10:

Polypropylene

tank for pickling stainless steel.

Copolymers such as vinyl chloride/vinyl acetate, vinylidene chloride as well as plasticized PVC will not be presented as they are not considered as optimum chemical resistant structural materials. Corrosion engineers should be cognizant of the potential for permeation or vapor transmission of hydrochloric acid through various types of PVC. The low molecular weight of the hydrochloric acid molecule makes this acid a most difficult one to contain, particularly at higher concentrations and elevated temperatures. Table 44-7 provides chemical resistance data for Type I optimum chemical resistant rigid PVC and Type II high impact rigid PVC.

Rigid Thermoplastic

Fabrications

535

Table 44-7:

Chemical

Resistance of Polyvinyl
TYPE
Drn 5

Chlorides

Types

I and II

I
-_

Acetic Acid, 10% Acetic Acid, Glacial Aniline

II R N

R N N N
II II

TYPE II R.T. H R C R N C (Dry) -N (Wet) R R R A R R R R R R R R R R N R R R N N N N N R R Ii N R R N C R R R R R R N R N N N N

Chlorine Gas, Dry & Wet C (Dry) -N (Wet) Chromic Acid, to 20% Ethyl Alcohol Formaldehyde Formic Acid Hydrobromic Acid, to 20% Hydrochloric Acid Hydrofluoric Acid, to 50% Nitric Acid, to 20% Oleic Acid Perchloric Acid, to 10% Phosphoric Acid Sodium Hydroxide, over 30% Sodium liypochlorite,to 3% Sulfur Diox'ide,Dry Sulfur Dioxide, Wet Sulfuric Acid, to 50% Sulfuric Acid, 60% Sulfuric Acid, 93% Toluene Trichloroethylene !kY H.T.
H R R

R R R R R R H R R R R R R R R R N N

R N R R N R R R R R R R N R R C N N

Room Temperature

Up to the temperature limitation of the material.

In cases where chemical boils below this limitation, resistance is intended to be shown up to the boiling point. C - Conditional N - Not Recommended Recommended

Table 44-8 provides chemical this with the data contained chemical producer cal resistance attributable The excellent eastern corrosion electronics problem

resistance data for plasticized plastics. properties the

PVC. Comparing of chemia major

in Table 44-7 again confirms resistance to

the sacrifice

to flexibilizihg

of rigid PVC prompted use of PVC for

investigate

an aggressive of nitric, applied to be I

being experienced

in the ventilating coating of

system of an acid cleansystems were alloys found. 44-12

ing and etching hydrochloric carbon equally PVC. steel futile.

area. The principal little success.

corrosives were high concentrations Investigation various

and hydrofluoric with hoods, A cost effective

acids. Various solution

proved to of Type

was finally

The entire

exhaust

system-fans, roof ventilators

ducts, stacks and roof ventilators, shows sections of hoods and Figure from Type I PVC.

was fabricated

Figure 44-11

shows one of the

that was fabricated

536

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

Table 44-8: Chemical Resistance of Plasticized Polyvinyl

~ Acetic Acetic Aniline Chlorine Chromic Ethyl Gas, Acid, Alcohol Dry to & Wet 20% Acid, Acid, 10% Glacial C N N C R R R C Acid, Acid Acid, to 20$ to 50$ to 20% R R R R R Acid, Acid Hydroxide, Hypochlorite, Dioxide, Dioxide, Acid, Acid, Acid, Dry Wet to 80$ 93$ 50$ over to 30$ 3$ to 10$ C R R R R N R N N N N

Chloride
-11N N N N R R R N C C N C C N R R R R N R N N N N

Formaldehyde Formic Acid

Hydrobromic Hydrochloric Hydrofluoric Nitric Oleic Perchloric Phosphoric Sodium Sodium Sulfur Sulfur Sulfuric Sulfuric Sulfuric Toluene Tricbloroethylene ~ R.T. H Acid, Acid

Room

Temperature limitation below this up to the Conditional of the material. In limitation, resistance boiling point. N Not cases is

Up to tbe temperature where chemical boils intended to be shown Recommended C

Recommended

Figure 44-11:

PVC hood sections

Rigid Thermoplastic Fabrications

537

Figure

44-12:

PVC

roof

ventilator

The success of the Type I PVG exhaust system convinced the plant engineering department that PVG could be the answer to another perplexing problem. A high pressure storage and transfer system was designed for storing high purity chemicals and demineralized water. The only material of construction that provided the chemical resistance and still maintained the required purity was unpigmented Type I PVG. The vessels were fabricated of 3/4 inch thick unpigmented Type I PVG and armored with a fiberglass reinforced polyester cladding. The cladding was applied as an additional safety factor to insure the structural integrity of the vessels and the safety of personnel and property. Rigid PVG meets many corporate and municipal mandates for fire retardancy. Although rigid PVG will ultimately ignite, the moment the heat source is removed, it will self-extinguish. Rigid PVG has excellent structural stability, however, surface deformation or defacing, particularly scratches, could contribute to premature failure from impact. Its principal physical attributes are its high compressive, tensile and flexural values. Table 44-9 lists many of the physical properties of Type I PVG. These are minimum properties required to design various PVG structures.

538

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

Table 44-9:

Physical Properties

of Polyvinyl

Chloride

Type

Property Tensile Strength, psi. Compressive Strength, psi. Flexural Strength, psi. Flexural Modulhs, psi. Impact Strength IZOD (ft. Jb./in notch) Elongation, % at Yield Coefficient of Expansion (in./in./'F. x 10-5) Thermal Conductivity (BTlJ./hr./sq.ft./in./'F.) x 10T4 Maximum Usable Temperature. OF.
6.800

10,000 14,000 500,000 0.88

3 4.0

1.33

180

Rigid resistant obstacle.

PVC

is an outstanding Polymer to investigate chloride chloride

material waysto

from

which

to fabricate

corrosion limitations

structures.

scientists

are cognizant

of the thermal

of PVC and continue Chlorinated family mitting 5OF water with compared

handle the maximum

15OF limitation of the chloride thereby PVC when per-

polyvinyl

(PVDC)

is one such polymer polyvinyl heat deflection

improved

thermal

resistance.

Chlorinated

to rigid polyvinyl

has increased

its use at higher operating and many more resistant chemical

temperatures. applications. from PVDC

This increase of approximately viable alternatives Difficulties have limited for use in hot in fabriof this experienced the growth

has made PVDC

pipe, valves and fittings structures

cating chemical polymer Other

for these types of applications. (Aliphatic methacrylate Polymers) (PMMA) properties continuous is one of a large family and excellent and temperature and intermittent of inorganic to aromatic, provides i.e., visible of acrylic poly-

Nonolefinics

Polymethyl mers. PMMA They mately phatic ketone 180F

is notable

for its optical

clarity

weathering

properties.

have very good physical and ZOOoF for are resistant They PMMA they

resistance of approxiservice, respectively. acids, alkalies chlorinated, and aliester and hood

Chemically,

to solutions

hydrocarbons. solvents.

are not resistant PMMA

structures

are used as safety chemical

shields on chemical exposure liquid

and similar clarity

splash guard fabrication

applications.

good service in applicaand where optical levels in process

tions for structures of the equipment. Aromatic Polymers

subjected

to moderate

is advantageous,

Polystyrene crystal

homopolymers with

and such copolymers properties.

as styrene-butadiene They do not weather

are well,

clear materials

good physical

Rigid Thermoplastic Fabrications

539

nor do they have outstanding chemical resistance. They are used primarily as molding resins for producing toys, small appliance housings, large appliance components, etc. Due to their limited chemical resistance, they have not been a factor in the chemical resistant fabrication industry. Polyphenylene oxides (PPO) have good physical and thermal properties. Glass filling of PPO can increase continuous operating temperatures from 175 to 265F and heat deflection temperature from 212 to 290F. They are not chemical resistant materials, consequently, their applications are primarily in the automotive, electric and office equipment industries. Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) and polybutylene terephthalate (PBT) are primarily aromatic polymers used for blow molding and injection molding, respectively. PET has been widely used for synthetic fiber and film applications. Neither PET nor PBT are presently candidates for resin systems from which sheet stock could be produced for subsequent fabrication of chemical resistant structures. Fluoroplastics Fluoroplastics by ASTM definition are plastics based on polymers made from monomers containing one or more atoms of fluorine or copolymers of such monomers with other monomers, the fiuorine-containing monomer(s) being in the greatest amount by mass. Fluorocarbon plastics are those made from perfluoro monomers and in. clude polytetrafluoroethylene (PTF E) , fluorinated ethylene-propylene copolymer (FEP) and perfluoroalkoxy resin (PFA). Some typical fiuoroplastics are ethylene-chlorotrifluoroethylene (ECTFE), polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) and polychlorotrifluoroethylene (PCTFE). Fluoroplastics and fluorocarbon plastics are somewhat different, consequently, they should be considered on the basis of their respective properties. The basic characteristic and differences among these materials is attributable to molecular structure. Fluoroplastics contain carbon-hydrogen and/or carbonch lorine bonds whereas fluorocarbon plastics have a completely fluorinated structure. Fluorocarbon plastics are relatively soft but tough materials with excellent elongation properties. They have outstanding chemical resistance to temperatures of approximately 500F . Fluoroplastics are very stiff, strong and highly resistant to cut-through, deformation under load and creep. In general, they possess better physical and mechanical properties than fluorocarbon plastics. Fluoroplastics are not quite as resistant to some organics and environmental conditions as fluorocarbon plastics. Both groups have virtually identical thermal properties, however, at elevated temperatures the fiuoroplastics have the better retention of physical properties. This group of plastics has no equal in chemical resistance. They are used as coatings, linings and molded products. They are not being fabricated into structures from sheet stock.

540

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

CONCLUSION Polymer science and scientists, in recent years, have been interesting, pro'

lific and provocative. New polymer systems have been introduced and limitations to existing systems brought to manageable levels or completely eliminated. Thermoplastic fabrications continue to be excellent chemical resistant barriers in a multitude of hostile environments. Thermal or mechanical limitations for certain applications have been easily handled by the incorporation of insulation, thermoset fiber glass resin applications and chemical resistant masonry sheathings. Insulations such as foam glass, synthetic resin foams, borosilicate glass and masonry sheathings have provided the required thermal protection necessary to permit their use in marginal applications. In certain applications where impact and physical damage potential existed, FRP cladding and chemical resistant masonry sheathings came to the rescue. Ironically, thermoplastics have come to the rescue for such premier corrosion barriers as chemical resistant masonry sheathings. Polypropylene homopolymers have been fabricated into heat deflection shields for vessels that were designed to be operated at certain termperatures only to have process parameters changed necessitating higher temperatures. They have done the job. Thermoplastic fabrications are cost effective viable alternatives to alloys, other metals and plastics, wood, glass, etc. for solving a host of corrosion problems. REFERENCES
1. Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Part 36. 2. Underwriter Laboratories, Inc.-UL 94, Standard for Safety. 3. Modern Plastics Encyclopedia, 1982-1983 and 1983-84. 4. Hercules, Inc., Technical Information Report. 5. Seymour, R.B., Plastics vs. Corrosives, John Wiley & Sons, New York (1982). 6. Boova, A.A., Controlling Corrosion with Polypropylene Fabrications, Seminar Pre7. 8. 9. prints -1983 Plastics Sem inar , Dallas, Texas. Boova, A.A., Covers for Continuous Strip Pickling Lines; Meml Finishing 1982). GarnfJr, David P. and Stahl, G. Allen, The Effects of Hostile Environments and Plastics, The American Chemical Society, Washington, D.C. Metal Finishing Guidebook (1981). (September on Coatings

Section X Designing Chemically-Resistant Masonry Constructions

541

45 Designing with Chemically=Resistant Masonry

Walter

Lee Sheppard, Incorporated

Jr.

C.C.R.M., Havertown,

Pennsylvania

Putting forward.

a sheet rubber are standard

lining

in a steel or concrete to follow.

tank

is pretty

straight-

There

specifications

Although

the procedures the type of

vary to some degree, depending adhesive to be used, whether shop, there are generally The principal to use-the ployed. the probably use of decision

on the type of sheet stock involved, instructions for one to follow. in which Thus, the tank a few

or not the lining is to be done in the field or in the

published

the user must make is the generic type of sheet stock to the environment resistance tables. is to be emthrough calls will supthe choice down to a very few candidates phone

one best suited published

He usually can narrow chemical determine lining

for him which

one of these he will use, and with which in the tank slightly which will to protect bricks

plier/installer If a brick other (usually which that

he will deal. is to be installed becomes must the sheet lining or The designer are best and with and, sheet the matter more complicated.

membrane,

not the end user) he had selected

determine

and mortars each other, will

suited for the environment, the sheet lining, finally, If the lining, which

and then consider

how well the bricks and mortars mate with expansion will mate with

for the environment tank

how well their coefficients will provide

of thermal

of the steel or concrete combination does not brickwork

in which sufficient

the system thermal

be installed for the

the best protection

for the sheet lining.

provide much

insulation

and if the tank rupture

is overheated,

the sheet lining can be seriously damaged. vessel, it could so that and it less than the vessel walls, the brickwork,

If the brick conceivably the wall

lining expands

more than the steel or concrete If it expands no longer supports

the vessel.

moves away from

it, the wall

can break up and fall in. 542

Designing

with

Chemically-Resistant

Masonry

543

The go into must

more

complicated the all possible

the structure, study interactions

the more will

varied require

the components because that

that

its design,

more

the design between

the designer can affect

consider

these components

the life, strength,

stability-the

satisfactory

performance-of

the structure.

THE

BASIC There

PRINCIPLES are four basic principles masonry unit A structure masonry that the engineer of acid and all must keep in mind in any for in deother its in-

signing (I)

a chemically-resistant Strength.

structure. brick shear, face. chemically-resistant continuously them point, together masonry wet condiwill slowly of the is or block Although and depends be reinforced. it has good

composed cannot

chemically-resistant compressive tegrity (2) materials tions, absorb structure acid, loads leaking, the smearing (3) sion they brick, often not brick, then be clear chemical strength, on the bond Porosity under fluids

it is weak of the mortar

in tension With

to the masonry

and/or a continuous units

absorption. hydrostatic and the mortar

head or other used to bond At that as those kind cannot an acid of acid

the masonry until is wet with acid that

the structure

is saturated.

the underside It should, especially

the same chemicals on the underside of this a structure type

on the surface.

If the liquid therefore,

is present although this

of the structure. is strong equipment), structure. brick brick, brittle, to break.

and can support liquid

heavy without

(such as piers and pedestals spillage, nor employed acid-resistant Brittleness. masonry of joints). them

to support

in areas of

of structure by putting composed cannot they growth types that any

be used to hold lining block (which and

to stop leaks in an existing mortar units They bends,

If a vessel is leaking, inside of it, or by chemi-

leak cannot

be stopped

over the area of the leak. or other would if the be flexed are certain or bent cause torsupporting

Structures

cally-resistant or shear cannot (4) the grow proven, structure

are all somewhat

around accept two up to but Growth.

For the same reason, or red shale masonry this most growth fired acid units, are clay But made

excessive Irreversible most 0.16% of

vibration. or swelling. of Fireclay for with dry, chemically-resistant The reasons it can happen Such growth in static, and other

common

dimension. vitrified. brick

experience

indicates

unless they

have been fully happen

takes place more quickly cold exposures. units such masonry on the

in cycling, in North What components materials brick extended with (There low which

hot, wet environments, America about (see Side Effects monolithics and or cementing

and slowest

it does eventually

to all acid

at the end of this section). castables? agents Depending type of comand fillers), structures entirely stop, made of these degree. out of acid liquids it. to wet for

(bonding have many

of the same characteristics someone will very If the designing not castable. a design will

to a lesser or greater a structure will a liquid

Occasionally, periods, it

we find such

or a monolithic

When the structure provide but concretes function slowly,

be continuously and the very

is in contact polymeric

eventually, made with of the

pass through is merely

are a very few exceptions: resins.)

polymer

dense, very

shrinkage

structure

544

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

supply support, and not protection can function satisfactorily. With (I) (1) Tall these four basic principles masonry? structure As a load-bearing brick chimney to use chemically-resistant

for some underlying

surface,

such a design would we wish

in mind, for what purpose(s) subjected a bridge, to corrosive

Here we have four specific uses. chemicals. Examples: (3) Outer to to corrosive exit gases. (2) Piers resting the wall is subjected

liners, subjected

in corrosive

wastes and supporting (supporting

or a piece of equipment. where

wall of a building (2) peratures tank rubber The

the roof stringers)

splash or spray of strong corrosives. As an internal insulation lined with in a process vessel, reducing level. Top Examples: rubber sheet. the surface tem(1) Steel pickling of the sufficient (2) on the membrane to an acceptable 21OF.

in a steel mill, 160F,

service temperature lining provides

but bath temperature to protect against could from

The brick

insulation

to get the surface temperature

of the rubber sheet down to 14OF. on a floor. if the work

same system (3) Protection the work

the membrane wear or abrasion.

in process vessels or (3) to prevent In use 2 (I), (steel the

live steam from cutting plate, rubber, protect (4)

out the asphalt membrane

etc.) bangs the side of the tank and the brick were not there to protect cut or puncture such damage. sIow/y attacks either the substrate the contained the amount liquid trickle membrane can cut or deform it, but a brick floor

the rubber sheet. In use 2 (3), traffic over it will

over an asphalt

the membrane

If the environment will

or the membrane, and the substrate that reaches the so behind

the interposition or membrane the brick that lined membrane

of a brick lining between reduce to a tiny or substrate. Corrosion

of chemical material

products,

if any, are trapped stop. Example: lining

and cannot the corrosion cylindrical originally

be washed away to uncover further slows down steel tank and may eventually containing a mixture The rubber.

to be corroded,

In a dished

bottom,

of acid and oil, the steel was swells as the oil into all

with

sheet natural

rubber

enters it, but the brickwork the pores of the brickwork tained tioned alone. porting the liquid from use can The other With the limitations involve three

holds it in place until the rubber has swollen and blocked them preventing

any more of the con-

passing behind the brick. of the basic principles, a structure employ composed wood we note that only the first menof chemically-resistant with a supporting or plastic), masonry structure to which and

it in combination barrier

(steel or concrete, structure will structure

or very is in itself

occasionally, a liquid-tight

and unless the supstructure

to the environment supporting

be exposed,

a membrane

over the

under the masonry permit would port, the structure otherwise with it,

is necessary. The supporting as a whole to accept internal put the chemically-resistant safety by growth factor,

structure masonry

provides the strength to in tension strength or shear, and in itself to supconditions may

loading or surface loading, which

cause it to break up. It must be designed with adequate an adequate all the loading expansion. subject

to which

plus the weight and stresses of the masonry lining, whether dead loador thermal of the supporting structure are covered in earlier is dis-

ing or stresses induced sections of the book;

The design considerations cussed later in this section.

consideration

of the selection

of specific

materials

Designing

with Chemically-Resistant

Masonry

545

DESIGNING

BRICKWORK

WITHOUT
cannot

REINFORCING-CONTOURING
be designed that hold tensile monolithic the like cloth, in tension brickwork strength because together (cohesion) materials; or other standard tile with of the are the of the polyand types steel reor

Chemically-resistant problem adhesive mortar ester and chopped thin of anchors polymer reinforcing in this inforcing The ture properties. provides additional with sizeable steel of reinforcing bonds of and of the clay and carbon, ceramic may fibers, mortar

masonry it. The only to

bonds Various and

brick,

and the

(or brick).

fabrics,

such as glass, ceramic, surfacing are used

be used to reinforce glass platelets metal, Expanded wire

in some coatings and some

membranes. concretes. rods, on placed use of volume

and stainless

are used to reinforce Other usually paper through reinforcing material polymer with mills

or strengthen concretes coatings special

gunned on the

and cast linings reinforcing. of hollow

have even employed design

The section mills twenty into

describes a design

a hybrid widely

the tile,

used in paper introduces physical

more years ago, but less frequently another generic with that into of

seen today. materials to the the strucwhile it and any completely the system different requires, and chemical brings

in any of these of the reinforcing the system. expansion, If the Therefore, With brickwork,

The marriage

rest of the structure, at the same time cure from to it. can. that of By

some of the strength stress and strain coefficient changes the

It immobilizes introduces further resulting deciding without (as they provided

shrinkage, the

a different

stresses with

of temperature. parts your together. purpose

stresses it will before

reinforcing

overbalance holds consider that

the cohesion

of the system,

crack

even though

the reinforcing use reinforcing, designing a cylindriis is large from the the so

whether

can be accomplished inside of curves drop steel,

Can tension the brick the to cal tank), sufficiently enough 7 x 10) the can brickwork straight as the pression

be avoided? linings

it usually

are on the can be kept the low

are in lining

brick

in compression, (e.g., enough and them

the brickwork expansion away manner, changing If this kept

thick keep

so that the

thermal

through coefficient

it to the substrate thermal In this This by wall, 1.) expanding

substrate

at a temperature (coefficient in to designing curves, they arch is kept walls

to prevent expansion cannot outwards 45-1

it from 4 x IO). apart.

brickwork be used brick

of thermal a large bowing move

in compression

pull

same, principle is done, in com-

rectangular

concrete against

tank,

at the middle. the tank and Drawing

expand

ever tighter (See Figure contractor

by this

effect.

Conversely, slip, the weight not push from walls. costs. officer everywhere, into the membrane

if the concrete of the concrete but tank, in only away

is careless,

and the braces of his forms at the center-perhaps and if the they will separate vessel increases instead grow will

can bulge the wall inward section. reverse supporting this the curve, wall, forms

one short from

If this is not corrected, as the brick so the brick to build with agent than

and brick

are laid over and wall,

the membrane No concrete This slows walls Therefore, out

and eventually

fall in. contoured straight productivity, purchasing a larger and thus

contractor down many will

likes to use curved reduces decide they

construction,

to bid the construction can argue the they will pocket

of curved

in the hope

or contracting average profit.

of them.

If successful,

546

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

SECTION B-B

NOT DRAWN TO SCALE

Drawing 1: Concrete Pennwalt Corp.

vessel outline,

wails and bottoms

contoured.

Used by permission of the

If the

customer the work

insists, they may

however, try

they

will

lose money, this design-and so that

and so they

will

try

to

complete

by various

ruses. to get around unfortunately placed it has at in the past, it appears forms in a few technitogether

One way been suggested cal papers-is a slight angle.

by some engineers See Drawing 2.

to make the curve with

a series of straight

Drawing

This remember membrane for this this

results that

in a polygon the whole so that,

instead

of an elliptical grows, surface surfaces.

shape. The designer is to create structure. at anchor brick will

should

purpose

in curving

the walls

an arch over The reason surface, points-in grow and

the membrane design

as the masonry tightening the flat the flat

it will arch against and press into the because Just if we have a flat only as the

uniformly,

itself against the supporting over it, restrained

is to eliminate growth angles between

we can have lateral case the

movement

Designing

with Chemically-Resistant

Masonry

547

bulge design, stands.

up away from anchored the surface The

a flat floor,

they

will

eventually

bulge away

from follows

the flat such a as it

sections

only

in those angular be filled

points.

If the contractor smooth

is not acceptable the structure. rectangular

for the installation

of the brickwork

angles must

in, and the continuous,

curves estabby gunmay be must 2 is uncannot be

lished by resurfacing In an existing ning gunite concrete techniques, to correct that, when

vessel, the curves may be accomplished corners and building the surface. A similar procedure the design shown trench, result in Drawing the walls brick

into the four

the curves into the walls using

then trowel-finishing unless this is done, designing of

followed acceptable.

the flat areas if flat forms

are used. But the designer

bear in mind Naturally, from duced section) work feet. tion cost of that

a long brick-lined would short point. merely

bowed .I A succession if the were bowed

bows were

in the blocks

separating might be re-

the walls at the juncture sections

of the bows, although and thrust However, walls with

this tendency the expense expansion

(see later in this of such formto the 15 every

used at the juncture with however, and dead

and the laying construction after forms The designer,

of the brick would straight

be uneconomical the contractor surface

when compared joints

should warn any

as part of his specificashall be checked surface or grinding of expansion the flat outward, about with by an bulging before joints In

are stripped, straight-must

the concrete bulge found be removed

independent inward out the concrete of adequate the older that expansion when

inspector, of dead

in the wall-any by chipping number joints off walls

can be accepted. if a sufficient the expansion will width are not provided, the brick to will close up and, as surface. suggested a design 7 from the irinto

On a flat surface such as a floor, continues,

heave upward of the century, the straight of them there noted

designs, dating it was the growth walls

back to the turn bow by sloping which

it was often outwards 1954.

impossible

battering vertical that reversible

the plane period, was first thought,

should

be followed. of brick

In that

was no concern about will if it expanded

It is presumed thermally designer

gravity

was supposed joints.

to hold the wall down growth,

the expansion that with floor, free

A moments

however, wall.

tell todays

todays

irreversible

if the brick on expanding, However, adequate thickness away

heave off of the to support from the

they can also heave off of the battered and the designer has supplied on its base (see below) joints, the problem standing wall

as long as the walls number, size and the conchangesin designing

are dead straight placement

and an adequate of movement

of expansion

crete supporting of the brickwork the bottoms in the tanks, solvents, contour

walls will not arise. we can provide for expansion-dimensional joints. through This same rule is followed the trenches, expansion contain of trenches. with expansion wll flow

When designing a floor,

of tanks or the bottoms or which there

If the liquids that will be held oil, greases, fats, In a tank, we can the joint sealant, then we cannot

for which

is no adequate of providing

plan to use this method the bottom-that walls, we will

for the brick movement. configuration

is, dish it. If we do this, just as we have contoured in arch

keep the brick

and keep it pressed tightly

548

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

against the membrane expansion joint, With if the down a trench, are not at the sides, we will walls one wall, as well

and,

hence,

against

the

supporting

wall,

eliminating

the than

if we curve the bottom, not require contoured, points a longitudinal require

so that

it is deeper joint. joint under

in the center We will, across

expansion

however,

an expansion below,

the trenchJoints.

across the bottom, as at other

and up the other designated

side, on the average of every Expansion

15 feet,

STABILITY When lined move retain chemically-resistant structure, on the This surface means thermal masonry the of (I) the that is installed substrate, independently there cannot lining. could masonry as a liner masonry relieving of the inside a membranemust be free to or both to be has and

supporting or slide integrity. and with

chemically-resistant

stresses, expanding substrate, anchors penetrating were

contracting substrate employed, back it and would their pansion smooth second a different usually if one masonry

changes,

if it is to

be anchors If such follow Further, the

chemically-resistant the membrane then these of which for any this of and

any corrosive coefficient does, from of the

in the environment of expansion anchors than

the shaft

of the anchor masonry,

through

into the substrate. would

if the substrate chemically-resistant

the chemically-resistant prevent at a different as the brick expansion rate than would try

expanding elements growth, In order (2) will the and

or contracting the structure differential movement the

the substrate, brick,! for must for. by it in exto expand

chemically-resistant

masonry

is acid

create joints.

stresses within

irreversible

is provided substrate provided

to be free of stress, and as uniform be as This is must be suitably

as possible, point

surface

membranecovered

as possible,

obstructions later. body

be discussed or curved line

In cylindrical also obtained However, stability tions, lining the work, mean lowed must

vessels or structures, which has eliminated as in rectangular of the structure house, masonry

stability the

of the

lining

by the arch effect designs, depend

need for upon

reinforcing. its foundaThis (or the so that exact general not folless of brick-

in straight

walled

vessels or trenches, structure. or longer the

on the ability of a brick

to balance masonry

just as does the wall

or any other

means that wall

as the chemically-resistant or longer), stability. of While

wall gets higher must a way heights which

of a vessel gets deeper retains that rules using rules are necessary thumb

its thickness specific 45-l) insures while

be increased to compute and lengths have received nor that past designs employed

no one has found to stabilize (see Table

thicknesses some that these acceptance, guaranteed thicknesses generally under that

exist

and which, if these rules were

if followed, are followed. usually that, shorter

can be considered It does mean lives or required expansion The reasons lining.

adequate. failure, that

This does that much

somewhat

lesser thicknesses successful,

success is

ones that joints for

had considerably be noted advisable heading.

considerable this will

maintenance. be discussed

It should

if interlocking

are to be used, it is

to go to an 8

Designing

with Chemically-Resistant

Masonry

549

Table 45-1:
Depth <I <2 l-2 2-6 2-6 >6

Thicknesses
(ft)

Needed to Stabilize
Length (ft) <30 <I5 15-30 <I5 >15 any

Heights and Lengths*

Thickness 2-x 2-x 4 4 8 8-12 Re(in)

*For extremes of length and depth, greater thicknesses are advisable. From Chemically sisrantMasonry, Walter Lee Sheppard, Jr., 2nd Ed., Marcel Dekker, NYC (1982).

The movement point. there

second that The one,

point cannot

mentioned for

above, the

that

of

providing further of that,

for

obstructions rubber sheet joint. (or other lining, the to tries lining over

to as the

be eliminated, instance, of sheet sheets.

requires selection linings These

consideration a sheet at regular

at this intervals, In either chemithese brick move most

Let will

us consider, be joints is a double masonry)

membrane. adjacent

application between thickness lining the

means may

be laps of one If a brick this joint

or butted

edges with

a seal strip

on top of the butt point. mortar over masonry causing the masonry

case, there cally-resistant ridges and under lining likely lining apart. must will the such can

of sheet at that is applied into things the

directly

sheet

act as anchors, membrane. conditions, tear the joint If the or weak, for. If

protruding

between lining

chemically-resistant in the membrane, is strong and the how

one of two membrane

can happen.

The chemically-resistant leaking. lining This is the masonry and pull lap pads of of that it is comlining

result. is thin To

chemically-resistant can crack sponge

the chemically-resistant to the structure, 3 shows lap or protrusion, linings. The Drawing

prevent

damage as the

protrusion is done. prior (or other

of the membrane Two wide,

be provided

this

the same thickness to the membrane, is to go over bined pressing will protrusion. We have way many to designers into earlier the lap (or mortared the chemically-resistant

and at least 2 brick

are cemented unit) when by

one on each side of the protrusion masonry must be notched-a can slide large enough (move direction why

to the installation masonry that

this joint protrusion) the

notch

to cover the comdirection) hanging

and the sponge masonry If this inch is done, in either the of the flat alternatively, into it. reason

on each side of it-so in either without the chemically-resistant

in place, the sponge to

pads. one

masonry

be able

slide

up on the

supplied problems or,

battering growth. wall with

is not

a satisfactory favored but by from to build and it-

resolve

irreversible concrete

Another pilasters

idea

is to design lining

protruding

it at regular pilasters prevents manner brick ter will

intervals the brick

to leave the wail greater wall itself,

dead flat

to give the wall the concrete expansion If there sponge

stability. it acts as an anchor joints in the brickwork (see Drawing

If the pilaster movement as on both be even self, this design will

is built over require

are no expansion

pads on both

sides in just the same 3) if the joint,

sides of the cap strip because

in the sheet lining it will

is not to heave off the wall more difficult

and fall in. The detail

over the face of the pilasan expansion

have to include

550

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

which to

will

introduce joints

weakness

into the wall on them

at that

point.

The alternative

is to of

place expansion leave the which

in the brickwork anchored

midway

between

all these pilasters and the concrete.

brickwork

as points

of no movement-all

is as expensive

as, or more expensive

Brick

than, contouring

Elastomeric Closed cell sponge

Chemical Resistant
Mortar

Drawing 3

Frequently building a brick idea will quickly the pilaster by itself, effect. column. only

designers pilaster

seek to

resolve

this

matter

in another The on/y

manner-by of this strengthening

into the brick

lining.

A moments weight

consideration

tell the designer why this will not work. is the vertical brick alone-to the weight of the holding a height stability from inward.

gives to the lining stood

of the brick

in it. Standing strong man

it in place has any stabilizing of, e.g., IO feet-a

If the column Figure 45-6

should have little trouble case where the brick

pushing it over by pressing against the top bricks in the the pilaster has provided in one the wall at the furthest point exact/y

shows how little is pushed away the pilaster

at the pilaster,

unbalancing

EXPANSION

JOINTS-GENERAL composed in the of two or more dissimilar of thermal lined with components, of those there com-

On any structure will be a difference Take, ponents. inner-lined As the ambient 12OF. brick, 70F. than

coefficients a steel tank

expansion

as an example, temperature insulation of 70F,

a sheet rubber try

lining and The

with 8 inches of acid brick. internal rises to 200F, so that if the tank the brick to expand. is standing in a room with an than the at hotter

brick act as thermal temperature Although it is only However, when they

the steel shell temperature higher coefficient the brick it was when and they will

will be approximately of expansion lining was installed

the steel has a much 50 hotter the brick were than (and mortar)

on the inside face are now 130F expand accordingly.

installed,

In addition,

Designing

with Chemically-Resistant

Masonry

551

the

irreversible

growth

mentioned

earlier

must

be provided

for. Therefore

ex-

pansion joints are needed to permit ing the steel shell of the tank. installed the brick at appropriate on both the steel shell and its rubber gether closing the joints,

this expansion

to take place without

disruptBut since joints-if

This means that some compressible lining will be solid-without expansion

joints must be

spots to allow

the brick to squeeze together. expansion joints

sides of the compressible then the brick

are to move to-

must slide over the face of the rubber expansion joint in chemically joint. If it is 4 of the

lining. This is the first law of expansion resistant masonry not so designed, the expansion trench, joint

joints-every will

must end in a sliding joint below.

f-

or another

expansion

not function.

See Drawing

wall of a brick-lined CUtbTiC*to

soldier fit. cour*e.

Closed

cell

8Doqe

mge Of floor lCOcret.2 or brick)

Closed

cell

sponge

552

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

The expansion joint and holds

upper joint.

right-hand Note that

sketch

shows the way is totally in a fixed lining,

a draftsman immobilized the concrete

first designed the because where the abuts the brick cannot joint joint-

the joint of brick the

ends in the concrete the top upper course left wall.

above the brick

position.

If the top brick

move, then neither In the cannot top

can the brick below it. sketch, It will, brick on the left side of the expansion be able to close the expansion such as a Teflon force it into the capping on the sheet, exists the brick lower left

move to the left because to do so would however,

of the trench

moving to the right if a shear plane-a under the capping. The examples sketch lower to move in both right hand sketch

sliding joint,

None is shown in the drawing. shows the corrected joint design, freeing joint. The directions, and the joint necessary between to open and close. Note that there are and the sliding under the cap for the joint to function a compressible the joint. expansion material The majority (They about joint material

of both

the compression

shows the sliding joint is a great difference joint fillers

in this design. There squeezed for the and a deformable together joint compressible totally material. A true compressible from will is one that can be of the useful in vol-

without

extruding they

are closed-cell materials

sponges or foams of the type best suited be employed. them are required 25% of their may not be extruded without disrupting

environment enclosed joints They

in which where are installed

the masonry.) Deformable like texture, joint, ing 5).

by compressing hand,

ume and then sliding them materials, of a constant

into the joint. on the other volume. are materials upward of a soft or puttyis used to fill a out of and extruded When this type is squeezed material of material

as the joint

closes, the material

it. As the joint

opens, the, deformable materials pressure,

is sucked down into jt (see Drawbut, sides, the that

Compressible if installed opens, common in putty this type under

rarely have a good bond to the sides of the joint will expand to release that pressure liquids. if it closes. Without to within a good bond to the joint

if the joint

or squeeze together of filler practice foam, or fluid

is rather easily penetrated to fill the joint form and bonded are truly

by contained

It is, therefore, sealant, applied

3/4 in. to % in. of the top with It is important

compressible

then seal the top space with the deformable to the sides of the joint. at 90 from are not truly opens the filler tearing does the of the joint to top), resulting than bottom the floor vertical, material motion pull filler. vertical., joints

the sides of the joint

surface, so that as so that they slope in the joint to restrain will which

the the joint opens or closes, the movement If the sides of the expansion either inward far or outward, from greater be pulled requires result will in the joint brick sloped resulting around away the walls adhesive as the joint strength (from

is at right angles with the sides.

diagonally-a

at right

angles. The material

be the rather will

early disbondment downward, to top)

If the joint closes pressure on the If the sides are material

and the sides are sloped inward be squeezed tending (from bottom them,

any deformable

in an upward

to lift the brick off the membrane. and the joint

outward upwards

closes, the filler

is forced

and in shear along the sides, causing a loss of bond, eventually out of the joint.

in the filler popping

Designing

with

Chemically-Resistant

Masonry

553

cement bed

joint

Note dimensional changes of deformable filler in each case, as joints close, and as joint opens. Drawing 5

If the joint (or other properly fluid installed

is made food)

in this manner

in a food plant, it will troubles form with

such as a dairy, and slowly the food

and milk rancid For de-

penetrates odors,

the joint,

a static pool on top of a become joint inspector. with

membrane,

in the area of the joint, and causing in food

or ferment, this reason, formable the sealant If there floor adhere formable pulling

creating material

it is common rather the milk

practice (or other

areas to fill the entire can collect.

than use closed-cell

sponge at the bottom,

leaving no with a sharp

void in which

food materials)

As the joint closes,

is extruded

at the joint top. Any excess can be removed full, but not protruding. under the joint, as in an expansion slab, the deformable The joint cannot

knife leaving the joint laid directly to the material

is no membrane over a crack as well will bottom

joint

in a tile the de-

in the concrete properly.

sealant will

as the sides of the joint. at the bottom,

If this happens, or close without

not function

open without tearing brick sliding

the filler off the sides of the joint and top of the joint. surfacing a masonry

it loose at the bottom Where over a hot

is laid over a membrane floor), the membrane

(as for instance provides the

asphalt-coated

concrete

554

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

joint. cell sum acid ft. tances

The expansion foam of or sponge, to irreversible brick, the apart it must pump cannot will floor the apart

joints topped growth placement

in the brickwork with the and of brick

need only movement expansion. joints

to be compressible placed will which

closed dis-

a deformable thermal

sealant,

at adequate this

accommodate

be the algebraic means with to 20 at a 15 ft. into

Normally, on floors

expansion that columns, where

distance by brick

depending

on the

range of temperatures if the area involved piping joint through between simply them. points the interruption

to be accommodated. is broken the floor, occurs. them smaller etc., floors drains,

However, units the points,

be remembered bases, building move require plane, at the point

These fixed

then,

an expansion points they

if heaved them

are to be avoided. continuous Where two ever, pump if there even to 30F, spillage installed joint or over moving Drains pansion is more especially drain, dam, a single continuous

If such fixed expansion between there joint

are single

interruptions by isolating

in an otherwise by placing instance, over 20 Howof the should be

can be handled around fixed such is little

space

is 3 feet or less-for cycling joint between joint

bases-and it is possible is a steam hot, in that

likelihood with

of temperatures

to dispense jet that small possibly

an expansion on the floor, then liquids,

them.

can play

or the possibility is, install

of very

boiling,

an expansion control

a space. The

rule to follow or

an expansion joints inpoints,

(1) all points cracks in the

of movement: substrate, but they or elevation

expansion, (2) around of trenches

or construction all fixed drains. in a floor,

between except point

cluding

changes joints

in direction points,

are fixed

are at the lowest penetrated at a drain is extruded

and exThere a

are the weakest, drain

and most easily up.

parts of a floor. joint is placed where will

likelihood if the joint as the

of a leak developing is stopped the running place closes, the liquids sealant

than anywhere upwards,

else on a floor, around be a standshould that make it acts as a

If an expansion the drain. midway them. joints,

obstructing joints will flow

toward

The result

ing puddle expansion be designed drainage

at the weakest to run crosswise

on the floor.

Therefore, between of fall-not

it is best to place the drains. with They the slope-so should

at the higher across them, twice is, the of the if the

elevations, not along

of the direction expansion

As a rule of thumb, the expansion will ning. heavy joint take place, thermal joint that

in designing as wide brick

the engineer that

as the maximum in the temperature joint is wide,

expansion of growth the range for

he anticipates and the by for that he is planof the

sum of the amount

of the brick, which

expansion In floors, traffic passing

expansion

edges will

be pounded failure size practical today,

over them, frequent

and can crumble Therefore, place

or spall, causing the maximum

and requiring joints

repairs. that

expansion

is about of growth for then, size of

3/2 in., to accommodate can take % in., which most as previously in steel

% in. of movement. in the brick available in the old an expansion in about bay for

Consider-

ing the amount latter The are being rule the

means we are planning of thumb, (for

can be reached designed calls tanks frequently pickling drains. earlier, stated,

15 to 20 ft., the buildings. joint at changes 200F,

the

frequently

least every spacing between

15 to 20 ft.

of brickwork-more apart). objects As stated except

if large thermal operating they should at over

anticipated is at 7.5

instance,

to 8 ft. all fixed

also be placed

or around

Designing

with Chemically-

Resistant

Masonry

555

One tractors expansion membrane sults from well, brane, other left the reached, bare, of buttering

of the in the joint the

most placing through practice, the

frequent

errors

committed (the mortar tilesetters

by both

designers

and con-

of expansion the bed joint floor for primarily mortar

joints

in floors,

is the failure The error often over the

to carry the down to the reas then the is is

under the brick) but

between troweling

the brick

and the substrate. of the bed directly

most often

of brickmasons membrane,

the edges of the brick, it to tighten laid. When already

laying the

it in the mortar planned

troweled

on the memjoint joint

and tapping brick

the joint location

and to level the brick face with for the expansion

the side of the brick that will but the mason or tilesetter and either forgotten joint, of the expansion bed under should no hard

act as the face of the expansion may have already it. If the mortar are locked

spread the mortar into a fixed

over

membrane

it or ignored the brick joint,

is left there, position joint canjoint joint

in the bottom not function. The tain filler.

by the continuous designer

the expansion

and the expansion that

make or

clear on his drawings material-only the

the expansion expansion

must extend

all the way down to the membrane rigid

(through

the bed) and may con-

absolutely

specified

THRUST

BLOCKS block may be defined, of a brick of a trench to it. a very wet area of floor, of solvent. to be penetrated-is draining into a trench, as the weakest joint, it is very small amounts most likely Inasmuch for our purpose, lining as a ceramic anchor, set in only, to the

A thrust the substrate to direct rather capping expansion than

to prevent in both.

the movement

of a brick facing placed over it. It is used (or surfacing) in one direction damage be used to prevent

the expansion and brick lining

On a floor,

this may

or pit when

it is undesirable

to place an

joint adjacent perhaps,

Let us take as an example and carrying, point in a floor-that flow

the expansion

best not to have an expansion age will the over it. It should normal and back three sufficient of the trench an anchor room, Yet

joint close to the trench where all the liquid spillbe back at the highest point, calls for an expansion it. Much less could the joint wall from below brick from or along the wall of joint to be parallel result in the brick it, into the trench. the expanthree or the brick

construction

to the trench, expansion If, brick capping however, trench,

creating

back pressure from wall, and the trench into the to expand away

to tend to push the

is designed Drawing

brickwork

along the edge of the it and toward

the brick that

can be forced

sion joint at the high point. Note brick from pit, width parallel standing the brick the concrete

6 shows how this is done. a slot cast into it, back about to accommodate two or pit and running and deep enough the narrowest the length of the trench and one with

is placed with

the edge of the trench to it. The pit is wide course-one parallel with

soldier

dimension

dimension

to the trench thickness,

wall. The depth

may be the full length of obviously the brick will

less the floor

if desired,

or it may be less than this, but not

less than 3 in. If less than the full

length of the brick,

556

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

have to be cut. to expend certainly The the wall, then crete

If the floor

is 4 in. thick,

it would

probably is only

not be worthwhile 13% in. thick, it is

the labor to cut off less expensive membrane

1 in., but if the floor a slot the depth accordingly.

than to form

of the length of the balcarried manner, down down with

ance of the brick and adjust the reinforcing is applied to the floor into the slot, across the bottom, across the bottom squared, manner, usual all corners carefully laid in the between

in the usual manner, side, all in the normal reinforced throughout.

up the opposite

side, then to the trench,

up the opposite and properly except wall

The brick are and the

for the soldier course at the slot. The conis now encapsulated anchored in brickwork, and will not come loose.

slot and trench

cap and wail of the trench

are effectively

:*rane

brick

Drawing

This

leads to another from

design requirement-that floor. Obviously, over the trench

of tying

the trench,

gutter

or sump wall lining to the adjacent tinuous-passing bottom, possible. wall-the growth floor, only brick structure. in addition, the floor, and up the other it is important See Drawing joint next will

the membrane

must be conBut,

edge, down the wall, across the also must continuous. between from the if at all the floor possible in the half-

side. The brick protection sketch

to avoid placing a brick joint at a stress point, shows the joint with will note, wall coincides in the brick the back joint

6. The left-hand to the factors therefore, membrane.

and the cap brick on the trench (or expansion) this joint We should, be laid

of the brick

As you

both on the trench

wall and on the

be subject

to more stress than any of the other joints as shown in the right-hand sketch. The

avoid this design and place brick at this location block (or if no thrust block, several

in stretcher should

configuration, next

to the thrust

courses back from the edge). This same rule regarding joints to the maximum extent cut brick applies to all brick adjacent The rule is use whole Under brick no circumstances, to expansion or any change of direction. possible. in such locations

use less than a half

Designing

with Chemically-Resistant

Masonry

557

brick. from

In no case whatever the expansion Where traffic, into sketch brick and traffic joint

use a soap Set back or from cover

or other all cut

brick

of less than the full brick one brick

width

or thickness

in such a location. a removable

or part a trench a faulty

or more

any change of direction. or pit,or design of the or cover a steel grating lining infrequently unsatisfactory rests directly removable for when disrupit and at that it does not rest direct/y 1 shows Note that at Point part on the brick

is to be set over 7. Sketch drawings.

to support of the corporated weaker left-hand on the cleaning, wheeled tion least early

it is important See Drawing construction than in Drawing The cover there

trench.

A, we have an even

construction lining.

we do on the 6. The weight cannot will

equivalent

of the grating play in it,

fit tightly be some damage trench

if it is to be easily of this are: at that point, (I)

therefore, at Point

and chattering probable behind and

passes over leakage

it. The consequences A, (2) with into both the substrate

of the joint some collapse

of the membrane

chemical

(3) probably

of one or perhaps

walls.

Drawing 7

558

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

To

prevent

this from wall

happening,

a step is designed

into the concrete membrane in the

adja-

cent to the trench continuously between floor and capping Now

as shown and two

in Sketch whole wall,

3. The floor brick

is carried membrane over the back

through

the steps so there

is no interruption the second carrying

and trench,

are laid: the first in the step, the floor

the top of the trench and vibration

first to the midpoint the weight into the structure

of the first or beyond, of the traffic indicates Sketch

to the point designed for the cover. over the cover is transmitted on the trench lining. this thinking

as a whole and not directly on the floor. the bottom

The detail as drawn frequently the brick walls erected since the joint trench stretcher between

that the floor will be laid first, then 1, at Point 6, indicates

brick on the wall and the one above it seem This is not the strongest design for a to lay the bottom then wall brick first, brick inside to lay the floor

to lie in the plane of the top of the floor. (pit or vessel) wall. course (lying parallel

It is best practice to the wall),

this. This is the sequence indicated A moments joint other of the wall reflection

at Point B in Sketch 2. If the bottom it is possible for this joint to fail and the placing either a split or a double as

will tell the reader why this is stronger.

is on top of the floor, or for the joint are staggered-by of the lever.

wall to slide inward the bottom

to crack open and wall to fall in. If, on the inside this, we have removed shows the method But in

hand, the joints

brick on the wail

and laying the floor

the joint from the fulcrum Please note the detail of installing a trench a peripheral bottom

at the same point expansion rubbish joint compression

in Sketch 2 which joints,

on the bottom its way

of a trench or pit at the into the joint, immobi-

walls. We can, as is usual with or pit lizing it. By turning over the joint sliding joint to prevent Where at this

put foam in this joint.

can easily find

the second brick in the wall header course, so that it extends and by using a release agent or other and rubbish cannot enter it point, the joint is protected,

and the edge of the floor, as intended.

it from functioning a monolithic rather

than a brick floor adjoins the trench, to prevent leakage at the junction See Sketch 3. Note the following is applied up the trench never down wall

a modifica-

tion of this design is employed lithic and the trench (1) The monolithic (2) The hot always carried bottom) top, very of the top small asphalt up from (3) membrane. membrane

of the mono-

lining sequence. (hot asphalt is

is carried down the bottom brick little

both steps and to the edge of the trench wall. to the top, from the top to the to the vertical wall is is to the joint

and across the steps on the top of the monolithic, step. The are laid up the wall, or no thermal

over the membrane

the last brick and will

being placed on the top step. (4) Unless the pit or trench involve changes, an expansion

placed between

the top brick edge and the vertical wall of the last step.

TRENCHES Open trenches spillage covers. in work If they and gutters areas. are the most common is much where traffic devices for handling area, trenches to remove bulk

If there

in the

require in aisles must

are to be kept heavy equipment

clean, they must be accessible, preferably it will be difficult If they are to drain satisfactorily,

and not under

covers and

to get into them

to clean them.

trenches

Designing

with

Chemically-Resistant

Masonry

559

have reasonably minimum With expensive width

smooth, combined

uniform with

interior

surfaces and a continuous depth

slope with will

no low spots. In order to conserve working accommodate the fluid volume anticipated. on which unit, setting

space, the designer usually selects the he can arrange that

the maximum

those limitations construction

to base design, the designer seeks the least the end result. Obviously, if he around be an it into forms and pouring concrete special metal unit, this would The discussion here. of thermal higher. expansion the However, device.

methods

to accomplish

can use a precast plastic it, or a prefabricated acceptable round or channel space-saving

stainless steel or other and labor-saving pipe,

The use in such areas, of halfof such a design

is not recommended.

in the chapter Consider of concrete thermal alloys floor welds. the

on waste handling is 5.8 to 6.2; of that some,

will not be repeated of carbon steel and nearly

first the special metal design. The coefficient steel is a little of most of stainless

expansion is much

the chemically-resistant If a prefabriin the concrete in damage to the at real enter, the

higher-for

double

that of concrete. expand with hot

cated stainless steel or other and hot liquids result Although will will with This will in wrinkling which the

alloy trench

or pit is bedded tightly and quite possibly when liquids

run into it, the alloy will of the structure system can metal expand

more than the concrete. some small clearance since the

such a trench be at the

is installed

sides into

problems movement be lined pansion. certainly Even in applying trench. from

ends and alloy

intercepts dimension. practical

of the trench

greatest exand

be in the lengthwise an undersize with this is not

A small pit may, quite possibly, cushion to accept long, with a trench there will 10 ft.

liner set against a foam

Unfortunately, not in a trench if the

intercepts. problems are resolved, floor continuous be great difficulty into the wastes to make around it continuous

expansion

the membrane getting

in the adjacent

Failure

to make the membrane down undermining

will result in chemical the metal structure.

the floor Now,

into the concrete it and damaging plastic

and under the

metal structure,

the building

let us consider expansion fillers), system. setting

the use of a preformed is made from of concrete to that

unit made of a castable plastic. a mix designed to a coefficient (and this can be done by the and mated to the floor into the top of surrounding the upper a wide flange

In this case, if the castable of thermal membrane the unit, the unit, use of suitable then

similar

it can be set in the concrete on the membrane under

This can be done by designing more membrane

the flange directly

of the floor

then applying

over the flange and merging the brick floor. trench

layer of membrane sandwiched With flange, made top brick cal and, if properly in line with to keep the lengths away Thrust together, calls for blocks

into the membrane designed the brick from

Thus the flange is (or pit) is practiwill work. must be on

into the membrane.

This type of preformed

and cast from

low expansion

materials,

this design the brick will interior

end over the membrane from expanding

on top of the wide Provision a thrust will

of the steel or plastic wall. This is done by installing 15.) when two intercepts

in the floor the trench

and pushing the brick

of the flange

into the trench. (See Drawing

block two be directed close

edge so that all movement

away from that point.

are also necessary

enter a trench

or at opposite sides of the trench a few feet apart. Standard design an expansion joint in the brickwork not closer than 2 ft. or further

560

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

than If the these back

3 ft.

from

the

intersection back

to absorb

the

movement the brick

of the

brick

without corner. so that must in the FRP trenches,

developing

sufficient for

pressure joints

to dislodge cannot expansion the same in very and/or the

on the outside locations brickwork be located the

intercepts guidelines from the

are so close together expansion in that area with intercepts, to however, accomplish

or at staggered be met, blocks. joints results

opposite then Along should with

be immobilized usual manner. Do not gutter or pit. Where pated acid of the to cut brick. brick brick the

the thrust

the feeder

expect

a prefabricated

The coefficient trench Since, lining or pit to function will vary

of thermal except etc.), is large,

expansion when

of such a unit mechanical

is far too great abuse is anticiis still the depth the linings the problem But

for such a design to be successful (i.e., shovels at clear-rout,

small areas. life protection it will

best and longest trenches it is obvious that

properly, lining

must slope so that to complete of handling

continuously, with

be necessary

continuously and to mate 4 earlier are about there the slope.

as the them

proceeds This

in order

of the walls see Drawing although whatever Years depth more

the cap brick other if the applied, designs

and the floor. as there were the

As an example,

in this chapter. as many will that

is one way

there ago,

are brickmasons. poured brick

the design, throughout,

be a need to cut brick. concrete and then at a uniform walls installed, to estaband walls. brick next memdown the cost high then course

it was thought could be poured Next, on top concrete to the acid failed.

membrane

concrete

on the brick

bottom, would

and it could be applied installed,

be graded then

lish the proper laid Acid walls, to the on the got The

a membrane of the

over the concrete a final to the brick the acid depth The them

side to side bonded bottom these into next the Obviously,

walls

already

membrane establish collapsed. slots for properly

and cemented on the floor the slope, the brick sloped the brick be laid. (I) the This

trenches

The membrane

was discontinuous.

used to

through at a uniform

destroying walls, then the was slots than instead point acid was the there A final and then

it, and the bottom method was to form a layer for

of concrete the walls, floor only

in the center. and pushing completed, cost high

brane would would into brane concrete in the more but put and well. melting

be applied this, the

to the entire buttering would

interior,

including When

the slots. The brick the memproperly but filled design,

be laid After continuous. and cutting hot brick little

slots. and

The

problems: labor next cost

of forming worked

(2) the tremendous installing the brick. The

in applying

the membrane method

the brick the slope similar of this.

in the slots. with

idea was to go back to the first concrete, temperatures bottoms, this to use a heavily have not to an asphalt

of establishing asphalt, on top or

in appearance Where on the

road surface,

been excessive reasonably a uniform, the con-

no weight Design the

has worked instance then is a long with

possibility. place to

once again as in the first and lay where the the slope. If the the trench

,constant concrete crete one brick

depth, castable depth.

membrane

walls,

use a polymer one, by exactly

establish after

bottom

can be stepped Now, a polymer concrete

at each point applying without

the depth

increases

membrane, to worry

the slopes can be estabtoo much at the material

lished with

having

cost of a larger volume

of polymer

concrete.

Designing

with Chemically-Resistant

Masonry

561

Locations accommodate outside corners deformable in addition sion joints and control spaced apart they intervals) in depth

of

expansion being

joints pushed

in trenches and off brick the

must

be planned, but to by back

not only brick pressure

to at

thermal from elastomeric

expansion material

growth, membrane

protect

from

in the expansion

joints. joints

In trenches,

therefore,

to the normal around joints fixed

spacing of expansion

and the placing of expanand cold seams (or evenly into such evenly

objects and over all points of movement if the length does not divide

in the substrate, be placed

at not more than 20 ft. intervals

at lesser distances should

in both directions

at not more than 3 ft. or less and before all step changes

than 2 ft. from all changes in direction in trenches. lining will If the trench 20 minutes mind,

and intercepts,

be exposed joints

to very hot liquids for more than 15 to than once in an hour, it will probably intervals. joints, Of course, It should be kept in such as those will we have from at shorter

at a time, that

or more frequently straight-through have very little

be necessary to place expansion however, line, joint. with considered a straight expansion mediate shown foam two up to now,

expansion strength. the center happen

any variation

such as bulge toward of the wall,

of the trench,

practically

assure the collapse

but it will

soonest at a straight-through interas

In 20 ft. trenches, expansion in Drawing pads,

squared in effect,

ends, it is often possible to eliminate foam between thickness floats in both the brick directions. lining The

joints 8. This,

by the use of end pads of closed-cell

rubber

the two of the in

absorbing

its expansion to be employed

pads must be calculated the thickness

to accept

the maximum

movement

anticipated

one-half

in the end pads.

.
COC

562

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

As the ability courses, which design.

depth

of

the

straight-walled with to employ mills there the

trench

or

pit

increases

beyond

the joint,

to line it successfully it will has been Note that be possible although the joints

4 in. of brick, and it is necessary to go to two interlocking 1930s. and design expansion Drawing sliding joints since the 9 shows this in both

in use in steel

are compression in location Although way

courses of brick, and the wall joints course without only, in both to

are staggered

so that

no two coincide, from joint the

retains

its strength.

this drawing with of laying straight,

shows the expansion

inner and outer there weakening

courses as winding the wall by cutting joint

the brick contours out the expansion and only following

course,

is an optional

excessively

the brick

on the face course joint passes back

to make

the face course expansion on the back course,

brick contours

so that the rear expansion in the face course.

and forth on each side of the joint

(Blast Furnace

and Steel Plant, Drawing 9

November 1968)

Penetrations as to prevent plished

through

the trench

or pit wall or bottom

must be so designed 1 on Drawing the floor level.

penetration

or bypass of the membrane. of a unit of the Josun type. of drain has a wide collar of a brick,

In drains, this is accomSee Sketch below

by the selection

10. Note that this type the concrete, The membrane

on the shaft at the surface of and under the collar, sandwiching may collect

the thickness is applied thickness

plus membrane, of the floor

over the surface of membrane of the drain,

then an additional weep-holes through

is added over the collar, so that any liquid that

it into the membrane.

Above the membrane the shaft

over the upper face of the collar are

Designing

with

Chemically-Resistant

Masonry

563

under

the

brick and over the membrane preventing

will

drain through

the weep-holes

and

down the drain, effectively

any puddling

at the low point.

Drawing

10

The brick that all joints, and with

are then laid over the membrane including those between should

and up to the drain, now be %

making

sure full

brick and drain body, are completely

no voids. The top of the drain 2 shows the method here that a similar beyond

to l/s in. below the the side of the (or into the

surface of the brick. Sketch trench pit). trench concrete applied, with Note of handling from pipe entries through (or pit) to drain 16 in. or more surface liquids type the area above into the trench The pipe extends

of seal is involved.

the design thickness the threads at that entry. the concrete

of the brick lining. The shaft The hot asphalt membrane is

of the entry

pipe is threaded,

going back into the wall area, and the

recessed a % in. minimum the reinforcing 1 in. beyond pipe

being cut to fit around the pipe up to the pipe shaft, and face. A collar threaded down tightly and an additional layer to mate of hot shaft placed is now screwed over the collar against the

out along it for almost the threading membrane Asphalt membrane asphalt the shaft.

on the

in the prepared must NOT

recess in the wall, be permitted clean from it until

(and fabric) be absolutely

and up to a l/z in. along the collar to the end

to get on the rest of the pipe shaft. % in. out from to the shaft. Heat should

The shaft should of the pipe. The be applied 100 to 120F. and bond tightly In placing entries tween are both expansion

brick is then laid up to and cemented between

to the pipe to warm to the metal. expansion points joints joints,

it is just too hot to touch the metal-to it and the brick to flash-cure brick must be notched drains to

This will cause the mortar of membrane

The backs of adjacent and collar, it must

provide for the thickness

as well as the bed joint. that should and pipe bestresses in they be centered

be remembered and that

of no movement, to prevent

the existence

of any unbalanced

the lining.

564

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

WEIRS

AND

OVERFLOWS a weir in a trench, from perhaps to allow susthat the level will not be the weir

When the designer wishes to install pended (and wall, balanced built therefore, unlike growth Drawing matter weight) of the liquid

to settle out and be trapped, in the trench

he should

remember

upstream

by an equal level on the downstream in the normal fashion, will probably to design it in a curve, with designs a power

side. Therefore, upstream

a straight all-brick from the sides, just However, sketch in

have a short life. It is important, dam on a river. in the left-hand

the center

as a civil engineer a concrete 1 I.

or water-retention

dam, in this case the design must provide The way this is done is illustrated

for the anticipated

of the brick.

Drawing 11

Note that the wall cated .sustain trench wall), should in the guidelines loading width) it should

in this area is built

to a thickness

greater than that indiat a depth of 6 ft. (or

given earlier for pit and trench walls. Since this wall must be 12 in. thick. These thicknesses width The concrete are for a wall length of trench trench bottom

on one side, it is never less than 8 in. thick; of not more than 4 ft. At greater will be required.

and deeper,

(and length of and sides

a greater thickness

be recessed in a smooth

curve, approximately

2 in.; 3/4 in. wider than the

Designing

with Chemically-Resistant

Masonry

565

anticipated trench

width

of the wall. After a strip of Teflon

the membrane film

has been applied

through

the

and the recesses, and a single thickness

of brick 2% to 2% in. thick is,laid is laid in the recess

in the recess area,

3 to 5 mils thick

in the bottom of the trench. The brick wall is then laid in the usual manner in the floor recess, on top of the Teflon film and the brick in the bottom laid up to it on both the wall, mortared sides. However, film a full is placed joint instead of mortaring the floor brick. brick directly to Teflon with against the bottom side of the wall, film. in the slot, brick are As the wall

and up the side of the wall

to the top of the floor

The floor

and laid tightly

against the Teflon

is built, a uniform space, /4 to l/z in., is left between the ends of the wall and the brick in the wall slot, and this space is filled with a closed-cell foam (or other compressible brick Teflon wall. Now, as the weir wall brick grow and expand, on the Teflon the foam. upstream and will film the brick can release thermal and slide into the brick of the brick in the weir all-brick structures, side. this It will, out of the stress by sliding outward thrust wall. wall under them, is next film joint laid between filler) selected for the anticipated wall brick, wall service. The trench wall a up against the partition trench once again imposing

the mortared

brick and the sides of the divider

slots in the wall, compressing against the wall from The will designer not should be liquid-tight divider wall

This curved design provides for both the and the expansion like other weep

bear in mind that material

into the downstream that settles out. are filled

however, a single depths,

act to trap any suspended concrete the wall structure.

An all-brick

should never be used to make two chambers If the two chambers will to much toward There

different

is sure to fall down There

the low level side. In addition, always

wall can never be made liquid-tight. of the wall to the other. brick lining installed a weir carried both in such a vessel, the membrane vessel. When section membrane protecting ment-so

be leakage from one side divider wall installed each cavity, and the

should always be a concrete made continuous throughout

over it in the same thickness is to be installed

and design as in the rest of the over such a divider wall, the

or overflow through

of the overflow

should be designed as a slot in the concrete the slot, sides and bottom, and tightly bonded

wall, and the the slot, on move-

and sealed continuously with the brickwork

to the membrane

in the adjoining sides and bottom be centered vertical growth

vessel. Then the brick is laid through point-an expansion joint

both sides. Remember it should one, it may require vessel to prevent

that this is a fixed between from

area of no acceptable joints. around

If the vessel is a deep the inside of each of

a circumferential

expansion

pushing the bricks off of the bottom

the slot and disrupting

the brick on the sides of the slot.

VESSE Is
This naturally contouring common (for sloping leads into a consideration joints of vessel design. The importance on in Drawings of

and of expansion bottoms),

has been covered earlier; other design details have been touched 1, 3, 4, 5 of may be a need to control the direction

to vessels and trenches 6 (where

there

566

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

expansion

movement), liquid

7 (if a removable level. tanks

cover is required), pipe for concrete

8 and 9 for the exvessels-preferably It is appropriate masonry acceptable is is

pansion joints Divider

themselves,

and 10 for entry

above the normal walls here to mention to provide out 135F. (212OF)

in concrete an additional insulation tanks

have just

been discussed.

limitation

of this kind of a design. At the beginIf this is hot asphalt, and in nine

ning of this study, thermal of ten concrete

it was said that a major use of chemically-resistant to the membrane. a concrete with it is, then the top service temperature an adequate thickness wall

It is possible to operate if the asphalt

tank lined with hot asphalt at boiling of acid brick to range. Howthe full of fluid in a never

is inner-lined wall

bring down the wall thickness will

the surface temperature divider baffle) will

of the asphalt to the acceptable baffle both be heated from

ever, if a common will

or a brick-covered

is put in the tank, and there

(or concrete

sides, so that

eventually effect. liquid, the

reach the same temperature The asphalt temperature flow, squeezing of the tank. temperature

as the interior,

be no cooling causing tank, 135F.

will rise to the temperature upwards with and out under a common wall

the contained pressure, concrete exceed

and it will

the failure internal

Therefore,

of both sides of the wall should arrangement.

This rule does not hold true for steel tanks wall in a steel tank with a ventilation

because it is possible See Drawin steel tanks and

to design a divider ing 11, Sketch 2. The design

indicated

in this sketch has been a successful standard operating limit

mills for well over 40 years for use in 300 ft. and longer steel strip pickling of five or more compartments, lined form with rubber sheet, top courses of acid brick speed through at close to the boiling temperature temperature, 160F. Two and steel strip is pulled surface

or more at a uni-

are laid over the rubber, the cavities from

one end to the other,

over the common rinse at the end.

walls, passing from strong, hot acid at the start, to hot water

BOTTOMS Above, concrete theory with Drawing were 5, various methods discussed. of attaining there slope in the bottom of The the

trenches

Unfortunately,

is a school of thought sloped

that applies a similar

approach

to the design of tanks with sloped bottoms. a steel tank with a flat bottom a dead flat bottom bottom would the vessel with and attain

is that it is more costly to fabricate a false bottom, stiffeners

to one side than to fabricate slop with bottom rigid cylinder, pouring After

because a sloped fabricated to be designed box, the bottom of concrete finishing

require the

and supports

in different dead flat,

lengths to provide the steel as a right all supports and stiffby

support

and to keep the sides vertical. in size and thickness. bottom low point,

By fabricating

or a true rectangular an additional

eners can be uniform crete to the desired the concrete 11 .) when

The desired slope is then attained the concrete whatever to a true, the type, smooth is applied

into the vessel and sloping the conplane. to the

has cured, the membrane,

steel walls and continuously Drawing Sometimes,

across the concrete

and up the opposite lining,

side. (See

the design calls for a sheet rubber

the steel vessel

Designing

with Chemically-Resistant

Masonry

567

is lined completely after the concrete

with

the sheet rubber it is hoped) the triangular favor

before

the concrete

is installed.

Then

has cured, an additional

membrane

is placed over the concrete sheet already into applied to the several imdifficult properly In other of expanIt will also in the bottom. account

and sealed (continuously steel walls, encapsulating The portant surface, operation fabricated words, engineers factors. and than (I) who

to the rubber

section of concrete to take

this design fail

The application

of the membrane of a steel tank

system over the concrete is a more its bottom with

its continuous the continuous

sealing to the wall lining slope. It is impossible

membrane

to the required

to verify the liquid tightness of over the floor.

the seal between there chemicals from

the wall membrane getting

and that last applied fill.

is no test available steel is about faster

to prove that this joint will not leak and permit

down into the concrete

(2) The coefficient

sion of carbon heat and expand heat up a little fill. This will

5 to 10% higher than that of concrete,

a little faster than concrete. than the bottom the material

Thus the sides (which are steel) will used at the seal. If there are any

and try to move away from the concrete

result in stretching

weak points in the joint, they may be ruptured, and if any holidays, they may be enlarged. (3) With the bottom of the tank thicker than the walls by the thickness of the concrete important only fill, the bottom will absorb heat, will not radiating it as fast as the walls, and the membrane the membrane. Whether wait points until out the that to line the steel completely bottom concrete is installed if acid gets into it. The thinking it (but before putting in the concrete or to is arguable. through One school of thought the failure of the memreach the it), it at the bottom be hotter than on the walls. This is near the upper limit of

if the vessel is operating

at a temperature

the concrete

brane on top, concrete will

if there is a complete

lining on the steel, the acid cannot in the tank by a membrane

steel and hole

of the second school is that if acid gets into the is held below lining over the membrane-and the loss over to

and damages

result in the deflection and brick,

of the brick

of both membrane is aware that warn wall

and subsequently the bottom will

of the vessel, before the operator hole and start to leak in time membrane,

he has a problem.

On the other hand, if there is no membrane

the steel below the concrete, the operator preline brick, is to (I) as a furan, be used. bottom.

to shut down and repair before the vessel is lost. A better way all the steel with the appropriate then (2) place the cement such If it is always in the is to using a polymer

and (3) cast the slope into the bottom vinyl ester, or epoxy, If this is done, of which fabricated dissimilar standpoint and cone are present,a problem the bottom joined

as may be suited to the chemistry.

on the acid side, and no fluorides Of course, the thermal with

silicate castable may sometimes above will sloped, from still be present.

it may be possible to avoid having to use brick mentioned already reasoning materials bottoms is preferred, together. maintenance, tanks, obviously the best answer

Regardless have the tank of two totally From the hemispherical

and to avoid the use dished,

of long life and freedom

are the best for cylindrical expansion joints. will

and are the unless prowith brick and

designs of necessity vided growth. with properly

if a vessel is to be prestressed to eliminate designed adequate expansion joints,

(see Chapter

47), or if there

is a desire or necessity In addition,

Flat bottoms, heave upward is required

and frequent

stiffening

if flexing

568

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

oil

canning,

which

can damage by those

brickwork who flat

are to be avoided. have not fully bottom intervals tanks-to

Flat bottoms, their dis-

however,

are the cheapest

to fabricate engineers for

and, therefore,

are the most frequently analyzed avoid

designed-especially advantages. A favorite l-beams of soft that

method should

of

support

using the to layer to is

be welded flat concrete

at frequent foundation,

across the

bottom-is weight

pour a good smooth asphalt asphalt this will squeeze storage,

cover it with

a % in. thick

or tar,

and set the tank

on it, allowing

the tanks

out on all sides. If the be acceptable. IOF The higher than that

vessel is to be used only of the surrounding are in contact The bottom, down.

for ambient

But if the temperature

of the tanks contents with

much more than experience cool off, contact below around more keeping with

air, the designs may the air, and will is in direct surface however, radiate the heat. however,

trouble.

sides of the tank

the wall temperature slowly

the support

pad and its asphalt cover, and cannot heat up until will expand. It cannot as the contents.

It becomes a heat sink, and will IO hotter

it and the contact It is restrained,

it, have reached the same temperature than the walls, the steel bottom periphery with by the hoop press outward. so it cannot in contact its entire cooler

Now, at more than are 10F or because it is at the center the be maximum problem of the the the

of the steel walls, which flex downward it flexes upward

continuously membrane. overheated. worse, tank. asphalt operators damaged yond

the pad. Therefore

to relieve the expansion service temperature The

stresses, and in doing so cracks the brick,exposing is operating of the at a temperature brick lining above the makes the the membrane bottom on the bottom will already

If the interior destruction

of the lining, will

and the membrane Chemicals and into realize the

eventually

hole-probably Sooner about the center

near the center

now leak under the tank. the concrete-usually that it is leaking, of the tank, it will

or later, they get through of the pad. Before and probably most likely

have weakened

seriously be be-

bottom There will

and the support

pad will the tank,

repair. As noted

be no way of rehabilitating a common wall

and it will have to vessel into

be scrapped and replaced. earlier, when divides a single concrete support two, that wall is heated protecting while from both sides. The structural walls, cooler. which (The of the wall and as that of the used to wall heat to the surformula

the membrane contained rounding compute

it will come up to the same temperature the outer can dissipate mathematical Therefore,

liquids, air, will

be considerably

the temperature and so will

of the surface of the membrane not be repeated liquids. here.)

is given in the chapter if a common that

on prestressing, is to be included temperature the contained this design

in the design, the membrane If there at this temperature, joints or contents,

must be selected to accept the full is no membrane can handle If due walls this design must be abandoned.

of the contained liquids

is used, and expansion

cannot

be used in the brickwork, in the design of any baffle

either to temperature that may intrude

the divider wall must be contoured. will only with extend a short distance

For the same reason, into the interlock

care must be taken

into the vessel. If the baffle

vessel, it may be constructed it into the wall

of masonry, extends

the brick so laid as to the heat sink problem

brick lining. With no membrane, Where the baffle

ceases to be a limitation.

much more than a foot into

Designing

with Chemically-Resistant

Masonry

569

the vessel and agitation vessel or concrete protection contained design. toured brick liquid. If the and is needed, baffle

is planned, and the

structural

support must accept

(steel in the case of a steel In this case membrane the temperature details should of the of baffle keep the

in a concrete See Drawing is a long

vessel) is usually membrane one, the (with 12 and Drawing

requred.

14 for suggested support head) 45-2.)

structural

also be con-

be dumb-bell

shaped

a rectangular

so as to

on the shaft

in compression.

(See also Figure

rubber-lined steel
-6 mrta$,

x1

angle

irons+

L
-

brick

mortar

Sketch

Y4

direction

of

flow

channel-

brick 6 mxtar

ts

Sketch

X2

(see Figure 45-21

Sketch

Y3

Sketch

16

Drawing 12

570

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

Earlier under the methods

in this of

chapter

there

was mention

of the steel tank

importance on the I-beams for this.

of ventilation and to at frequent the walls lining Angle of a irons used or The than

the tank

if the vessel is a heated supporting this they will around to out ventilation. support are the top provide

one (to eliminate

a heat sink effect),

a fiat-bottomed without ways

intervals be rigid rectangular

to permit so that vessel. welded work

In addition, of

it is important accomplishing of the walls spillage the weld

distortion

masonry

There way

several

continuously drips from

and waist

are frequently

as an inexpensive migrate following

stiffness. the tank drips

However, or damage fall

over the top, at that wall, point. rather

carried

of the tank so that

can be puddled

on such girth

angles or

to the welds, under

and hole

use of a channel

at the top, the angle supports

free of the tank under the

and down under

the tank the tank,

side is an improvement. the channel with Is extended 12.) designed wall and

Best of all at the top, to meet the

are gusset plates welded and to the .I-beam base of the gusset plates. Occasionally as channels, ends welded against wall, steel sequent become the placed to the this outside vertical with

vertically

against

the walls, be welded have from from in this against design

The gussets must support the flat wall tank the

to the center been

of the I oppospecified of the of air on the conbe or wall, either and

site the web, and not to the edge of the I. (See Drawing stiffeners body plate. wall. cooling away This Aside

the tank the

and both a column effect it,with may

steel of

encapsulates insulating

preventing local caused by

area from

as much there held

as the area around area, and the the outside of air that

overheating differential with

of the membrane expansion, corrosives designed if the the tank vessels necessary membrane, be reached

stresses in the

is a column

contaminated area that tanks, bottoms.

of the tank

an enclosed Concrete on walls require under or

cannot properly

to be serviced. and reinforced, bottoms provision them. no vertical But they walls vessels. and must

This is not good design. need no stiffeners sinks be made for

However,

are not to be heat

a high them,

temperature with provides

ventilation

such as designing cylindrical the

to stand off the floor

on a series of piers, stiffeners, as

or have supports Obviously, their bottom frequent It contour support. and Outlets

air spaces between

require rigidity. through failure-in

external still,

of course,

require the most

inlets-penetrations of trouble-and important or agitator funds to

bottoms-are

sources

It is, therefore, such

preferable, or inlets. as thermal like may on the be

to load and unload is especially and over heater the wells served to nozzle. or

vessels over the top of a side, and to have no outlets avoid unnecessary Also, than through lining penetrations it. This way, and thermal in the entries. on heat exchangers and the

the top extra

of a side rather details a heater, abrasion

it is unnecessary sleeving manhole inlet pipe details

spend

membrane in Drawing

(See the nozzle 46 on waste leading from to

13, and those steam mechanical by setting or conduit jet

in Chapter conduit from lining

handling.)

It is necessary, thermocouple, other

however,

to protect or other headers

instrument, into the brick 3

bumping, to provide 12.)

or from

damage

by the contents

of the tank in Drawing

or by equipment. a pocket

This may be done in which the piping

can lie. (See Sketch

Designing

with Chemically-Resistant

Masonry

571

Membranes Failure of differing the details to

should

be continued so that eventually

out

through

all nozzles Some designs

(inlets

and outlets) systems 46, and liquid

and over the exterior types that

flange,

the membrane

has no discontinuity. membrane in Chapter are occasionally

do this will design.

lead to failure. outlet

may be lapped 13.) The detail in exposures

and the lap pressure-sealed in Sketch that 2 is not

used in a compromise in Drawing as that head, in Sketch

(See the manhole

as safe and foolproof to a continuous

1, but

are not subject

it may have an economical

life expectancy.

572

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

CAPPING In designing asphalt tinue brick floor. membrane the brick is carried and concrete lining the tanks, it is common practice to carry the reinforced and to conOften the

up the wails and over the tops of the concrete, in the same manner-over the outside and membrane is properly brick down of the tank, the outside onto

the top of the wall. continued

membrane

is veneered with the surrounding

as well,

If such a system

designed and constructed, injury there

the life expectancy can

of the system will in membrane, However, interior terior of enter the building

be a long one. This is a closed system, with no discontinuities for mechanical is no way corrosives must be provided be higher outside than structure. is a problem of the tank The brick interior which in such design that will almost will has two for. The the excertainly

and except there

temperature temperature.

capping wall will

horizontal

corners-the the

one at the top of the the exterior portion will joint veneer, interior cracks

which

be hot, and the one at the top temperature. Therefore, difference, and shear movement. are conjoints to close of the capping for the cap the sliding brick

be at ambient parallel

of the cap will in the The is provided 14.)

expand

due to the thermal

develop

capping,

to the side walls joints

unless a sliding

expansion tinued top

in the cap to permit vertical to permit brick expansion

this differential expansion

(See Drawing

interior

in the walls

up to this sliding joint is heated moves with

the interior

and open as the tank of the wall remains which joint

up or cooled

down, while the cap brick over the The balance compression the brick joints cap-then

the

in the wall.

in place closing is no veneer be placed

up into to handle between

the provided brick growth. the cap brick

are only required should

If there

on the outside-only

and the top

of the wall

parallel with the membrane If the tank recommended. walls, before top

on the top of the wall. than concrete, system, bumper, down a rigid capping such as brick is not lining, is carried up the and under the channel and length as the walls, is placed over the bolts and nuts, (See such as a rubber the same width tightly that

is steel rather The membrane A timber and bolted

over the channel terminating. 1 in. thick,

(or angle) at the top and down preferably

not less than

2 in. with corners mitered, to it using alloy rubber-lined resin mortar

of the channel 5-5,

passing through Figure tration

the timber

and through with

holes in the channel. to limit the chemical

page 82).

it is recommended and covered

the head of the bolt be counter-

sunk into the wood,

pene-

along the shaft.

COVERS Brick cover From the cannot, of course, be used to line the underside then protection The of a flat cover. What, If the then, over

is fixed

in place,

and is a dome, insulation

it can be brick-lined. for the underside to 1975, procedure

can be done to provide membrane tanks. could

of a flat cover?

at least the first decade

of the 20th

century

no insulation

be provided.

following

has been used for

concrete

Designing

with Chemically-Resistant

Masonry

573

Typical rectangular concrete vessel design with Note design of baffle wall extending Into vessel, to keep brick lining in compression.

bowed

sides

walls to keep brick lining in arch. contoured and hammerhead design

Floor

juncture

with glazed block wall.

Interlocking expansion joint in vessel lining ends at rubber inverted T (Tj at brick cap. Shaft of rubber T shear pad permits lateral movement at this point independent of brick veneer on outside of vessel. Cross bar of T is set flat on membrane covering top of tank wail, and brick are laid up to and against the shaft on both sides.
W.

see r3v.xnicall.y

Resistant

Masonry, Drawing

L.

Sheppard,

Jr.

(1981)

14

The lined large,

concrete

vessel-whether with a hot column

rectangular membrane for

or circular-has and acid brick. may

been

completed, in-

completely an all-brick

asphalt

If the vessel is

or support

the cover

also be constructed

574

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

side the vessel, to the same height as the top of the walls. A collapsible is then rib-back the form, mortar outside surfaces liner is cured, built clay up in the cavity flush with plates (ASTM brick liner between the sides and/or are laid flat, the top of the form the top of the sides and of the column C-479) brick, face down and the edges mortared if there After with hot is one), asphalt. with

flat form with Flat top.

next to the column,

on the top of the same to the

as if one is laying floor

used to lay the of the walls are coated concrete manway reader but will the

in the vessel. From masonry. reinforced

the edges of the form have cured, Finally, When

(and over the column, with a layer

the liner plates are the joint over the all this

laid and mortared plates

to the brick is poured,

the joints

of l/4 in. thick is entered,

steel reinforcing. collapsed

of the tank realize,

the form will

and removed, for

and the tank As the a cover with ploying fabricated The permanent plates for brick,

is ready for use. this procedure dome not be very satisfactory cover, the cover polymer may a steel tank. If it is a fixed membrane, of the the or conical it may be lined be steel, emor preconcrete

if the cover

is to be removable,

a high temperature FRP construction. liner plate lining

or a precast

underside there layer than ASTM

of a concrete

cover does not offer between than, the liner joints. of a

protection.

For one thing,

is no membrane

and the concrete-only they

of hot asphalt acid brick. C-301-by

over the mortar

The liner plates are not as dense as, have a higher absorption 6% allowable-and liner plates test as that are thinner under is accomplished

acid bricktesting

The absorption

no means as stringent

used for acid brick.

Consequently, ambient

the economical temperature

life of this kind wastes, the cover

of a cover is limited. may last a number and contains off in less than In the Chapter adhesive; tioned early a volatile

In vessels handling corrosive In the light,

of years. But if the vessel operates at an elevated temperature such as hydrochloric past the only closedcell acid, tile may start falling was the same kind of glass block 12 Ib/cu.ft., (see will alternative

a year. 197Os,

covers used for steel tanks. foamed with borosilicate 17) were developed. all joints between These block, a mass of only

adhere to the underside has been applied

of a concrete

or steel cover by using a urethane Insulation

asphaltic

them are made the same way. of both concrete

of this type

to the underside for a decade.

and steel covers and has func-

successfully

PRESTRESSING Prestressing pated away operating from is a process employed conditions, or other masonry in design to make sure that under anticishell of a vessel does not expand leaving the lining without there lining-too support on the may be insulation so that lining,

the steel outer

a brick

and in tension. the outside cient internal

Designs of this type insulation

are used where

of a vessel, or there

is to be a thin

thin to provide suffilow enough

to keep the skin temperature

steel will not expand This procedure also used occasionally

faster than the brick. finds primary elsewhere use in the dye manufacturing in other chemical processes. industry, but is It is done by em-

Designing

with Chemically-Resistant

Masonry

575

ploying

a mortar

for the masonry block)

units that follows goes through a certain

two different

setting cycles. temperature The vessel is heated operating and reaches

The brick

(or other

are laid up using wide joints at ambient its primary amount of elasticity. chloride,

inside the vessel, and the mortar to the touch. then filled internally temperature. the conditions. stretching The during totally the tank cannot until However, a neutral the internal with

cure and becomes hard and slowly

it retains solution

such as sodium

temperature dimensions

has reached that it will

the anticipated attain liquid

During

this slow heat-up, the weight

the shell warms and expands, of the contained with the supporting the operating

temperature

and expanded

under the service presses the brick joints hours, and but

As it expands, to permit

lining outward,

keepirrg it in contact the movement. at or the above,

shell; the mortar for 48

vessel is held which period in its stretch cools down,

temperature

mortar

undergoes After

its secondary

cure-hardening dimensions

condition.

48 hours when the heat is removed

the steel tries to shrink back to its original is now solid and immovable. range without this thermal

do so because the brickwork lining. to design for what be required computed,

From then on

the vessel can be cycled through or the masonry In order to determine stretch From for will

damage to the vessel be made carefully amount of 47.

prestressing, be built in the mortar

computations into joints.

must

stresses will

the vessel, and what the required mortar

This is discussed in Chapter supplier

the data

the designer will refer of stretch

determine

parameters for the of selected for

this vessel design. factor,

He must then

back to the mortar From this factor the number careful smaller in laying

quellung expansion

or amount

that the semicured

the lining will are determined. weight follow of the

accept without The lining, installer

joint fracture. must be very

and the amount the brick,

that the lining

must accommodate,

and size of the joints to use to under the Failure

spacers in the joints

to be sure that they and so make

do not close up or tighten than designed. of the lining.

the joints

exact design and joint size will result in failure

EXPANSION Design

JOINTS

IN VESSELS of expansion joints in vessels follow liquids the same rules as that there is (held) than must be devessel with joints may is an

and location for the

those in floors and trenches. less opportunity when signed should inlet decide inlet, they for. are transient

The designer must remember, the maximum are fixed Therefore, joints.

however,

lining to cool where and, therefore, inlets expanion and outlets

are contained movements points in a tall

As in trenches, between

and, therefore, expansion If there

be centered

pipes penetrating If there to allow however,

the walls near the top, circumferential are no inlets and no capping to expand-sliding

are indicated.

or cover, the designer up the walls.

the lining simply will be minor,

the lining of the inlet will such movement

be sheared off. without

If the tank is not deep Teflon sleeves have

and the expansion liner so that been employed

he may opt for lining the inlet with a flexible damage.

it can accept

for this purpose.

576

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

MORE

ABOUT

FLOORS of floors, there are a number of matters that must be

Back discussed:

on the subject

(I) (2)

Monolithic The floors and

surfacing. between with and expansion joint by design acid and brick location toppings laid with in

difference protected surfacings,

bonded in floors mortars

tile or brick, protected

and monolithic membrane. of a brick

chemically-resistant (3) How to determine

over an impervious thickness

the appropriate

floor

over a

membrane. (4) (5) Curb design. Walls subject floors. to spray or splash of corrosives, adjacant to acid-

resistant Monolithics To this construction. point,

the discussion require types: into and three

has centered quite

on acid

brick

and similar

unit

Monolithics

different

design

criteria.

Monolithics

may be subdivided

(I)

Toppings (usually thicknesses much

surfacings of

applied 1s to more,

to steel,

the and

surface very very

to

be protected wood) in as

concrete, usually

occasionally

rarely,

14 in.,

although

occasionally

as % in. or slightly and polymer

most often placed

by troweling. often by pouring or

(2)

Grouts casting, repair

concretes,

most

in depths

of 1 to 4 in., sometimes

more,

and often

used to

or fill deep holes in a substrate. linings, types which are covered that in other shrink sections of this book. cure

(3) The their they will which

Gunned first two

are materials

after

placement ability structure-and

as they

and harden. adequate will they The

The usefulness continuous, to the

of these will undamaged, diffusion

be limited fracture-free them

by their of the than is that there the

to maintain to provide to which to

integrity-a

resistance be exposed. will

through

corrosives

In addition,

in the great majority expansion types so that and

of cases, these materials does the substrate monolithics,

have different principal

coefficients difference be tightly bond

of thermal between bonded for their the hand,

be applied. the two integrity, substrate because will if they of must to the substrate, relying on the rigidity

are to survive, the substrate tight provide polymer It concrete membrane

and that placed

may not be a liquidA polymer thickness to from if the

between strength crack. at this

monolithic.

or grout, good

on the other

it is used in adequate to protect

physical should

and to be self-supporting, which continue that

may be separated the substrate have

the substrate should

by a membrane be noted

or grout

point

concrete

designers

developed

Designing

with Chemically-Resistant

Masonry

577

many cure over to bond placing

different

and varied content,

additives strengths,

to include density, material

in concrete etc. Rarely,

formulations

to affect con-

speed, water the concrete

if ever, do they

sider the chemistry react to with the the

of a surfacing and bond

which

the designer

may plan to place have been found its cure in mixing cement, or the and sand be

to it. A number of the surfacing Care must, nothing

of these additives material therefore, other than and impair be taken

a component concrete concrete that that

surface.

absolutely

portland

and aggregate included shrinkage of In the

has been approved mix. section

by the manufacturer there is a general service, the

of the monolithic summary polymer with

in the concrete materials types and and/or a monolithic should and expansion the

of this book, for

of the cure concretes the kinds wet

characteristics thermal

toppings

and for Where

of the various corrosives conditions through bility a membrane

used at this date in chemical ranges they head should a standing surfacing probably are anticipated, be kept

together possibility Under

can accept. in mind.

continuously

of diffusion the possiif reinforcing sufficiently on the other or a carbon or are approxof

such conditions,

be included

in the design-eliminating concrete, is available, mortars Monolithic although there

of using a monolithic suitable not so that

surfacing. in polymer environment Most polymer with will is no reason why

It is not usual to use reinforcing material it should strong hand, imately shrinkage filler out for the specific reinforcing be used if desired. reinforced

are, however, applications, fabric, Opinions

is not necessary. include

are frequently fiber evenly is greatest. divided

glass or other

ceramic

a synthetic

if the exposure when however,

acid fluorides.

as to the desirability

of such reinforcing. is the lowest more

The least cure to wet it must

is experienced Fabric, bond

the resin content reinforcing,

and the amount

is hard to wet with

resin, and in order will will

and get good The fabric in this Many

to the fabric strength than who of

resin and less filler be greater. the

be used. Therefore, the used. will material cures

in such formulations adhered to the there

the cure shrinkage but there

imparts structure designers

to the structure substrate, would

and distributes

stresses as shrinkage filler were

be more

stresses sections.

be if less resin and more to crack fabric recommend are changes

By distributing make an exception change. a monolithic contractor have cut locations. at these

the stresses, there do not locations

is less tendency regularly there

in the thinner reinforcing, and

where

of direction,

suggest

reinforcing

be done

in such areas, extending is applied

2 to 4 in. on each side of substrate, taken joints in most cases the in the slab, and shrinkage in rana concrete or so later, is also of in than

the direction When much should will dom pour weak, concrete occur

surfacing will

to a concrete has already as well, parts another partly slab, expansion

of the cure shrinkage

of the concrete control will joints

place, However, any future where a day

have, perhaps,

installed

in or formed intentionally In addition, one was poured shrinkage

so that

weakened be cold and dry,

of the slab rather pour cured made concrete. probably bridge directly

there

seams-locations

was completed and with

afternoon against of concrete

or fresh concrete When movement, the substrate

This joint these over

over the years will to this the if they in an old concrete monolithic

also crack. points

monolithics or bridge

are applied a working

crack to crack

slab, such movement

can be expected

it. In other

578

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

words, joints

the crack

in the substrate if the floor of expansion and joints still

will

telegraph directly

through

the topping.

For this

reason, it is vital that the correct damaging These other. will and selection the topping

is to function surfacing joint prevent

as it was designed to, expansion over these points, filled with exposure, this crack from for so and each

be placed in the monolithic

sealant for the anticipated liquids from entering

that the surfacing undermining

on each side of the crack can move with the substrate without

the topping. expansion isolate sections of concrete they may materials and topping not provide sections are large, however, As topping uninterrupted has shown all the stresses the of a to in-

If these

stresses in the structure. accumulate the concrete. topping is kept from

cure and shrink, distance

internal

over the full pulling Experience

of the topping,

while

its surface together that of 0.05 to O.l%,

by the bond between the topping where the cure shrinkage monolithic and that is applied

monolithic terruption concrete uniformly number the

is in the vicinity

a dead flat surface more of the adhesive mixed of other

than 20 ft. long without

an expansion

joint or other

in its 20 ft. length, these accumulated bond to the substrate that is the weakest, or has a little characteristics, substrate

stresses can exceed the strength section, or the area of the of the topping that was not or any of a than point

at the thinnnest or a portion

less curing that would

agent in it than another, disbonding

make that area a little weaker occurs, and at that

surrounding

ones. When this happens,

the stresses now concentrate tual break-up Where stress relief in the topping expansion relief joint of the topping.

as tensile stresses, and cause the cracking is exceeded, simply, therefore, joint

and even-

this 20 ft. linear distance joints. These with are, quite

it is wise to install the topping of sufficient to the stresses

cuts through

surface of the slab filled to exceed the strength joints stress relief joints.

elastomeric

expansion

sealer. The stress lines If there are then a stress

cut in this manner at 15 to 20 ft.

prevent the accumulation intervals, obviously there

of the bond of the topping

to the substrate.

is no need for such

But if the expansion

joints are at 30 ft. intervals, at the midpoint to the concrete

of this kind should or ceramic the

be placed

of this 30 ft. span to substrate should with a strong inThe tile laid on a and the length

prevent such stress buildup. If quarry adhesive, cluding tile is adhered exactly same rules as for the monolithic joint be followed, manner.

stress relief,

since the adhesive functions hand, if the floor may

in an identical

must be cut to place the expansion substrate. membrane, expansion from cutting frequent On the other joint in the the membrane

in the tile exactly is protected

over the one in the earlier, as a brick

by acid brick

acts as a sliding joint be offset joint

as described by as much the than in the slab. 0.05

brickwork

the point Where

of movement

in the substrate-saving the expansion joints should to be greater

installer

the cost of more

brick to match exactly cure shrinkage and larger expansion also indicates the joint but with

is expected

to O.l%,

be planned,

with distances between joints is

%

joints reduced proportionately. Experience over the joint-if bilized epoxy, that the optimum traffic with (with size for expansion in. across. At this dimension, wheeled is filled 6 in. or greater wheel diameter) hard sealer such as a flexibe accepted without damag-

a reasonably of 50%-can

an elongation

ing the sides of the joint.

Designing

with Chemically-Resistant

Masonry

579

Elsewhere brick, 20 ft. the there usually

in this section, considered

we have discussed the irreversible 0.16% of any dimension underfired especially with brick

growth (about

of acid 3/s in. in

to be about

of 8 in. brick). From

Some brick,

ones, may grow more manufacturer and that the frequency

than this. width

design experience joints provision in any for

the brick of the particular should that compute so that floor

contractor

plans to use, the engineer

of expansion is adequate

he plans, to be certain heaving

such movement

of the floor

as a result of brick growth Differences brane The first choice, acid brane type brick most may often Between

and thermal Joints

changes will be avoided. in Bonded Brick and Brick over a Mem-

Expansion

all things being equal, laid over a suitable asphalt, although, system

in selecting liquid-tight depending provides

protection membrane.

for a floor

is

and mortar is hot

The memanother

on conditions,

be chosen.

The membrane or expand the joints

a sliding plane so that as changes, the floor suitably placed exand thermal

brick grow irreversibly, expansion pansion, is selected, not joint joints causing

and contract

under thermal growth

area can relieve the stresses in the brickwork or open somewhat and the brickwork the to match control a half as temperatures

by sliding toward drop.

to close up under

When this type of protection of an inch necesjoints, it is brickwork to the

is thus free to slide the fraction the expansion the joint joint, joint in the

sary to relieve necessary joint, is offset expansion

stresses by moving exactly joint from

into or out of the expansion crack in the substrate. in the substrate, and it can function

or moving

If the expansion the brick can still satisfactorily, proit to anchor

a brick

move into and out of the expansion viding the substrate at some point and prevent It has been learned brick on the floor brick by pressing is bonded it into movement.

surface is smooth,

and there are no irregularities however,

by sad experience, a soft membrane

that if the thickness

of the

is less than 1 in., traffic

over it, even light traffic, like asphalt

can flex the 1 in., These uninter-

and cause the brick to is to be less than bed joint instead of a resin for

crack before too long. Therefore, the brick membrane bonding rupted high bond directly and regular strength, bed joint

when the brick thickness under the brick

to the slab by using a bonding l/s in. thick,

and over the membrane. made of an epoxy

bed joints are usually a nominal and are troweled,

on the surface as a continuous,

layer into which the thin brick or tile is set. All grooves in the back of the filled with the bed material. should be finished for just as carefully a monolithic If this design is to without surfacing low maand to the same in a 18 in. It is not in the are selfthe concrete and substrate as those to grade,

tile or brick should be completely be followed, specifications terial. thickness, advisable substrate leveling With will, to try spots, and prepared This type

to receive the bed material standards required

of bonding in most to correct

bed is very dense, and if applied carefully, not all), function as a membrane. holidays, low spots, and other of the bed. Epoxies, a bed. directly to the substrate,

cases (but the thickness

imperfections in particular,

by increasing

resins, and this can cause settlement the tile or brick bonded

and sag, resulting

in low spots if

the tile or brick are set on too thick

we have in effect

580

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

applied

a monolithic From

topping this,

where

the tile or brick

set in it function

like overjoint

size aggregate. in the exactly to make brickwork

it must be apparent from the joint what that

that we no longer have a sliding The former must be of brick the ex-

plane under the brick or tile, (or tile) above the latter-no this fit.

and so we can no longer offset the expansion in the substrate. matter this may mean in the cutting all cut brick are set back from

Be sure, however,

pansion joints and only whole This also means that vent disbonding, lithic floor remembered the substrate, Determining that, followed unlike

brick used on each side. on this type of floor in a monoalso be to of the brick or tile, and so preIt should

stress relief joints will be required by heaving, brick

to break the lines of stress from the slow growth provide for the cure shrinkage

just as the stress relief joints of the monolithic. if brick (or tile)

on a membrane,

are bonded

and if the substrate Floor Thicknesses

cracks, so will the tile or brick structure.

As was mentioned applied to crack. In addition,

above, a brick asphalt

or tile less than Thus,

1 in. thick

should not be standing memunder can, if in as

over a soft membrane

because traffic has cold flow.

will cause it to flex and eventually a very heavy weight flow-from laid over an asphalt

permanently brane, will, the weight excessive, material thickness tinuous thick

at the same spot on an acid brick floor after a time, to the area under the adjacent cause the floor to break up. alike, brick. No two

cause the asphalt to squeeze out-cold batches

This kind of movement of asphalt

membrane identical

are exactly

nor are any two so it is impossible

areas of the membrane to make any absolute parked

and reinforcing, load-a fixed tank,

statements

to the size and weight case would

of acceptable

loads. What can be said is this: under conheavy vehicle glass fabric (the worst is probably probable load limit for a 14 in.

etc., a permanently like a steam roller)-the

be something membrane

asphalt

with a single layer of reinforcing into the conditions

about 25 lb/in. To translate this figure in a specific case, the following factors should be borne in mind: (I) The this center height means of the the load above between the membrane. of the brick (With a vehicle, and the

distance

the face of the wheel

of the axle,plusthe

thickness

and the thick-

ness of the bed joint.)

(2)

A pinpoint around thickness distribution vertical of

load on the the brick.

brick We

itself will

spread the load laterally the load the sure of this angle from

the joint

in a cone pattern cannot

as the stress passes through be exactly

because of the nature of the brick and its composition, worst case a 30 directly the at the point of load. The higher this This can be at to the of the brick (which wide

but we can assume as probably at the apex (1) load can be elevated, done in two ways: the same time and structure) preferably more

it can be spread out.

increase the thickness shear strength tires.

adds more

and less flexibility

(2) use larger diameter

wheels with

faces and

large pneumatic

Designing

with Chemically-Resistant

Masonry

581

Anticipate, for them. cipated, Where ing up. Curbs Curbs flooding Sketches you Under

therefore, column

in your supports only brick

design, or tank

the worst

load conditions

and plan

pedestals where heavy loading is anticonstruction. vehicles, be breakand standing to accommodate loaded

do not use soft membranes, are concerned with

and plan instead on bonded traffic

sure that you have adequate

thickness

it without

are included 1 through

in floor

designs usually

to retain

spills and to prevent in

of adjacent

areas. For this reason, the usual curb design is like that 5 of Drawing 15. A curb is formed

into the floor construc-

The

above, "Chemical Resistant Masonry", W. L. Sheppard, Jr. (1982).

Drawing 15

582

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

tion

when

the

floor

is laid, and the reinforcing along the floor may

is continuous

throughout.

The for

membrane those Where double surface

is continued there

to the curb,

up the side and across the and is the most suitable of liquid.

top to the other

side. This design stays liquid-tight, be frequent to localize

areas where

spills and large volumes

it may be desirable brick might into

a spill, but there wall extending 6 and 7).

is not too much concern above the normal floor

if some small amount handle

of the liquid the matter

reaches the outside of the curbed area, setting (Sketches If the floor is an old one, by following mortar to is then laid up

the floor

as a barrier

or it is desired the concrete curb just this curbed

to add a curb to a new floor, 7. Here, double to build the curb. without

one can be created membrane

the design in Sketch substrate

brick are bonded with The asphalt

an epoxy

to this brick curb, and the floor built. Obviously, area will probably

laid over the membrane a membrane up from modifying leak through the curb. the floor

and bonded to the brick If we want to stop such a to the top of (Sketch with that 8), of

on the face of the brick curb,

leak, the membrane Sketch 4. Walls Subject

can be carried in effect

and over, the brick curb,

the design to equate

to Spray or Splash plants where corrosive, membranes wall may be built and brick between entirely The two of wet conditions rooms, acid are anticipated, walls are Ala roof

In chemical protected ternatively, or other employing block, raked joint with load,

veneers in the same manner or one that brick and mortar.

as floors.

a divider

is to support

A different, cement or

more attractive except

system, tile

is usually or block.

followed latter

in food

plants such as dairies, often of %I in. or more,

glazed

are laid just as are regular

that the face joints usually mortar. with

are left void to a depth hydrochloric

back to that depth are cleaned a furan

before the joints set up. After dilute See Drawing

cure, the surfaces of the pointed

acid, and the joints

full with

14 to see how this kind of a wall is mated

to an acid brick Tile* Tile, fixed and/or designer brick structure. identical Tile many chemical rather

floor and membrane.

than

brick,

is often

used where room portions in nature,

(I)

the designer

is dealing with brick thickness, The the is wanted.

elevations (2) where should before

and doesnt appearance carefully they which

have the

to accommodate and a show floor of this tile book before

is paramount

read those are similar

that cover tile and not provide

deciding

to use, and certainly

he starts detailing

Although

and brick will

end products,

will not accept identical decorative three and tile, which

conditions,

and are not installed of years. Of the employed small, in thin,

pp

in the same manner. has been used for manufactured, (I) Quarry service: purposes for thousands are plants;
Masonry,

types

varieties food

most (2)

frequently Ceramic tile,

much resembles a thin brick,

most often

used in laboratories,
*See W.L. Sheppard, 5568 (1982).

kitchens

Jr., Chemically

Resisfanf

2nd Ed., Marcel Dekker,

NYC,

Designing

with Chemically-Resistant

Masonry

583

often

/4 to

3/s in. thick or paper Glazed

vitrified removed

shapes, usually

supplied

mounted bed, which

on an open is allowed filled by

weave cloth grouting; which (3)

backing, tile, which

laid in sheets on a semisoft and the balance a glazed face, can be a multitude

to cure, then the backing 4 in. by 4 in. porcelain

of the open joints or even ceramic

of sizes and shapes such as blocks of used in areas that must be faces with a semisoft mortar and then often a

bodies with

one face has a fired glaze. These are most often glaze making brick, cement which are buttered on the contact

kept very clean, the smooth Unlike of portland and tapping uniform, tilesetter before with laid, tilesetters

it easier to sanitize and disinfect. bed-most

have, for hundreds and sand-and Concrete layer after

of years, prepared

set the tile in it, laying a straight edge over it of all the tile to provide to supplying asphalt contractors are accustomed the

the straight surface.

edge to adjust the elevations

level, with

a rough slab on which of paper No matter

to place the bed, and in many cases applyand low temperature grout to the slab (a loose mortar mix grouted dilute with be re-

ing a waterproofing the bed is placed. into the open joints conditions materials placed nomic life. This means that with that weak

what

the bed has set and anchored All hydraulic membrane, materials

the tile in place) is used service, under must be replaced must floor

the tile, this design is not adequate corrosives. liquid-tight are chemically resistant,

for wet chemical and the

waterproofing

by a sound,

if this tile

is to have an ecoare

the designer

must make certain

that

his specifications

not misunderstood. the waterproofing joints. tion If a thin

He must carefully exactly and how

specify what the exact surface of the slab what membrane exactly grout what shall be used instead of what bedding material subshall be used in the open to the concrete

must be in order to be accepted, shall be used to set the tile, strate, he must indicate is to be made with of bed rather should ribbons that

it shall be installed, and exactly

bed is to be used to bond the tile directly acceptable thicknesses a flat trowel-not a ribbed

for it and specify that the applicaor serrated void-free one that will lay and so bed on the concrete. is no mistake the installer will

than a smooth, be identified product whether

continuous,

All materials

generically

so that there

if later another

said to be equal it is indeed equal.

is substituted,

be able to determine

SUBSTRATE A separate strate structures things. section which (I) The of this are book discusses the selection to support verify except the and design of submasonry. selection and to warn the designer

required

chemically-resistant substrate

This section will not duplicate of three with design are adequate a safety which strength factor will check with selected surface and then

what appears therein, must that

designer

to provide the necessary support of not less than be in direct that that these there l%, without with manufacturers contact preparations is nothing

for the full load anticipated (2) He must he has what of all the materials to determine

visible deflection.

the materials

and installers

the substrate are included

and surface

of the substrate in the materials

should be provided, in his specifications. be in contact

be certain

requirements

(3) He must verify

that will

584

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

with the substrate that can interact with anything in the selected substrate to prevent full cure and/or adequate adhesion from taking place. This third item is often overlooked. The following are examples. Some admixtures, curing agents, air entrainment agents, and other materials added to concrete mixes can react with and deplete the curing agents in epoxy toppings and bonding agents, preventing adequate cure and resulting in disbondment. Furan and phenolic mortars use acid curing agents. If they are placed directly against carbon steel and/or concrete, the acid curing agent can react with the substrate depleting it in the surface layer and preventing full cure. When pointing joints in portland cement-bedded quarry tile with a furan mortar, it is customary first to paint the portland cement joint face with muriatic acid, which prevents the depletion of the hardening agent and accelerates the cure. Heat applied to the carbon steel surface can accelerate the hardening of the mortar before the surface reaction can deplete the hardener, and so ensure fast and complete cure and a bond to the substrate. These are but two examples. Be sure that the manufacturers of the materials accept your specifications as clear and concise, and as protection against any such incompatibility. Lastly, in concrete construction, all vertical sections are poured against forms. Contractors lubricate forms to prevent adhesion of the concrete to the forms. Be certain that the lubricant or form release materials used are compatible with the materials to be installed and acceptable to their manufacturers and applicators. If they are not, your specification must include provision for removing, probably by brush sandblast, any residue left on the surface of the concrete after the forms are removed as well as provision for inspection to insure uniformity and integrity of the structure. The use of a solvent to remove oil or grease from the surface of formed concrete is not recommended since it drives some dissolved material into the concrete surface.

SIDE EFFECTS Galvanic Corrosion of Lead and Stainless Steel Due to Proximity to Carbon and Carbon-Filled Mortars and Grouts Years ago, college chemistry textbooks used to contain tables listing in order of electrical potential the metallic elements and carbon. For some odd reason, the tables used in schools and colleges today omit carbon. This is even more strange because the most common of the dry cell batteries until only a few years ago, made use of the electrical potential between zinc and carbon-a relationship illustrated by the table. Reproduced below are two such tables, one of which includes carbon. Table 45-2 is taken from John Schleys paper published in 1974 by Chemical Engineering. I have been unable to locate any of the old textbooks that showed carbon in relation to the metallic elements. Table 45-3 is from a college textbook currently in use. Note that there is disagreement in the relative order of some of these metals (due to the differences noted in oxidizing and reducing environments), particularly in the placement of aluminum. However, this does not alter the relationship between carbon and these metals. The reader will observe, however, that when stainless steel (188) is passivated, it becomes

Designing

with Chemically-Resistant

Masonry

585

more

noble-very

close

to silver and graphite, while if not

passivated,

it

is

close to lead in potential.

Table 45-2:

Galvanic
Anodic

Series of Metals and Alloys

or least noble

Magnesium Zinc Aluminum 25 Cadmium Steel or iron Cast iron Ni-resist 18-8 Cr-Ni-Fe (active) Hastelloy alloy C Lead Tin Nickel (active) lnconel (active) Hastelloy alloy A Hastelloy alloy B Brasses Copper Copper nickel alloys Titanium Monel Nickel (passive) lnconel (passive) 188 Cr-Ni-Fe (passive) Silver Graphite Cathodic or most noble

Table

45-3:

Galvanic

Series
Potential Difference Electrode-Electrolyte 0.000 <+0.293 +0.329 <+0.391 <+0.466

Element Potassium Sodium Barium Strontium Calcium Magnesium Aluminum Manganese Zinc Cadmium Iron Thallium Cobalt Nickel Tin Lead

Potential Difference Electrode-Electrolyte -3.20 -2.82 -2.82 -2.77 -2.56 -2.54

Element Hydrogen Arsenic Copper Bismuth Antimony Mercury Silver Palladium Platinum Gold Fluorine Chlorine Bromine Iodine Oxygen

+0.750
+0.771 <to.789 <to.863 <+1.079 +1.96 t1.417 +0.993 +0.520 +1.119

-1.276
-1.075 -0.770 -0.420 -0.340 -0.322 -0.232 -0.228 <-0.192 -0.148

586

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

From these tables, chemistry table steel are placed to waste. Of the metals

it will be apparent containing anodic

to anyone

who has studied (e.g.,

elementary stainless of

that if a piece of carbon in a beaker will become

and a strip of lead or of unpassivated an electrolyte (positive) to the carbon,

a 10% solution

salt), the metal

and will start

in the table,

lead and stainless steel are the most frequently liner for steel process equipment, or other internals. reducing it is normal in which As the to to practice to place a brick lining liquid contains to make agitators thermal

used in chemical explained

service:

lead as a membrane from which

stainless steel as the material elsewhere inside of a lead-lined skin temperature acid fluorides select a carbon so it will ring, carbon stitute which

in this volume,

it is common or lower.

process vessel to provide

insulation,

of the lead to 16OF to a concentration brick as a liner, that to

If the contained

of 50 ppm of HF equiivalent, and to use a carbon-filled

mortar

bed and lay up the brick. be apparent

Most of such process vessels will contain by this lining design, an electrolytic To prevent between a voltage breaker

electrolytes,

cell is set up in this from occurthe lead and the is to subfiller, but a mortar a sheet of

which the lead will be slowly wasted and penetrated. it is necessary brick. will insert This is done in one of several ways. mortar sulfate) be attacked (barium by hydrofluoric FEP), acid.

The most common a nonconductor For this purpose, Alternatively,

for the carbon-filled not barytes

one that employs is recommended.

containing fluorocarbon the both

resin (such as Teflon@ and the brickwork have been taken.

5 mils or more thick,

may be laid over In some cases, is to be used, it brick lining.

lead lining, precautions

laid over the fluorocarbon. If a stainless steel agitator

should be passivated and kept as far as possible from the carbon Bibliography
1. 2. 3.

4. 5.

Werking, L.C., Formed Carbon and Graphite in Industry, Ceramic Bulletin, Vol. 32, No.2,pp4044 (1953). Morelli, G.W. and Rusinko, F.F., Graphite and Carbon, Chemical Engineering, Vol. 70, No. 26,pp 69-76 (Dec. 23,1963). Raub,H.S. and Miller, J.L., Designing with Carbon and Graphite, Chemical Engineering, Part 1, Vol. 72, No. 10, pp 97-102 (May 24, 1965); Part 2, Vol. 72, No. 12, pp 119126 (June 21,1965). Schley, John R., Use of Impervious Graphite in Chemical Process Equipment,Maferia/s Protection andPerformance.Vol.9,No. 10,pp 11-13 (Oct. 1970). Schley, John R., Impervious Graphite for Process Equipment, Chemical Engineering, Part 1, Vol. 81, No. 4,pp 144-150; Part 2,Vol. 81, No. 6, pp 102-110 (March 18, 1974).

Brick Growth In all designs involving versible period. about growth 1954, of North This growth when acid brick, brick stopped will provision which using must be made for the irreplace over an extended in acid brick prior to ovens and started (or swelling) has been general American takes noted

or swelling manufacturers

was not much

beehive

using continuous of face brick, observed for

kilns. show the reader that growth and industrial The literature indicates, commercial construction beyond

A check of the Bibliography used for ordinary half a century

and more.

Designing

with Chemically-Resistant

Masonry

587

observations, that the amount of swelling and the speed with which it takes place results from water absorption of the clays from which the brick are made, and that it bears some relation to the temperature of firing of the brick. Little has been done in refined testing to eliminate the variables, to determine what, if any, relationship exists to the exact temperature of the firing, together with the duration of firing, and to any phase changes that may take place in the composition of the body of the brick. It is noted, however, that brick which are restrained expand (swell or grow) less than those that are not subject to loading or restraint. It has been noted that steel cylindrical tanks lined with acid brick, have in some few cases actually been split apart, apparently by stressesresulting from this brick growth. On the other hand, where the steel was fabricated of heavy, well-reinforced metal, the brick have grown only until they were tightly pressed against and into the membrane, after which growth stopped. When a single brick in such a lining was damaged by a blow or in some other manner, and had to be replaced, it was noted that upon its removal and the release of the restraint that brick had supplied, the brick on all sides grew or swelled slightly into the void, so that a replacement brick always had to be trimmed on all four sides to fit into the same space. One of the same size as the brick that was removed could not be used. Exactly where the stressesof growth are balanced off against the restraint, no one has yet determined, although at least one company has a project under development to plant strain gauges in such linings to determine what pressures are reached before equilibrium is attained. We do know that most hard burned, low absorption acid brick, meeting Specification ASTM C-279, will grow irreversibly over an extended period of time by approximately 0.16% of any dimension. We also know that such growth takes place more slowly under cold, dry, static conditions, and most rapidly in hot, wet, cycling exposures. We have also noted that brick with the higher absorption-ones outside the limits of Type L-seem to expand more than the 0.16% limit, and that this growth appears to be more noticeable with the lower firing temperatures and the shorter kiln time. However, without conclusive test data, checking the effects of all variables individually, no absolutes are available, and only generalizations can be made. In design, it is important always to plan to accommodate this growth, based on the normal 0.16%, especially on flat surfaces like floors, with adequate expansion joints, or, where suitable, such as in cylindrical designs, by adequate restraint. Failure to do so can result in humping (bulging upward or outward) of flat surfaces, or rupturing the walls of inadequately designed cylindrical vessels.
Bibliography-Swelling
1. 2. 3. 4.

of Brick

Schurecht, H.G., Methods for Testing Crazing of Glazes Caused by Increases in Size of Ceramic Bodies, J. Am; Ceram. Sot., Vol. 11, PP 271-277 (1928). Schurecht, H.G., and Pole, C.R., Effect of Water in Expanding Ceramic Bodies of Different Compositions, J. Am. Ceram. SOL, Vol. 12 (1929). Hueber, H.V., and Milne, A.A., Expansion and Deterioration of Ceramic Bodies, Nature, No.4480,~~ 509 (Sept. 10,1955). Young, J.E., and Brownell, W.E., Moisture Expansion of Clay Products, J. Am. Ceram. .Soc.,Vol.42, No. 12 (Dec. 1959).

588

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

11. 12. 13.

13.

14. 15. 16. 17. 18.

Hosking, J.S., and Hueber, H.V., Moisture Expansion, Moisture Movement and Dry Shrinkage of Structural Clay Products, Trans. British Ceram. Sot., (1960). Demediuk, T., and Cole, W.F., Contribution to the Study of Moisture Expansion in Ceramic Materials, J. Am. Ceram. Sot., Vol. 43, pp 359-367 (1960). Cole, W.F., Moisture Expansion Relationships for a Fired Kaolinite-Hydrous MicaQuartz Clay,Nature, No. 4804, pp 737 (Nov. 25,1961). Hosking, J.S., and Hueber, H.V., Dimensional Changes due to Moisture in Bricks and Brickwork,ASTMSpecia/ Technical Publication, No. 320 (1962). Cole, W.L., Possible Significance of Linear Plots of Moisture Expansion Against Log of a Time Function,Nature, No.4853, p 431 (Nov. 3,1962). Hosking, J.S., White, W.A., and Parham, W.E., Long-Term Dimensional Changes in Illinois Bricks and other Clay Products, Illinois State Geological Survey Circular, Vol. 405 (1966). Wyatt, K.J., Restrained Moisture Expansion of Clay Masonry, J. Austral. Ceram. Sot., Vol.12,No.2,pp3437 (Nov.1976). Ritchie, T., Effect of Restraining Forces on the Expansion of Masonry Mortars, Materials Research and Standards (Jan. 1964). Jessup, E.L., Moisture, Thermal, Elastic and Creep Properties of Masonry, Cenrre for Research & Development in Masonry Tech. Pub. (Calgary, Alberta, Canada), No. TP-9 (July 1980). Ritchie, T., Moisture Expansion of Clay Bricks and Brickwork, National Research Council of Canada, Div. of Bldg. Research - Building Research Note No. 103 (Oct. 1975). McReilly, Tom, Brick Expansion: Aspects of the Australian Experience, Trans. British Ceram.Soc.,Vol.82,No.l,pp 14-1611983). Grimm, C.T., Moisture Expansion in Brick Masonry, Trans. British Ceram. Sot., Vol. 82,No.l,pp 16-17 (1983). devekey, R.C., Moisture Expansion in Clay Masonry, Trans. British Ceram. Sot., Vol. 82, No. 2, pp 55-57. Fisher, K., Moisture Movement in Brickwork: A Further View, Trans. British Ceram. Soc.,Vol.82,No.2,pp57-59. Papers presented at the Building Materials Section, Brirish Ceram. Sot., Nottingham, England, 8 April 1983: Lomax, J., and Ford, R.W., Investigations into a Method for Assessing the Long Term Moisture Expansion of Clay Bricks; Beard, R., Dinnie, A., and Sharples, A.B., Movement of Brickwork-A Review of 21 Years Experience.

Other Related
1.

Articles

2. 3. 4.

5. 6. 7.

Determination of Stress/Strain Relationships in Powell, B., and Hodgkinson, HR., Brickwork, Proc. of 4th International Brick Masonry Conference, Bruges (April 1976). Base, G.D., and Baker, L.R., Fundamental Properties of Structural Brickwork, J. Ausrral. Ceram. Sot., Vol. 9, No. 1 (1973) (formula for compression and bending). Jessop, E.L., Shrive, N.G., and England, G.L., Elastic and Creep Properties of Masonry, Proc. North American Masonry Conference, Colorado, p. 12 (1978). Sorenson, C.P., and Tasker, H.E., Cracking in Brick and Block Masonry, Tech. Study 43, Department of Construction, Expeimenal Building Station, 1976 (Canada) (causes). Thompson, J.N., and Johnson, F.B., Design for Crack Prevention, National Academy of Science, National Research Council, Washington, DC. The Design of Clay Brickwork Expansion Gaps, Brick Development, Research lnstirufe Techniques, 2nd Ser., No. 4, Melbourne (December 1973). Grimm, C.T., Design for Differential Movement in Brick Walls, Journal of he Srructural Div., Amer. Sot. Civil Engineers,Vol. 101, No. ST1 1, pp 2385-2403 (November 1975).

NOTE: To determine lining thickness, number of layers of brick and selection of types, to insulate membranes, see mathematics in Chapter 47, and especially Editors Note, page 623.

Designing with Chemically-Resistant Masonry

589

Fi~re

45-1:

Example

of a contoured

wall

tank.

See Drawing

Figure 45.2:

Illustration

of a baffle built into the brick vessel wall. See Drawing 12,Sketch 2

590

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

Figure 45.3: One of the earliest acid-resistant tile floors in a brewery (1940), laid in a portland cement bed with a phenolic resin mortar grout.

pasteurizer

room

Figure 45-4: Examples of floors laid with high bond, high strength furan mortar in which cure shrinkage of the mortar has caused the brick to break. The cracks so created have been filled with expansion joint sealant. See Chapter 25.

Designing with Chemically-Resistant Masonry

591

Figure 45.5: Steel floor plate plant in the cold storage room cemented to the concrete substrate with an epoxy adhesive.

of a dairy.

The steel plates are

Fi~re 45-6: Example of what happens if a designer makes no provision and designs substrate surface flat instead of curved {see Drawing 1) .Note posed to strengthen the wall, was completely ineffectual.

for brick growth the pilaster, sup-

592

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

Fi~re 45-7: Building the "Isabel" H2SO4 chamber plant at Copper using the first fast-5etting sodium silicate mortar, DURO@.

Hill,

Tennessee,

1916-18,

Fi~re 45-8: In a modern food plant, a properly designed and laid floor tile (8 in. x 3!/4 in. x 1!116in,) floor, using a '/4 in. thick glass cloth-reinforced hot asphalt membrane and a furan resin bed and grout. Note the fiexibilized epoxy expansion joint.

Section XI Uses of Nonmetallic Chemically Resistant Materials in Waste Handling

593

46 Uses of Nonmetallic Chemically Resistant Materials in Waste Handling

Walter

Lee Sheppard, Incorporated

Jr.

C.C. R.M., Havertown,

Pennsylvania

Industrial noncorrosive Leftovers handled fertilize from plant

wastes-acids,

alkalies,

salts, bleaches, meals and from civilized not

all sorts of corrosive battlefield

and

waste products-have savages community growth.

been with

us since the earliest

days of man. to

dead, have been to make things, Trash was

by animals remaining

and insects. What As man became from

was not consumed

was biodegraded

and learned

the wastes simply which gratory, the trash

the processes he developed and most were into subsurface As population from in specific wastes poured

were no longer consumeither.

able by animal dumped

or insect,

biodegradable

in pits, and liquid means.)

into holes in the ground from (Perhaps this is a reflection and man became Solid less miwere made to move wastes were

it ran off, or filtered civilization tending and liquid to settle

streams. expanded

on what

areas, various efforts towns and villages.

wastes away

hauled off, then dumped.

And ages ago someone thought spot.

of piping liquid wastes

away from their sources to a collecting

PIPING Small clay times. made caulked diameter and tile diameter and baked clay piping, were formed and fired in the same way that from the earliest revolutionary, fitted backed together, with hot

pottery Larger with with

or brick vitrified spigot

made,

has been available in the United

clay pipe which three

must date from long were

perhaps colonial, bell

days has been unearthed ends, (treated wool

States. Sections of pipe,

to six feet

oakurn

waste) 594

and this packing

Nonmetallic

Chemically

Resistant

Materials

in Waste Handling

595

poured industrial

tar or asphalt. and animal

This was the usual method wastes are biodegradable (exfiltration) and flooding, end which tree would

of constructing

sanitary

and

sewer lines well into the third decade of this century. and are still the main sources it was reasoned, joints in On the other hand, (infiltration) larger volumes because the such leaks expand and in the largest areas of the world. leaked a little Therefore,

Human of fertilizer pipe that

not be harmful.

joints that were too porous would in times of heavy rainfall of fluid waste following develop at the receiving was good fertilizer,

allow the entry of ground water and would find mean handling In addition, way through and would the flow expensive their would be costly. fertilizer blocking

roots would

back on the track operators

of the leaking

more roots inside the pipe, eventually at about the turn North of the century America.

of the sewage proceeding. accepted as

and forcing Thus dling a standard (internal) factory this time for

to open and clean out the line-an engineers which This leakage per day.

who designed waste hanwas generally U.S. gallons per inch of

sewers agreed on an allowable throughout diameter sanitary generally per mile of pipe sewage during

This was 200

appears rather

to have been satiswastes were at it was Pipefrom in innocuous,

this period to handle apparent

and as industrial

(there were exceptions)

considered

usual (with In the liquid many and

the same few exceptions) early 1950s it became oily

them in the same manner. serious contamination

lines were, therefore, industrial waterways to the

designed to this standard. that a problem. swim. Fish no longer were found In many for locations, household

wastes was becoming where children from the

streams and rivers. Greasy, use water allowable

slicks covered sources

the surface of some ponds it was impurposes. for in-

used to

possible Therefore, dustrial not

customary standard

leakage

was seen as not acceptable cut so that,

wastes, and in many leakage from

areas it was cut by 75% to 50 gallons. This still was in many Sanitary should rea 5 pound latitude, test load, was unacceptable. but the design engineer wastes often it is found,

good enough,

and in recent years it has been further a bit more

cases, any visual member sanitary that

sewage is still allowed

since small amounts is not taken. oakum day packing industrial

of industrial

find their way into if care in assembly be

lines serious damage

may occur before with

and inspection Obviously used for joints with

a hot asphalt pitch or tar backing cannot nor can one expect sanitary with lines, whether cement. specified portland to get fully they

present poured

wastes,

tight

in this manner a hot 1. in vitrified

even for gravity

are backed shown

sealant or packed

In present day de-

sign, joints in Sketch pp 64-67) pipe,

clay pipe are most often magazine, methods liquid In the

in the manner

In Water and Sewage Works the writer the materials made amount that

December, of making

1975

(Vol. 122, No. 12,

in vitrified clay is and the probof clay pipe a in dimenin

discussed the the joints C-700.

joints

are or can be used to make these joints, tight. manufacture and firing

lems inherent generally certain joint sions that a pipeline

in making to ASTM

Clay pipe in this hemisphere From the variations and function

of distortion

must be anticipated.

can exist in pipe made to meet this standard assembled in a dead straight

it can be seen that the satisfactorily dimensional differ-

sealant must be able to hold the pipe together

line with considerable

596

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

Sketch

1: Acid-resistant

joints for terra-cotta

pipe.

ences at each of the available Table figures which joint ternal latest 2 of the standard of the variations the outside could variation be determined. until (1978)

sizes shown

in Table

2 in the subject of the article

standard. full from

in the year of acceptable

of publication pipe including

supplied

the barrel thickness

possible

range of annular

space at the opposite

sides of the with in-

In 1975 when the article was written to be 3/2 in. and variations still

this showed the in the

possible

in a 4 in. joint

increasing

diameter revision

at 42 in. the possible variation of this standard dimensions been much abbreviated, exact/y what

is 33/4 in. However, tolerances

in use at the time omitting

of this writing, of barrel specifiin the

the table has unfortunately thickness, cation annular and outside

of the barrel, so that with the current the possible variation tolerances first pipe, there is or is not an intention to illustrate the problem

it is not possible to determine space is. Accordingly, whether

on the part this omisthe

of the manufacturers For the benefit sion creates, Refer shoulder both to

to adhere to the same dimensional sets of tables Sketch are here reproduced; issue (the edition assembling the

is not known.

of the reader, and the better

the table from the outside

issue of 197 1, second the current back

of 1978). of the the end of the spigot and with a stiff mix

1. Before

spigot end and the inside of the mating of the bell, should usually end of the spigot and the shoulder of resin mortar, Next roving) which caulked a furan.

bell, including

be sanded to remove

the hard burned surfaces. The

of the bell are then buttered

The spigot is then seated in the bell and shoved ceramic mix fiber of the tool, (or very lightly twisted into is

home against the shoulder of the bell. a long enough around worked section of random a slightly thinner thicker than the largest section of the annular space to form a ring around a caulking Next, space is wide,

has been

same resin mortar, driven home tightly

into the annular

the shaft of the pipe, with in contact with the inof the widest in the

ends overlapping terior fiber of the bell, saturated

at least 2 in., and, with all the way around the resin mortar space, is driven side of the

against the shoulder with

of the bell, so that the ring is tight/y the pipe. and thicker

a second ring of ceramic

than the width

section of the annular ends at the opposite same manner.

in on top of the first, with the lap of the ring follows the first two

bell. A third

Nonmetallic

Chemically

Resistant

Materials

in Waste Handling

597

c700
TABLE Laying Length Nominal Size. in.O, Limit of Minus Variation. in./11 (mm/m) % (20) % (20) s izoi % (20) % (20) y1(20) % (20) % (20) ?i (30) K (30) ?i (30) )L (30) % (30) s (20) ?i (30) Differcncc in Length of Two Opposite Sides, max. in. (mm) Z DIA of clay PIP Outside Diameter of Barrel. in. (mm~~

Inside Diameter of Socket at K in. ( in. (mm~~

1 3Bmg)mAov

min. It(m)

min

max

4 6 a IO I2 IS I8 21 24 27 JO 33 36 39 42

2 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3

(0.61) (0.61) iO.6lj (0.61) (0.61) (0.91) (0.91) (0.91) (0.91) (091) (0.91) (0.91) (0.91)

%.(8)
?i %r %r % K H n* %b (9) (II) (II) (II) (13) (13) (14) (14)

4?4 7x. 9% 11% 13% 17% 20% 24% 27X 31 34% 37% 40%

(124) (179) (235) (292) (349) (437) (524) (613) (699) (787) (873) (956) (1035)

5!4 7%. 9% t:x, 17ti. 21%. 25 28!4 32!4 35% 38f;l 42% 47% 51

(130) (189) (248) I%, (452) (545) (635) (724) (816) (905) (989) (1073) (1200) (1295)

5k 8);. IOH 12% 15!4 I8?4 22% 25W 29% 33 36s 39% 43%

(146) (208) (267) (324) (384) (473) (565) (657) (746) (838) (927) (1013) (1099)

?i (16) ?i (16) X (16) 1%. (17) x M (19) (23)

5 (1.52) 5 (1.52)

45J( (1152) 48% (1232)

48% (1232) 52!4 (1333) Thickness of Socket at Kin. (I3 mm) from Outer End

Depth of Socket. Nominal Size. in.*,

Thickncns of Bar&,

Extra Strength nominal. in. (mm) min. in. (mm) nominal. in. (mm) +a 1x1 % I 1% I Ya I% 2% 2% 2% 3 3% 3% 3% 4 (16) (17) (22) (25) (30) (38) (48) (57) (64) (70) (76) (83) (89) (95) (102) min. in. (mm) %r %r % % 1x6 I% 1% 2 2% 2% 2% 3 3% 3% 3% (14) (14) (19) (22) (27) (35) (44) (50 (57) (64) (70) (76) (83) (86) (89)

Standard Strength nominal. iti. (mm) Yz % % % I I% I% I% 2 2% 2% 2% 2% (13) (16) (19) (22) (25) (31) (38) (44) (51) (57) (64) (67) (70) min. in. [mm) % %r A. 1% 1~~ I% I% I% I% 2/, 2% 2% 2% (II) (14) (17) (21) (24) (29) (35) (41) (48) (54) (60) (64) (67) nominal. in. (mm) min. in. (mm)

4 6 8 IO I2 I5 I8 21 24 27 30 33 36 39 42

I% 2 A 2% 2% 2% 2% 3 :: ;; 3% 4 4% 4% Specilicrs

(44) (57) (64) (67) (70) (73) (76) (83) (86) I;;; (95) (102) (105) (105)

I Ih 2 2% 2% 2% 2% 2%

(38) (51) (57) (60) (64) (67) (70) (76) (79) (83) (86) (89) (95) (98) (98)

%r t w % %b

(I I) (13) (14) (16) ((9) (24) (29) (33) (38) (43) (48) (51) (52) (70) (70)

% % h %I A % 1%. 1%. I% 1%. I% ISi I% 2% 2%

(9) (11) (13) (14) (17) (22) (27) (30) (35) (40) (44) (44) (48) (67) (67)

1%
(I(6 1% I%* 1% 2 2%r 2% 2%

3Ya 3% 3% 3% 3% 3% 3%

.
..,

should be aware that all pipe sizes arc not universally available.

Sizes on perforated pipe apply only to nominal sizes 4 through 24 in. There shall bc no maximum kqgth. Shorter lengths may be used for closures and specials. l Pipe having the nominal thickness of barrel shown in Tabk 2 may have smalkr inside diameter than the nominal sizes. The outside diameter of the barrel may be greater than the maximum ligurer stated in Table 2. provided the other dimensions are varied accordingly within the specification tolerances. The minimums lor inside diameter of socket and depth of socket may be waived where such dimensions arc conducive 10 the proper application of the joint. * Plain-end pipe shall conlorm to the dimensions in Tabk 2. except those dimensions pertaining lo sockets. The requirement for minimum barrel thickness may be waived when satirfacto~ evidence is prcsenled that the pipe cm meet the required crushing strength and all other requircmcnts of this specification.

(continued)

598

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

TABLE

ZA

Dimensions of Vitritied

Clay Pipe (SI Units) Limit of Mmub Variations from Nommal SIX I Average InsIde Diameter. mm

Nominal

SW.

mm

Laying Length Limit of Mmus Variation. mm/m

Difference in Length of Two Opposite Sides max. mm

75 loo
I50 200 250 300 375 450 525 600 675 750 825 900 975 1050

20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 II II II

8 8
9

I3 I? I4 14 I6 I6 16 17 19 23 available.

9 II I3 I5 I7 I9 21 22 22 22

Specifiers should be aware that all pipe stzes are not universally

After are placed a mortar tar, hand the mortar

the third

ring is caulked

into the space, there

should

be, if the rings

as described, caulk, packed either into

a 3~ to 1 in. space left in the depth of the bell of a 4 in. of hot poured sulfur mortar place. The liquidtight or a low shrinkage resin morwith

line up to a 1% in. space or larger in the 42 in. pipe. This space is now filled with seal cannot be accomplished

between

spigot end and the shoulder

of the bell. A look at the large of the bell,

space that can exist between if the pipe is laid in a straight the joint at this point. Neither of bell. This mortar the three functions cavity

one side of the spigot and the shoulder can it be accomplished on curing on the quality applied approach

line, will tell you that you can never hope to seal with the caulk at the end which liquid to ho/d the of in installing and leave voids through of the workmanship

can shrink

can pass. The seal relies totally those rings in p/ace. The mortar fluid

rings. The caulk at the end of the bell acts merely only to reduce deformable

as an anchor

first between spigot end and bell shoulder to the rings, and to fill or smooth the rings must be composed into the annular to caulk tightly specified

at the inner surface of the pipe. Therefore, enough material braided rope look at the tables reproduced such as the can never be caulked (see Section

soft enough, A quick hard facturers material

space. manuand for

above will show the reader at once that a in the past by many space tightly enough to accom-

into the annular

plish the purpose. resin mortars the pipe cannot cations

A look at the cure shrinkage

shown for sulfur mortars

V) also makes it clear that the final caulk at the end of upon to seal the pipe. information the minima to prepare proper given in the standard. specifiI quote from my cited article, to provide

be depended

So that the reader will have adequate for the pipe he is to purchase, he should take, beyond those exceptions

Nonmetallic

Chemically

Resistant

Materials

in Waste Handling

599

The

clay

pipe

used for conveyance pipe, conforming it will it is now

of industrial to ASTM

wastes should specification

be un-

glazed, extra strength From waste this specification will and that

C 700-71.

be evident available

that the pipe itself, if it conforms for gravity and low pressure if he plans to use in sizes from 4 to 42 in. internal In this specification: manufacturer but 75 percent nor two of l/4 to

to the specification, handling, There diameter.

be adequate

in strength

are, however, industrial Fractures that in the socket,

three limitations

that the buyer,

the pipe in nonleaking (1) Section furnish single depth 9, pipe crack of the

sewers, must bear in mind. and Cracks, end permits in the the

has no cracks spigot or

barrel,

does have a of the end not inches of the

not exceeding the circumference on the interior and/or

a single fracture

in the socket

exceeding lengthwise. inches thickness

three

inches around

Chips and fractures of the barrel. Yet

shall not exceed two a depth or chips whatso-

in length,

one inch in width, if a liquidtight and Chemical a water

no cracks,

fractures,

ever are acceptable

line is to be attained. Requirements, absorption subsection 4.2

(2)

Section

4,

Physical and 4.3

Absorption

Hydrostatic

Pressure Test. The effect

of these

two subsections beads of sweat to appear under 10 inch pipe, this high will should of the

is to permit

of the clay pipe as liquid

high as eight percent

and a hydrostatic

test of ten psi that accepts from 7 minutes for 4 to

on the outside of the pipe, but no running a test duration for provide Most ranging

21 minutes not

36 to 42 inch pipe. An absorption line, and the pressure test days (72 hours) be well regardless below the day prespipe will

a liquidtight quality and will

be maintained diameter.

for at least three first

above maximum sure test. (3) Section in Table the 10,

absorption

easily meet a three

Finish their

of

Ends,

states

the

ends of the pipe shall be the tolerances provided

square with

longitudinal

axes within

2. This same section also defines the scoring on the inner surface of the spigot and permits it is conducive to the proper should be certain of scoring when

surface of the bell and the outer elimination application

of the joint to be used. The engineer on pipe that he buys. for the three material the

that the scoring is provided Originally bestos, as the whether for acid lightly called which a soft the fiber specified

ring seal was African for this work. same clay This may Today specifications be a three

blue

as-

best chemically ceramic

resistant

asbestos, call only strand,

blue or white, random such brick twisted roving

is rarely available, fiber

so that current

made from provided

sources as various

as FibrefraxB

or KaoWool@. that of choice integrity,

mass of material, by textile

the three

strands are separated mass (usually

and used independently. may be lightly

The material manufacturers to retain twisted

is the loose fiber

or sliver

by asbestos manufacturers)

but is soft enough to saturate

600

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

fully

with

the soft wet resin mortar of resin mortar anticipated oxidizing

mix and to caulk tightly

into the joint

to

provide a plug in tight contact The selection of chemical However, exposure bell and end of spigot, if strongly

with all sides. to use to fill the contact the ceramic to area between shoulder caulk depends is a furan on the resin.

and to saturate material formaldehyde

for the sewer. The usual material is likely

be present,

the designer and

should consider

using a vinyl ester or polyester by phenol

resin. Strong solvents are in most resins, and if oxidants probably chemical content should pipe. content go to the former. of the

cases best handled

or furan

solvents are both to be encountered In all events the designer Strong alkalies will stream with the resin manufacturer to be high enough for the pipe itself. the pipe temperature limits to destroy or the liquid

the choice would before making

should discuss the anticipated damage the pipe. a vinyl If the alkali

his decision. (pH) is expected be too high also the standard the hold with it will probably

ester mortar, Clay may Pipe

If this possibility streams

arises the matter enter the

be discussed with Consider The cited

manufacturer at which

National

Institute.

service conditions Finally, the selection is the for

to 14OF or lower. of the caulk commonly

If very hot liquids are to enter will

system, this too should be discussed with the pipe manufacturer. at the end of the bell, which sulfur mortar material. joint, with employed specific in the three 1.2% noted, rings must be made. most be expected Being poured below Here hot poured plasticized

Thiokol@ cannot anchor (1)

This, as previously but it will provide over most other it in an unheated in at a

to in itself yield a liquidtight It has three joints weather. hot, can be finished

a sound materials. trench freezing, joint,

the rings.

advantages

in freezing

or even sub-zero the lowest

(2) If the rings were caulked

temperature

cure temperature

of the resin, but not as low as heat to finish the cure is a completely full joint

the heat of the sulfur pour will provide sufficient in the three rings. (3) A poured a pouring gate is employed. filling

of the resin material providing but continuously filled. toring mortars If the joint and careful filled. (>4%)

Pouring of the joint isdoneslowly, takes place to assure that the joint that the bottom is completely of the joint is

and steadily,

the gate so that cure shrinkage

in the gate and not in the top of the joint, is hand caulked, inspection common

labor being what it is, only by moniof sulfur

can it be certain from liquid to solid.

completely

The only disadvantage

is the high degree of shrinkage

on hardening

If it is vital for the caulk the sulfur available-an toring is completely or from able epoxy this problem. A common probably or flexible inside collar joint must be replaced epoxy (<O.l%

to act as a safety seal behind the three rings, then and lowest shrinkage resin mortar If this is to be used, great care in moniwill be required which not yet noted, to be certain that the joint cannot be seen from the top this purpose and solve will it may well be that a pour-

by the strongest shrinkage).

and inspecting

the installation

full-especially grout

at the underside which

the side of the pipe. Although can be developed

can accomplish

design for clay pipe, one which the pipe manufacturer joint. For this kind of joint than the outside and usually cemented is smaller

try to sell, is a pressure is set into, of the collar

an elastomeric of the against

to, the inside of the bell. The dimension

dimension

spigot, so when the spigot is seated in the bell the collar squeezes tightly

Nonmetallic

Chemically

Resistant

Materials

in Waste Handling

601

the shaft of the pipe, neoprene may movement There or PVC, be employed. are two

in theory

making of joint

a tight joint. usually is flexible

The collar is often synthetic,

made of that

although This type limitations

there

are other,

materials

and allows some independent joint. (I) As pressures of solto

of the two pipes. to this kind of pressure

increase on the inside of the pipe, and even in some cases merely the weight the liquid stream, the contained of the pipe and the joint vents or other swell, plete chemicals or to disintegrate, failure of the joint. will leak. (2) Many can destroy reasons of the waste streams contain these collars, the material pressure wastes. cementing them

liquid can squeeze past the collar along the shaft attack causing them to

that can and will or which

the inside of the bell, resulting employed in sanitary

in the loss or popping

out of the seal and comjoints although often wastes or for sani-

For these

lines should

not be used for industrial

tary lines which

may receive streams of industrial

SUPPORT

AND

BACKFILL resistant masonry can therefore joints in clay pipe are rigid. Ground continuous support. movement, what

Chemically that a// industrial others

such as settlement, opinion prepared, require

break the pipe.

For this reason it is important No matter

waste lines be laid with

may have of the stability adjustment operation

of the soil in the area where the pipe is excavation, no matter how well surface bell the can unito attain the suitable in others. smooth

to be laid, this writer and slope after excavations

has never seen any trench

that did not require the trenching

had been completed. surface removal room

These adjustments In addition After

fill in some spots and further are required to provide

working

to make the joints.

line is in service, heavy rains, flooding cause soil movement form support, provide tion above movement

and even percolation

of groundwater without

and around

the pipe, and eventually, operations concrete

will take place that breaks the pipe. of the line is to pad a few inches In addiby pouring under a continuous

The only way to insure long life and satisfactory continuous support wider than the outside saddles should In lengths distribute that that the saddle, caulking. added require to diameter

of the bell, the full length of the trench.

be provided beyond the

the shaft of the pipe at the bell end so for the pipe, holds it steady during the intermediate chemical saddles should companies concrete be used to

besides acting as support six feet, load.

additional

One of the major be given continuous

all clay pipe of 12 in. diameter

or less be fully

encased and this company

all clay pipe of larger diameter line. Suffice never lost an industrial All spoil from in diameter. that after time between Backfill sewer.

full support were followed

up to the spring

it to say that while these specifications the trench should that

is to be used in backfill, tamped at frequent and tamping

to the depth of

1 ft.

above the pipe should be screened to remove all rock or stone greater than % in. be carefully and under until intervals to be sure saddles and tightly done carefully and it is solidly every few placed around of the ditch, spoil may the pipe between

the walls

and such fill

inches of backfill

one foot

above the pipe line, at which

the unscreened

be used, and as needed to fill the space, stone

602

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

screened

out

earlier

may

be added.

Compacting

should pipe.

be done carefully

and

continuously

as the fill

is added.

Failure

to keep stone away from is required however, make after backfill

the shaft or and tamping has

bell of the pipe will almost certainly In most specifications, is complete. testing, found fill, twice, it will

result in cracked

testing of joints

The designer should understand, be necessary to uncover to test before backfill,

that if a leak shows up on This writer then backto test

the line to make repairs.

it far better especially

repairs if necessary,

tamp

and test again.

In the long run it is generally the quality

far less expensive

considering

of the labor used to caulk the joints.

MANHOLES The century greatest engineers individual of manholes. source of trouble with industrial waste sewers has whether they were

been maldesign

Through

the first three

decades of the twentieth built entirely the clay pipe the

used the same specification or industrial

for manholes, cement mortar,

to be used in sanitary out of common crete bottoms, section manhole clay pipe. of the

sewage. They

were most often

red shale brick laid in portland concrete the poured brick all the around laid brick

usually with con-

into which the ends of the clay pipe were set. Often pipe then with it with tried in a circle over the

line was laid first,

it up to the spring line or the midsection where would go back lines,

was to be. After When those they became

was laid, the workmen most chemicals through with

onto the manhole especially concrete, and of money the masonry tension

hammer

and chisel and break out the exposed top of the that in the waste with penetrate the brick coatings and concrete the poured of time and three of hot asphalt

apparent

low pH, would

and channel

back along the clay pipe where with of acid brick

it was in contact

to seal or line these structures over the coating. block or brick. resistant or shear. one from chemically in tension outer

occasionally principles

It is a waste (1)

to try to build is no good cement

In doing so they violated Chemically The be supported. to the lining.

masonry: It must

resistant common in

brick/Portland fills with tight, applied liquid,

structure ground

is unreinforced outside

and has no strength

or shear either,

so it cannot

give support also crack. brick thick

As the manhole itself is not liquidor asphalt uniform the between

or the filled

it moves, the brick manhole (2) The masonry lining. The is a necessity

must crack so any lining and therefore, prior to structure putting (3)

inside it will in the

a liquidtight

membrane acid there liquids

over the supporting coating

is called a sealer,

but it is rarely

enough or sufficiently

to be liquidtight. brane is tight properly of time hole

In addition,

is no way to seal the joint or the brick walls, cannot points which cannot

edges of the clay pipe and the concrete and the contained bypass the membrane The only should at those juncture manhole

so even if the memit can even be protected It is a waste manall and is to in which

get back to the substrate,

with the brick lining. satisfactory be formed design is one that is monolithic. one from reinforced, of concrete and money to try to build block or brick. A monolithic by a continuous The next water-stop alternative

and cast, properly

pours are wet to wet or the cold seams protected a concrete the bottom adhesive employed slab be an integral

on each wet to dry pour. Such design requires that part of the structure.

Nonmetallic

Chemically

Resistant

Materials

in Waste Handling

603

construct the manhole of preformed sections, put together with tongue and groove type joints and employing an epoxy mortar continuously and generously in all joints. A prefabricated concrete manhole may be used, providing there are no cold seams discoverable in the structure. Regardless of type, the manhole should be tested liquidtight before being accepted for lining. (See the instructions for this test in Section X on Design.) If the designer decides on the use of FRP pipe or other plastic, a standard on a prefabricated FRP manhole, made from polyester resin is available. (See ASTM D 3753-79).

604

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

Note that neither A nor B provides either the continuous external support required to keep the brickwork tight, C supplies support but none have an interior continuous lining of a liquidtight membrane. Sketch 2: From Chemically Resistanf Masonry, 2nd Ed., Marcel Dekker (1982)

Inlets and outlets body brane fitting body and the fitting surface should

must be so designed be tightly sealed with and

that

all joints

between

the manhole the the 3

a liquidtight

seal so that the memIn addition, with of the connecting in Sketch

is continuous be totally thrust,

completely so that will

uninterrupted. any movement Note

immobilized the

line, whether

pull or sideways, or rupture

not disrupt

the connection the details

of the manhole

membrane.

which show both how they should not be designed and what designs are best.

TRENCHES Liquid trenches and and around waste transmission The will above section not ground is often handled by gutters and

which

pick

up pollutants

and chemicals be repeated masonry,

dripping here.

or spilling principles

on floors of design be the with

equipment.

on design covers the

construction

so they

However,

space must

given to a design frequently limitations designer of chemically and owner

suggested, especially which

by those unfamiliar can cause difficulty

resistant

for the

if the wastes conveyed

in it are to be kept

out of the sub-

strate and out of the soil below it.

Nonmetallic

Chemically

Resistant

Materials

in Waste Handling

605

Brick Mortar Membrane ick ortar

G
, Membrane Fills Notch

A-With concrete outer shell, we now have support for the brick, but note that the membrane is discontinuous at the bottom where it terminates at pipe edge. B-This is a typical inlet design, with the entry pipe simply embedded in the wall, membrane brought to pipe edge and brick laid around the intru,ded pipe. Ground movement or expansion/contraction of the pipe can push or pull the pipe through the cavity in the concrete and cause the joint and membrane to be disrupted, and contained liquid to get back to the concrete. C-A slight improvement over B in that the pipe cannot be pulled out, but it can be pushed in. D-This is a much improved design. The membrane is carried through a cavity in the concrete to the outside. The pipe is carried through the cavity, inside the membrane, centered by seal rings of caulking, installed in the same manner as the seal rings in the pipe joints, and the balance of the annular space packed full of furan resin mortar. The brick is laid up to and bonded to the intruded pipe with the same furan resin. The only difficulty with this design is that the pipe can still be pushed in or pulled out, so disrupting the joint. However, if this happens, the contained fluid can only leak along the shaft to the outside, without getting through the membrane to attack the concrete manhole. E-This design prevents pull out, but not push in. F-Here the pipe is successfully anchored against movement in or out, and &he membrane is still continuous to the outside. This is the best design. G-If the pipe line is plastic or steel, this design, although less perfect than F, may be used. It holds the pipe rigidly in place to prevent movement but relies for membrane tightness on the seal at the internal notch so that any leakage at that point can enter the concrete along the shaft. Sketch 3: From Water & Sewage Works, Vol. 127, No. 2, PP 51.

The bottom trench,

normal and the especially

design two

of

a trench

is rectangular, to lay brick

with in the

brick bottom

lining

on the

sides. In order forms

of a narrow

if it is deep, the mason must kneel along side of it and reach are not set exactly on multiples of the brick size,

into it. If the concrete

606

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

there will labor tured

also be a lot of cutting came up with half

of the brick

required would

to fit the bottom. pipe)

Years

ago, someone

what he thought round to form

be a great way to save these channel manufacand to separators, the of the trench, Rubber

costs by casting to C70082a. liner would

pipe (also called the forms

into the concrete plates inside be set between and point

the bottom for the wails. When

set ceramic l/i in. wide, all that rubber chemical

the plates. with A.

the forms would

were stripped, to the

would

have to be done

to finish

the trench

be to remove appropriate

separators exposure.

all the joints

a resin mortar

See Sketch 4, Drawing

applied air renlbrrnc

CWh-UCtlClfl ,Oll

ColtnJCllorl jOI

A Sketch 4

Note that the layer

in Sketch 4, Drawing bonding

A, there is no membrane

at all. If any of the and the tile manufactured of 6%. no

joints leak, the chemical of concrete to ASTM will fall into the trench. to conform According described) (including

waste will get into the concrete the tile to the wall will C479-82 which Note also, that vitrified Standard although

behind the tile and soon be attacked

clay liner platesare allows limit

an absorption

to this standard, test is only liquids attack

an acid-soluble

is set at 0.25%,

specific test is specified small cracks)

to be run, and further, to be run if specified. are permissible. fail to penetrate get through on the substrate. a membrane

the standard In addition, the joints,

says that this (untherefore, that even

some surface defects they will certainly, a membrane, of this brick bottom.

It must be evident, through

if the contained one can expect design, Drawing

in not too long a time,

the bodies of the tile. Without So we next find is applied

a modification

B, where

on the walls, and acid pipe in the trench

laid over the membrane interrupted membrane,

and bonded to the half-round and there will

Just as in the case of the manholes, in the manholes of the old design,

we are dealing here with a discontinuous be leaks in the bottom the channel just as there were pipe (ASTM C700) pipe.

but through

and at the termination

of the membrane

against the edge of the channel

Nonmetallic

Chemically

Resistant

Materials

in Waste Handling

607

To down

prevent

such leaks in the pipe, including

bottom,

the

membrane at the correct applied,

must be continuous may be formed locations to to accept By the if brick the floor

the sides and under the channel

pipe. Thus the concrete

accept the channel pipe installed, time even more,

depressions between

the bells of the channel making cost all this is done, labor

pipe, then the membrane the joints

and finally

the channel as much, or than

sections as we fit the sections. concrete work)

it is likely (including

that there will have been consumed some expensive

had been laid. Where half-round is poured around (1) the following: of the floor, pipe is merely set in the floor to create a gutter, it. Anyone who designs a gutter poured this way should bear in mind float of portwill be of

If the half-round

pipe is set in the forms as part of the laying next to it and under it will (2) The acid-resistant But these joints to run only At half-depth, joints will have to

the pressure of concrete the concrete is poured

out the pipe unless it is heavily be made before land cement broken. so if the pour to accommodate the capacity it is wide-so rapidly concrete

braced.

under it to prevent the intrusion in the half-round pipe, the joints at halfdepth, only

into the pipe joints. and gutters

are hard and brittle, so as

causes any movement surges without

(3) Trenches

are designed overflowing.

one-third

of half-round

pipe will be provided

because it will be half as deep as as if designed splash into side. In a will splash capacity. (4) If liquids run

the gutter will have to be wider for the same capacity a lot of floor toward will space for a minimum from the gutter-as this rapidly From

rectangular-using the gutter-they rectangular the other

over the floor

a spill, when they and strike the other liquid will side, the liquid

cross the top of the gutter gutter, is vertical.

cross section side-which

moving

splash across to

the opposite

back and down into the trench. In the case of half-round but sloped down ing into amount onto the floor the gutter, pipe, the opposite be reflected side of the gutter upward is not vertical, and back toward the waste will that the source of the liquid, so instead of bound-

and out of the gutter,

on the other

side. Therefore,

for all these reasons, even with the this design is not recommended.

of brick cutting

may be required,

HOLDING, The concrete, this type

EQUALIZING, usual construction with suitable

OR NEUTRALIZING material for tanks

TANKS to contain or process liquid is on or

linings.

Concrete

is the material

of choice

if the vessels steel, FRP,

are set on or partly even wood. supplied cited The

in the ground. on wood

(See the section on Design for information are plastic or rubber-lined Structures Wood in the Supporting and chemical of the section. section Tank

of construction.) paper

Alternates

provides Institute tanks or

some design data on this material, in the two Technical in the bibliography of that

resistance data for wood tanks is National ground storage

Bulletins

If above

process tanks or process equipment it is elevated cleaning and repaired and inspection,

is planned,

the designer

should be sure that external quickly

above ground to provide for ventilation so that if leaks develop, damage can occur. before extensive

under the bottom,

they may be discovered

608

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

SCRUBBERS AND ANCILLARY

EQUIPMENT

Many scrubber designs make effective use of chemically resistant masonry, especially in the contact area between the scrubbed gases and the scrubbing liquid. The receiver may also be brick-lined as may trenches carrying the waste liquid. If bleeding of the waste and recirculation are planned, additional equipment may also be considered for lining. The Design section covers the recommended procedures to be followed.

INSPECTION

AND REPAIRS OF MANHOLES

AND CLAY

PIPE

During installation of clay pipe and manholes, careful inspection and rigid compliance with specifications is essential. It should be borne in mind that after installation, it is impossible to inspect the workmanship from the outside, and internal inspection is possible only for the exposed surface. There is no way that an inspector can verify that either the membrane or the substrate of the manhole comply with specifications, that holidays do not exist, and that membrane thicknesses are as specified. The inspector should check all work carefully as it progresses, including all membranes prior to brick installation, and all joints in pipe as they are caulked. Water tests on pipe should be made, both before and after backfill. If backfilling is done before testing, there is no way to identify which joint is leaking, and the entire line will probably have to be uncovered-a most difficult task when one remembers that the most common point of leakage is the bottom of the joint. On the other hand, if no test is run after backfill, the owner may not find out for some time that the pipe and/or the joints were disturbed during backfill and tamping, and that the line now leaks. Such damage is often noted when stone is included in the backfill, and where heavy equipment is used in compacting the soil. Where interruptions in the membrane lining in the manholes occur, waste chemicals get back into the concrete manhole body and damage or destroy it over a period of time, resulting eventually in the collapse of the manhole. It is usually a waste of effort to try to repair a manhole that leaks because by the time the leak is discovered, the waste chemicals have usually saturated the concrete, and damage is too widespread. It is better to a bandon the manhole completely. During the following repair, the temperature of the area and all components must be kept to a minimum 60F. The flow through the system is stopped off upstream at the next manhole or point of entry, and the damaged manhole is bypassed, bringing the wastes back into the line downstream. The old manhole construction is completely excavated, removing all contaminated soil and exposing the pipe ends. Plugs are put in the pipe ends to prevent the intrusion of rubbish, and the outsides of the pipes are cleaned and sanded. Inner and outer concrete forms are built around the pipe with the ends passing 3 to 4 in. through the inner form, the inner space and bottom is poured with new high-early concrete. If pressed for time, the new manhole body may be completely poured with epoxy grout. Although this is quite costly, it will cure in 24 hours, and if properly done may not require a membrane and brick lining, depending on the chemical exposure.

Nonmetallic

Chemically

Resistant

Materials

in Waste Handling

609

If joints in the pipe leak badly, caulking around or with the joint and filled with

it is a waste of time to try to fix the leaks by a so-called or asphalt. diaper joint wrapped Repairs from the outside will eventually The only way to

the use of sealers, or with hot sulfur infiltration,

will assist in stopping stop a leaking joint the pipe costly, is now, should however, and faster,

but the seepage of exfiltration on the outside.

start again, pushing off any kind of seal applied be replaced. than trying a possible 90% way of the time, to make

is to cut it out and replace it. If all, or most, of the line leaks, doing the job over again is less There be internally, and this will to save what was done wrong to start with. a repair

covered later. Armoring If the shaft kept of the pipe, or even a joint, through the crack, length manner. a considerable is cracked or otherwise damaged, glass

and the line is leaking in service for This is done fabric and furan mortar.

the line can often be saved, or at least of time During by armoring it with

in the following

all the following

steps, the

pipe must be kept at 60F or higher. (1) Clean the it carefully (2) entire exterior of the damaged section around the full

circumference

and for 4 in. each side of the fracture,

and then sand

to remove all the hard burned surface of the pipe. lengths of light, soft, loose weave, glass cloth 13), each long enough to go twice around area. by the manu(as the

Measure out three described

in Chapter

pipe, and wide enough to cover the entire cleaned (3) Prime facturer (4) Mix the pipe surface with a primer

recommended

of the furan resin mortar resin mortar

you plan to use. using 10 to 15% more the manuit into satu-

the furan

in a soft mix, mix

resin than facturer

in the bricklaying

(but first check with the cloth

to obtain

his agreement)

and with your hands, work until is completely

one of the strips of glass cloth rated, and the entire cloth (5) Starting around at one end Apply of

is black. the cloth, wrap it tightly and smoothly twice with

the pipe, covering the fractured a C-clamp

area completely

layers of cloth.

or an equivalent

to hold it in place

until it cures. Keep it warm (6) 24 hours later, until it is hard. (7) Remove the C-clamp

(6OF minimum). be hard. If it is not, apply heat

this bandage should

and repeat

steps 5 and 6, but this time wrap direction. making a third bandage with the of

the cloth tightly (8) Repeat third these

in the opposite more

steps once

piece of cloth, upper

once more counterwrapped. ones from loosening the

The shrinkage one below

each bandage will cause it to tighten ages prevents causes it to pull even tighter.

up. Counterwinding

the bandit, and

610

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

Although years. Internal Repair

this repair

is not a cure-ail,

properly

done,

it can last for many

In the last few years, a procedure

has been developed

for placing

a seal on

the inside of a leaking clay pipe line. The procedure

is as follows: fabric heavily impreg(or

(1)

A sock nated with curing) 150F tures. with

is manufactured a fluid the reaction of The the

of a soft feltlike with which

resin into which remains sock diameter

has been mixed is initiated unaffected

a hardening

agent, range, The

by heat in the temperawith identical a covered

but which

at ambient is made

outside coating.

is completely sock

urethane

of the

that of the pipeline between

to be repaired

and the length the same as on each end of

the distance

the interiors lining. inside-out is pumped

of the manholes

the section requiring

(2)

The

sock

is turned

as it is pulled into the

into and through to inflate

the

pipe, and cold water

sock

it fully,

and to press the resin-soaked (3) As soon as the circulated ture up to 180F, resin is fully The entire sock is fully at which

felt side against the walls of the pipe. inflated, temperature the water bringing the water in the sock temperais

through

a heat exchanger and cured. should

the internal

is held until the

hardened

interior

of the pipeline

now be covered

by a liquidtight

lining. The closed end can now be cut off, the two ends sealed into the manhole linings, and the waste line returned This type once centered vious that type. ploying Although epoxy and the first resins used belonged better chemical considerably resins, to service. designed for the repair of sanitary polyester waste services, at to the terephthalate class. Interest of lining was originally on repairs to industrial

lines and in some cases, it was obthan that offered course, neither by this resin type resin is has this same general system, but emOf

resistance was required more expensive, also available. short for

is now

suitable for all waste exposures. Service experience is still too long-term test data, but what been seen so far appears to be most encouraging.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
I. 2. 3. 4. Sheppard, Waiter Lee, Jr., P.E., Chemically Resistant Masonry, 2nd Ed., especially pp 86-l 11, Marcel Dekker, NYC (1982). Haworth, B.C., and Stokely, J.M., A Better Way to Joint Stoneware Pipe, Chemical Engineering, Vol. 66, No. 18,~ 182 (September 21,1959). Sheppard, Waiter Lee, Jr., P.E., Acid Proof Joints in Terra Cotta Industrial Sewer Lines, Water & Sewage Works, Vol. 122, No. 12, pp 64-67 (December 1975). Clyburn, Harry, and Sheppard, Walter Lee, Jr., P.E., Uses of Chemically Resistant Masonry in Lining Air and Water Pollution Control Equipment, Proceedings of the North American Masonry Conference, Boulder, Colorado (August 1978).

Nonmetallic

Chemically

Resistant

Materials

in Waste Handling

611

5. 6.

Sheppard, Walter Lee, Jr., P.E., Redesign Controls Manhole Leakage, Water & Sewage Works, Vol. 127, No. 2, pp 50-52 (February 1980). Applications of Chemically Resistant Masonry in Liquid Waste Handling, Materials Performance, Vol. 20, No. 3, pp 34-39, NACE Annual Meeting, Chicago, Illinois (March 1980).

Section XII Prestressed Brickwork

613

47

Prestressed Brickwork

Keith Department

R. Pierce Sciences

of Mathematical of Minnesota Minnesota

University Duluth,

INTRODUCTION Brick Linings-A General Discussion, lining and the Problem of Tensile Stresses design techA variety of

The installation nique highly must for Since of operating temperatures unless the rounding expand These ically away special coefficient away tensile protective from protecting brick and chemically be careful

of a brick the resistant

in a process vessel is a common from corrosive environments. are available. stresses very well, over will half be operating

vessel jacket bricks that

and mortars tensile

and masonry to ensure shutdown

do not resist tensile conditions.

the designer range at elevated that to

stresses are avoided If a vessel will

the entire

or pressures, design of thermal Thus the from

tensile

stresses in the brickwork are used. This of brick is typically

be encountered, to the fact that will try of the surtension. to pull

techniques

is due primarily

expansion at elevated cause it cracks

steel jacket.

temperatures

the steel jacket weakening brickwork

brickwork, affords,

causing and

the brickwork

to be under

stresses will barrier

in the brickwork, also will

the chem-

cause the

the steel shell.

A Solution-Prestressing These tensile ing cure, which excessive in the steel shell. stresses can be avoided an artificial properly When designed, by subjecting the brick the vessel to a prestresslining and a tension to lining never is subjected

induces

compression

in the brick conditions.

stresses over the entire

range of operating 614

Prestressed Brick work

615

Description

of the Prestressing Process process depends for its success on the existence stages. In the first brick lining, nondeformable It is this After the of the swelling. of mortars

The prestressing which able. fore set hard The they The the first and ternal steel enough second

possess the ability

to be cured

in two

stage, the mortars state, but that not be-

to prevent

the collapse a permanent proceeds the

but are still deformswelling lining provides and

stage cures them

to a rigid,

have undergone prestressing stage cure The cure brickwork

the prestressing. as follows: tensile coefficient is installed has occurred, to the with vessel is subjected stresses to elevated due temperature to the inof the the tenthe in the

pressure. pressure jacket.

encounters higher mortar

in part

and in part contact mortar

of thermal

expansion

The prestressing the

swells, rigid

or stretches,

to counteract state. After

sion and to retain is complete, brickwork is subjected brickwork,

the steel support.

When the second is in tension. compression unless

stage of cure cooling, recedes

becomes temperatures undergoes

in its swollen

is in compression to elevated but it never

and the steel jacket tensile

When the vessel conditions

and pressures, stresses are encountered.

operating

more severe than the cure conditions Mathematical The ful which successful Analysis design of a prestressed analysis,

brickwork as can

lining

must the

depend following

on a carefactors

and somewhat

elaborate

be seen by

must be considered (1) The during (2) The ating (3) prestressing the second brickwork

in the design: mortars without must have enough the swelling capacity to

accommodate,

disbonding,

tensile

stresses

imposed

stage of cure. must be able it will to withstand the resulting both higher oper-

compressive

stresses that

be subjected

to during

and shutdown will

conditions. impose higher tensile stresses in the steel shell,

Prestressing which it must

be designed conditions,

to withstand. the thermal gradient across the brick which must not

(4)

During lining exceed

operating will material

cause bending

stresses in the brickwork,

stress limits. variables in the design number of a lining: and thickness jacket. will be described can be carerrors in the Ideally, to choice of matebe-

There rials with layers, tween next. ried brick

are a great differing of brick

many

physical

characteristics, joihts, needed will relative

of brickwork membrane

width

and mortar techniques will is thin many

use of an impermeable to analyze so that not to to the avoid quickly, produce a design

and steel, and perhaps assumptions as the lining should

the use of an insulating be made

The out

mathematical by hand. program

Simplifying as long

the calculations significant radius

These assumptions

analysis make

of the vessel.

a computer

be available, designs

simplifying

assumptions,

it possible

to analyze

and to eliminate

the possibil-

ity of mistakes.

616

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

The analysis described

is a refinement

of that found

in Reference

1.

METHODS Suppose sel, which temperature, ambient

OF ANALYSIS now that the designer the number has developed a tentative design for the vesfor each layer, and minimum and when coefof the installation

includes

of layers, material conditions, be encountered and inside

specifications maximum

and the thickness

of each layer, as well as the determination and the that will

cure and operating

temperatures ambient

both during operation and outside steps: of

idle. These operating and pressure, ficient.

and cure conditions temperature,

to be specified

are inside temperature heat transfer

The analysis can be broken

down into the following physical properties

(I) (2)
(3)

Compute layers. Compute Check swelling

the

composite

brick/mortar

the cure temperatures

and stresses in each layer. that will allowable, occur during the lining cure does If will break

that

the prestress swelling the capacity the maximum

not exceed

of the materials

in the lining to swell.

exceeds

up. Redesign and compute (4) Calculate tremes exceeded, Composite Each physical notation) (I) (2) (3) (4) The composite Thermal and mortar the temperatures redesign. of Brick/Mortar of both The

the analysis again. and stresses in each layer conditions. for the exare

of operating

and shutdown

If stress limits

Properties layer

Layers brick and mortar are: must have its composite of the brick key to the

composed

properties

calculated

as a combination equations

of the (See Table

properties 7 for the

components.

E = (Wb + W,)/(Wb/Eb k = (&,kb o = (W&,

+ +,,k,)/(Wb

+ W,/E,)
+ w,,,)

+ W,+,)/(Wb + W,)

+ W,)

9 = W,n,/(Wb

value of Poissons Ratio can be taken to be that of the brick. Calculation drops across each layer are calculated coefficients of thermal are temperature-independent resistance, (that by standard conductivity, is, uniform heat transfer as well as all within the

Gradient

Temperature techniques. physical thermal

It is assumed that

properties,

range of operation). per axial foot in a cylindrical

N + 1/(2?rr,h,) + C ll=l R,

The total thermal (5)

vessel, is given by

R = 1/(2iTrihi)

Prestressed Brick work

617

The first R, computed

two by (6)

terms

are the thermal

resistance

of the inner

and outer resistance

film,

Ri and

respectively,

and the third

is the sum of the thermal

of each layer,

Rn

= [(ln(rn

+ dn)

In(rn)ll(2nkn) film and across each layer is

The

temperature

drop

across

the

inner

and outer

computed

by the equations: (7)

6Ti 6To 6Tn = (Ti = (Ti = (Ti - T,)Ri/R - T,)R,/R - T,)Rn/R

(8)
(9)

The temperature

on the inside of the innermost

To = Ti - 8Ti

layer

is

(IO)
The temperature by (11) Finally, on the

boundary

between

layers

n and n+l

is given

recursively

T,

= T,_j

6T,

the average temperature (12) T,

in each layer + T&2

is

= tT,_t

Stress and Strain Calculations The exact quires radial steel calculation of N+2 of the of radial linear layer and circumferential in N+2 internal and the stresses in each layer unknowns, longitudinal is applied axial namely strain only re-

the solution displacements shell, and that

equations boundaries, that the that follow

the N+l of the to the We also of

vessel. We simplify assume a condition

by assuming the other of plane

pressure

layers stress;

the expansion is, no stress

of the steel.

in the

direction

the cylindrical We now each layer to and changing pressure, First of strain

vessel. We also consider give formulas when a new each for

the layer as being flat when the changes conditions undergoes which

layer stresses in in

are being computed. computing the system in strain, in stresses and strains Suppose that, a change temperature-pressure condition, layer the total due to encounters change temperature change. temperature and that

an average changes

Ap in inter_nal change of ATn.

as the sum due to pressure

we calculate changes

can be expressed

alone,

changes alone: (13) The two component: d, and elastic (14) strain Ae = AET + Aep components It can be shown modulus are computed that a thin to inner separately. cylindrical pressure First the pressure-induced shell of radius r, thickness given by strain

E, subject

Ap, undergoes

Aep =

AprIEd

618

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

In a bonded lining, the effective elastic modulus is given by

N E = (~ Endnlfd n= 1

(15)
where

(16)

N = }:; dn n = 1

The value of r is taken to be that of the steel shell. Next the temperature-induced strain is computed: The change in stress in each layer due to temperature change in that layer is determined by the difference between the total strain and the free thermal strain of the layer due to its average temperature (17) Equilibrium zero: change: ASnT = En(AcT -QnAT n) considerations imply that the average stress in the lining must be

(18)

N }:; ASnT n = 1

= O

Substituting in the above equation, the temperature-induced puted. Combining this with above calculations produces
N L\pr

strain can be corn

(19)

~e =

+ }:; EndnxnL\T n = 1

N }:; Endn n=1 in stress in each layer ~Sn temperature on the hot = QEn(~E is thus n) the tension inner which and outer varies from surfaces of a

The average change (20) Finally, layer mum the

-Qn~T between

difference

produces

an additional

stress distribution,

a maximum

compression

side to a maximum

on the cold side. The maxi-

values are given by (21) Sng = Y2anEnOT n/(1 -Jl.n) stresses in layer n are given by Sn = Asn -Sng (hot side)
(cold side)

Thus the boundary (22) (23)

Sn = ASn + Sng

Prestressed Brickwork
Stresses During The above and After formulae Cure can be used for calculating the stresses induced

619

in mov-

ing from installation conditions to all other conditions of cure, shutdown, and operation, as long as there is no prestress swelling. However, this procedure cannot be employed during a prestressing cure since the layers with swelling capacity are not perfectly elastic until the cure is complete. The method for mathematically simulating the cure process is as follows: First, compute the layer stresses in moving from installation to cure conditions, assuming that all materials are perfectly elastic. The resulting stresses are examined, and the layers that appear to be under tensile stresses and which contain swellable materials are noted. These are the layers that will swell during cure to neutralize the tension. The swelling is simulated mathematically by repeating the stress calculation with the elastic modulus for the noted layers temporarily considered as zero. This second calculation reflects the actual stresses in the layers at the end of the cure phase. For subsequent calculations the elastic moduli are restored to their original values. Finally, it is necessary to check that the swelling that occurs in the noted layers does not exceed their maximum swelling capacity. The actual swelling is the total strain of the system minus the free thermal strain of the layer, thus the following condition must be satisfied : (24) qn~~e -Qn~Tn

If any of these conditions fails, the lining must be redesigned by substituting different mortars, making the side joints thicker, us!ng smaller-size bricks, and so on.
Stresses at Operating Once the puted the and Shutdown Conditions and stresses have been calculated, conditions the conditions possible operating temperatures. or stress maxima, the vescan be easily simply comas changes that the vesand pres-

cure temperature operating (13)

distributions and shutdown by viewing the severest ambient

stresses

at various

using formulas Stresses must

to (24) pressure. for

in temperatures sel will undergo.

and inner This

be checked may

conditions temperatures

be at maximum to exceed

sures at the extremes If any sells lining layers

of idle and/or

are found

temperature

must be redesigned.

SAMPLE CALCULATION Assume that specifications for the design of the vessel are as in Table 47-1, the lining consisting of three layers: one brick layer, a mortar bed layer, and the steel shell. This table also displays the calculated composite physical properties of the brick/mortar layers, computed according to equations (1 ) to (4). Table 47-2 shows cure and operating conditions to be used in stress calculations.

620

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

Table 47-1:

Proposed

Vessel Design

Shape: Cylindrical Number of layers: 3 Radius: 35.0 inches to inside of layer number 3 CF TH EXP E-6 2.56 13.3 3.13 13.3 6.5

Layer 1 4.5 0.25

Description Sample brick Sample mortar Composite properties Sample mortar Sample steel Elastic Modulus *E+6 Brick Mortar Composite 6.12 0.426 3.59 0.426 29.0

Inner Radius 33.5 34.75 35.0

Thickness 1.25 0.25 0.375

Therm Cond 8.06 11.3 8.23 1 1.3 312.0 Swell Coeff E-5 0.0 700.0 36.8 700.0 0.0

2 3

Layer 1

Poisson Ratio 0.2 0.17 0.2 0.17 0.3

Maximum Compress 1600.0 2000.0 1600.0 2000.0 13750.0

Maximum Tension 400.0 1800.0 400.0 1800.0 13750.0

2 3

Table 47-2:

Installation,

Cure, Operating,

and Shutdown
70F

Conditions

Installation temperature Cure conditions inside temperature Inside pressure Ambient temperature Inner film conductance Outer film conductance Operating conditions Maximum operating temperature Maximum pressure Ambient temperature range

24OF 20 psi 80F 300 Btu/ft-hrwoF 3 Btu/ft2-hr-F 220F 15 psi O-1 OOF

Table by first from equations

47-3 (5)

shows to to

cure (12).

calculations. Stresses are are perfectly the ambient It

The elastic,

temperature using and using

gradient equations changes the layers change

is computed (13) to (24), in conditions containing allowing the assuming has cooled which

calculated

assuming installation

all materials cure are only stresses

(note zero). the

temperature that, layer shows layers can among

of IO, Ap = 20,

installation swellable layer a zero to the stress by

is found 47-3 layers. in the all other

materials, The modulus elastic

brick/mortar of Table two stresses These for the various

is under the stresses after the

tension, calculated cure phase

to swell. Table 47-4

last part the

in those

displays

installation changes 47-5 (5)

temperature. and to 47-6 (24), under show for

stresses temperatures operating

be used as a base from and stresses, again

can be calculated

conditions. calculated It is and shutdown specified conditions. limits.

Tables equations seen that

the stresses

all conditions

are within

Prestressed Brick work

621

Table 47-3:

Cure Temperatures

and Stresses

. . . . . . . Layer Number. 2 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Assuming No Swelling . . . . . . .

Hot side temperature Cold side temperature Hot side stress Percent of maximum Cold side stress Percent of maximum 238.9 190.3 565 141 1247 312 190.3 183.3 -386 19 -338 17

.......
3

........
183.3 183.0 -962 7 -862 6 . . . . . 183.3 183.0 2028 15 2129 15 -

. . . . . . . Assuming Swelling
Hot side temperature Cold side temperature Hot side stress Percent of maximum Cold side stress Percent of maximum Percent maximum swell

(Layer 1 Elastic Modulus= 01 238.9 190.3 -341 21 341 a5 96 190.3 183.3 -342 17 -294 15 -

Table 47-4:

Stresses After

Cure-Cooling

to 7OF

.......
1 Average stress Percent of maximum -906 57

Layer Number. 2 44 2

.......
3 2991 22

Table 47-5:

Stresses Under

Extreme

Operating

Conditions

Maximum Summer Operating Conditions Inside temperature: 220F Outside temperature: 1OOF Pressure: 15 psi inner film conductance: 300.0 Btu/ft*PF Surface conductance: 3.0 atu/ft*PF

. , . . . . . Layer
1 Hot side temperature Cold side temperature Hot side stress Percent of maximum Cold side stress Percent of maximum 219.2 182.7 -285 18 227 57 2

Number

.......
3 177.5 177.2 1660 12 1736 13

182.7 177.5 -319 16 -284 14

Maximum Winter Operating Conditions Inside temperature: 220F Outside temperature: OF Pressure: 15psi Inner film conductance: 300.0 Btu/ft*PF Surface conductance: 3.0 atu/ft*PF

. . . . . . . Layer
1 Hot side temperature Cold side temperature Hot side stress Percent of maximum Cold side stress Percent of maximum 21 a.5 151.6 -966 60 -27 2 2

Number

.......
3 142.1 141.6 3113 23 3251 24

151.6 142.1 -222 11 -157 a

622

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

Table 47-6:

Stresses Under Shutdown

at Ambient

Extremes
. . . . . . . 3

. . . . . . . Layer
1 . . . . . . . Winter Shutdown-Ambient Average stress Percent of maximum -1520 95

Number 2 Temperature: OF 275 15

. .. .. ..
4884 36

. . .. .

.Summer

Shutdown-Ambient -643 40

Temperature: -55 3

100F

. . . . . .
2179 16

Average Stress Percent of maximum

Table 47-7
Symbols and Notation Elastic modulus, Ib/sq in Thermal conductivity, Btu/ft-hr-OF q Swelling coefficient, dimensionless 0 Coefficient of thermal expansion, in/in-OF IJ Poissons Ratio, dimensionless Btu/ft2-hr-F h Film heat transfer coefficient, N Number of layers in the lining R Thermal resistance, per axial foot T Temperature Tn Temperature at outside of layer n Average temperature in a lining Temperature drop across a layer sT A Change in a parameter when conditions change S Circumferential stress E Circumferential strain d Thickness, inches W Width of brick or mortar, inches E k Subscripts Ambient, or outer surface Brick Mortar inner surface of lining nth layer Radius Stress due to temperature difference

across layer

SUMMARY The whose more book. designer tions.

AND

CONCLUSIONS described relative in this chapter apply only will to cylindrical require vessels

calculations is thin

lining complex must

to the

radius

of the vessel. Thick-walled or spherical, is beyond for performing the scope

vessels, and considerably of this handand the calcula-

vessels of other

shapes such as rectangular mathematical resort analysis formulae

which

In such cases, exact

are difficult programs

or impossible

to obtain, the complex

to computer

Prestressed

Brickwork

623

This

chapter

also does

not

consider

the analysis

of stresses around the experienced accurate analysis This method if he wishes of finite

piping, engineer requires has been reaction

connections, elaborate applied this

supports, techniques

attachments, failure such as the

and so on. While at these locations, Element complex Finite

can design a vessel to prevent with great success to should

Method. references

analyze

vessels such as nuclear in the field

vessels. The reader area. References analysis.

consult

appropriate

to pursue element

2 and 3 are basic textbooks

REFERENCES
1. Honigsberg, C.A. and Eschenbrenner,G.P.,Prestressed non-metallic VeSSel linings, Chef?X Eng. Prog., Vol 58, September, 1962, pp 81-84, and Vol 58, October, 1962, pp 97101. Desai, C.S. and Abel, J.F., lnrroduction to the Finite Element Method, Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York, 1972. Tong, P. and Rossettos, J.N., Finite-Element Method, The MIT Press, Cambridge, 1977.

2. 3.

Editors Note: In determining the insulation (number and thickness of masonry layers) required to keep the surface temperature of the membrane at acceptable levels, the designer may make use of a simplified calculation which is sufficiently accurate for this purpose. The procedure is detailed in Chemically Resisranr Masonry, by Walter Lee Sheppard, Jr. (2nd Ed., 1982, Marcel Dekker) pages 112-113. It may be summarized thus: (1) Insulation factor of system, thicknessof layer + thickness K factor + -thickness K factor . (RI)

R =

K factor of layer

(2)

Thermal DT

drop of system, = operating temp. - ambient temp. (usually 7OF)

(3)

Thermal

drop for each inch (or other unit) of lining then is, DT, =+; while for each layer DT) = Rl x DT,

Applying these simplified formulae the designer can quickly determine if his design provides sufficient insulation (thickness) or if he requires another layer. The cited reference provides examples of these calculations.

Section XIII Special Subjects

625

48
Chimneys

Brian Cooley
Peabody ContinentalUeine Des Plaines, Illinois Company

INTRODUCTION It is probable that if the subject of utility or industrial plants is brought up, the image that would form in ones mind would be of one or more chimneys belching endless streams of smoke into the skies. Whether or not the connotation would be pleasant depends upon your relationship to the industry. Regardless, most people would picture chimneys because of their visual impact, and rightly so, because they are an integral part of the power process. Today, however, they are more than just the simple exhaust pipe of years gone by. Thanks to modern power technology, todays more efficient plants are now able to squeeze nearly all available &us from their fuels before exhausting them. Couple this effect with todays tight emission standards requiring scrubbers and the result calls for an entirely new concept in chimneys. All the years of successful operational experience so proudly hailed by chimney constructors and owners mean very little in the new game where scrubbers are the big stars. There are no track records to fall back on, and the majority of experienced consulting ful for so actly what concerning Concept In power and heavy industrial application, most chimneys are constructed as a tube in a tube, typically cylindrical, owing to the airflow advantages of a 626 engineers have had to abandon old sets of specs which had been uselong. The chimney specialists, also, have little information as to exto specify. This chapter, it is hoped, will furnish some information the effects of modern conditions on chimneys.

Chimneys

627

circular from and

surface.

The

outer

shell is intended

to shield the inner flue or liner In many cases, it is also used The inner flue in turn

the forces of wind and the effects of weather. gravity support supported the outer with the corbel brick linings which

to furnish protects problems contact without combined inforced effects tance relationship

for the liner itself, as in the case of hanging steel liners (see illustrations). of the flue occur This concept would the effects shell. gas heat and negates the represents a synergistic

shell from cooler

of acid condensation in that neither Together

if the gases were to come in adequately and economically several times over. relast under the the imporalloy

external element

could function

the other.

they complement additive, brick

each other to the point that their structural shell made of either you realize

value is not simply concrete, common flue.

but rather is multiplied

When you consider of highly

how long an unprotected masonry, boiling

or carbon steel would

concentrated

acid on its walls,

of the interior

Similarly, resistant support

if one attempts material

to design a large free standthe support function materials.

ing structure of a normal

of corrosion high strength

such as acid resistant masonry, of incorporating building

steel, or F RP, he soon realizes the economy

system of common

PAST

DESIGN

CONSIDERATIONS prior to the required dry, 4OOF and were Furthermore, operational Thus, chimney infrequent installation acidic therefore of SO2 scrubbers, conditions. Typical above the acid dew itself experienced inherent within For this were

In the past, specifically most chimneys flue point fewer during were gas temperatures normal shutdowns

subjected exceeded

to hot,

seldom

plant operation.

the plant difficulties

due to the intermittent other thanat

the scrubbed reason, relatively common Corbel wet

gas systems themselves. acid corrosion

linings were not exposed to shutdowns. and chimneys

severe acidic conditions

start-upsand design factor, There

was not a major

simple to design, construct designs, which will be briefly

and maintain. described.

were a few relatively

Supported

Brick

(Figure 48-l) shell would upon which be utilized, segmental constructed thin walled with regu-

In this larly brick gravity

method,

a concrete

spaced shelves or corbels linings were

cylindrical support the

laid up. This design represented the exterior brick

an economical

usage of brick be present from the

as a means of insulating in a self-supporting cept would outer foot. The call for airspace, material The direct brick the flue

shell while having the concrete to use far less brick than would liner. A typical brick a few usually specification 4 in. thick from

loads, enabling the constructor independent approximately ranging if insulated, linings concrete

for this conless than a granular a dead each under

linings separated with a poured

shell by an airspace

inches to somewhat be filled

would

insulating airspace. other against with

such as expanded themselves corbels

shale. In many were designed upon which

cases, it was simply to taper and overlap sat would were nearly always

so that

they

be protected associated

gas contact.

Since these chimneys due to the higher

a negative

pressure condition

values of stack draft

the hotter

flue gases, not much concern

was given to the sealing details of

628

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

the linings because any leakage tended air rather than exfiltration pressure do not normally because of the existence the brick. This boundary is washed friction ful fans. Up until linings were though repaired attack last many areas. They the introduction to occasional effects, come layer, away

to result in suction of infiltrated flue gases under with

ambient negative at

of flue gas. Furthermore, into contact created of a thin film of stagnant by brick

the surface of the brick lining air acting as a boundary surface roughness and surface with the help of powermortar, mixes. the Albe

as the pressure inside the flue becomes positive at high velocities

and effluent

gases are pushed through

and common acid attack

usage of acid resistant cement/lime/sand conditions, mostly mortar

laid up in the usual portland

subjected years, as needed

these linings were able to dry and could the damaged inability mortar

due to the fact that they were kept by simply sandblasting specified with today, above.

and tuckpointing because of their

are seldom

to resist acid

in combination

low flue gas temperatures

and the effects of positive

pressure conditions

as described

Figure 48-l:

Corbel supported

brick lined concrete

chimney.

Independent

Brick

(Figure 48-2) brick was also used as a protective of heat. The flue and earthquake. layer to shield the strucranging

In this instance, tural from shell from

the effects

itself was designed to stand alone An airspace was provided to the exterior acid resistant It was bands cir-

against the forces of gravity surface of the brick supported silicate basically brick or common unreinforced

a few inches to a few feet, so that access could be provided liner, a maintenance The axially, structure cement portland advantage itself lining. was laid up in either as previously with

not possible with the corbel described.

mortars,

but was corsetted

steel tension

Chimneys

629

cumferentially to maintain stability against buckling failure of cracked vertical segments. This type of design is still quite commonly specified, using acid resistant brick and mortar.

Figure 48-Z:

Concrete

chimney

with independent

brick liner.

Shell Supported

Steel (Figure 483)

As recognized in the above described designs, heat was practically the sole factor in liner design. Given that a steel flue insulated by either an external blanket or internal refractory lining could furnish a similar or better insulating characteristic than brick, these were often specified in lieu of brick as an economic alternate, particularly in tall chimneys where independent brick liner wall thicknesses became prohibitively thick and expensive. A typical design would consist of a fairly thin steel plate flue being carried on grillages supported by the outer structural shell. In most cases, although the steel flue could be designed more economically if carried in tension, the liner would be supported slightly above the horizontal duct entry and allowed to act in compression. Horizontal bracing levels were placed at intervals spaced to resist lateral buckling while still allowing the flue to expand upward without restriction by the outer concrete shell. This approach was taken as a measure to avoid the necessity for expansion joints to account for the large difference in thermal growth of an insulated hot steel flue versus its cooler outer support shell. Todays design of steel flues or other shell supported linings also recognizes the need to account for such differential growth; however, since expansion joint design technology has advanced considerably, the desire to eliminate such joints becomes an economic consideration rather than an operational limitation.

630

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

Figure 483:

Concrete

chimney

with shell supported

steel or FRP

liner (shown as tension

supported).

PRESENT

CONDITIONS the 1970s and flue and into the 198Os, the most profound has been that The former atmosphere authorities of governmental usage of extremely for dispersion of practically effect on in-

Throughout dustrial regarding boiler

gas systems

legislation

restrictions

on emissions.

tall chimneys has come under As a a

to vent SO, and NO, strong attack result, mandatory fuel plan,

into the upper

by the environmental flue gas scrubbing facilities content, govern system. of a power the burning

all nations.

systems create a major design consideration coal and/or oil in the U.S. In selecting of other and costs, the that chimof plant quite operational naturally has economy and a myriad of in mind.

in all large industrial Factors fueling reheating economic modern natural neys of such as sulfur considerations of scrubbed approach. chimney,

the operator

freight

cost, availability,

characteristics related

a boiler

its flue gas disposal

Since Btus are directly see an entirely are of little they

to investors

flue gas to a point above its dew point is seldom a feasible We therefore new environment benefit. within gas at such low temperatures In fact, todays do our previous knowledgeable heat transfer, concepts

that of a wet acid saturated and stack draft tanks or the engineer fluid the flow normal vessels than

gas buoyancy resemble

more

stacks. To design them, material technology, beyond considerations

must be highly mechanics, function A/E

in the areas other For this

and many engineer.

of a structural

reason, the team concept

of owner,

and constructor

must come into strong

Chimneys

631

interaction

so that the chimney

system does not fail due to faulty

or incomplete

design criteria.

OVERALL

SYSTEM

DESIGN-THE

OUTER

SHELL a tube system, the goal of the of wind, weather, materials such as have or a are: brick masonry

In selecting the outer shell for a tube within designer carbon which is to provide adequate protection concrete, and seismic forces been utilized. in the most economical

against the effects manner. strengths, Typically, and engineered

or stainless steel, reinforced can result in the obvious preference.

Each has its own particular

weaknesses,

and economies

usage of a given type

in a given situation in such choice

choice based upon (1) (2) (3)

The usual factors

considered

Cost of original

construction.

Cost of maintenance. Aesthetics. it is not unusual to match Generally, that an owner or architect has a of his someit

In the case of aesthetics, preference plant. for

a given material

or compliment construction however,

the appearance and maintenance

For this reason, the cost of original be considered on a hand

times take on a lesser importance. and should

they are the major factors although short,small diameter stack

in hand

basis. For example,

may be obvious that a steel outer shell for a reasonably is cheaper than either effects dynamic top will of atmospheric downwash, brick or concrete, corrosion (i.e., the downward consideration trailing relative

should also be given to the attributable velocity to aeroat the of the stack effluexpenditure evaluated will simply

or possible flue gas attack

flow pattern

ent attributable

to its low exit velocity

to the crosswind construction

of the stack). be more costly

It may be that a lesser up front over the service life of a chimney maintenance influencing of the outer the original

than a properly

and planned of economy

system approach. regarding

Since it is not possible to describe all conditions shell, this chapter cost of construction.

touch on some factors Steel Shells Generally, cated resulting statement greater

if the geometry in a minimum be the for

of the shell is of a size that can be shop fabrinumber of segments This, being shipped of course, to its erection will be a much are is a very general

site, steel stacks will consideration

least expensive. stacks (150

in that the plate thickness taller of plain carbon steel.

and unit price of material ft. and above)

and those which

not constructed Brick Shells

Due to the relationship gas prices considerably tively (for the kilns), more expensive

between fired clay than

the cost of brick structural

production this effect

and natural has become with the rela-

brick for chimneys

in the past. Couple

small number

of sources for the production

of wedge shaped radial chimney

632

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

blocks, and freight costs may also have significant impact on the cost of constructing a brick outer shell. For these reasons, it is not possible to generalize on costs of construction for this type of chimney in this chapter. Consultation with ones preferred constructor(s) for the particular application and location is recommended. Reinforced Concrete Shells

For most utility and large industrial chimney applications, reinforced concrete chimney shells have been specified because of their relatively low costs of initial construction and subsequent maintenance. In chimneys where a fairly large outer shell diameter s required (IO to 12 ft.), the cost of a cast-in-place concrete structure is typically less than field welded steel. Since this chapter must necessarily lfmit itself to that approach most popularly specified, it will describe in further detail only the cast-in-place reinforced concrete outer shell without further consideration of steel or radial brick. (See Figures 484 and 48-5).

Figure 484: Chimney construction-Slip-form technique. The slip-form technique is a method for building a concrete column monolithiclv. During construction, concrete is poured continuously into four-foothigh forms that are steadily rising or slipped up the concrete structure using hydraulic jacks. The steady upward progress of the forms is timed so that the concrete is relatively firm before the bottom of the form slips bv.This method of construction is well suited for projects where time is of critical importance. It also has proved economical for structures of large diameters and for chimneys of extreme height. To reduce labor overtime costs, work is often done on a round-theclock, five days/week basis. Lasers constantly monitor alignment of the emerging chimney to assure proper plumb is maintained. Hydraulic jacks control taper and chimney wall thickness.

Chimneys

633

Figure 48-5: Chimney construction-Jump-form technique. The jump-form technique of concrete chimney construction has been in use since the turn of the century and has been refined to a remarkably efficient construction method. Specially designed steel forms are raised in regular increments for each pour. The forms are raised by the crew using chain falls connected to overhead beams on the derrick-a structure that incorporates a work deck and is hung by cables from the inside of the concrete chimney. For each new pour, the derrick is raised using chain falls and reattached by cables to the concrete structure. Then the outside forms are raised, as one piece. Reinforcing steel is secured and the inside forms are raised, again as one piece. After alignment and plumb are checked, the concrete is poured. Taper and wall thickness are adjusted by changing the circumference of the forms.

The tailed

design and construction Standard 307.

of reinforced

concrete

chimney

shells is deAlthough detailed

by ACI

This particular

specification

is the result of many

years of successful experience it is presently calculated materials ficient has not the not change geared only analyses for the effects actual are sufficiently

and is quite conservative wind or earthquake

in its approach.

to static design criteria stresses versus ACI

and does not include allowable criteria

of dynamic

responses, the ratios of stresses for the given are considered sophisticated committee under they do a sufis well limiting review, analyses

quasi-static

low that when dynamic

the shell design drastically. of dynamic accomplished at this

The reason for this is that while the contributory

compilation been

design data for the more time,

aware of these effects allowable and it is expected be included.

and has compensated

for them by conservatively is continually design considerations is as follows.

static stress values. The specification that the abovementioned A brief discussion of each effect

will eventually

634

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

Dynamic

Wind:

It has been observed by many researchers that when a cantito a steady wind flow, there is a certain of vortex effect, velocity at begins to oscillate has been attributed referred in the direction to the effect Karman transverse to the wind axis. shedding. These are eddies of wind

levered cylinder This phenomenon

is subjected

which the cylinder vortices, commonly

to as the Von

such as youd

see in water when rowing a boat. (See Figure 48-6 and 48-7).

I!
1st Mode

3rd Mode

Figure 48-6: The effect of vortex shedding on a stack subjected to a steady wind is oscillation of the cantilevered cylinder in a direction transverse to that of the wind (left). Theory says that vortices are shed intermittently from each side of the stack, causing the motion, Studies of such dynamic wind effects show only the first vibration mode to be significant in design (right).

Figure 48-7: Designers treat radial wind forces as a static load on the stack. Such forces act this way: As a steady wind flows across a cylinder, there is an uneven pressure distribution and a reversal of force, creating a suction on the leeward side.

In theory, pressure drops drop which nance, natural must I.e.,

they are intermittently across the diameter force

shed from as they

each side of the cylinder The resultant and along wind

causing pressure of resoto the

are released. column. wind

causes a lateral when the

having both crosswind of the

components

be resisted

by the cantilevered frequency

At the condition corresponds

excitation

frequency

of the cylinder,

these forces are at a maximum.

This generally

Chimneys

635

occurs within critical

a time

span of

15 to 30 sec. at the critical are fairly resonance for

velocity.

Since the

velocities

for most chimneys is unsteady, normal the

high, and the nature of the winds has a relatively utilizes low occurrence the maximum velocity,

at these higher velocities probability, strength by calculation, and dynamic tall slender resonant the their wind hence values for wind

design

such loading In many

the materials effects

involved.

cases, the critical

is considerably where

higher than any likely the critical velocity wind

steady state wind velocity, enough will to anticipate be subject to by

can be neglected. the quasi-static shedding,

In other cases, such as an extremely is low forces may still be higher than not be governed geometry

structure loadings forces.

occurring, of vortex

the dynamic likelihood induced

anticipated. Only After

In short,

not all chimneys are will of the specific

and some that analysis

a detailed having

of the

shell will yield a determination.

Seismic Loads:
requirements, quasi-static maximum quite namic utilizes history risk areas, the criteria ney code allowable tensile

completed

the design of the shell for wind must be considered. a conservative Further, For low set of the for the chimfurnish

the seismic response of the structure contained within ACI 307 values for shears, moments stress for Grade

and their distribution. to

stresses for static earthquake

are also very low, limiting 18 ksi. In general, 307 requirements two methods

60 reinforcement

seismic zones zero through safe and free from analysis for and data should be

two, a design based on ACI For the more performed. Historically, a time to

will be a dybeen local conthe the

doubt.

severe risk zones, however, have history the

employed

such analyses. related applies their

The first method, accelerations

response record, of recent under

to several of the more recorded

severe earthquakes approach, specify by various

structure

sideration. reason, the

While

this seems to be a reasonable of consulting engineers with

it is not necessarily an analysis utilizing

best solution

since it may not be representative majority as furnished

of the actual

site area. For this

local seismic response spectrum universities organizations. depth and committees A design,

research groups such as or other related as other scientific to the soil geological

associated with

the Government considers factors as well

per this method,

and its primary there chimney

interaction

the structure

effects of a local nature. In summary, to the concrete feel confident concrete has been a great deal of research and analysis pertaining shell. All in design. known effects have been studied thoroughly and consulting service life. engineer can shell of a reinforced Both the owner constructed,

and can be incorporated chimney

that, when properly will provide

the exterior

a long and trouble-free

OVERALL

SYSTEM

DESIGN-THE

LINER afforded to the design of the outer shell of standards for liner specifications. the service requirements for column subjected is stressed by moderate of its strength. stresses, meto thermal

In contrast the chimney This each. wind The Under lining, incongruity

to the thoroughness is highlighted conditions, hand, when

is the relative normal

lack of documented the concrete is constantly

you consider

pressures or by dead load alone to a very slight percentage on the other

636

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

chanical

vibrations

and acid attack.

While

we do have some data and experience linings has been, for may not hold true for Of the commonly standard Liners, used as prebased for design. successes which conditions. recognized

upon which the somewhat liner types, sented fiber

to base our engineering, new and/or unknown

the design of chimney scrubber

the most part,

based upon past operating

only

the steel flue has a universally The Design and Construction of ASCE (commonly in 1975 from referred of problems

Even this paper,

of Steel Chimney prior years. Similarly,

by a task force reinforced virtually engaged plastic

is a state of the art treatment to FRP)

upon the high percentage

the design of

liners will soon be governed For the present, by those few is so most or are the since there produced In short,

by a state of the art document however, companies little recent simply liner all FRP in their

to be produced

by the industry.

liner designs are proprietary; fabrication and erection. limitations. this chapter covered their is intended

technology

available,

to provide

discussion designed

of liner

designs and their

Since, as stated above, design document is as follows. discussed. A

steel and FRP

liners are either

by a published today

by the fabricator,

designs will be only briefly

general discussion of each type of liner specified Acid Resistant As stated standing likely Masonry earlier, acid resistant brick While

masonry the corbel

(ARBM) supported

has been a long brick liner has independent the

workhorse

in the industry.

seen its last days with they

the passing of the hot, specified

dry chimney,

brick liners remain those most commonly Typically, sulting from ing cylinders modate two. vertically cool wet gases produced separated in normal from

today. in resisting either or the hot, dry gases redesigned as self-supportspace sized to accomoccurs between the to expand

are used because of their scrubber They

versatility

operation

bypass conditions.

are, quite simply,

the outer

shell by an annular no solid contact

shell and liner deflections upward without material restraint strength.

so that

Under the temperature

effects of the flue gas, the liner is allowed by the outer shell. Precluding alone to a few hundred brick liner

seismic loading psi, a small fracrelated to

it is primarily The seismic portant structural mortar allow resultant the major

stressed by dead weight limitations

tion of its ultimate response

of an independent of flue masonry

are those

and leakage

gas. As to its seismic limitations, (average l/s in.) mortar such joint reinforced against overturning joints.

its imWhile the do not The

to note that the usual chimney units laid up in extremely itself is extremely embedded stability seismic their strong use of structure thin

consists of very dense, inelastic dimensions only While

and adherent,

reinforcement vertical

moments.

is basically capacity

a stack of bricks of the masonry, characteristics higher

by hooplike some allowmoments For destructures seismic depending In most inThat is, the a

bands to provide veloped generally zones upon by the

of cracked response use in the zone

liner segments. of these

ance is made for tensile preclude

the overturning risk areas.

massive

earthquake

0 and 1, the structures the liner geometry, an independent be aware

are generally 2 loadings

safe, and occasionally, can be accommodated. isnt always better.

stances where specifier

brick liner is to be subjected thicker

to semisevere seismic

responses, its important should

to note that

that one goal of good seismic design is to produce

Chimneys

637

lighter,

more

flexible brick

structure. segments,

This factor rule which for

should

replace

the old practice height

of to

constructing ness ratios greater

liners with

of thumb may,

values for in fact,

versus thickin structural imposing

of masonry

subject the structure rather than

seismic damage.

In a nutshell, thickness

its best to let the experts a chimney specification. to flue gas leakage will Annulus liner

design determine previously The further limitations

the wall

used values from a standard of brick

liners related

be discussed

in the chapter,

in the section entitled

Pressurization.

Steel and FRP Liners In discussing chapter, simply for the outer Today, of flues. thin walled the historical approach to hot gas chimneys Basically, earlier in this

the concept shell. The

of steel liners was described. for the gases, supported has not changed only much the temperatures temperatures, concept flues, factor

these flues were forces by gases. such steel flues or these types

conduits

against buckling for modern of their in specifying in Chapter

the newer

fiberglass normal

conveyed conditions,

the temperature Not only

remains the key concern (described

operating

but overheat

as may occur due to the loss of preheaters bearing in the decision of which FRP 350F under cycles. liners must generally are anticipated liner to use.

I), have major above strength of such a water basis. the acid a viable operating

be ruled out when periods of overheat

overheat as they may,

temperatures lose their however, amount use of with

for extended

of time, conditions

high heat. The duration Another approach to there

be of such

reasonably quenching Typically, dew point

short length that these liners may withstand which has been considered system however, reduce overheat temperatures conditions, do, for those

a limited is the on

an emergency when remain

has been little temperature

success experienced particularly however, systems

these types

of liners under means of wet

severe cyclic acid flue

is traversed

on a regular

basis. They

gas conveyance of mild you

in which

temperatures coating liner,

can be kept cool and well controlled. steel liners, the main certain surface applied for which longer a tall the following problems have been due to within a tall steel When consider the service conditions most coating

As to the concept failures.

its not hard to see why to the normal steel chimney generally feature

systems have not held up. systems have been tube length. to characteristics. because of the difficulstructure. expansion This tends of the coating steel liners that areas in-

As opposed developed, They ties

ductwork a much within

linings exhibit

span of uninterrupted chimney of thermal

The use of expansion of gaining aggravate conditions is even slightly Owing are subjected Under duced wind with of flexure

joints has been kept to a minimum wherein the coefficient

access to them different to uneven

from that of the steel substrate. there are many areas within impingement effects. temperature These distinct ductwork. due to the these movements how many cycles

to usual flow conditions,

face surface bonding everyday

stresses much more severe than normal conditions, the liner is constantly of the outer

flexing

and solar movements effects a chimney liner

shell. Coupling

the thermal

of the flue gas, it is easy to imagine experiences applied in its lifetime. coating

It is also easy to under-

stand how even a perfectly

system can fail, since even the tiniest

638

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

breach related coating, above, tions. ture, while

in the coating peeling, material from the

surface

can lead to acid attack

of the substrate

with

its in

blistering,

and delamination.

Even the tensile

stress induced

the coating Aside relatively

by its own cure shrinkage innate problems

can lead to minute

cracks in the stated It is

as well as loss of bond to the substrate. of operation realities under the conditions construction. controlled one must also be aware a coating one can imagine of the system of chimney involved

easy to apply

under perfectly

shop conditempera-

However, humidity working

the difficulties

in regulating

and other important factors influencing coating application from a suspended deck in a steel liner several hundred feet tall thousand liners must, conditions most cubic feet of air, which when heated tends Any coating use. linings have It is not the select, since system detailed liners. expenacid in the breechsystems conof necessity, allow liberal margins for less transient due to its own buoyancy.

enveloping to become than perfect Those

several hundred quite

sidered for steel chimney application coating

or they will be of little commonly specified

systems

for chimney follows. should

been either cementitious ing ductwork aim their should of this section chapter to

gunites or those which will be described of the brick indicate by liner discussion, system degree. in the factor or A242 the which reader field, which

successes have varied always be done

to a great experts major

Selection

of any coating based upon

specific

knowledge While attack ally

of the specific conditions is another

to be encountered. in the use of steel and FRP plate are not prohibitively coatings to protect

Cost, of course, sive, the cost of

mild steel liners made of A36 providing and

maintaining

against

can raise the price of the overall Similarly, the material brick lining. or Cast)

system to two or three times that of the plate and FRP resin generhigher than that of substantially

plate itself.

cost of high alloy

raises the cost of these linings to a point specified

the commonly Refractory

Liners (Gunite

In contrast todays applied gunited material

to the basic refractory or cast liners are much utilized wet

services provided more dependent attack. which (Figure

by their

predecessors, of the

upon the ability

to resist possible chemical type of concern chimneys.

Additionally,

the fact that the absorptive when lining

cementitious and brittle they

materials causes another for

in these applications 48-8

are somewhat illustrates

should also be considered a gunned

are specified

placed over a membrane followed in application Since there of structure, interface which direct may

as a lining of a concrete to a steel liner.)

shell. This same design may be shell in this type reach the such as that as they pene-

is no airspace between moisture In the them. likely

the lining and structural event of crack

any absorbed occur with

in the lining

itself will eventually formation, Further, alike.

between

due to cure shrinkage the inner exposed the lining

stresses, the gases can also come into rather strong acidic We shall discuss we will consider

contact which

areas of the liner. column

trate deeper deposits

into the lining, attack

they cool and condense to form and structural along, further column.

the acid attack the protection

on the lining of the structural

but at this point,

Chimneys

639

Figure 48-8:

Refractory

lined concrete

chimney.

In Japan and Europe, have been constructed erected, proof connected gunite anchors elastomeric

there are many steel stackswith manner: then the installed, and interior

refractory coated

linerswhich and with an acidcracks

in the following

The steel shell is fabricated

mastic. A cementitious shell there

lining is then gunned or cast over mesh the potential membrane. is an acidproof Since this

to the anchors,

the end result being that between

in the lining and the structural bonding chimneys Care must

mastic adheres as well to concrete with refractory when linings. applying

as it does to steel, and since ample mechanical this concept course, there is also feasible for concrete are mechanisms by corrosive in the vicinity through condensation. of the gunite Othershell, attacking Of

devices can be easily furnished,

which this acid resistant membrane be taken anchors to ensure a smooth

can be penetrated the membrane

and complete

seal around and to the anchor.

wise, acid can travel along the anchor to its base in the structural the shell from behind the membrane. As to the chemical sider the variety various materials silicate of materials effects on these types used. Refractory cement, with portland of linings, linings calcium normal

it is necessary to concan be comprised aluminate aluminate cement cement for or lightweight of a and with pH for aggre-

commonly including

compounds They

in combination exhibit

gates. The types lightweight and are somewhat

most commonly resistant

used consist of calcium good strength but are not

aggregate.

and refractory produce

characteristics acid conditions not suitable

to acid attack, aluminate

recommended

values of less than 4.0. operating temperatures

Since most fuel sulfur contents below

far more severe than this, calcium

liners are generally

the acid dew points of the gases. There are prod-

640

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

ucts on the market, as a refractory Some of them purposes (I) flue? acidic realistic to the will

however, for

suitable for wider in other

pH ranges which could be applied shell alone. For the of this handbook. factors should

lining

steel liners and ducts or for the concrete sections however, lining: of acidic moisture acids condensing low temperatures, conditions the of dew point nitrogen, condensation the following

be discussed

of this chapter, How likely

be considered within the and have due

in the selection Bearing oxide

of a refractory

is the possibility with about contents within strong what

in mind that the acid dew point of a flue gas is dependent content, at relatively prediction the specifier will

upon its

at high temperatures should actually

weak acids condensing information nonuniform elements testing

chimney vanadium,

experiacid inArmed

ence. Since the scientific fluencing with

temperatures

is difficult,

of sulfur, the data

and other to expect. fuel for

a fuel, empirical

data gained from of what the specific under and

previous experience a given inhow

or laboratory stallation (2) operating worries fairly with chimney

is generally

best indicator linking

experimental If the flue plant about constant. a coefficient

or operational is expected

to its dew point,

the designer can move to the next step. to be dry shutdowns point operating operator startups, between conditions, there doesthe have? In a smoothly are minimal remain the

much control

over the flue gas temperature experiencing traversing Typical the few acid dew

as flue

gas temperatures

temperature

differences between

gases entering

and exiting

are within

a small range (less than cycle,

lOoF) for a refractory is witnessed to penetrate if there are is mag-

of thermal

conductivity

1 .O and 3.0 BtulftlinlhrPF. flue surfaces simply time hand,

Even during run down deeply frequent nified. instance capacity into

a shutdown

and startup

not much acid attack hence little

due to the fact that the acids which the walls, excursions of having even a nonacid

condense on the vertical effect surface. On the other

no pooling resistant

below the dew point, but it will

the likelihood

of acid attack

Not only with the lining experience condensation, if moisture is absorbed all refractories

more surface attack due to thegreater a reduction absorptive, lowering in its insulating This aband any liquid time to evaporate.

also suffer

and not given adequate are somewhat than the typical further

is because virtually present within acteristics dense. expected, sideration between (3) will

sorbed tends to be more conductive the material then cool the surface that

lightweight

aggregate filler charare moisture to conand conmembrane refractory

itself. The resultant if frequent

of the insulating

and cause more below

It is recommended the lining should For

excursions

the dew point

should be constructed

of an acid resistant material of the previously main described for

be given to the addition dry stack,

the lining and the outer shell. a completely the considerations a refractory insulating value and crack control. in which It is desirable to provide lining is to be

linings are generally a reasonably

stiff outer shell for installations

used. This will limit the amount of flexural cracking induced into the lining by movements of the outer shell. It is also desirable to use reinforcing mesh or engineered anchorage devices to limit will crack width so that the insulating sections. charactermay be istics of the lining not be diminished by local cool spots which

present at severely cracked or missing refractory

Chimneys

641

Unlined

Independent

Concrete

Liners (See Figure 48-8) it is important concrete for to note that a have of

Without few specifiers simply

going into great detail on this subject, of chimneys unlined gases. They thickness surface which could independent between of the reinforced called

be subject to wet gas conditions, an additional thickness, amount

specified flue interior

liners as a means of steel and the intended reaction Valley However, to be

conveying exposed sacrificial, of a few portedly who

have generally liner.

plain concrete

the innermost

layer of reinforcing

The additional

has been observed to be attacked inches whereupon formed the by-products layer. a passive resistance

and degraded The

by the acid to a depth have reof research on Authority, since the that indeproin chimney

of such chemical

largest amount experience. similar

this subject practice pendent tection.

has been performed

by engineers of the Tennessee accepted, it is prudently

have had the concrete

best sources of operational liners be treated in a manner

has not been widely to wind

recommended to a concrete

unsubjected

loads but still

in need of temperature but most often the initial 400

and corrosion

Last in the discussion their selection, is economy. height sion for a medium Refractory pated maintenance cies in gunite, penditures. expected FRP, From

of liner types, Considering chimney brick,

the deciding

factor

cost alone,

the cost progresas follows: of anticirepair initial exand

lining about

ft. tall is likely

(cast or gunited),

steel and FRP. With is altered

the inclusion major

costs, the progression and coated standpoint costs, the of

since we have seen deficienconsidering effective

steel liners that economy brick they

have required alone, liners offer

maintenance

independent properly,

the best solution. service for

When designed decades without

and constructed significant

can provide

maintenance.

SPECIFIC Having difficult should annulus effect

DESIGN keynoted

RECOMMENDATIONS-BRICK the term proper than

LINER as pertaining itself. While buckstays, to brick

construction the masonry

liners, we must result

consider

far more

it is not too breechings, appurte-

to specify pressurization

materials

or seismic design criteria such things and many as bands, other

for a given locale which can have a great

in a safe structure, systems, upon.

appurtenances

on the service life of a liner.

In this section,

some of the major

nances shall be elaborated Banding System As anyone exhibit wall. temperatures, perienced and tensile the entire who

has inspected thermal material

a brick gradient

liner

can attest,

virtually

all liners of the

cracks after being in service. This is to be expected a substantial exists through the differential such as brick,

since, under operating the thickness when ex-

As a result of this condition, by a nonductile stresses on the extreme height of the liner would

rates of expansion,

place high internal compressive reach a point at which like the

fibers of the wall which can only be relieved ostensibly be broken up into segments much

by crack formation.

Since these cracks could

642

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

staves of a barrel, to provide to control point, Consider Suppose stability the

a system of regularly to the structure. of cracking we look that

spaced steel bands is generally aim of the banding mechanism about the perimeter

installed system is

A secondary at the actual

magnitude

of the liner. At this of this concept. diameter of 20ft. equal

it is important a temperature the

a brick liner having a 12 in. thick wall and an internal gradient multiplied for the brick. The upon steel of 15OF exists between expand interior face of the liner would by the temperature Assuming band,

the hot and cool face. toward a limit

Theoretically,

to its circumference cient of expansion mately fraction would crack tight have
ones

at that point and the coeffiapproxia small in itself, system in would be only

a value for this coefficient negligible expansion

half of then

that

of steel, this change

in circumference assuming

an inch. be called cracks with between

to resist this strain, related around in such

or a portion

of it, to control the bands are in

to insert

formation. contact
finger

It is easy to see that the effectiveness is directly the brick installed the

of a banding

controlling

to the degree to which liner circumference.

that gaps large a manner

In the past, we
enough

seen bands

the brick and steel are present. an independent what methods adjacent procedures. are, in effect, be stringently brick the chimney Special to openings controlled

These bands are of no value the purchaser would be constructor intends to use bands are small of See

whatsoever.

In specifying banding They should

liner,

well advised to ascertain to insure proper the transfer their to be interrupted. deflections The stretch deflections. controlling Figure 48-9. members

attention

should also be given to the bands react, and the relatively bending

placed

in the liner where so that

beams upon which

of the bands, as described use of shear keys deflections buckstay

above is not lost to high magnitude is recommended connection to the banding

as one possible method corset.

at their

Figure 48-9: Shear keys protruding from the liner face permit relatively light structural sections (buckstays) to transmit uniform band reactions directly into the liner brickwork as compressive stresses.

Chimneys

643

Breeching

Ductwork layman, it would the exterior layout appear that this relatively small segment of ductbe know

To the work better. entering To subjected zontal

leading from Improper

of the shell to the interior of the breeching in that it could

of the liner would experience

of small consequence the chimney begin with, to many

in the design of a chimney. and detailing is very important consider what

Those with

system leading ,~p to and affect the service life of of the breeching. stiffened box is it sits outer seis-

both the chimney At the onset grow vertically axis. shell may adjacent

and its tributary

ductwork. happens at each boundary this simple hollow

of operation different at differential Depending

of the chimney, movements.

The support of the

points upon which breeching entry, the

rates, causing it to rotate with the elevation in any horizontal direction

respect to the horidue to wind, boundary

upon

simultaneously while ductwork, with

deflect

mic, or solar effects

the liner remains expansion thermal

stationary. to other makes

At its interface induced ductwork.

with the forces a

it may also be subjected its own growth

due to wind loading or thermal all these effects flexible To support meet and connection

of the tributary

Combining gas tight.

it necessary to provide

system which the typical fixed

must also be relatively individual breeching

This is no small design problem. these requirements, vertical with arrangement at the conA vertical other. The consists of a hinged crete shell, coupled places, the supports expansion nor resultant joint system adjacent support against axial movement support of the breeching. neither from and/or the

a sliding or rolling just outside

detail at the lining. At both the chimney and the sealare the

are detailed

to allow selfgrowth to induced

is positioned

the shell so that loadings described

ductwork

is subjected through

allows all of the previously to the mechanical

movements,

ing measures are accomplished Of equal corrosive coated sistant vapor finally, with importance a suitable The conditions

the use of packing Steel breechings

gaskets. behavior liners must be It must be reenough to unbroken and,

aspects of chimney for brick

to be considered. for

acid resistant coating

system, just as must mild steel liners are as follows: It must ability be flexible a continuous

themselves.

prerequisites

such a coating and to heat. have the

to strong seal against

acids or alkalies corrosion. There

resist cracking

under thermal

stresses, thereby It must

providing

to resist abrasion, to provide epoxides furane

it must exhibit including

strong adhesive properties various pitch

to the steel so that sections do suitable coatresins to (with or without or epoxy been applied or poor

not peel off or blister. ing materials glass flakes), steel surfaces

have been many attempts or polyurethane paints, silicate silicone,

as well as inorganic have had varied chemical the market that made,

and each has its limitations. thermal their some degradation, from

The few coatings that have actually successes and failures attack on the material irresolvable in the block instances of failures for seemingly more research particularly itself,

due to acid penetration, surface It should and that may preand suppliers withdrawing deficiencies. presently

preparation. coatings

We have seen many however, has been

also be noted, progress coatings

is being done

areas of fluoroelastomeric systems, which FRP or alloy breech-

and composite

membrane/borosilicate to the steel coating

sent more suitable

solutions

problem.

644

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

ings may Having to the

also

provide

a solution the specifics of

to

the

corrosion

problem unit,

by eliminating we will now

the turn

need for a coating. discussed of a single flue related opposed Varying a brick breeching entries calls for into to structural openings from liner, where this there localized overall arrangement to consider the multiple a single single shaft. In this at

area, the factors Structurally, different ings must results Recent indicate of this further veyance, devices, model particularly Annulus As to temperatures that

are those

design and gas mixing. either where openings multiple breechgenerally

preferred

arrangement

elevations enter the in thicker

or diametrically

at the same elevation. shell wall sections mixing in scrubbed of gases within contents Recent

arrangement stresses.

due to higher gas chimneys

are a few precautions. flows of differing chamber for of conflow the brick

developments

multiple within Wet

and moisture entitled

have been mixed Problems Due to

it may be unwise

to mix gases within

the liner.

Refer to the section Gas Conditions for purposes vanes, In some

chapter discussion.

In cases where it may depending studies when

a uniform upon the

gas flow to intended

has simply baffles, entry

been split turning

be necessary

include

or other

configuration. proper of gas flows

instances,

are recommended it is felt that

to determine stratification

performance

requirements

are anticipated.

Pressurization witnessed natural the natural and the liners require entries over draft the years, of brick liners are relatively at the lower scrubbed buoyancy unaffected temperature reinto this from

As we have by overheat ranges. of sult ternal provide condition, leaking exfiltration the concrete result in acid structural well quite initial the Since the

temperatures,

but do experience a chimney When decreased draft. lining

problems of

is a function from

of the temperature gas systems is insufficient Under Aside the sum of all the pressure. they

gas conveyed, pressure brick

temperatures subtracted such decreased is subjected design occurring joints. tend

in less available selfdrafting at breeching of flue outer attack coatings

losses of the chimney,

to positive cracks,

supplementary their wall, mortar they

considerations.

and normally

also experience This can the use of as the small the gap

gas through shell or brick to itself.

As the flue gases reach either to cool and condense. include the annular problem space or the

nonresistant Feasible

materials solutions

within to this

column,

acid resistant annular

or materials the the to liner

for the column base for pressurizing A typical

and internal the purpose fans results

appurtenances of pressurizing in a fairly would spanning system entail the

as the use of fans at the chimney space between popular price Sealing since increase the inclusion the of

and concrete

column.

This solution

has become

chimney.

installation by

following. annulus-This of the brick of induced deflections Sealing details is generally pressurization of the outer vary, joint accomplished shell with air while and inner between restricts growths structed the flue the tops the outflow and lateral of alloy gas exit. liner and concrete a hood which conat belt

allowing shells.

for differential action

It is typically of flexible

steel or FRP because to expansion

of the relatively but the majority details.

severe corrosive consist openings,

arrangements,

similar

At minor

such as the

Chimneys

645

gaps between flashing,

the entry

ducts and the and caulking

shell or liner, are employed

various

combinations uncontrolled of

of

gasketing,

packing

to prevent

leakage. Doors and vents are also designed to resist pressure and leakage. Controlling capacity within owing leakage column) inlet the induced venting the annulus Under will airflow-Through areas, a balance various point combinations fan and controlled the lining. to certain due can be reached greater is that at which

the pressure within gas exfiltration

is equal to or slightly the assumption because of the

than the pressure most of the flue However, a

the condition,

be prevented

balance

of forces.

unknowns,

such as osmotic

pressures or the degree of future to provide (generally devices, 0.5 to 1 .O in. water system. backdraft that This can be dampers, the control does not of the this actiFor

to cracking

or deterioration

of seals, it is advisable

combination accomplished vanes, system and that liner

of excess pressure within the ability system simple, through and other relatively

the annulus venting It

along with

to adjust the pressurization controls. While is recommended

the use of variable

be kept backup

so that constant an extended can 100% fan,

maintenance duration lead to

is not required,

fans be installed. pressure

acid penetration

and attack problems.

occur instantaneously under most that reason, manner

upon fan failure,

of operation

unbalanced upon failure

conditions

specifications

call for two of the primary

capacity the other

fans set up in such a is automatically control panel. Other shell to allow usual internal potentially operation purposes pressure

vated and a warning recommendations Install pressure hazardous outside while of depressurization start/stop

signal is transmitted switches

to the operators location

are as follows. at each door prior in the outer door-The of the annulus entering allow the work. for the lining and annulus to account for drain system servicing both the annulus and pressure stops were installed. of flue gas into the points for any termination to opening the

on a chimney to personnel doors will

man door

approximates and exiting. pressurization an important

a gale force Switches system feature

wind,

on both the inside and to continue for ventilation

personnel Design drain

are in the annulus, maintenance systems example,

during extended conditions-For liner would Any annulus difference

a common

not be advisable

unless traps or other

in pressure could result in either the pumping air into the liner. Similarly, for pressure conditions.

or pressurization

such drains should also provide

PRESENT Recent

AND

FUTURE

ASPECTS

Problems the

Due to Wet Gas Conditions last few years, there have been several instances problems in which indeof wet

Within pendent flue tion

brick

liners have experienced and/or brick which

in resisting the effects to chemical over attack

gases. In certain of mortar of either

instances the problems

have been due to actual reagents from used silicate

deterioraby certain the flue for in a wet

were subjected

constituents chimneys

the flue gas itself or carry In general, certain

gas desulfurization are quite acid environment.

system. resistant However,

the commonly

mortars

to a wide range of acids and actually acids, such as hydrofluoric

thrive

acid, and most

646

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

strong resistant

basic reagents brick types within of the

can be severely The strong and brick the

harmful alkalies

to the commonly

specified

acid of Else-

masonry. mortar of mortar

and HF tend to dissolve the silica affected For the by sulfation. purposes with operational above, with

structure certain where of acid chapter, ditions. Aside effect itself.

itself,

and in some cases, the formulation and strengths consultation the intended discussed problems expansion

can cause it to be severely limitations are discussed recommends its suitability degradation which can of irreversible at length. direct for

this handbook, masonry simply determine the wet chemical surfaced gas, that

of each component of this coneach product

resistant to from

the author

manufacturer

problems cause major moisture

another masonry

has recently

liners conveying

of the brick

In the past, even with been like noted that many deflected shape after vertical flue

a completely startup of the the

dry liner subjected liners tended wall liner. elements will

to heat alone, it has on a banana is attributed to a thermal 48-10, it is on a impinge

independent growth

brick

to take subjected

of a boiler. brick brick

LEANING THEORY

This phenomenon In viewing Figure

to differential gradient evident that

of parallel

across the diameter gas entering

chamber
LINER

directly

Direct impingement higher temperatures ture deposition.

area exposed to and greater moisto

Stagnated flow area not subjected direct flow remains cooler and dryer.

Differential growth of parallel wall elements causes incremental rotations and resultant deflection of liner.

RESULTS 1 2 Small rotation over great large lateral deflections. Deflections Empirically Unpredictable Greatly effect. are: predictable for dry heat. height yields

for moisture

expansion.

exaggerated

for the combined

Figure 48-10:

Chimney

with full height independent

brick liner.

Chimneys

647

fairly large area of the liner wall opposite the breeching entry. As the gas turns upward toward the top of the chimney, it gradually mixes and eventually conforms its flow path to the full extent of the liner cross section. However, depending upon the geometry of the entry and other factors affecting the flow characteristics of the gas, the overall effect is that the direct impingement side of the liner will be measurably hotter than the stagnated flow area immediately above the breeching entry. When this occurs, each wall element about the circumference will expand at a different rate, causing, a gradual rotation of the horizontal plane passing through a given cool position elevation of the parallel axial elements. At that point where the gas has completely mixed and the thermal gradient ceases to exist, the rotation is at its maximum value and the masonry cylinder above will generally expand uniformly at a predictable rate along its true axis. It follows mathematically that from this point, due to the slope of the horizontal axis, each projected vertical increment of the liner will have a horizontal displacement component. It is obvious that even a slight rotation in combination with a large vertical projection will yield a fairly substantial lateral deflection at the top of a chimney. For this reason, the general design approach has been to allow additional clearance between the inside of the windshield and the outside of the liner to accommodate the liner displacement. Quite often, due to the inelastic characteristics of the masonry, a large portion of the lateral deflection remains permanent even after the liner is cooled to its original temperature. This condition is generally attributed to lateral slippage in the horizontal bed joints of the masonry, much as one would see in an unaligned stack of poker chips. In general, though, the deflected shape of brick cylinders subjected to thermal gradients alone is empirically predictable and has not limited the use of such design. Nowadays, the bending effects on brick liners are on the one hand lessened because of the cooler gases, but are also worsened by the less predictable growth effects attributable to moisture expansion of the masonry units themselves. Considering the probability that all acid resistant masonry units previously and presently manufactured and used in chimneys throughout the U.S. have the potential for moisture growth (some exhibiting volumetric growth rates as high as 0.4% of their original volume). Proper analysis and design measures take on great importance in a wet gas chimney. Similar to the pattern of heat transmission as previously described, the tendency for moisture deposition to be greater on the direct impingement area of the liner is a cause for concern. The designer needs to consider possible solutions to the problems associated with unequal moisture growth just as he addresses the thermal bending effects. If a brick is determined to be a high grower as previously described, a nonuniform expansion rate could cause a chimney liner to deform drastically, to the point at which large lateral movements at the top of the liner could cause the liner to lean into the shell. This, of course, is undesirable in that the masonry would then be subjected to induced stresses from the superimposed wind and solar deflections of the outer shell. Ideally, to eliminate the problem, sources of potential liner brick should be categorized as to their growth characteristics or possibly their material formulations could be altered to provide a lesser susceptibility toward such expansion. At present, however, there are no growth criteria included within the ASTM C-980 specifi-

648

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

cations within the

for

acid

resistant

masonry that

units

and Task

little similar

is known criteria

about to those

the

issue

the industry. nations brick will

However,

an ASTM

Force has been formed

to study of other of the

issue, and it is expected to diminish

eventually so that

cognizant be taken materials.

be included. these effects

For the present,

it is suggested that measures and versatility in the constituent

the economy solutions

independent

liner

is not lost for

lack of confidence

To that end, the following of Brick

proposed

are offered.

Preconditioning

Since, according fications, masonry example, artificial as much units the if they brick and

to the commentary are exposed measures before growth to a point for some.

of certain moisture

other sources of brick specitakes place within for about a year Possibly The problem. ahead most it of For a year,

as 80% of potential

growth

to ambient could could

conditions

seems that construction

some simple for aged moisture

be taken within

to lessen the the would liner.

a given chimney placement be created

be purchased

even an resultant This, of

environment

could

to enhance it could

the process.

decrease in latent of subsequent course, may may be worth Moisture/Heat not

characteristics where

then reduce the degree projects, but it

expansion consideration Shielding

be accommodated.

be practical

for the majority

of construction

In this instance, protective height which sacrificial osition on the primary cylindrical layer

the use of target surface which

walls or baffles is introduced are typically

to provide a dep-

lessens the degree of heat and moisture through the target gas flow.

wall of a brick liner. They areas by diverting masonry directly

designed as partial

sleeves extending

zones or else flat walls The usual design calls for membrane/boro-

shield impingement

a veneer

of acid resistant

and/or

a composite

silicate block surface applied Flow Diversion Rather direct A/Es flow Arrangements

to the liner as if it were glued.

than allowing

nonuniform

flow

characteristics relationship.

and curing the sympor reducing past, to achieve years, required Another the In the many better

toms as suggested above, this concept impingement often specified versus stagnated turning The practice

is based upon eliminating flow the brick rare chamber in recent

vanes within of corrosion

characteristics. devices within using exotic concept 1.

has become

however, for metal recently corrosion, in

because of the great amount turning practice, specified

related maintenance materials.

the flue gas stream. alloys or other may offer the

It may be necessary to return to the as far as flow, arrangement

acid resistant entry

which

best solution elbow that

and overall Figure 48-l better

design is that

of the bottom

as shown

Using this configuration, the effects of unequal by either

it is anticipated chamber,

the gas will which

achieve a much reduce It also eliminates

mix as it enters the brick temperature

a factor

should greatly

and moisture swirling

distribution.

the need for turning be augmented

vanes and baffle walls, although some minor

the use of this system may

vanes or a short section of target

Chimneys

649

wall just above the elevated floor. itself will be uninterrupted intact be completely resulting

An additional

benefit

is that the brick cylinder and maintenance.

by any major

openings and the banding systems will

in very simple installation

ll

PROPOSED MODIFICATION There is no direct masonry. impingement area on

Stagnant flow areasare better distributed. Growth due to thermal and/or moisture expansion should be considerably more uniform resulting in unrestrained upward movement onlv. Masonry wails and reinforcing corset area now uninterrupted by major openings. New requirements: Concrete pedestal and slab. detail at floor pene-

I
Figure 48-11:
Chimney with partial

Acid resistant tration.

Ductwork must be well protected and have allowances for future maintenance.

height

independent

brick

liner on concrete

pedestal.

In specifying should consider bining those which

a brick

lined chimney

for a wet gas environment, with case.

the engineer com-

all of the above

recommendations

an eye toward

can apply to his particular

49

Coatings for Nuclear Power Generating Stations

Edmond

W. Jarret Inc.

ConKhem, Furlong,

Pennsylvania

Protective tion of nuclear tion of coating and procedures include

coatings power materials

play plants.

a significant The

role in the

safe and efficient

opera-

manufacturing,

application While materials

and documentathis chapter will

used at these facilities cements

are subject to rigid specifications may be referred purClass 2

to assure a high of surfacing

level of performance. and paints, into three

a discussion power

to as coatings for the purpose of brevity. Nuclear areas include exposure plants can be divided interior traffic areas for identification Containment; poses. Class 1 areas include by radioactivity surfaces of Primary of Primary

those surfaces outside with areas.

Containment

that are subject to spills. Class 3

conditions,

and chemical

signifies non-nuclear

OPERATING Two ized water Within reactors operation Primary

CONDITIONS of reactors are used to power these facilities. (BWRs). created by the two types of and the within coatings that of construction They are pressur-

types

reactors Primary of the

(PWRs) and boiling water Containment, and will vary according particular reactor. are subjected areas may would

reactors

the environment Under normal

is similar

to the method

conditions,

Containment localized Examples

to a variety higher

of conditions than

are outlined

in Table 49-l. Some however. receive average doses of radiation, and areas adjacent to pipe be fuel storage canals areas.

assemblies. Table 49-2 outlines

some typical 650

Coatings for Nuclear

Power

Generating

Stations

651

Figure 49-l:

PWR pressure containment

system. Chart by ANSI-see

Reference

1.

Figure 49-2: by ANSI-see

BWR Mark II over and under pressure suppression containment Reference 1.

system. Chart

Table 49-I: Typical Design Exposure Conditions of Coatings for Normal Operation of Pressurized Water Reactors (PWRs) and Boiling Water Reactors (BWRs)
Relative Humidity Atmosphere Air or nitrogen Air or nitrogen (XI 100 100 Pressure Tempfrature (mm Accumulated Radiation Exposure During 40 yr Life (rads) 5 x 106-3 5 x 106-3 x 109 x 109

Reactor

Tvw
PWR BWR

( I=)
120 135-150

Hd
760 760

1 atmosphere.

From

table

by ANSI--see

Reference

1.

652

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

Table 49-Z: Pressurized

Radiation Water

Exposure Reactors

Guide of Coatings for Normal

Operation (BWRsj

of

(PWRs) and Boiling Water

General Level of Exposure

Reactors

Nuclear Containment or Area

Facility

. . . . . . . . . . . . (rads).
Floor 1 x10* 2 x 109-7 x 109 0.5 x IO-1 x IO

During 40 yr* Life . . . . . . . . . . . . Wall Ceiling 1 x10* _ 0.5 x 109

(a) Containment structures (b) Canals for fuel storage, examination, and handling (cl Ductwork and filtration system

1 x10* 2 x 109-7 x 109 0.5 x 109

*It is not intended that a coating system initially applied to a reactor containment facility last for forty years without appropriate maintenance or overcoating.

From table by ANSI-see

Reference

1. of the reactor Accident or safety related equipment, (LOCA) may occur within would the environment a the beof all large

In the event of a malfunction condition Primary known Containment Structure.

as a Loss of Coolant altered with in a matter chemical could

Should this happen,

come dramatically temperature quantities A of water

of seconds and result in the escalation levels. To counteract are automatically conventional this condition, directed paint onto

and pressure to dangerous

additives

surfaces by means of high pressure spray systems. LOCA condition to disbond, coatings, severely with damage systems, causing them Qualified safety systems. Typical time/temperature/pressure LOCA curves are pictured below in Figures 49-3 and 49-4.
60

combine

the spray solutions the safe operation are formulated quantity

and clog the pump to resist these condithe engineered

suction spray screens; thus jeopardizing on the other

of the plant. to affect

hand,

tions and not peel or flake off in any sufficient

Figure 49-3: Typical curve for PWR containment sure vs time. Chart by ANSI-see Reference 1.

facilities

showing temperature

and pres-

Coatings for Nuclear

Power

Generating

Stations

653

60

,,,.,E

AFTER

RUPTURE

INITIATING

ACCIDENT

SEOUENCE,

(secl

Figure 49-4: Typical curve for BWR containment sure vs time. Chart by ANSI-see Reference 1.

facilities

showing temperature

and pres-

Coatings in Class 2 areas are subjected to a variety of conditions which include abrasion and impact from fuel handling and other traffic operations, radioactive exposure, chemical attack and demineralized water immersion. Since personnel regularly service Class 2 areas, the coating systems must resist these conditions and be easily decontaminated to safe levels. Coatings in Class 3 areas are formulated for architectural and wear properties. Conventional paint systems are generally used in these areas.

QUALIFICATION

REQUIREMENTS

In order to qualify coatings for use in nuclear power plants, suppliers must prepare test specimens of the candidate systems and submit them to test agencies having equipment that can simulate Class 1 and 2 conditions. The Oak Ridge National Laboratories in Oak Ridge, Tennessee is one agency used by most suppliers. Coating suppliers, contractors, equipment manufacturers, and inspection agencies wishing to do business in Class 1 and 2 areas must submit to thorough audits by the A/E firm in charge of the project or the owner. Personnel, equipment and Q/A programs are screened to see that they meet the requirements as set forth by the specification.Failure to comply is grounds for rejection. In order to assure that the most qualified personnel are available for nuclear coating work, a program has been established to certify Registered Professional Engineers and nonregistered engineers, technicians and other personnel. This program was developed by, and is administered by, the National Board of Registration for Nuclear Safety Related Coating Engineers and Specialists, Box 1999, Sun City, Arizona 85372.

654

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

Several coating work. American American

engineering Typical National Society

societies play an instrumental useful information

role in developing with

stand-

ards, specifications

and in dispensing are: Standards

regard to nuclear

Institute

for Testing and Materials Painting Council Engineers

Steel Structures National

Association

of Corrosion

COATING

VARIETIES

AND

APPLICATION to seal and protect used coating concrete, types concrete block and

Nuclear coatings are formulated and steel surfaces. The most polyamide cured epoxy systems. 100% with fillers or reinforcement perform bond which perform defined Torus, two cially and a wide variety tenaciously to a variety

commonly

are the amine

The solids, by volume, can vary from 50 to fibers usually added so that the coating can Reasons for their wide use are that they finish they they cure to a hard smooth and, most importantly, frequently

of functions. decontamination systems

of substrates;

results in superior satisfactorily

qualities;

in Class 1 and 2 service. have been used quite containment pipe, in certain steel, primary necessary, steel (i.e., Wetwell, steel equipment). call for provide espeon the used and

Inorganic exterior

zinc coating surfaces main for

areas such as structural is all that Their protection is usually

of pressure advantages long term

and some exterior although they

One coat coats. cathodic

some specifications resist abrasion

are that

and superior epoxies

resistance to weathering, or urethanes, depending

along ocean coasts. They are occasionally A class of coatings topcoated known service conditions.

finish with

to a somewhat

rough and porous surface

ultimate

as strippable materials radioactive

coatings

has been successfully of

in Class 2 areas. These polymer vide When a temporary saturated barrier with

are airless sprayed onto surfaces to procontamination material the substrate. off of the is pulled

against

contamination,

the flexible

surface by workmen then be applied. Salt jected pounds water intake

and safely disposed tunnels,

of in 55 gallon drums. A new coat can along the southern the formation coast, are subalgae,

particularly to retard

to biofouling. of tin oxides

A class of toxic coatings known and fluorides formulations

as organotins

utilizes com-

of barnacles, extensively

etc. These coatings look quite promising. Waterborne nuclear facilities Class 1 testing, epoxy with have been used quite in some of conareas. good success. They coating have not yet met the requirements handling applications, strict environmental

but perform to permit

well in certain areas such as radwaste the coating to bond and cure properly. ranges from 50 to IOOF, One exception to at least 5F above the temperature to these restrictions

As is the case in all critical trols are required cations rounding sation will limit the temperature (dew point).

Many specifiwhere condenwould be the

and the surface and sur-

air temperatures form

Coatings for Nuclear Power Generating Stations

655

inorganic zinc coatings that cure by hydrolysis. In this case condensation on the surface (dew) is desirable during the cure cycle. In Class 3 areas, several types of coatings are used. They include alkyds, acrylic latexes, enamels, urethanes, and chlorinated rubbers. Steel surfaces do not provide any unusual difficulties during coating operations, as long as the steel is of high quality and the environmental conditions are strictly controlled. Specifications usually call for an abrasive blast that meets Steel Structures Painting Council (SSPC) Spec. #5 ("white metal") finish; although steel to be used in non-nuclear areas usually receives an SSPC #10 ("near white") finish or an SSPC #6 ("commercial") finish. Areas that require special attention are welds, seams, edges, channels, etc. Concrete, on the other hand, offers a variety of problems. In the pouring and placement of concrete walls, the formation of blowholes or voids is inevitable. These imperfections vary in size and quantity by the way the concrete is placed and compacted. If the immersion vibrators are kept just below the surface of the concrete during the pour and raised at the same rate as the concrete, the formation of blowholes is kept under reasonable control. In actual practice, this procedure is difficult to control; thus causing a variety of patterns and textures to appear from one pour to the next. Figure 49.5 shows a variety of blowhole patterns.

Figure

49-5:

Blowhole

patterns.

Photo

by Concrete

Society-see

Reference

Other contributing factors to the quality of the concrete finish are the types of forms and the release agents used; the type of mix and aggregates used and the ambient temperature. The improper placement of forms can result in significant offsets of 1/2to 1" or more as well as fins and projections. Since Class 1 and 2 surfaces must be easily decontaminated to safe levels, these imperfections must be corrected. The offsets, fins and projections are usually repaired by masons using stones and grinding wheels. The blowholes are corrected by application of the coating materials.

656

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

Fi~re floors.

49-6: A coating applicator Photos by Con/Chem, Inc.

is shown

spraying

epoxy

coatings

on Class 2 walls

and

Some coating suppliers have responded by increasing the volume solids to 90% or higher and adding fillers and/or fibers to arrive at a family of materials commonly referred to as surfacing cements. Applicators apply these products by one or more methods including spraying, rolling, troweling, squeegeeing and brushing. The materials can be made to partially fill the blowholes; however, in fact, they actually bridge rather than fill these voids. It is important to note that no applicator can guarantee a 100% void-free surface without considerable expense and delays; therefore the prudent and realistic specifying engineer will use such words as "essentially" voidfree and include some specific statement on the maximum number and size of permissable voids in the finished film per area (50, 100, or 150 sq. ft., etc.). In order to minimize surface preparation, concrete surfaces are usually water cured for 28 days; however, the use of curing agents cannot be altogether avoided; so special care must be taken to assure the selected agent is compatible with the coating used . When selecting form release agents, the lacquer or epoxy types are usually used as they remain on the forms when the forms are pulled and do not contaminate the concrete. (Under most circumstances, oils are not used as they will detrimentally affect the bonding characteristics of the coating to the substrate; however, some suppliers claim their oils degrade with time and leave a clean surface.) Hard troweled floor surfaces are usually broom finished to provide a surface profile and to eliminate costly abrasive blasting. Some abrasive blasting will be required on the typical job; however. The use of muriatic acid etching is prohibited on nuclear sites due to the adverse effect of chlorides on stainless steel.

Coatings for Nuclear Power Generating Stations

INSPECTION

657

Highly trained and qualified inspectors are required to monitor and record all coatings work. This practice is designed to assure the utility owner that the coating system was appl ied in accordance with the provisions of the specification . Items such as material storage, handling and application, surface preparation, mil thickness tests, environmental conditions, surface defects in the coating film and coating adhesion are all checked and recorded. Inspectors have the authority to halt work not being performed properly, and they can reject completed work that does not meet the requirements of the specification. The importance of an effective inspection program cannot be over emphasized as the ultimate beneficiary of a safe and efficient operating nuclear power plant is the general public.

Figure 49.7: equipment; weld, Inc.

(a) Steel surface profile monitoring equipment; (b) Dew (c) Wet film thickness gauge; (d) Elcometer adhesion tester.

point monitoring Photos by Metal-

658

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

REFERENCES
1. 2. Protective Coatings (Paint) for Light Water Nuclear Reactor Containment Facilities, American National Standards Institute, New York, NY (1972). Manual of Coating Work for Light Water Nuclear Power Plant, Primary Containment and Other Safety Related Facilities, American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, PA, Edition 1 (1979). Fiittenhouse, R.C., Protective Coatings for Power Plants, Power Engineering, pp. 3038 (December 1982). Berger, Dean, M., Gilbert Associates, Inc., Reading, PA, Preparing and Painting Vertical Concrete Surfaces of Buildings, a Paper for a Symposium in Finland (August 1977). Thompson, M.S., Blowholes in Concrete Surfaces, Concrete, The Journal of the Concrete Society, Great Britain, Vol. 3 (February 1969). Conversations with: B.W. Chandler and S.J. Oechsle of Metalweld, Inc., Philadelphia, PA and C.H. Hall, KTA-Tator, Inc., Houston,TX.

3. 4.

5. 6.

50

Sulfur Spray Coatings

William Albany United

C. McBee Center of the Interior

Research

Bureau of Mines States Department Albany, Thomas Boulder United Oregon A. Sullivan Laboratory of the Interior Nevada

City Engineering Bureau of Mines

States Department Boulder City,

Harold The Sulphur

L. Fike Institute D.C.

Washington,

INTRODUCTION Sulfur organic (248 to Sulfur ment for spray 302F) coatings range. are mixtures are applied principal of sulfur with fillers, fibers, and/or 15OC

modifiers.

The coatings Their

by hot-spraying

in the 12Oto

uses have been for

corrosion-resistant Marian Barnes2 conmortar

coatings and surface-bond of The Sulphur mortar struction,3 Institute

construction. inception The in the early 1950s. known conceived the idea of using sulfur coatings as a replacetechnique, as surface-bond

spray coatings had their in construction.

used sulfur The

coatings to bond bricks or blocks stacked without The coatings were applied bonding compared with strength of sulfur 659

to achieve the desired wall configuration. faces of the wall.

to both surconventional

660

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

mortar superior jointed

and other and

building Dale and

techniques Ludwig.6 mortar

has been reported Hubbard's were 10 to work

by Hubbard,4 indicated that

Testa and sulfur was a

Anderson,5 with

to conventional sulfur

in all important

aspects. 20 times

In some cases, blocks stronger. In 1963,

surface-bonding

sulfur surface-bonded building was constructed at the Southwest Research Institute, San Antonio, Texas.7 The sulfur coating was applied to both sides of stacked blocks bonded Nevada, finished techniques and low-cost Tanzania by hot building with building have application the technical was built is shown housing in spray with paint brushes. of The Mines building Laboratory, surface-bond to a house were is still in use and City, The Mexico in demonstrates feasibility at the in Figure Colombia, of the technique. Bureau 50-1. and the hot In 1973, a sulfur-surfaceBoulder

equipment

to apply

sulfur-fiber

formulation.8 in New

Since then, an addition

construction conducted

been used to construct

demonstrations

and Botswana.3

Figure

50-1:

Surface-bonded

block

building.

While one use of sulfur spray coatings was surface-bond construction, other uses of the materials were developing. In 1972, Dale and Ludwig9 reported on a sulfur spray coating for mine support. Sullivan, McBee and Blues discussed the use of sulfur coatings for structural materials, pollution abatement, and stabilization of fine tailing materials. Fikelo discussed the status of sulfur coatings. Recent emphasis has been on the development and commercialization of sulfur spray coatings for use as canal, pond, and basin linings; on land, slope, and tailing stabilization; and as protective coatings for concrete and masonry surfaces that are exposed to corrosive acid and salt solutions.s,ll-l6

Sulfur

Spray Coatings

661

Other veloped.

sulfur This

spray coatings will

such as traffic

marking

paints17 have been deand surface-bonding

chapter

discuss the corrosion-resistant

types of coatings.

SULFUR Mixture The support sprayable buildings.

SPRAY Design

COATINGS

design of sulfur for their mine walls.

spray composites designed

has developed a sulfur spray

according coating to

to the reseal and

quirements glass fibers,

use. Dale9 It consisted

of 100 parts sulfur, for

10 parts talc, 3 parts milled also was used as a of block of the construction the

and 2 parts dicyclopentadiene. surface-bonding design composition to

This formulation mortarless and control

Mixture sulfur effects of

technology has advanced

modify

properties The

composites of sulfur were were

significantly fillers,

in recent

years.

beneficial and other

plasticizers, demonstrated. developed of sulfur

such as olefins Different

and polysulfides, reinforcing

on the properties agents, and im-

sulfur

modifiers

to improve

the properties resistance. mixtures

of the composites

prove their durability Composition ing ranges: Sulfur Fillers Fibers

and thermal-shock spray coating

generally

fall into the follow-

75 to 95% 5 to 15% 0 to 10% modifiers 2 to 15% of the specific component of thermal expansion. and

Chemical The proportion on the projected strengths coefficient Sulfur with are of

of each depends on the properties use of the spray coating. with increased and and decreases the coefficient fiber impart increase reversion

Increasing the proportions contents. Chemical

of fillers inFlexural are or modifiers allotrope

creases the viscosity

improved thermal

used to increase ductility, spray mixtures. spray coatings mixture.

to the orthorhombic fire-retardant

expansion,

properties (12Oto

to the 150C) to a

are prepared

by reacting and fibers,

liquid sulfur

the modifiers,

adding the fillers

and blending

the mixture

homogeneous Sulfur

Modifiers modifiers reaction of perform sulfur several functions. with limonene; -32 Some impart fire retardation Currell* and has dedicyclopolyof polyeffective

Chemical qualities scribed meric the

by polymerization

and cross linkage

of the sulfur.g myrcene; ,3diene;

alloocimene; styrene

pentadiene; sulfides.

cyclododeca-1,5,9-triene; and Thiokol myrcene, LP-31,

cycloocta-I

polysulfides; Limonene,

and -33

to give mixtures were particularly By preventing

and dicyclopentadiene allotrope.

in retarding

reversion to the orthorhombic

the reversion

662

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

of sulfur, decreases extreme coating

the thermal the tendency

expansion of sulfur

of sulfur coatings Sullivan

can be decreased to craze or crack has described

by about when

half. This exposed to for

changes in temperature. composed of sulfur, fine tailings. more

the use of a sulfur spray and dipentene, assists in wetting into the tailings. and fibers,

modified rapid

with dicyclopentadiene the dipentene of the to wet spray penetration of the sulfur

use in stabilizing the surfaces Modifiers

In this application,

and allows

also improve

the ability

the fillers

Proper wetting

is essential to obtain

full benefits from the additives.

Fillers and Fibers Fillers are used to increase the apparent to prevent flour, running of the spray. Fillers that and mica. viscosity of the spray mixture and

have been used include

talc, silica

Fibers also are used to increase the flexural Fiberglass, asbestos, and mica

and shear strength

of the coating.

have been used for this purpose

and also decrease crazing and cracking. Uses Many face-bond coatings ment floors, uses for sulfur construction for spray coatings techniques, have been reported. wall Other These include sur-

mine

sealing and support, coatings pilings,

and sulfur

land stabilization and ponds sumps, walls.

and rust prevention. pads, foundations, will plants

uses are in containused to protect equipment bases, are in chemical,

reservoirs and

and as corrosion-resistant they be used most where

vats, tanks, metallurgical,

silos, storage In general, processing

intensively

and food

commonly

used materials

subject to corrosion.

MANUFACTURE Preparation Sulfur

AND

APPLICATION Equipment are prepared in a heated capacity, pressure tank which unit heated, A heated The unit can

and Spraying coating

materials

be sealed and pressurized in Figure 50-28 tank, equipped hose with of operating 20,000-lb. for 50-3. sulfur with

for spraying

the mixture.

A small-scale electrically

is shown insulated pressure is capable up to unit the pres-

and consists of a 400-lb. a stirring is bottom

unit and mounted connected capable

on a trailer. to the tank.

a spray nozzle at up to 200C units

and 30 psi. of preparing floor unit and spraying trailer-mounted is shown coils for two for mixing. IOO-ft., melting Air A 9,000-lb.-capacity to a concrete jacket and internal through

Commercial applying spray

are available, sulfur with coating

batches of spray mixtures. protective mixture It is equipped a hot-oil

in Figure

components

and has a stirring

sure of 20 to 30 psi is used to force the mixture spray hoses.

heated

Manufacture Sulfur

and Applications is reacted at 120 to 15OC (248to 302F) in a spray unit with chem-

Sulfur Spray Coatings

663

Figure

50-2:

Laboratory-5cale

sulfur

spray

machine.

Fi~re

50-3:

Commercial-scale

sulfur

spray

machine.

664

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

ical modifiers. the components sure is applied is applied of coating tinuity.

On completion are mixed

of the reaction, through

the fillers and fibers are added and The reactor is sealed and air presthe heated spray hoses. The coating at spray rates up to 200 lb. to insure coating conand a total thickness of l/s to are applied is applied.

until homogeneous.

to force the mixture at 130 to 150C Several is applied

molten

(266 to 302F),
l/16

per minute.

thin coatings about

Each coating sufficient the

in. thick, use.

% in. (1 .3 to 2.6 lb. per square ft. of coating) and attain concrete, sandblasted Successive condensed Quality strength for immediate should be taken should be cured any free weak layers should Several precautions concrete to remove spray coating

The coatings set rapidly If applied acid-etched over or

in applying

the coatings. either on the cement.

and the surface

lime coating be applied

All materials of the coating. Moisture layers.

to be spray coated

must be clean and dry to insure good adhesion between coating

as soon as possible.

on the surface will cause poor bonding

Control methods of testing ASTM or specification of the for sulfur may spray coatings D695, and

No standard with D732. standard

have been established. Measurements

Strength

testing

materials

be accomplished D790,

or modified

test methods,

such as 0638,

for each type of sulfur coating will depend on the intended required. The resistance of a specific coating to the corrosbe exposed should be established by either it will

use and performance sive environment benchscale Safety The cautions workers Vapors available same safety

to which

or in situ testing in the environment.

precautions clothing,

should

be observed

in working

with

sulfur pre-

spray coatings from

as are described

in the chapter

on sulfur concrete.

Additional

such as proper

shoes, gloves, and masks are needed to protect of fine overspray safe handling material of spray is a hazard. and is coatings may cause eye and skin irritation

the hot spray. Flammability spray coatings Information on the

or mists of sulfur

allergic skin reactions.

from the producers.

PROPERTIES

OF SULFUR

SPRAY

COATINGS

Physical and Mechanical Recent strength, emphasis

Properties on sulfur for spray coatings has been on their The reported use as highproperties applications formucoat-

sprayable

materials available

protective

coatings.

of a commercially lations depending Paulson12 and flexural

spray coating15

for corrosion-resistant For example, of plasticizer

are given in Table 50-I. ing may be obtained strengths

The properties

shown may be varied by different a more flexible

on the use of the material. by increasing the amount the effect of a typical sulfur

in the material. on the tensile

determined

of temperature spray material.

variations

The results are plotted

in Figure 5O~l.l~

Sulfur

Spray Coatings

665

Table 50-I:

Typical

Properties of SUCOATTM

Coating
98

Softening point, OC Viscosity (Brookfield) at 140' C, cP Specific gravity Coefficient of thermal expansion, OC Thermal conductivity Electrical conductivity Acid and salt resistance Application temperature, OC Measured at 23" C ---Tensile strength (modified ASTM D 638) Flexural strength (ASTM D 790) Flexural modulus (ASTM D 790) Compressive strength (ASTM D 695) Compressive modulus (ASTM D 695) Shear strength (ASTM D 732)

600 2.0 35x10-6 Low Low High 120-150 Psi 1,000 2,100 6x105 4,000 2x105 1,100

Chemical Enterprises, Inc., U.5) SUCOAT" Registered Trademark, Chevron Chemical Company

-5 2,000
a. = Z uJ 2 co 1,600 1,200 800 600+

-60

-20

+20

+60

+I00

+1401+180

TEMPERATURE,
Figure 504: Typical

F
versus temperature.

strength of sulfur composites

Chemical Resistance One advantage of sulfur spray coatings is corrosion resistance to most salt and acid solutions. They have many potential uses in chemical, metallurgical, and fertilizer plants as protective coatings on materials, such as portland cement concrete and structural supports, which are attacked easily by corrosive soiutions. Table 50-219 lists a number of chemical substances that are compatible with sulfur spray coatings. The chemical resistance of typical sulfur spray coating formulations to selected acid and salt solutions is shown in Figure 505.12 Sulfur spray coatings may not be resistant to solutions above pH 12, oxidizing materials, and some organic hydrocarbons. They are rapidly attacked by sodium and potassium hydroxide and other strong bases.

666

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

Table

50-2:

Substances

Compatible

with

Sulfur

Spray

Coatings

Acidic Solutions Acetic Benzoic Boric citric Hydrochloric Hypochlorous Lactic Nitric Oxalic Sulfuric Other Animal wastes Ethyl alcohol Food wastes Formaldehyde Glycerine Methyl alcohol Saturated lime (20' C) * Some vegetable oils

Salt Solutions Alum Aluminum chloride, nitrate, and sulfate Ammonium chloride, nitrate, and sulfate Barium chloride, nitrate, sulfate Calcium chloride, nitrate, and sulfate Cupric chloride and sulfate* Iron chlorides, nitrates, and sulfates Lead acetate, chloride, and nitrate Magnesium chloride, nitrate, and sulfate Nickel chloride, nitrate, and sulfate Potassium chloride and dichromate Potassium nitrate and sulfate Sea water Silver nitrate Sodium chloride, chromate, dichromate Sodium nitrate and sulfate Sodium sulfite and thlosulfate Tin chlorides and sulfates Zinc chloride, nitrate, and sulfate

* But see (1). Also note text above under Manufacture and Applications.

6& 0 40

80 IMMERSION

20 TIME

160 200 365 AT 73O F, days

sulfur composites to water, sea water,

Figure 50-5: Chemical resistance of typical Chevron N%SO, (saturated), H,S0,(2N), and HCI(2N).

Durability The durability tion where other and the the with protective penetrate by failure obtained of sulfur spray in which coatings they is dependent are used. temperature are subject on both variations to failure their composihave been As with corrosive and for be of

environment coatings

Excellent

results

used in areas where from and attack means from spray sulfur coatings

are small and if

coatings

are protected coatings, mechanical will result sulfur good the coating

exposure

to direct

sunlight.8J2

materials contraction, strate both

the substrate

materials.

If the coatings expansion them will fracture to the subthey

are fractured materials.

or are cracked penetration coatings

by thermal

of corrosive are achieved environment

liquids to which any

Durable

by designing

the corrosion

resistance

and the physical maintenance

subjected. the coating

In addition, are necessary.

practices

in repairing

Sulfur

Spray Coatings

667

ADVANTAGES

AND DISADVANTAGES

The advantages in using sulfur spray coatings as protective, corrosion-resistant coatings for other construction materials are several. They can be applied easily and the installation can be put into service almost immediately without a long curing period to attain its strength. Sulfur spray coatings can be installed on both horizontal and vertical surfaces. Correctly designed coatings are strong and durable. Pigments may be used in sulfur spray coatings to prepare colored coatings. Costs of installed sulfur spray coatings should be less than those of other durable coating materials. The strength of mortarless block buildings constructed with surface bonding by sulfur spray coatings has exceeded those of buildings constructed with mortar joints. Like all protective coatings, sulfur spray coatings are vulnerable to penetration and attack on the base material by corrosive materials if the coating is chipped or cracked. This can result in corrosion under the coating with subsequent failure of the bond on the substrate. Good maintenance procedures in prompt repairing of any fractures in the protective coating are necessary. Surface-bond construction for residential construction may not meet existing building or fire codes in many areas. Bacterial destruction is a possible problem.

SUMMARY
Sulfur spray materials have been developed as protective coatings for construction materials exposed to corrosive acid and salt environments. The development has included laboratory design and testing and the scale-up to largescale field installations using special equipment and application techniques. Surface-bond construction using sulfur spray coatings has been shown to be technically feasible. Block buildings constructed by this method have structural properties exceeding those of buildings constructed with mortar joints.

REFERENCES
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Sheppard, W.L., Jr., Chemically Resistant Masonry, 2nd Ed., pp 163-174, Marcel Dekker, NYC (1982). Barnes, M.D., Construction Method, U.S. Patent 3,306,000 (1967). Fike, H.L. and Conitz, M., Surface Bond Construction, New Horizons in Construction Materials, Lehigh Valley, PA, pp 377390 (1976). Hubbard, S.J., Feasibility Study of Masonry Systems Utilizing Surface-Bond Materials, U.S. Dept. Army Tech. Rep. No. 4-43, pp 20-22,3335 (1966). Testa, R.B. and Anderson, G.B., The Use of Sulfur in Housing Construction: An Exp/oratory Study, Dept. Civil Eng. Mech., Columbia University (1969). Dale, J.M. and Ludwig, A.C., Mechanical Properties of Sulfur Allotropes. Materials Research and Standards, Bull. Am. Chem. Sot., Vol. 5, No. 8, pp 411-417 (1965). Dale, J.M., Sulfur-Fibre Coating, The Sulphur Institute Journal, pp 11-13 (Sept. 1965). Sullivan, T.A., McBee, W.C. and Blue, D.D., Sulfur in Coating and Structural Materials, Ch. 4 in New Uses of Sulfur (JR. West, ed.), Advances in Chemistry Series No. 140, Am. Chem. Sot., Washington, DC, pp 55-74 (1975). Dale, J.M. and Ludwig, AC., Sulfur Coating for Mine Support, Final Report, U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Dept. of Mines, Southwest Research Institute, 113124, Contract HO21 1062,72 pp (Nov. 1972).

9.

668

Corrosion

and

Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

10. 11. 12.

13.

14. 15. 16. 17. 18.

19.

Fike, H.L., Sulfur Coatings - A Review and Status Report, Proc. Symp. New Uses for SulfurandPyrites,Madrid,Spain,pp215-230 (May 17-19.1976). Dale, J.M., Utilizing Sulfur-Based Spray Coatings, Min. Eng., pp 49-52 (Oct. 1973). Paulson, J.E., Scimic, M., Campbell, R.W. and Ankers, J.W., Ch. 12 in New Uses of Sulfur /I (D.J. Bourne, ed.), Advances in Chemistry Series No. 165,Am. Chem. Sot., Washington, DC, pp 215-226 (1978). Pickering, I.G., Watson, J.A., Dale, J.M. and Ludwig, A.C., A Sprayable Sulfur Coating for Protection of Concrete Leaching Vats, Proc. 78th Natl. Mfg. Am. Inst. of Chem. Eng., Salt Lake City, UT (Aug. 18-21,1974). Chevron Chemical Co., Chevron SUCOATm Coating Compounds, General Products Guide, Sulfur Products Div., P.O. Boc 3744, San Francisco,CA. Chemical Enterprise, Inc., .SUCOATTM Coating for Concrete Protacfion, Chemical Enterprise, Inc., 8582 Katy Freeway, Suite 202, Houston,TX. Schneider, R.A. and Simic, M., Plasticized Sulfur Compostion, U.S. Patent 4,308,072 (Dec. 29,1981). Barnes, N.C. and Dale, J.M., Marking Composition, U.S. Patent 3316,115 (April 25, 1967). Currell, B.R., Williams, A.J., Mooney, A.J. and Nash, B.J., Plasticization of Sulfur, Ch. 1 in New Uses of Sulfur (J.R. West, ed.), Advances in Chemistry Series No. 140, Am. Chem. Sot., Washington, DC, pp 1-17 (1975). Raymont, M.E.D., Sulphur Concrete and Coatings, New Uses for Sulphur Technology Series No. 4 (SUDIC), Calgary,Alberta, Canada,43 pp (1978).

51 Pulp and Paper Industry Use of Corrosion Resistant Masonry Construction

Larry

C. Stephans New York

Rochester,

The tions plant pressures.

pulp

and

paper

industry

experiences chemicals occurs Conditions Corrosion

a wide

range of corrosive at high temperatures area and the masonry in the paper processes,

condiand bleach mill, and in

involving

highly pulp

aggressive mill.

frequently

The most used housing

severe corrosion Therefore, areas. in these these

in the digester resistant

area of the

corrosion recovery

construction

is commonly the buildings however,

are less severe and disposal resistant

in the peripheral

equipment

used in the processes.

masonry

construction,

is still used to advantage

in these areas.

MATERIALS The shale, brick. unique silicates, materials ester, vinyl The was forced or tile. lead.

OF CONSTRUCTION units brick, glazed used tile in the and pulp glazed portland and tile paper and industry portland include brick of it. of portland utilizing were cement, polythese traditional epoxy, fireclay,

masonry carbon

and

structural

cement/aggregate are relatively

Structural Mortars

cement/aggregate used outside been composed for portland resin past, filled mortars

to this industry used in the generally and litharge have

and have not been widely past have primarily Except by been replaced used and glycerine. resins. in the

cement,

ester and furan membrane Today membrane resins,

material and filled

if a membrane rubber, urethanes, thermoset

used at all, reinbrick fiberglass

materials

include

fiberglass The without

thermoset

aggregate

resins.

reinforced

and aggregate

resins have also found

use as linings

669

670

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

The physical properties and chemical resistance of brick, tile, mortars, membrane materials are discussed separately in other chapters of this book.

and

HISTORY OF BRICK AND TILE CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY

IN THE PULP AND PAPER

A single course brick sheathing was originally installed in a pulp digester to hold the traditional loose lead digester lining in place and to reduce the amount of maintenance on the lead. As the more corrosive sulfite pulping became more widely practiced and pulping technology advanced, so did acid brick technology. The observations of lining performance lead to the optimization of brick properties and establishment of lining design criteria. The advances in brick composition, manufacturing techniques, design and installation methods have greatly improved lining life over that of early installations. Todays acid brick are denser than those early brick and are composed of clays selected to impart particular properties to the brick. Lining design calculations now take into account brick growth, mortar joint shrinkage and/or growth, and other physical properties of the lining components.2 Another masonry product, structural glazed tile, found its first use in the pulp and paper industry in the early 1930s. A number of different configurations of these tile are shown in Figure 51-1.

Blocks
Figure 51-1: Tile

Plates shapes.

Structural tile can be used as a lining in a metal vessel similar to a brick lining, as shown in Figure 51-2, but is more commonly used to build relatively inexpensive reinforced concrete structures with corrosion resistant interior and exterior surfaces.3 Two different types of wall construction are shown in Figures 513 and 514. In Figure 51-3 the tile are used in their block form. The wall thickness is obviously limited by the width of the block. In Figure 514, the tile is split to construct a wall of any practical thickness. The method of construction of the structural tile walls shown in Figures 51-3 and 514 involves setting the steel reinforcing bars as in the construction of a reinforced concrete wall. The tile is then set with portland cement or resin mortar joints to form the inner and outer wall surfaces and the concrete is placed to form the core of the tile wall. This process is repeated in vertical steps a few feet at a time until the unit is complete. The backs of the tiles contain projecting lugs which tie into the concrete as it is placed, thus solidly incorporating the tile as an integral part of the structural wall.

671 Pulp and Paper Industry Use

Figure 51.2: Tile lining in steel.

Figure 51-3:

Block tile wall.

Figure 514:

Split tile wall.

672

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

Tile corrosives mately

l/2

construction because in. deep)

is not used to any great extent the tile and the mortar joints and are somewhat porous.

for very aggressive liquid thin (approxihave are therefore, cement

are relatively

These structures, contribute of the portland

a tendency attack

to weep or leak. Other factors which and the susceptibility Also, removed by visually where some after

to this tendency the forms pour

the lack of a membrane by acidic media. and are not wall etc., Structural concrete

core to for the is

because the tiles are essentially the concrete stone identifying leakage pockets,

cures, controlling

the quality lines, etc., pulp storage

of the concrete impossible. tanks, contained washers,

tile vessels are, therefore,

used in stock tanks,

can be tolerated

or the solids in the

media will plug leaks.

ACID SULFITE
The relatively a multiple specified very can result The acidic layer

DIGESTERS
severe conditions acid brick lining. operate short in an acid sulfite digester dictate the use of The lining must be carefully selected and at elevated lining life, temperatures lining failure, and pressures with or installation or vessel failure. layers of acid the steel shell severity of

since these units chemicals. lining

Improper

selection,

design, digester cement

specification, consists of two grout between mortars the

in an unacceptably typical with

in an acid sulfite a portland Litharge

brick set in a resin mortar to the development digester generally between conditions

and the back layer of brick.

cement/glycerine however, relatively with of furan

were used prior is now of two grout

of resin mortars; and the improvement is, therefore, furan with

increased

mortars, substantial,

furan mortar consisting cement

used. This lining bonded

layers of brick In addition

mortar selected,

and a layer of portland designed and installed,

the brick and the vessel wall forming to being properly initiated cured and prepared lining to an acidic then

a lining up to 7.5 in. thick. these linings involving of the of temof the it for a

must be properly exposure media time. lining. it could result. The course, tion, Proper tion cement layer the of perature The This of the curing and time

for service. The lining is cured and growth programmed increasing procedure media, holding the temperature rise, maximum growth preparing failure

of the brick and mortar to a specified

by a carefully

maximum, are critical thus

these conditions curing and initial

for a period

acid concentration, puts the

rate of temperature lining in compression

to the proper

procedure

long service life. require

If proper substantial brick

care were not used in preparing maintenance exposed the most of and over

the lining for service could

its life and early

directly to amount and layer,

to the digester deterioration, must

operations, The thermal

the face degradadeteriora-

is obviously

exposed

severe conditions.

face course occasionally.

experiences repair grout

greatest abuse,

chemical thus

mechanical of the

wear the

be replaced of brick repair

and timely intermediate backing. inspection

replacement

of the face course can prevent backing course, and expeditious suitable receded will detect

and the portland of the face course joints, spalled

The inspection of a lining

and of the entire Periodic brick, excessively

lining is important

to achieving

service life. mortar

worn brick, cracks, and hollow

areas behind the lining.

Pulp and Paper industry

Use

673

Mortar enon. from The

joints

between effects.

the brick will

recede due to wear and adverse chemia relatively any mortar. slow, progressive This phenommortar proloose or deteriorated is a maintenance

cal and thermal the joint Brick away. This

This is normally is remedied with

condition

by raking furan

and repointing

cedure which will be done many times during the lining life. spalling is the condition probably brick, wherein /4 to % in. of the brick face breaks in a few brick in isolated locations Hownumbe brick characteristics. a significant and a specialist exposed brick is not of concern if it occurs

since this would ber of shock, adjacent excessive

be a result

of individual concern problems joints,

ever, if the condition contacted to analyze

occurs in a concentrated there is cause for Spalling receded the problem.

area involving

should

can be caused by thermal edges, or softening velocities indi-

compression,

mortar

perhaps other factors. Obviously and subsequent The magnitude Lining sufficiently tion, worn areas in the lining are usually a result of chemical due to impingement of digester contents may be reduced by reducing the flow erosion on the area.

of the problem

to which the lining is exposed. cracks which strong are a cause for significant has, at some time, in tension to resist being concern virtually since they Brick pulled normally apart cate a lining stresses occur. installation gone into tension. linings are not if tensile

One of the major and curing

objectives

of lining selection,

design, specificaor perhaps from definitely mortar be and

is to create The

a lining which

is always in compression. should a furan

Cracks may result from a failure determined be repaired then may exist. Hollow with hollow before

an error in any one of these procedures cause of cracking pointing the mortar with

in the vessel shell itself. repairs by sawing catalyzed them open

are made and the vessel put into service. Cracks can to permit furan resin behind can frequently will to fill any void which the lining A area can be

pumping

areas in a lining A solid

be detected hollow sound.

by tapping A hollow

a hammer.

lining

give a solid sounding

ring when tapped.

area in a lining will or improper pathways. if digester to prevent

give a resonant Narrow

a result of disbonding the lining, corroding ing grout be repaired pumping

of the various installation. occur

layers of the lining, chemical paths or runbacks in the portland collecting

attack within may lead from cement backmust

voids in the lining as a result of chemicals Runbacks acid penetrates

in the void and selectively Voids and runbacks

particularly

back to the grout.

progressive lining deterioration. material mortar. such as a catalyzed

This can be accomplished area then

in some cases by drilling appropriate hole is then closed with need to be removed Because of the conditions basis. The tunity

a small hole in the lining to access the hollow

resin into the void. The access

In more severe cases, a section of the lining may nature of acid sulfite take digester operating

and replaced. severity and cyclic that will inspection and repair place on a routine but no opporsuch as during face is available. by the installation

it is imperative

face course obviously should

receive the most attention layer of brick, the opportunity can be reduced

to inspect and repair the intermediate and thickness whenever

course replacement, spected for integrity Occasionally

be missed. The steel digester requirements

shell should also be in-

maintenance

674

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

of carbon attack, fully

brick

where cycling,

rapid

ceramic

brick deterioration This type the strainer,

is caused by chemical has successcollector be conbottom outlet, must

thermal

or high velocities. in areas around Since carbon cost

of installation

reduced brick

maintenance fittings. the linings,

ring, and circulation ceramic sidered.

brick linings are more expensive than relationship

versus performance

PERIPHERAL The

EQUIPMENT

IN THE

DIGESTER

AREA is also frequently brick

equipment

surrounding adequate. with dump

acid sulfite

digesters

lined, although, brick used

since conditions

are not as severe as in the digester itself, single These linings consist of a single layer of acid cement acid grout placed between this type tanks, the steel is in which storage of construction and accumulators. in maintainSimilar equipment. portland tanks,

layer linings are normally set in a resin mortar lining. pits, includes blow linings shell and the brick

The equipment

The same routine ing digester lining problems

inspection should

and repair procedures

as practiced

also be used in this associated in this equipment

can occur

and the remedies

are the same as

in the digester.

KRAFT The

AND

NEUTRAL

SULFITE

DIGESTERS dictate the need the

operating

conditions

in these digesters do not always of the original were adopted, therefore, mortar with kraft pulping technology

for a lining. of more

The operating

conditions conditions

process permitted

use of unlined

steel vessels. As kraft

developed

and a variety

severe operating conditions

corrosion

of the steel shell

did become a problem. ture alkaline carbon brick mortar

Acid brick linings were not suitable for the high temperaof operation, cement lining. life carbon brick linings were used.4 and consist of a single layer of portland cement cement mortar grout between used to set the 3.5 to 5 in. thick The portland if alkali

These linings are normally brick set in portland will have a longer A furan lining here the steel shell and the brick mix. mortar inspection life. with one

service

resistant

aggregate are used in the to avoid serious problems. must be followed for acid sulfite fall-outs. to diThis cement reduce

may be used but the added expense is seldom justiare, again, required procedures replacement and maintenance addition, procedures described of brick

fied. Proper design and installation Routine obtain problem mortar gesters apply suitable lining

Maintenance

can be caused by movements and the carbon brick. Proper

of the lining and the steel shell, low combetween the portland will normally design considerations

pression in the lining, or eliminate

and the low bond strength

this problem.

KRAFT

LIQUOR

SYSTEMS digester, useful the vessels in the kraft life. Carbon liquor system can be brick not used be-

As in the kraft lined to prolong

their

brick linings are normally

Pulp and Paper Industry

Use

675

cause of the cost, alkali brick been tanks, resistant the

but

a relatively

inexpensive brick

portland to achieve Vessels green

cement

based brick cement density. grout this liquor lining

can and The has

and has been successfully aggregate vessel shell used is set in a portland successfully causticizer,

used. This cement and the include the

is composed and a portland

of portland maximum cement in which and white

and is manufactured mortar brick lime lining.

is placed storage

between

slaker,

smelt tank,

and clarifier.

PULP

STORAGE

VESSELS glazed may tile not take tile tanks a major place is quite the core. will wall, interior The make excellent dilution structural walls the tile interior pulp storage tanks. Chemical some re-

Structural resistance chemical sistance cement forming nonporous buildup required. occur, problem. land for filling constructed, the

is generally addition of the glazed mortar forming

requirement in the adequate. with

in these

vessels although the chemical

zone where glazed surface pulp, tile

These large vessels are economically set in portland concrete a smooth permit pulp and reinforced affords does not the only cement will

as described structural surface

previously,

and exterior glazed

which

not contaminate joints

on the interior In the dilution repointing If voids mix voids with

and is easily cleaned. of the mortar is normally ester the wall mortar maintenance mortar may a portof these solve the described where attack or vinyl resin into of the portland

Occasional

repointing

zone,

a polyester

usually

are detected or a catalyzed in a digester

in the wall, lining.

these can be filled

by pumping history

cement

by the technique

The service

and maintenance

vessels has generally

been excellent.

CHLORINE

DIOXIDE plant

VESSELS the corrosion bleach plant problems is chlorine used in much are somewhat dioxide. corrosive of the different The than than in

In the bleach the digester stable products itself. chlorine The chemicals Acid brick

area but

they

are no less severe.

One of the most corrosive chlorine

and undioxide handling

in the is thus lining latex

decomposition

of chlorine dioxide. normal

dioxide

can be even more typically

equipment

construction rubber or vinyl That for

consists

of a membrane The membrane it onto a silica filled

on the steel shell materials used have Either bed urethane.

and one layer of these joints, tar, struction generator This problems

of acid brick

in a resin mortar. or, more by troweling brick

been a silica filled membranes

recently,

is installed

the steel shell. The mortars surrounded in which tank, this by the mortype of condioxide in di-

used have been polyester and side joints. except, of course,

ester based and are used in the back joints, are completely storage The equipment dioxide dioxide

is, the the face.

is used includes spent acid tank, equipment occur. does

the chlorine not

the chlorine as those

and the chlorine experience as frequently routine

bleach

tower. as high preventive fewer maintenance maintenance

temperatures and sound

gesters and is not cycled However,

as a digester, inspection

therefore,

676

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

practices should be followed to detect and repair receding joints, voids behind the lining, and worn, softened or spalled brick. The remedies for these problems are the same as described previously.

CHLORINATION, TION TOWERS

HYPOCHLORITE,

PEROXIDE,

AND CAUSTIC

EXTRAC-

In these bleach plant units the conditions are not as severe as in the chlorine dioxide units. Thus, a tile lining is normally used; the more expensive acid brick not being required. The lining is installed by setting the tile in a resin mortar or portland cement mortar inside the steel shell. A few vertical courses of tile are set around the circumference of the tower leaving a space between the vessel wall and the back of the tile. A portland cement grout is then placed in this space. The grout forms around the lugs on the back of the tile and holds the tile firmly in place. The installation of the lining proceeds up the tower a few courses at a time to completion. The chlorination tower lining is tile set in a polyester or vinyl ester mortar with a portland cement grout backing. The hypochlorite and peroxide units do not need the resistance of the resin mortar, therefore, portland cement mortar can be used. Caustic extraction towers are occasionally lined with tile set in portland cement mortar even though the alkaline operating conditions may soften the tile. To minimize the softening effect, the tile should have an extremely tight, well fired body. Lined steel vessels have also been used in the manufacture and storage of these bleach plant chemicals, however, today more and more of this equipment is being constructed of fiberglass or thermoplastic lined fiberglass. The tile linings in the bleach towers and other associated bleach plant equipment should be inspected as often as possible to detect receding joints, excessively worn tile, and voids behind the lining. Early detection of lining problems in these units is important since the tile linings are relatively thin. Worn tile or receded joints exposing the backing grout can lead to chemical penetration behind the tile I ining and rapid I in ing deterioration .

WASHERS

AND

SEAL

PITS

Structural tile construction is commonly used in these units. The wall of the unit is thus a concrete wall with tile faces. The tile has traditionally been set with portland cement mortar but modern bleach plant operations with closed loop recycl ing of chemicals has resulted in the increased use of resin mortars with their broader chemical resistance. Maintenance again involves routine inspection and repointing of receded mortar joints and the filling of any voids in the wall structure.

Pulp and Paper Industry PAPER MILL

Use

677

Structural tile construction and tile lined steel construction are commonly used in the paper mill to handle the pulp and to handle the paper mill chemicals. The tile affords a relatively smooth surface, it will not contaminate the pulp, and is resistant to chemical corrosion. The tile can be set in portland cement mortar, however, a resin mortar is frequently preferred since it will be more resistant to a broader range of chemicals. Resin cements also have greater strength and are somewhat more resistant to erosion. Equipment in which this type of construction is used includes pulp storage tanks, stock chests, machine chests, and wire pits.

TALL OIL REACTORS These vessels are operated under extreme chemical and high temperature conditions. They are, therefore, usually brick lined. The lining consists of a polyvinyl chloride sheet membrane applied to the steel shell with an acid brick I ining set in furan mortar installed over the membrane. The vessel is occasionally exposed to a caustic solution for cleaning and, therefore, a partial carbon brick lining may be installed in the lower wall area and floor. These lower areas of the vessel are normally where the most maintenance is required. Eroded mortar joints may need repointing and softened and eroded brick may need to be replaced.

TALL OIL SPENT ACID TANKS These vessels are lined the same as the tall oil reactor since conditions are similar to those in the reactor. The precautions rn exposing the lining to caustic solutions are also the same.

FLOORS Concrete floor areas in a pulp and paper mill are frequently lined to prevent deterioration of the concrete. These linings can consist of red shale brick, quarry tile, or an aggregate filled resin (referred to as a monolithic floor lining), Floor linings are primarily used in areas exposed to very aggressive chemicals such as in the bleach plant and paper mill. A red shale brick or quarry tile floor is usually installed over a hot or cold applied mastic membrane. The mastic is applied to the concrete floor then the brick or tile are set with a resin cement. The resin cement can be a furan, a polyester or an epoxy depending on the anticipated exposure conditions. If high temperatures and constant exposure to aggressive chemicals are anticipated, the brick or tile will be bedded in the mortar as well as having mortar joints. Aggregate filled resin floor linings or monolithic floor linings have seen an increasing use as this technology has developed and improved. This type of lining is installed by first applying a resin primer over a concrete floor surface prepared by acid washing. The filled resin mix is then trowel applied. To meet particular service requirements, this type of floor lining may be applied in several trowel

678

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

coats and may be reinforced a hot water brick or tile normally

with

a layer of glass cloth. stability to a floor This type of lining

Glass cloth

reinforcing to a than

is used to give some dimensional lining

which

may be subjected resistance. shock

wash or hot chemicals. there

is less expensive

and gives at least equivalent is exposure

chemical

It is not

used where

to severe thermal installation

or heavy meto

chanical abuse. Selection, design, specification, lining as they floor and proper are as important the success of a floor curing of the concrete proper floor preparation and around adequately are to the success of a vessel lining. Proper of the floor if the floor of expansion lining and the lining bonds joints on the mounting floor will determine location

prior to the installation substrate. columns, lining The

of the concrete building important. of a floor

to the concrete

along walls, usually

and at machinery repointing

pads is particularly Maintenance and receded placement tenance disbonded joints,

involves brick lining

of deteriorated and remainand If proper undercut

replacement

of broken brick the

or tile,

and removal

of loose or disbonded procedures and the concrete

or tile or monolithic.

are not followed, substrate

can be severely

attacked.

SUMMARY Corrosion and paper Considerable velopment in equipment performance costs. resistant experience of materials that masonry with construction variety which, is extensively of corrosive when used in the conditions applied, pulp

industry

to handle

the wide this type performs the

present. in the deresults

of construction

has resulted properly

and procedures of information and

satisfactorily

for many years. Continued undoubtedly installation in and

experience operating

and the accumulation

and data will reduction

lead to further

improvements

REFERENCES
1. 2. 3. 4. Tucker, E.F., Modern sulfite digester linings-recent technical developments, Paper Trade Journal (October 1957). Thomas, B., Designing brick linings to resist hot chemicals, Chemical Engineering 75: 111-116 (1969). Thomas, B., Tile linings and process vessels in the deinking plant, TAPPl 47: 184A188A (1964). Thomas, B., Carbon brick linings in alkaline pulp digesters, TAPPl 37: 174-176 (1954).

Section XIV Inspection and Failure Analysis

679

Inspection and Failure Analysis

Walter

Lee Sheppard, incorporated

Jr.

C.C. R.M., Havertown,

Pennsylvania

Few municipalities, ever consider the project would pendent labor there private knew letting

states, and certainly a construction be willing or other no inferior contract inspector without

not the federal to a contractor from

government, without

would Nor indecheap just as

assigning project

to a government investors had been built

to follow continuing

beginning

to end.

to put money financially materials that party. major were In the

into any construction inspection party,

that they

by someone

of the contractor were taken,

interested

to be sure that

no shortcuts

were used, nor incompetent an inspector can be bought,

employed.

It is always

possible

are venal people Until the

in any business, but failure of the principal years, most that

to inspect at all is obviously companies retained per-

not in the best interest sonnel just to follow the standards completely greatly today work neither spector with rectors looking reduced, employees of their

last fifteen

chemical part

up the construction exception.

work

they contracted of the contract however,

to be sure that were followed boards of dihave unwisely

and specifications

and without

last decade,

for places to save money of the general subcontractors-more resistant nor who brickwork knowledge. obviously

and to reduce payrolls, are usually than

or in some cases even eliminated, contractor often

such jobs. The result is that assigned to inspect the specialty observed work an inlaid of which they have tile floor not to follow surfacings, this writer seen a quarry The only between meant

such as acid at work

or monolithic had never before

experience

In one instance, in a kitchen. obviously

acid-resistant

resin joints

installed writer

thing he seemed the tile were to /I since,

to understand be % in. wide.

in the specification The specification

was that the joints

nominal

680

inspection

and Failure

Analysis

681

unless the tile are ground, dimensional grout formed finished in white actly spector tolerances sion as absolute. to the floor. chalk He did

there

cannot

be an exactly

uniform

size joint due to this dimenfor the resin bed, or the

of the tile. nor check

The inspector,

however,

treated

not bother to see that mixing to determine nor check the mixing

instructions

were followed, of the tile.

that the surface of the slab conof the adhesive of the top surface of the the joint to be not exthis inbut this

specification, The only thing as unacceptable

placement

Nor did he verify the uniformity any area where than he found

he did do was to take out a steel rule and circle half of the floor. with the project Replacing manager,

14 in. wide-and and obtaining

this was more one who checked

the important

parts of the specifications

was difficult was eventually

due to his personal contract, brick that the

relationship

done, and the work was accepted. in this case the principal by the general was a university, including all the inthat of the be handled brick contractor,

On another spection was to laying of dairy a requirement thick, placed greater variation specification, one that would too joint. warned low-was

pavers. The specification be laid in a furan membrane. adjacent require showplace between

was absolutely floor work

clear, including of %I in. was to have no to follow-but he was in thickwas

resin bed a minimum

over a hot asphalt in elevation and one that would assure a beautiful under

The finished

brick than /a2 in. This was a tight

slow and careful floor.

When the bids were tabulated, his competition Inasmuch

it was noted that the low bidder-and by the exact cost of the the variations the

/a in. resin bed architect

as this bed was essential to accommodate pavers if the floor

ness of

the adjacent

was to be smooth,

of the need for close inspection with the university He trusted

to be sure that the contractor any site work. to do his job.

did indeed

install the l/s in. resin bed. The architect His contract cost him would said that he did not intend money.

said that that was up to the contractor. The contractor If he did not, he when the The resin no one in progress because that would

did not include

to inspect the work the subcontractor until

catch it on the final inspection. was thus not inspected be). He telephoned pointed specification. with that out that The tight completed in mid-August to complain. stated was advised that the floor was very rough (just as he had been warned to deliver in accordsaid he could and asked if the when he bid. building (He had to

The work architect that it would

the resin manufacturer it was up to the contractor said that The

manufacturer ance with could present comply

architect tolerance. exception

the contractor

resin manufacturer the specifications,

name ten firms who had no trouble contractor had taken had not.)

meeting

to the specification

Then he was told the floor should be taken out and put it in correctly! said there was not enough time to redo by the time college opened-early counted smooth that on.) and The contractor meet the floor-the September. offered The (Of course, this was to grind the floor resin manufacturer exposing and will of the surface,

The architect to be delivered what make warned softer floor. the

the contractor surface the architect interior. These color.

specifications.

grinding

takes off the hard-burned

brick will wear faster than the rest of the floor, The result will be short life and early replacement late, the architect

have a different

Because he was unwilling

to deliver the building

approved

682

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

the grinding. The contractor thus was able, by this change in the specifications, to save the difference between $6600 that the furan resin bed, 18 in. thick, would have cost him and $750 that grinding the floor cost him, so that he was able to come out with a good profit. The floor had to be replaced three years later-well after the usual one-year warranty expired. This type of sharp practice is quite common, and only careful inspection can prevent it. The principal who relies on others to do his inspecting for him is taking a chance. If the contractor plans to cut corners or to evade the correction of errors, he will often try to keep working quickly over and beyond the error, hoping to proceed far beyond the substandard work. It would then be buried so deeply that to correct it could be very costly in time and material, and so delay the job completion that the client would let it go rather than tear out everything to get to it. This procedure usually works unless the inspector is given the authority to shut the job down as soon as he sees a violation of the specifications, and to keep it shut down until the substandard work is removed and the matter corrected. Such authority, therefore, should be given to the inspector. If the contractor disagrees with the inspector, he can appeal the decision before making the correction, but there will be less lost time and material than if he continues to work before making the correction and if the customer insists on the correction being made. If the inspector has this authority, the customer will not be under pressure to let it go, rather than take out sufficient material to reach the substandard work. Further, if the contractor is told that the inspector has this authority, he will be more careful in his construction work.

INSPECTION Preliminaries The procedure of inspection for the end user, as it applies to chemicallyresistant masonry, starts with the drawings and specifications as received from the designers. The very first thing for the end user to remember is that anyoneany designer-can make mistakes, and under Murphys Law, someone probably will, whether it be on the drawings or in the specifications. Therefore, the user should do the following. (1) Examine the drawings first, then carefully read the specifications to see whether as prepared the details and the specifications will produce the end product that is desired. Is everything absolutely clear? Can anything be interpreted in more than one way? Can there be any misunderstanding? If there is, mark that item for clarification. (2) Examine the drawings and read the specifications a second time carefully, keeping in mind all the design limitations and rules from the appropriate section of this book. Is there anything on drawings or in specifications that violate these rules or limitations-anything that cannot be done as described? If there is, mark that item for review. (3) If any exceptions are found in (1) or (2), this is the time to correct them. Bring in the designer, go over the items with him, and make changes to resolve the matter, changes which both you and the designer can agree upon. Only after such matters are settled should the construction be put out for bids.

Inspection

and Failure

Analysis

683

(4) carefully.

It is important
masonry is only to follow If this

that

you

(if your or

company structure)

is the end user of the corfollow the construction will or he the general contractor

rosion-resistant be expecting keep your

equipment

a part of a larger contract, Whether before,

this himself. Any

he does so or not, and whether you would is more careful by following taken. it. all concrete if he knows

not he has handled finger is being observed. on this subcontract tract,

such subcontractors

be well advised to to make a profit yourself

on it yourself. by squeezing

contractor only

But the general contractor it-and

may have planned

it carefully

can you be sure that there will Often, himself. of concrete specifications as written, brick,

be no shortcuts will

If this is a separate consubstrates the

of course you will have an easier time following the general contractor walls for

plan on installing to provide

To save some of his costs, he may plan to cut corners on the contouring (if these are specified), the concrete finish rough slabs; ignoring furnish specified, or otherwise a concrete and

that does not, as delivered or tile, to provide

by him to the subcontractor, any finish required

meet the specifications It may he is

leaving it to be the subcontractor

who is to install the membrane to meet the specifications. work. will

not be possible for the subcontractor subcontractor will be unable have included to do an acceptable delivered that,

to make up such deficiencies, job. The subcontractor

nor will the

in his costs this additional

Consequently,

almost certainly he may be told his materials and force him work. This

have had his materials finished. finish by the general the work, to to remove Fearing author tion.

to the site, ready to install when the concrete in such condition, if he does not agree to apply will terminate he may the work corrected,

If he refuses to accept the concrete contractor the general contractor at his expense, general the

his subcontract, reluctantly

his materials alienate

and refuse to let him bid future proceed. the unacceptable

contractor, observed that

has, on several occasions, In all cases, he told had to be removed,

results of this situathat all brick

the owner

was unacceptable, then new membrane,

materials

the concrete

and tile re-laid.

Failure to force this issue will result in both unsightly for the contruction. of the contract. inspector without

appearance

and short life expectancy It is, therefore, as they (5) tractor occur, Before submits error is permitted

Of course, there will also be concatch such improper excessive lost time. acts If one

siderable delay on the completion so that they accepting experience within

vital that the principals can be corrected any bid from to pass, others will follow.

any contractor, the satisfactory

be sure that the con(to the customer)

data, the

showing

completion equivalent that jobs. job will

of at least three contracts materials, the contract,

of similar

nature and involving the same or In addition, he must guarantee to whom this in

last two years.

if awarded

at the very least the lead craftsman to use craftsmen to bid.

be assigned will

be the one who handled

one or more of these reference and supervisors experienced

If he is unable or unwilling (6)

this work, is), demand received were taken

he should not be permitted Regardless of the outcome and all exceptions by the lowest examine taken bidder.

of the bidding on this subcontract

(if such it those If he is every-

to review the bids. Note any differences Is the low bidder

in the bids between close to the others? Has he included

by all bidders, whether to find out why.

or not these exceptions

,nuch lower,

the bid carefully

684

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

thing?

Is he planning

on using alternate (a) weather (c) Heat

materials?

Does he meet the experience cooling materials for

clause? Has he included costs for materials? hot weather? for with or know past work materials.

protection

at site? (b) Storage and handling ice or other are protected over weekends, at site, not really by to and in or his

in cold weather,

(d) Will he see that site and materials over holidays with carefully Only the operators

(at correct temperature) Purchasing,

and at night? (e) Check out the references and maintenance the floors people

for any comments is satisfactory. You

they may wish to make about workmanship or equipment Dont let anyone sign up the low bidder just it. If you are overruled company

those using or maintaining

if everything

because he is cheaper. Purchasing, (7) tell them shipped You cant

may have cause to regret in writing yourself.

put your disapproval be everywhere be grateful

so that it is recorded. If you cant get your in the vicinity in carefully Examine and with of the construction everything all markings Examine and that brought

give you some help, talk to those working you will for their going on. Tell the receiving to the contractor, with desk to check

comments

if they see something

unusual

and note where documents is kept including

all of it is being stored. the specifications

Check

records every day and inspect the shipments. and compare firm facilities the shipping that all materials with brought apply

on packages to conthe storage perishable with Check the all

are those named in the specifications. everything shelf clean and dry, exactly storage life-are stored

to be sure that limited

items-those manufacturers equipment trowels mortars brought (8) checked portant taken to or

in accordance temperatures.

recommendations, equipment mortar

onto the site by the contractor bed under with mixer tile,

to be certain that no specifiserrated for mixing 350 equipment rpm)

cally prohibited

(such as mops to apply asphalt membranes, motor-driven than speeds greater men whom

monolithics

have been has agreed you have It is imto your

onto the site, and that the site is clean and kept clean and dry. Get the names of the experienced out. that from Contractors you your check often regularly shift work the contractor on the project

to bring on the site, and be sure that they really worked men from until

one job to another. is completed

to be sure that the experienced the contract

men are not

site for other the work

satisfaction. (9) drawings literature absolute foreman sure what technical be certain inforcing the welding sions, internal the meeting approved facturer Before and/or starts, sit down with with him. go over that too. materials the job foreman Be sure that and go over the and specifications instructions, about the or how agreement If the specifications cite manufacturers you and he are in make sure that the on

all aspects of the job. carefully

If you find any disagreement

on the design,

are to be assembled, in agreement. you, both

and you discuss the matter is wanted and to be fully procedures, to meet with or mixing what

with the designer to be absolutely If you find disagreement manufacturer Verify that to send his and to recover of adequate

the installation that

get the materials

representative

to settle the differences,

is done meets the specifications. all concrete, (free and surface of all weld may require get them

has been designed with (continuous) angles, etc.) covering

and that the specifications splatter, lining. Take

holes, protruminutes

of all steel that discussed,

all points that there

typed

up, and then signed manu-

or agreed

by the contractor,

the designer and the materials

to be certain

is no misunderstanding.

Inspection

and Failure

Analysis

685

(10)

If the work

is outofdoors,

make sure that if weather the acceptable water,

forecasts indicate (a)

rain, high winds or temperatures cover is provided if appropriate, are near 85F to prevent are in place to prevent

outside

range (60 to 85F),

rain from falling in thework of ground

area, (b) dikes or barriers and well points provided, if temperatures (f) check all to installation the lower factor. in in several areas. It Check when may inthat cure you are near 60F.

the intrusion

(c) wind breaks are in place, (d) shade is provided or (e) heat is provided thermal range-the if temperatures higher

materials to be certain that they have been storedfor48hoursprior in the acceptable hot, (g) check is substrate the humidity dicate at 35F. range in cold weather, of the substrate that No installation is the limiting and record the temperature the dew point.

temperature, to determine

not air temperature,

can be permitted

air temperatures

fall within working

5OF of the dew point. range as low as 5OF.

Some manufacturers Exept for materials storage.

an acceptable

do not accept no safety

this low a temperature allowance but until and work a// materials 48 the

for material will

If something not only possiby the

should happen to the heating system and the temperature are left with until bility heat that minimum is restored, surface there

drops below 50F,

have to be stopped (h) If there

have been brought hours. test the

back to the is any

temperature-probably is water in or under

substrate,

substrate

mat test (see under Design) to be sure that it is dry. Concrete If new concrete be loaded, plant truck. water with Dont effect. When slump proved test. the concrete materials gets to the site, before than manufacturer, has been placed, the designers it is placed, slump demand to see a apto If it is greater 4 in., unless a higher is specifically taking superintendent, If there reducer, additive until is to be installed, you the formula but with of any you go to the bulk plant where for the mix, and verify who at the chute the mix is to with the the that agent, and stay to what is loading formula

with

it-not

the workman kind, that

is anything

in the mix that

he is loading-air is not that

entrainment

in the approved the mix is exact/y

was ordered,

stop the shipment tell you that will

now and order the truck are satisfied an additive improve

to be emptied,

the workmen let anyone

as ordered. the opposite

in the mix that is in addition it. It can have exactly

is called

for in the formula

by the

stop the job and tell the contractor be sure that the finishing instructions, and that of the specified of finding you should the

remove the concrete After procedures time exact/y

from the site as unacceptable. and the curing the full curing curing time the If a monotest (Elis to be must pull last poured follow

the concrete

specified

is permitted.

At the conclusion should

mat test for moisture lithic topping using The

(cited above)

be run, at the locations dampness.

or where you feel there is the greatest likelihood is to be applied a Schmidt as the adhesive at this time, (or Swiss) for strength cometer) applied. concrete tests with bond

also run compressive that

Hammer

and a bond tensile monolithic and the coupon

the coupons psi minimum, strength from

must register 300 for the concrete

(including

aggregate) over the entire

surface of the coupon. to be verified by making cylinder the the same mix used in placing

It is customary

samples at each days pour of concrete,

686

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

new concrete. These cylinder molds are poured at the same time that the concrete is placed. Be sure that such samples are made from each truckload used, and poured at the identical time that the rest of the load is placed. See that these molds are placed in a warm and secure spot where they will not be bumped or otherwise disturbed for at least 24 hours and at the same temperature as that of the recently placed concrete. Do not allow anyone to remove the samples before the concrete at the site is hard and can support traffic. If jolted or subjected to conditions different from that of the placed concrete, you cannot expect tests run on these samples to be representative of the concrete that has been placed. If the concrete is to be formed-a vessel, pit, trench, etc.-make sure that if release agents are to be used on the forms, they are ones that are acceptable to the membrane manufacturer and installer. Verify that bracing is firm and strong so that the weight of the concrete, as it is poured, will not move or deflect the forms, and that forms fit neatly and the formed surface will be uniform and smooth. Observe the pours to assure that the concrete is adequately, but not excessively, vibrated to produce uniformity and freedom from voids, honeycombing and air pockets. When wet to wet pours cannot be made, make sure that continuous water stops are placed and that before the next pour is made, the preceding hardened surface is coated within the proper time limit with an acceptable concrete bonding agent. When the forms are stripped, make sure that all surface laitance and form marks are removed. All the wires must be cut back well below the concrete surface. Check and sound the surface for holidays, honeycombing and stone pockets, breaking surface crusts open to expose any that may be hidden under a thin skin. These (and the wire holes) must all be hand-filled (packed) carefully with a stiff and strong sand/cement mix and packed tightly. Over troweling is not permitted. This brings laitance to the top and creates a weak surface. All floor surfaces must be smooth and sloped enough so when flooded drain completely without any standing puddles. If they do not, they are unacceptable and the contractor should be required to cut out sufficient surface material in the low areas to install patches and bring the surface to uniformity with the surrounding area. All tools used to finish the concrete must be clean. No release agents may be coated on the tools. (Release agents may wear off and leave remnants on the concrete surface, affecting the bond of membrane system.) And no sealing or curing agents may be used on the concrete surface that have not been accepted in writing by the manufacturer and installer of the membrane material. If oil or grease lubricants are found to have been used on the forms, the contact surfaces must be brush sandblasted to remove all traces of the lubricants. Check carefully (especially close to the form bottoms) to be certain that the formed concrete is all dead straight or uniform/y curved as specified. If there is even the slightest deviation from the design contour, that section must be cut out and ground smooth. All concrete pits, vessels and deep trenches should be checked for water tightness. This is done by (1) plugging all outlets, (2) filling to the top with water, and allowing to stand, covered, for no less than 48 hours. (3) After at least 48 hours, add water to replace any loss by evaporation or soaking into

Inspection

and Failure

Analysis

687

the concrete. (4) At a marked point, measure the depth accurately, take the temperature of the water and cover tightly. (5) After 24 hours, uncover and measure depth and temperature at the mark. Adjust depth for any difference in temperature (coefficient of expansion of water and thermal change). If the level is more than 1 in. lower, there is a leak somewhere that must be located and stopped before the vessel can be lined. Prior to application of membrane or monolithic check to be sure the concrete is sufficiently dry, by applying a rubber or plastic mat or sheet flatly to the concrete surface, taping the edges. After 24 hours, if any moisture collects under the mat, the concrete is too damp and must be dried. Brick Of all the materials brought to the site for the contract, brick are the most likely to vary in quality. The specification will have identified them by type and, if they are acid brick, by ASTM Specifications, most probably C279, which classifies them primarily by fluid absorption and loss in weight in an acid boil test. The manufacturer is expected to ensure uniformity in physical and chemical properties, and that they are within dimensional tolerances by testing random samples taken in accordance with ASTM C67, and he should certifiy that these tests have been run, and that the brick shipped comply with the specifications. However, if this is a large contract involving large numbers of brick, it is still advisable for the inspector to visit the manufacturers plant and inspect the facilities, the brick and the records, and observe at least some of the sampling and testing. It should be noted that although the specification is quite clear on the limits of acceptable physical and chemical properties of all brick furnished, the dimensional tolerances indicated apply only within each individual shipment, so if there are a number of shipments required to complete the order, it will be up to the end customer and his inspector to assure acceptable overall dimensional tolerances for the duration of the contract. Unless the inspector monitors the brick shipments carefully, it is entirely possible that at least some shipments will be made in inclement weather, in open body trucks, and without cover, so that brick arriving wet and/or in dirty condition may not be noted. Even on tightly strapped stacked pallets, this author has found brick in the center of the pallet coated with road dirt. While the brick, if they otherwise meet the specifications, are acceptable,they should not be taken to the job site and used until they have been cleaned and dried. It is most important that the inspector also monitor the storage area, make sure that it is covered, and, in cold weather, heated, and that all pallets are stored off ground, at high enough elevation so that they will remain dry and free of surface water should there be heavy rains and surface flooding. All brick in each shipment should be stored together so as to reduce any problem that may result from dimensional variations. At least 48 hours before use, all pallets must be broken down, and the brick stacked in open checker fashion in a space that is maintained at a temperature in the range of 60 to 85F. If there is dirt on the brick inside the pallets, they must be removed, cleaned and restacked in open checker manner 48 hours before use so that they can dry and come up to temperature.

688

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and Chemical

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Masonry

Materials

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Mortars Some mortars are heat sensitive. The speed of set of furan mortars in particular, is much accelerated by heat, so that open time can be reduced to 10 minutes at 85 to 9OF. The effects of temperature on setting speeds of other resins are less extreme, but the contractor will have more time to use up his mix at a 60 to 7OF material temperature. Phenolic mortars must be stored prior to use at temperatures of 6OF or lower. If they are left in areas where they may be overheated, they can be ruined in a short time or so badly affected as to be unusable. There is a case on record of phenolic mortars being delivered to a site in Texas late on Friday, and left on the loading dock, resulting in materials which were totally unusable by 7 A.M. on Monday morning when the construction crew arrived. On the other hand, no serious damage will result if the components of resin mortars are subjected to temperatures below freezing. Silicate mortars, however, will not be injured by storage in warm locations, with the possible exception of a few with limited shelf life, where it is possible that shelf life may be shortened. But if the liquid component (sodium or potassium silicate) is frozen, the fluid mixture (a colloid) will break and the silicate will come out of solution and coat itself on the inside of the metal containers. If this happens, the mortar will not function until the silicate is redissolvedmixed back with solutions using a power-stirring device such as a Lightning Mixer .I The liquid component of a silica mortar, if frozen, can never be reclaimed and must be discarded. A sulfur mortar, which is normally shipped in blocks or chips, is unaffected by atmospheric thermal changes from below freezing up to 1IOF or higher. Nor is it subject to water damage from weather or flooding, so long as it is dried off before putting the mortar in the melting pots. Epoxy mortars, although susceptible to damage from water, are not seriously affected by thermal effects in the ambient upper ranges, and as long as the materials are kept covered, little difficulty is usually experienced. Polyesters and vinyl esters are the most water-sensitive of all the resin mortars. Although they are somewhat affected by higher ambient temperatures, they can usually be installed without too much trouble even in the 90 to IOOF range. However, if water gets into the mix or comes in contact with resin, powder or mortar before setting takes place, the cure may well be permanently inhibited, and the mortar will probably have to be removed and discarded. There is a case on record of a shipment of carbon-filled polyester floor surfacing material which failed to cure, although the control sample retained at the factory was perfectly normal. After a lengthy investigation, it was found that the powder bags had been punctured-small holes-by the forklift operator. The air was close to 100% humidity and the carbon filler had absorbed moisture from itenough to add 10% to its weight-although the powder appeared to be completely dry to the touch. After replacement of this powder, the mortar set perfectly. From the above summary, the inspector should see the importance of determining the condition of all containers shipped onto the site, and that the storage conditions-completely dry, off the ground, ventilated, and in the correct temperature range-have been met by the contractor.

Inspection

and Failure

Analysis

689

It may be a requirement taken at regular, C579 in the

in a chimney

lining contract intervals determination mortar that the

that mortar under

samples be

perhaps unannounced, to verify specification, the quality

and 1 in. by 1 in. right cylinder the provisions in the mix. mortar If such a provision be packed

test units be made for compressive of ASTM appears

strength

of the

it is important

sample molds at the same time of the stack, identical for the exact or in an enclosed period of time

that the mix is carried to the masons who are inin the base under space or room both as close to it as possible, and permitted specified, technicians

stalling the brick, and that the molds be placed on a shelf in a cabinet conditions of temperature expiration and humidity,

to cure there

specified

before demolding

and after demold(They may NOT time. span

ing. At the exact should be taken be tested between fication,

of the aging time of the laboratory

the sample cylinders at some other if the time

to the testing machine and the

and tested at that time. be correlated exposure

at the convenience the mix and testing

The test is meaningless for all samples tested.)

results can not

and the environmental must, therefore, of all variables.

are not identical for veri-

The inspector

make provisions

and for the elimination and Expansion membrane

Membranes Sheet asphalt These

Joint Materials are usually laminates, prepared shipped specially in rolls. Exceptions include and

linings vinyl

plasticized-unplasticized and rubber are applied

compounded

asphalt

compounded to properly

sheets, usually shipped flat in cartons or boxes. surfaces with an adhesive that may be

air-cured or heatcured. At all events, so far as storage is concerned, temperatures above freezing and under IOOF are usually not matters of concern, unless the manufacturer materials under cover. Fluid-applied turer same manner it is unlikely membranes require similar storage, and unless the manufacmay be stored in the all and However, advises to the contrary, the component materials or applicator should so advises. Water be stored and dirt, however, damage these and so they in a clean storage area, off the ground

and under the same conditions that such damaged returned all liquid short material

as the sheet materials. can be damaged be notified

latex emulsions, case, if freezing Examine ments, were The more

and some few other materials, occurs, the manufacturer

by freezing,

can be reconstituted should

at the site. In any on the chance that docuif they

he may want the material carefully than a very and if delivered

rather than discarded. components en route, received, check and the shipping especially in open body trucks,

in cold weather time

the contents

for freezing. in transit,

manufacturers

should

also be advised of any packages damaged

requesting

advice as to use or disposition.

INSTALLATION No work (1) All should be started until you are assured of the following. materials have now been brought to the site. that Each item has

been checked

and double

checked

to be certain

it is (1) the exact

690

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

material clean,

specified dry, free

or an approved of any

(by the designer) and in the

equal,

(2) that it is thermal

contamination,

specified

range, and (3) that the packages are undamaged, (2) All surfaces to be coated/protected requirements, including finish, range, and sloped in accordance contractors individuals, crew at the site

no seals broken. surface prepain the correct

meet prescribed and are clean, dry,

ration thermal (3)

with the specifications. includes the experienced and

The

trained (4) (5)

whose names have been given to you. tools or equipment and wind are on site. should be as specified should and in

No proscribed Cover, weather

protection intrudes,

place.

If a spill occurs

or water

all work

be stopped

until the area is once more clean and dry. Membrane If the substrate asphalt. (1) a stiff roller Observe the application bristle brush or broom. brush, of the primer. This must be scrubbed or applied to puddle. black. is set up. Make sure be sure that any is heated and kettle, with on using a paint applicaIt may not be sprayed, on and allowed surface merely is concrete, the most frequently employed membrane is hot

or a soft paint

nor poured

If the color

fades as it dries, so that the concrete (2) the kettle remnants While the primer is empty, of asphalt dry

looks dirty,

another

tion must be made, until the surface remains completely is being applied, and clean. material If this is a roofing is put into it. smoking with

the asphalt kettle

have been scraped out of it before

the kettle

before any asphalt membrane The cover (if detached) should that be brought ing of the containers, no foreign Before matter

should be placed next to it in case of need. The heat and foaming. Observe the opento be sure of the is of container the thermal exteriors limits and the loading

up slowly to prevent removal enters the kettle

the asphalt.

The hot asphalt pourin the kettle

ing (using) range must be within materials. smooth, stirred, keep from application

given by the supplier

is permitted,

be sure that the liquid

thin, and free from foaming, to fill the containers adjusted full,

bubbles and excessive smoking. to keep it to site, to pouring anyone in it. He melted materials are carried in the

The contractor the heat taking

should have a man assigned to stay with the kettle in which recharging so as to maintain the contents it as required, of the kettle proper material

range, to keep the kettle liquid should prevent smoking

and to prevent

out of it as long as there remains unmelted in the vicinity

and, should the contents put it in place and seal off sacking. Under no

catch fire, close the cover at once, or if it is detached, any air leaks around circumstances During stirring following should ical fire extinguishers it occasionally, the edges of the cover with anyone on it. be allowed

wet burlap

to turn a fire hose on it or to use chemshould remain with the kettle atalltimes, it neither cools off nor overheats. is covered. The man since it will take an and the kettle

breaks and lunch, someone and making

sure that

At the end of the day, the heat source is removed hour or more to get it ready to use.

day, the first one on the job will be the kettle

Inspection

and Failure

Analysis

691

(3) Application may start only after all solvent has evaporated out of the primer, but the surface is still clean and tacky. (4) Application of the hot asphalt on a floor (or other horizontal flat surface) is by pouring the material on the surface and spreading it with a squeegeeusually wood, and approximately 18 in. long. Observe workmanship carefully to be certain the mechanic is providing a glassy, smooth and pinhole and bubble (or blister) free surface. If there are bubbles or blisters in the membrane, the job must be stopped until they have been removed and the membrane repaired. (See the section on Asphalt for procedure.) (5) Application to walls or other vertical or irregular upright surfaces is made in the same manner, starting at the bottom and working from the bottom to the top. (See the section on Hot Asphalt for full instructions.) (6) The reinforcing is applied carefully using a roller or some other means to flatten it out, remove all wrinkles, and press it into the asphalt already applied. Here is where one frequently finds carelessness. Beforethe fabric is applied, the asphalt layer should be a smooth, glossy, uniform l/s in. thick, free of bare spots, holes or bubbles. The thickness should be verified using a mechanical thickness gauge, such as a large nail with distances marked on it from the point in l/s in. increments. A piece of chalk should be carried to mark every point where the membrane has been punctured to verify the thickness. The mechanics repair and sealing of these holes should be checked to be sure they are liquidtight. In like manner, the thickness of each increment in the membrane should be verified, If other types of membranes are used, and/or if surfaces other than concrete are to be membrane protected, read carefully the specifications and the manufacturers literature on each and the section in this volume on that type, and verify surface preparation and thickness, uniformity and continuity of membrane. Make sure that not only the finished surface, but each intermediate one is free of dirt, blisters and voids. Where the substrate is metal, and the membrane is suitable for such testing, supervise spark testing to be sure that the voltage is adequate to provide liquid-tightness, but not so high as to burn holes in the membrane.

Monolithics Troweled surfacing materials (monolithics) sometimes are used as membranes, where there may be a load on the surface beyond the capability of a membrane to support. In such cases, there may be adjacent areas of membrane and monolithic. If the system is to be continuous and void-free, the monolithic must be overlapped at all edges by the membrane, or the two surfaces continuously mated or flashed together. The inspector should examine this section very carefully for voids and discontinuities. In addition, he observes the following inspection procedure on the application: (1) He checks the surface of the substrate carefully for proper surface preparation, and verifies the compressive strength with a Schmidt (Swiss) Hammer, and the surface bond strength with an Elcometer, using the monolithic material itself as the bonding agent for the coupons. If a primer is used, then use it in bonding the coupons. The Elcometer test run in this manner also verifies the compatibility of the concrete surface and the monolithic. To be considered

692

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Materials

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satisfactory, the coupon must pull concrete and bits of aggregate over the entire surface. (2) Verify the proportions of the components in the mix to be sure they are those specified by the manufacturer, and measured as specified by weight, and that the mix is properly trowelable-neither too soupy nor too stiff. Do not rely on or accept the assurances of the mechanics for this. Do not permit the addition of any unauthorized material to the mix. Verify that speed of all power mixers is not more than 350 rpm. (3) Observe the application of the primer. All surfaces must be adequately covered, with no bare spots and free of puddling. (4) The application should be uniform in thickness, smooth and compact, without tears, cracks, blisters or holes. Any such irregularities should be removed and repaired while the material is still soft. At the end of the day, and before any work breaks, make sure that all ragged edges, etc., are removed, so that a clean, tight juncture of new to old can be accomplished when work is resumed. (5) Watch the mortar pallets carefully to see that no material is used after it has passed its work life-become too stiff-and that any such material is discarded and not mixed into a subsequent batch. (6) Verify that expansion joints are cut or formed over a// points of movement in the substrate: expansion joints, control joints, cold seams, working cracks, etc. Brickwork and Expansion Joint

(1) Before bricklaying starts, check the substrate (and/or membrane) and the brick as they are brought to site, for cleanliness. Verify with a surface thermometer that they are in the correct thermal range, and make sure everything is dry. (2) Check the tools and the mortar box to be sure that they are clean and dry, and that no prohibited tools (such as serrated trowels) are brought on site. (3) Observe the mortar being mixed. If a power mixer is used, make sure the mixer speed is under 350 rpm. Check the measurement by weight of the proportions and see that the person measuring the proportions marks the measuring containers correctly after weighing, so that future measurements can be by volume. (4) Make sure that the mixing is carried to complete uniformity of the mortar. Observe the way mortar handles on the trowel. It should have sufficient body so that it clings and does not fail off when the trowel is turned so that its face is vertical. (5) Observe the masons pallets to be sure that all the mortar is smooth and creamy-free of lumps. (6) Watch the way the masons handle the trowel and butter the brick. Are the mating surfaces completely and uniformly covered with mortar? (If the morit can run out of the joints and should be discarded. Dipping tar is runny, brick into mortar is absolute/y prohibited. If there are any voids or bare spots, more mortar must be applied.) (7) Watch the brick being laid, pressed down onto the membrane or the brick below it, and slid into place next to the adjacent brick. Mortar should be extruded at all joints as the brick is pressed and tapped into place.

Inspection

and Failure

Analysis

693

(8) mason, within chimney smearing worklife be stiff (9)

The excess (extruded) leaving the worklife, liner) surface it will

mortar

should

be cut off with the trowel is cut while is being the mortar if a wall

by the is still (or a

smooth.

If the joint

smear. This will However, should without about

not make any difference if a floor be allowed smearing.

is being built. the mortar (usually

laid and minimum until the will then so re-

is desired, has elapsed enough

to cure undisturbed Obviously

3/4 hours) and then cut. The mortar

to cut cleanly

the mortar

moved must be discarded, Make sure that to prevent

not reworked. all brick cutting brick. is done with getting a saw unless the designer or the mortar The cutting must be done away from the into the work brick or squarely to be certain that: place

has agreed to accept hammercut installation cut brick-not (10) (a) Only mension) them brick, width

dust and chips from

mix. Make sure that all spaces are filled with single units-whole with chips or small pieces. of all expansion joints joint. carefully brick (or if cut brick, brick from Observe the layout whole

no brick of less than half the longest diIf cut brick are needed, (b) No mortar, joint. truly corners. for its full are smooth, the outside pieces of (c) The vertical, (e) The

is used as a side of the expansion or other straight. there terminates discover the work hard material (d) The

back a whole rubbish, and depth

the edge of the joint. intrudes joint are uniform

into the expansion

of the expansion

length and the

sides perfectly and planar-that expansion (11) If joint you

sides of the joints expansion

are no ragged or sloping edges or broken in another any joint,

of the structhe smallest

ture, or a sliding plane, so that it is not immobilized. violations of these guidelines-even it to proceed violation-stop tion is corrected. (I 2) Make sure the brickwork is undisturbed and kept in the proper thermal literature to determine necesrange until cure is complete. sary time interval .) (13) mortar, dryness cautions other If sulfur noting mortar is to be used, read the section all warnings that no work and instructions. equipment. whatsoever with in this book on sulfur Verify cleanliness and preSee that all safety carefully (See manufacturers at once and do not permit until the viola-

of the melting are observed, that

pot and all handling

is done if substrates,

brick or and as

materials with

may be in contact

the hot sulfur are wet. See that the and kept stirred fires in the same manner

pot is stirred thoroughly covered, (14) and walk pansion wrong cannot (15) asphalt fires (above).

at least once every few minutes, when not in use. Handle of expansion midway

heat removed

Measure the width joints-and dimensions, function, Verify that placed have them the

joints and the distances between of no movement them. If any are omitted, in an anchor the work

them, are the they

the area to be sure that in the wrong all expansion

all points between

are isolated by exso that

place, or terminate before joint materials

corrected installation

permitting brought

to proceed. from the

to the site meet the at once and restandmake

specifications. manufacturers move

Observe

and if there which

is any deviation

instructions

or the specifications,

stop the work

all material

that has been installed material

does not meet the exact of expansion joints,

ards and specifications. (16) In placing cellular

in the

bottom

694

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

sure that the joint joint that

it is slightly

compressed

as it is installed with

so that it presses firmly

against the the

sides. If the joint much The If there further. is any

is packed

loose fibers, make sure that the packtoo tightly, the joint the joint should cannot function.

ing is loose enough to permit (17) surface. with should (18) of the brane it. Do sealant blade,

the joint to close 25 to 50% more, compressing filling end flush with cured, surface.

If it is packed overpour,

used to finish trimming

it should

be left until they

then cut off There up be opened

a razor

it down

to the plane of the floor If any appear, should by the manufacturer

be no air bubbles, in the manner component workmens other It is permissible powder not to prevent allow

nor voids. to broadcast of the

and repaired

recommended mortar

of the material. memof the

fine, clean silica sand, or small amounts over the surface of an asphalt sticking to the membrane the authority and tearing

shoes from

materials

to be so used without

design engineer. Final Inspection After temperature, Also many, the work has been completed, until spot checks should be made at intervals curing the cure is complete joints, monolithics, (see the manufacetc.) for the appearIf there are

to make sure that the area and work and free of traffic, for anticipated or blisters. should day, turers literature check ance of bubbles the matter

are kept dry and clean, at the correct

time interval). blister is to be expected.

all curing areas (brick be brought

An occasional

at once to the attention surfaces with

of the designer for of a trowel. If to

a decision on action to be taken. After the third test all curing the point cure is delayed the attention Make final payment beyond the cure time shown in the literature, officer or purchasing draw the matter

of the designer. the contracting agent does not make on the contract until it is cleared by you.

sure that

FAILURE When designed when structure, a comment a failure trouble, design,

ANALYSIS a failure it, or occurs in an alloy made vessel containing some error the concept work. cannot the failure chemicals, the owner malit. However, with

starts to investigate a failure

to learn

if the correct

alloy was used, if the designer in assembling without There other chemically

if the

fabricator often

occurs in an acid brick-or abandons

resistant masonryinvestigation, is always a reason for

the customer

such as we tried it and it didnt is no reason why the alloy such failure

and if you are able to analyze there

so as to learn the source of the be prevented When a failure in the future. occurs, first at any of three stages:

Just as with selection check the design.

vessel, failure

may be initiated

and specification, It is always handled with

and installation. chemically

possible that to make

the design includes a detail that canresistant masonry-that there is a detail Review have been for these materials. mentioned change

not be satisfactorily

that should have been modified taken into account. Next, check the service

it suitable

the section on design to see whether

all the factors Has any

conditions.

in the

environment

Inspection

and Failure

Analysis

695

occurred minimum below indoor

since the cold heat

unit

was designed? When while when heat,

Is there the unit

a change

in the

maximum included

or to only

service temperature? or desert temperatures

is out of service, is it subject design data hot water

zero

the original only

ambient

idle? Is there a change in the cleaning cycle? was originally high presa being used? Has the process

Has higher mentioned? changed for

or live steam

been used when and thermal

Is a new or different different periods, chemicals then conditions a valve?

cleaner or chemical

with

levels, or have either pressure

sures or vacuum extended If there these second by opening changes

been introduced? dropped

Is the unit held at high pressures in less than

to atmospheric those mentioned of the

are any changes, whether with the resistance of this book

above or not, compare manufacturers, in the failure and in order

tables

materials involved

study the section to confirm Finally, was present terial even if the tions to which

on each material made is the correct

that the selection it is exposed. consider

or best one for all the condiinspector that in your employ of madown, to or

the installation. review they or installation

If a competent his reports. were Look techniques corrected.

at installation, standards report

for any violations If a wall that has fallen straight

selection,

he may have reported, edges. If dirt

states that is noted

check the supporting lack of adhesion each other, water. that check

wall for bulges by using a string and/or between nothing two components is there for foreign

should

be bonded

the area of disbondment

material-dust,

Do not assume that because you find that with

because you cannot area of mortar, it. Maybe

see it. It may Do not assume while after all other it was in-

take a powerful

glass or a chemical a semisoft the mortar mortar some chemical

wash to find a contaminant. or a softened has damaged in that

areas are hard, that it is also possible stalled. this area was troweled area was wet Some examples installed membrane changed the time later, of a very during another

this is the case. But and this small or water from sauce

spot never hardened thoroughly, of dew too little hardening to drops

Perhaps the contractor when

did not mix his mortar containing or subject a major

agent. Or perhaps

installed

source after installation. of such problems: floor During unit manufacturer resin mortar of spaghetti large brick July. The laid with furan over an asphalt the weather were shut. By rubbery the cold up and so near After to

installation, dropped

the weather on a Friday

was hot and the humidafternoon,

ity was at 100%. week with only

was completed on duty, showed

and the temperature a watchman reopened, of the floor A check the plant

15 to ZOF. The plant was closed for a and all doors and windows that the mortar was back in the 90s. Two weeks was somewhat that during of the joint-a disclosed sure indication

the temperature

inspection

on the surface, surface water. all over

but had hardened with had condensed

at the bottom the watchman the plant

snap, enough water puddle had not been noticed. In a Houston the packing mortar joints

on the walls to run down over the floor and reopened, it was all dried

it. By the time plant,

The floor had to be taken out and relaid. temperature-sensitive which had only a large number paint warned of voids were of overheating found been in service for two months.

the base of a CSs reactor was removed,

in the silicate and almost

in the insulating magnification,

brick lining, many running

all the way through

the shell. Under

these voids were shown to be circular

696

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

certainly brickwork, Where lining during brick replaced

the result of water which presumably when the did the water

had flashed to steam-passing unit was next were placed in service

out through and heated and during open was heavy removed

the up. the rain and

come from? A check of the plant the The from period. brick brick not covered, Bureau

personnel but were there

disclosed that to the If wet

the contractor of the weather. had

had stacked equipment. learned

to the vessel before that

It was

the Weather Insulating

the construction the lining with

brick have a high absorption. The contractor problems

been used, the failure dry brick,

was explained. and no further obtained

were experienced. an

An experienced Army tank tractor Ordnance

brick contractor He completed the following discovered from

the order to install a brick lining 50 ft. x 20 ft. x 12 ft. deep-at in mid-November, prepared mortar. and the to put A tech-

inside a large waste collection plant. stood idle until

tank-roughly March.

the installation

When the operators of the brick

it into service, they

one long wall had fallen the manufacturer as instructed,

into the tank. The con-

asked for guidance and found that

nician was sent in. The technician, of the wall well enough, bulge inward resurfaced,

snapped a string along the base had not braced the forms caused the wall to away and the concrete

the concrete After

contractor

and the weight of the concrete, at the bottom.

as it was poured, was ended.

the bulge was chipped

the brick was replaced and the problem pit of about dilute block When area. The vessel was to contain solvents, with mortar. acids and dilute cemented and then bricks

A waste collection pany in the Houston various petroleum neers designed membrane acid brick and found cracks mortar the tank, oil

the same size was built for a major oil coma waste which alkalis. lined with might include engiresin a furan The consulting

it of concrete

together, inner

reinforced and furan

glass cloth,

lined with two courses of it was water-tested at those points; As soon as one staff of the designed before the the contractor, design lining berup-

the tank was completed, and the brick elsewhere.

to have numerous were another project

leaks. The repaired

were removed replaced.

in the membrane manufacturer company the mortar

repair was made,

leak started engineer

When the technical call including firm that

was consulted

in a conference

and the engineering

manufacturer

learned

for the first time of the structural

of the vessel, and that it. When the mortar that they were wasting

(of course) manufacturer their always

it had not been tested liquid-tight The vessel could

was asked how to make it tight, he told them never be made tight, would load, and the membrane A replacement in the manner mortar. designed

money. they

cause the walls would ture somewhere many built book, factorily about organic of sound, followed late dollars-later, resin/glass the

move under

else. At first, reinforced fabric by two 194Os,

did not believe this, but several months-and vessel was later contoured, described and in this with the walls and bottom and furan company

vessel was abandoned. concrete, membrane installed

a furan

courses of brick a major chemical

It has served satisa reaction vessel, the

for well over a decade. 3 ft. 6 in. in diameter (with and 16 ft. high, to handle charging the unit, heater) a mixture closing of HCI and

In the

solvents.

The process involved an internal

it, heating

process materials

to 22OF, and at the same time buildwas to be held at that temperatemperature This was one of the down to atmospheric a new batch.

ing up pressure in the unit to 200 and pressure, emptied

psi. The unit to make

ture and pressure for 3% hours, then brought and recharged

inspection

and Failure

Analysis

697

first

process vessels ever to receive with The eaten unit

a furan

resin/glass quality when

fabric

membrane,

and it

was inner-lined mortar. that being pattern

9 in. of the highest

fireclay

acid brick

and furan

was in service only so that a waffle

a month joints

the customer

complained a

the exposed resembling

surfaces of all the brick the mortar

in the face course of the lining were all stood out boldly-yielding manufacturers both sent had to

away

iron. The brick and mortar the process liquids chemical brick

men down

to examine

the vessel. The brick technician

stated that there

be acid fluorides cause this damage. by acid fluorides.) were no fluorides, back, a little

contaminating (The mortar However, but the brick

as the only thing that could not be damaged There from the face this to be untrue. from

had a carbon filler and so would analysis proved were certainly each batch. the unit being destroyed The technician

more stayed

loss with heated,

the mortar psi and con-

manufacturer

on to watch

being operated.

All went as expected up to 200

as the vessel was charged, held for 3l/s hours. ditions, 200 the the operator which built simply took

and the pressure brought

But, when it came time to bring it down to atmospheric

cut the valve open and the drop place in a tiny fraction and stabilized This internal of a second-far

in pressure from faster than

psi to atmospheric pressure

the brick,

were saturated up in them.

for hours at 200 psi, could relieve pressure trying to leave the dense was mechanical, was much rapidly, more it

brick so rapidly not chemical. brick acted the joined

was causing the surface to spall off. The trouble It was resolved by facing the existing mortar. The bleed many out the other, the same furan it could to protect has built this inner all functioning the carbon pressure larger brick brick more brick.

lining with 2?2 in. of carbon while

with

absorbent-porous-and as a buffer with same company

surface of the fireclay much

Since that time, the fireclay possible to masonry.

process vessels of the to prevent it is usually resistant

same type-all From track down

2 !z in. of carbon satisfactorily.

from spalling-and

these experiences, and identify metallic

and many others like them, structure-of provide resistant any fixed

the sources of failures of chemically but will analyze

Just as no alloy-no suitable employed,

design and composition-is life if properly points covered

for all exposures, occurs,

long and satisfactory Look first at the

so will chemically

masonry. selection you and construction. this,

If a failure Then turn There

it carefully.

above, and note any discrepancies look for any environmental you were not previously tabulations. Now Make to the following of which

in design, material informed. Note When

changes, or perhaps the presence of something have completed you which items of failure observe.

may be several.

read carefully

the list of those causes that can lead on each list and underline causes. There

to each observed Now carefully

problem.

a list of everything

those that appear on two or more lists. check out what that it. constructions is from of masonry units (as acid brick) problems with and acid you will you see against the underlined be able to identify is a high probability the trouble First, mortar. The resistant following brick. 1982 material Reprinted Spotting and avoiding from by special permission Chemical Engineering, and correct let the source or sources of

us consider

May 3,19820

by McGraw-Hill,

Inc., New York.

698

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

The boldface

numbers mean the following:

2. Empty joints due to poor installation procedures. (2) 3. Loss or damage for unnoted operating who may was done. (I) can be caused by chemicals. or cleaners. Look trace chemicals Perhaps

I is noted where the cause of the failure can clearly be assigned to the designer. 2 indicates the fault is that of the applicator. 3 means tberc are two or more individuals be at fault. 4 indicates the materials manufacturer 5 shows the fault probably is responsible. lies with the operator.

conditions

have been changed since design Chemical damage involving sol-

(5) (Heat damage usually leaves joint

full, but crumbly. joints.)

vents usually removes some or all material from the

I-Leaks

through acid brick lining or floor. (Detected of steel tank, or wet spots, dixoloration, or

4. Receding damage.

or etched joints usually indicate chemical (I) (5) (2)

by holing

CollPpsc of concrete.) 1. Wrong mortar/membrane (I) substituted for that specihad pinholes in it. (4) were off-spec. (4) (2) then cracked, after for chemicals and/or

5. Joint damage can also result from putting brickwork into service before cre of the mrtar is complete. (Overheating may char or crack joint. loss.) It shows up as joint rarely

temperature. fied. (2)

2. Wrong mortar/membrane 3. Sheet membrane 4. Mortar/membrane 5. Membrane 6. Hot-asphalt application proportioned applied material

6. Soft, receding joints result from exposure to steam jets or to neutral or alkaline water. Receding joints (5) cao also be caused by HF or acid fluorides. (I) plete, caused loss of mortar. (2) OIl<rlll: 8. Bricks dirty, so mortar joints fell out. (2) 9. Mason never filled joint, 10. Mortar I I. Unauthorized IV-Damage material laid brick dry. (2) so had no adhesion (2) used past work-life, did not stick to them and

materials

improperly. froze,

membrane

7. Neutral waterr or washdowns, before cure WOLF com-

to concrete. (3) membrane/mortar mixed with foreign impmperly material, or mixed. (2) dust, or sand. (2) (2)

7. Multicomponent 8. Mortar/membrane such as wind-blown 9. Material

applied after it passed beyond its worklife not thick enough or in continu-

or outside of specified temperatures. IO. Mortar/membrane behind brick. (2) Il. Damage to membrane

mixed iota mortar. (2) brick in the lining.

ous layers; failure to install full-bed joints under or during bricklaying. (2)

to shale-tire&y

1. Fairly uniform surface damage, etching or spalling is almost certainly 2. Acid chemical (5) damage. (I) (5) an mortar in direct fluorides dissolve off the brick face, leaving

12. Carbon

brick and/or carbon-filled

contact with lead or stainless steel caused holing of the lead or pitting of the steel. (1) 13. Concrete allowed degraded. Anchon (3) before being in the brickwork, or other penetrations through membrane Ilow of chemicals. 14. If a vessel, it was not liquid-tight lined. (2) II-Brick with it.) 1. Brick lining tw thin for height and width. Brick lining must be independent 2. Concrete wall may point. (2) 3. Failure to properly of substrate. (I) inward bulge at some have wall lining (rectangular tank, or gutter or membrane into concrete,

etched surface. (I) material of choice.

In either of these above exposures, carbon brick is the 3. Spalling at edges of brick (at joints), but fairly sound at the middle of the brick. If joints recede (I) supported edges. 4. Spalling due to: a. Local overheating b. Local exothennic from steam impingement. reaction. (5) brick. (4) (5) of surface in selected areas. This can be (5), or were not full to start with (2), expanding brick are not at edges, and corners spall off the brick

trench) falls in. (Wall may or may not carry

c. Usz of soft (or undertired) V-Sags by voids. Soupy mortar staller. (2) Such joints bulging accompanied VI-Heaving can be identified is almost always

or runs in mortar joints, usually accompanied the fault of the inby rounded, smooth,

install expansion joints at correct installation func-

locations, or failure t make them large enough. (3) 4. Use of improper joint filler, or improper of tiller. (3) 5. Dirt or mortar in expansion joints, preventing tioning. (2) 6. See also I, nos. 3, 5, 9, 10 and II. 7. Dirt or moisture on brick and/or membrane properly III-Damage Sulfur mor1nr: 1. Loss or crumbling recording cles. Absolute can be due to overheating. especially Check cythermometer, for cleaning mixed and applied. (2) that prevented mrtar from bonding properly. Or mortar im-

horizontal joints in the brickwork, often glassy, by pinholes or voids near their tops. upward of brick floors and tank bottoms.

1. Expansion placa, (I)

joints

improperly

designed,

in

wrong tiller.

or wrong size or wrong expansion-joint

or loss of mortar joints.

(See also II, 3. 4. 5.)

lRubhnrh in expansion joint prevents it from functioning.

iadded by author)] 2. Brick

underfired or of a clay with excessive, irreversi(2) (Air voids dcr

top service temperature

for sulfur is

203F. Manufacturers

ray stay under 19OOF.(5)

blc growth. (4) 3. Failure to lay brick void-free.

Inspection

and Failure

Analysis

699

brick causing 4. Voids reach faulty T& Items

will pick growth or holes substrate.

up liquids, and (2) bed, (2)

in which

crystals

can form, to

3. Seizing I, 4. Jacking 5. Failure other 6. Cure (I) as they (4)

of brickwork of brickwork to provide shell shrinkage shrink penetrations.

on scams can (I)

causea

cracking. (2) outlets

(See

upward

pressure permit

on brick.) corrosives

11.) c-9
cause cracks. for expansion Strongly can pull at inlets, banding brickwork and

in the membrane heaving

5. For epoxy

adhesive

is due I dirt,

dust or

application.

of mortar: on curing,

mortars, apart.

botlomr (/7d

bottoms): 4 apply. not ventilated, linings tank hot. (I)

I through
flat,

6. Bottom VII-Cracking I. Lining operating laps) not

VIII-Voids of brick too thin of steel tanks. insulation or plastic, (2) at the welds (or I. Pinholes from tar box. 2. Pinholes

in mortar and (2) and tiny other

joints. tiny holes in mortar mixer joints result

to provide (I) or sheet brick

adequate

air beaten

in by a high-speed voids (2) rrsult from

in the mormor-

temperature. padded,

2. For lead sheet,

elastomer not

insufficient

notched.

tar on the

tmwcl.

Now consider crete constructions The monolithic following

monolithic material

surfacings. is from

(Although

not identical, of

polymer

con-

will be found to be quite similar.) Failure analysis chemically resistant EngineerReprinted by special permission Inc., New York. from Chemical

surfacings.

ing, July 23, 1984 0 by McGraw-Hill,

I Failure t cure-material only partiaIIy; &matively, soft spots I. hluirture

either remains soft or hardens there may be both bard and or other liquid has icttlrd

(e.g.. mitt. spillAge)

tt the surface. This may be due to inadequate weather protection, flooding of the surface from one or mre sides, cooling of the air below its dewpoint on the substrate. or cold-air drafts over the surface (from external doors. etc.). 2. Surface was wet or chemically contaminated when the surfacing was applied. Cause may be inadequate cleaning, drying or neutralization. 3. Concrete mix contained an admixture (such as an airentrainment agent, water reducer or curing agent) that either reacted with and de&ted the hardener in the surface material or inhibited the cure of the surfacing. 4. Concrete may have contained to much water (i.e., it did not dry enough). so that when the topping was applied, water collected under it to inhibit curing. (Thin sections may fail to cure completely.) 5. Resin and hardener were not mixed in correct proportions, or not mixed uniformly. (If cure is sptty, incomplete mixing is often the cause.) 6. Substrate or materials were to cold to cure properly, or the temperature of the substrate was allowed to fall below the curing temperature after IIS pkcement. 7. Overheating beyond their thermal limits will soften some monolithic toppings. Ifso, these toppings may appear to he partly cured, and show marks and indentations. They will usually re-harden when they are cooled. (See also Item IIand Item VI-Y.) 8. The material was exposed to intense sunlight.

5. Where the day-to-night thermal gradient is ? 50F, water under-not in-the slab may have been dtawn up under the totminr from as far as I5 ft down. If this haoens. atmlv the m;;tlshic on the 4 p.m. to midnight shift.Fhe &will be advanced enough to prevent such a problem by the time the temperature rises in the morning. ti. 011s. other release agents, or foams were used, and these left residues on concrete surfaces. 7. Concrete has inadequate surface strength. This can be the result of: (I) inadequate design specifications; (2) failure of the bulk plant to follow design instructions; (3) too much water in the mix: (4) excessive troweling in finishing the concrete; (5) failure to clean tltr surface or remove lailance (fine particles of lime or portland cement that come to rite surtace upon hmshing). The surface of the concrete may be clcrord by brush blartmg or by etchirtg with hydrochloric acid. Proper desagn strength calls for a compressive strength of 3,000 psi at the time of applntion and a bond strength of 300 psi, using the specified surfacing material as a banding agent. 8. Either the resin and the hardener were mixed to ittcorrcct proportions or mixing was incomplete. 9. Substrate was to cold for adequate cure, but air temperature was high enougtt to cure surface. 10. Materials were used that were partly set. I I. Top temperature was exceeded. Topping has a higher coefficient of expansion than does the concrete. When the bond strength is exceeded, the topping will dishond. bulge, then crack. Cleaning by boiling water or steam can produce this. (See also, Item I-7 and Item VI-Y.) III Cracking

II

II Disbondmenl-material or does not adhere

separates

from

the substrate

1. Surface was madequately cleaned and dried. The bond is to dirt on the surface. (If dirt is on the surface, it can often be seen adhering to the underside of the delaminated surldcing material.) 2. For new concrete. the cnttactr may have used a curing agent or sealer that acted as a bond breaker. 3. For new concrete. cement finishers may have dipped trowels in, or wtped them with, a silicone cleaner. 4. See also Item I-1.

I. Topping was applied over an expansion joint, consttu~tion joint, or other point of movement in the substrate. (Att exp&iort joint in the topping is required in such areas.) 2. The distance between expansion ioints or stress-relief joints was too great. (Cure results in accumulation of stresses in the topping. When these exceed the bond strength, the topping disbonds and cracks.) 3. For larger sections of concrete substnte, stress-relief jotnts were not placed at 20-ft or smaller intervals. (See comment under No. 2.)

sininkagi

700

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

4. Materials were improperly proportioned or incomplaely mixed. 5. Materials were applied after working life had erpircd. G. Note that if disbanding occurs. cracking due to stresses from cure shrinkage will almost certainly follow. 7. If ovcrhcating happens, disbandment will take place. If the topping is hard and does not soften appreciably at higher temperatures, it will crack. 8. Area had been frozen at particularly low tempctatures. The material becomes more brittle and develops excessive shrinkage strcsscs at very low temprratures. 9. During cure, materials were exposed to intense sunIi&~-this is especially seen in rpolty xeas. IV Penetration All resinous. siliceous or sulfur cements. toppings and monobthics arc porous to some dcgrce. Diiusion through these surfacings is faster for small molecules. Expect evcntual penetration in continuously wet conditions (e.g., puddling, retaining sumps and trenches in continual use). All areas surfdced with such ccmemr, toppings and monolithicr should be sloped to prevent puddling. Pcnetratton will result successively in: (I) disbandment if the penrtrant IS a chemical that attacks the subsuate at all rapidly: (2) cracking of the topping; and (3) curling upward of the edges of the crack. After disbandment and cracking occur, the substrate will show signs of chemical attack. To verify this, peel off an adjacent topping that appears sound, and rheck the substrates surfxe with pH paper. V Chemical attack

4. Application on porous concrete: Air in the pores expands as the daytime temperature rises, and pushes through the topping, resulting in blisters. This can be avoided by applying the monolithic after 4 p.m. 5. Application vcr~oncrctc that has moisture in it or below it. The etTcct is the same as in No. 4, but here the underside of the topping also fails to cure properly. (See ala Item II5.) 6. Exposure installation to varying and cure. intense sunlight, heat or cold during

Part B. Appearing weeks a&r cure has taken place. Bubbles or blisters are thick-skbmed and usually rather large I. Possible dill&ion of corrosives through topping attacked the suhstntc al the bond amface and caused gassing or concrete growth. with resulting delamination. 2. Possible chemical attack from underneath. Corrosives may have entered the substrate elsewhere and traveled along the rcban. 3. Overheating may have caused disbanding and bulging, similiar to blistering, if the topping softened when verheated. (See also Item II-2 and Item I-7.) VII Expansion joint failure

Evidence of chemical attack can be: (I) surface softening; (2) surface discoloration that canna be removed by cleaning; and (3) surf~c etching, by either dcsrruction or removal of the aggregate (e.g., silica aggregate removed by HF exposure). For etching, the surface can remain hard and porous or become powdery and crumbly. Discoloration is followed by deterioration. Other signs arc softening and swelling. VI Blisters or bubbles Part A. Appearing after application al is still soft and before it has blisters are small; some may indentations 1. Materials have been mired

and while the mnterihardened Bubbles or break, leaving small a high-speed mixer,

with

entrapping air in the resin. After the surface has been troweled in place and finished. air bleeds out as blisters or tiny bubbles. A paddle mixer moving at more than 350 pm can cause this. 2. A breeze over 10 mph can cause this. 3. A highly alkaline surface (pH > IO) can result in gassmg and subsequent blisten.

I, of bond to sider ofjoint. This can be due to: (I) poor design-edges of joint were not at tight angles to the surface; (2) sealant bonded to bottom of joint-joint opened and material was dragged offits sides: (3) sides of joint were dirty or specified primer was not used when joint was filled; (4) low-level chemical attack occurred-usually caused bv a solvent: (5) elastic limit of the sealant was exceeded: (6) sealant was heated beyond its thermal limit: (7) subfreezing of the smface took place: and (8) material suffered thermal shock, resulting in too-rapid movement of adjacent surfaces. 2. Swelling ofjoint. The causes can be: (1) rhemical attark. which results in swelling or gassing-this is detectable by presence of cmmbling. a porous condition. or spongy cavitation and loss of strength; and (2) failure to use a compatible matrrial under the sealant-as joint closed, noncompressible material below it extruded upward. pushing the sealant out of the joint. 3. Breakup ofjoint filler, usually due to either (I) excessive movement &ynd the elastic limit5 of the sealant, (2) chemical attack, or (3) crress hardcncr in mix. 4. Briltleness. hardness, crumbling and loss of elasticity, due to (I) chemical attack or (2) overheating beyond the maximum service tempcramre. 5. Uneven cure. This is usually due to (I) exposure to moisture during curt. but can also be due to (2) wind blowing over the surface, (3) excessive sunlight. or (4) nonuniform mixing of the ingredients.

Loss

Procedures for failure analysis of expansion joints will be found in Expansion joints for chemically resistant masonry, by this author, in Chemical Engineering, August 19,1985,vol 92, no. 17, pages 79-81.

Inspection and Failure Analysis

701

Figure 52-1: Acid brick lining face is an immediate indication pinholes in the joints.

in throat of a scrubber to the inspector that

in a large power plant. the mason has covered

Smeared up voids

surand

Figure 52-2: A pinhole still visible in the lining. A thin wire was inserted 4 inches into this hole. The inspector demanded removal of the lining, which, as expected, proved to be full of voids, with as much as 1/8inch of the backs of some of the brick bare.

702

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

Figure 52-3: in brickwork

More unacceptable workmanship. and expansion joints.

Dirty,

sloppy

workmanship,

irregular

joints

Inspection and Failure Analysis

703

Figure 52-4: Note the selection and placement

unacceptable of joint filler

variation .

in the

width

of

expansion

joints

and

poor

704

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

Figure 52-5: Note badly laid brick, irregular width of expansionjoint,rough surface of membrane, and apparently flooded asphalt surface instead of surface smoothed with squeegee.

Figure 52-6: Note rough surface. Blisters indicate either wet surface or water in the substrate, drawn up by the heat of the hot asphalt. The interior of the kettle may have been wet, or rain water may have fallen into the kettle before or while the kettle was being heated.

Inspection and Failure Analysis

705

Figure 52-7: Careless, incompetent brick cutting under the brick. Note the sloppy finished surface.

and inadequate mortaring

of bed joints

706

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

Figure 52-8: Brick surface not fully covered with mortar will result in voids in the bed and the joint. Note roughness of the surface. Membranes should be applied smoothly. Brick I ines and cutting of brick should be absolutely straight.

Inspection and Failure Analysis

707

Figure 52-9: Sloppy, unacceptable brickwork in the bed joint, and the bottom of the brick

with open are not fully

voids. There covered.

is insufficient

mortar

708

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

Figure 52-10: Examples of totally incompetent and unacceptable voids and even an open joint in the curb, lower right corner of (b).

brickwork.

Note dirt,

Inspection and Failure Analysis

709

Fi~r952-11: Acid brick shipped in an open-bodied truck in bad weather picks up a great deal of road dirt, which can get all the way to the center of the pallet. These brick must be washed and dried before use if the work is to be satisfactory .

710

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

Fi~re 52-12: Three different work areas, same day and time, on a platform at the 780 foot level of a brick lining in a chimney, showing the surface of the work at the end of the shift by three different masons. All three left voids in joints, used too little mortar, and did not sufficiently cover the brick surface. Note shadows in center circumferential joint where mortar has subsided into a void below.

Inspection and Failure Analysis

711

Figure 52-13: Showing the effect of trace amounts of acid fluorides in the acid washing the inside of the tower; in this case, 750 parts per million. This damage occurred in less than 6 months. (a) Top picture shows loss of silicate mortar. (b) Underside of a brick on the floor. Center of the picture di~plays original texture of the surface (protected by mortar). (c) Right-hand picture shows surface exposed to scrubbing liquid containing the fluorides.

712

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

Figure 52-14: A brick removed from the top 8 feet of the brick lining of only 1Y2years before. Note the clean separation of the mortar from the the air voids in the joint, showing that the masons had applied the mortar close to the end of its work life (too dry to wet the surface, or to wet would not bond) , and that they used too little mortar to fill the joint.

a chimney erected adjacent brick and to the brick either brick, to which it

Inspection and Failure Analysis

713

Figure 52.15:

Cracks in substrate mirrored

in surface topping.

Figure 52-16: Use of too tightly woven, hard, reinforcing glass cloth, possibly with incorrect surface treatment. The resin in the surfacing has failed to wet it, causing delamination, then cracking due to cure shrinkage.

714

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

Figure 52-17: Mal-design of concrete floor in thicker bottom. Note areas where expansion joints merge at small, acute angles. It is very difficult to create or maintain such joints, and the surfacing over such pointed areas.

Figure 52-18: Close up of same concrete floor. Cure was inhibited by subsurface water drawn upward under topping, shortly after application, by big thermal changes, night to day, causing poor cure, delamination and cracking up.

Inspection

and Failure

Analysis

775

BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Sheppard, (1982). Sheppard, Walter Walter Lee, Jr., Chemically Lee, Jr., Inspecting Resistant chemically Masonry, 2nd Ed, Marcel Dekker, NY

resistant masonry,P/anr

Engineering,

(March 19 and April 16,1981). Sheppard, Walter Lee, Jr., Spotting and avoiding problems with acid-resistant brick, Chemical Engineering (May 3,1982j. Sheppard, Walter Lee, Jr., Failure analysis of chemically resistant monolithic surfacings:, Chemical Engineering (June 1984). Sheppard, Walter Lee, Jr., Obtaining sound chemically resistant masonry, The Consrrucrion Specifier (December 1981 and March 1982). Sheppard, Walter Lee, Jr., Trouble shooting chemically neering, pp 68-71 (May 1982). Sheppard, Walter Lee, Jr., Expansion joints for chemically Engineering, pp 79-81 (August 19,1985). resistant masonry, resistant masonry, Civil EngiChemical

Index

Absorption Accelerators

- 543 - 272
1, 15-17, 144674,

Asphaltics Asphalt Asphalt

- 23, 25 - 88,89
adhesive/mem-

putties - 118 sheet

Acid brick - 9-l 675

150, 155, 165,672, Acid brick lining Acid-proof brick

Asphalt-urethane brane - 9

- 677 - 46, 267, 270 Acid resistant masonry - 636 Acrylic polymer concretes - 280292 application Acrylic 292 application Acrylic - 291 mortars - 280-292, polymer 365,367,368 application Acrylics Additives Aggregate 669 Aggregates - 399, 420 Alumina Aluminum Anchor Annulus Armoring Asphalt, Asphalt, - 291 monolithics polymer

- 601, 602 - 568, 569, 573 Banding system - 641 Barytes - 8

Backfill Baffles Basalt brick - 10, 183-l 87 Bentonite Binders Borosilicate 540 Bottom support

- 280-

- 101
glass

- 284 - 17, 166, 220,

- 570
50, 51, 54, 196,

- 291

Brick - 7-9,

13, 22, 23, 31, 35,

- 363, 364, 366, 376, 538 - 273, 274, 483

filled thermoset resins -

40,42,45, Brick growth repair - 249 Brick shells

197,270,687,698,699

- 543, 579, 586, 587

Brick lining - 29, 47

- 14
silicate

- 631
and expansion joints -

- 13, 15, 17
550

Brickwork Brittleness Calcium Calcium Capping

points - 549, pressurization - 609 cold - 118 hot

692,693

- 644

- 543 - 12, 14 - 13, 17

aluminate silicate

- 22, 111-122
resistance - 119- 12 1

chemical

- 572

Index

717

Carbon

brick

- 7-l 1, 42, 155-l 59, - 503, 511-513

basic principles Design limitations Difference grout Divider Drains Dynamic wall between

669,674,677 Carbon fibers Carbon sulfur Carbon steel - 17, 28, 29

- 543 -5
mortar and

- 243
bottoms - 43 - 565, 566, 568

- 25 - 13 Cast cement - 14 Cast liners - 638 Cements - 24, 58,60, 271 Ceramic fibers - 503, 505-507 Ceramic sleeve - 47 Ceramic tile - 7, 10, 11, 24, 198Castables 209 mosaic - 198, Channel Channel Chemical Chemical Chimneys Chlorinated tile 199,201 pipe - 559,606,607

Dished or conical

- 562, 563 wind - 634

linings

Elastomeric Epoxy Epoxy Epoxy Epoxy 656

coatings concrete 418,419-424 grouts 457,677

- 16 - 258, 333, 654, - 377, 378, 380,

- 23,24
brick

monolithics

- 252,4 17-433 - 257-263,440-

resistant - 626-649

resistant tile

-7 -7
(CPE)

diluents Epoxy

- 258
- 12, 13, 25, 246, - 139-141

mortar 252-266

polyethylene polyvinyl

Epoxy

91
Chlorinated 538 Clay pipe Cleaning chloride

phenolics

air dried - 139 bake - 139 monolithics Epoxy primers

- 594-601,608 - 274
glass 177, 574,

- 473-475 - 261
46,

Closed cell borosilicate block foamed 648 - 160-169,

Epoxy

resins - 11, 14, 22-25, 100,252-266,376,669,677

- 13, 86, 494

application catalysts chemical curing

- 261 - 255
resistance

Closed cell sponge rubber Coatings for nuclear power 658 Concrete Concrete Contouring Covers CRM Curbs uses

- 503 - 65064-

- 464-466

- 255-258 hardening - 255

agents

- 22, 57, 58, 60-62,

substrate

hardening Epoxy

- 464-466 - 462

73,282,685

surfacing copolymer

application - 539

- 14, 24
brick

Ethylene-chlorotrifluoroethylene Expansion joints

- 545-548 - 627, 628

Corbel supported

- 5, 13, 24, 25,47,

561-563,

- 572-574 -5

514,515,551-558, 572,575,577,578,692 components materials prefabricated - 498-504 - 689

materials

- 544 - 581,582 Curing - 285, 286 Curing agent - 420

Cylindrical horizontal Dairy brick vessels

- 516-518

- 43

Failure Felt

analysis - 694-699 linings

- 44 - 200

- 503 - 268
thermoset

Fiberglass reinforced Fiberglass reinforced resins - 669 Designing with CRM - 542-592

718

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

Fibers - 662 Fillers - 101, 244,261, 483,662 barytes - 12, 100,242, carbon - 12, 100,242, carbon fibers - 100 glass fibers graphite nylon quartz 243,273 243,273 262,273, 274, 283, 284, 399,467,482,

674,677 application high bond repair - 249 Furan polymer 435 Furan resins catalyst concrete

- 245, 247 - 241 - 244,434,

669, 677

- 100

- 11, 240-251, - 243

glass flakes - 100 - 100

curing agent - 243 Galvanic corrosion from lead/carbon mem-

- 100
silica

- 273

couple - 584-586 Glass fabric branes Glazed tile 144-150, Granite Granulated reinforced furan

resinous - 100 silica - 12, 100, 242, 273, 420 textile Fireclay fibers - 7-9,

- 134-I 38

- 100
16,42,

- 7, 10, 11, 198, 201 - 10, 192-196

blast furnace slag - 299,

155-l 126

57, 165,669

Fired glass and porcelain Flake glass coating Flat bottoms Flexibilized Floors Floor thickness Flow diversion Fluid-applied application chemical Fluorinated

- 123Grout

300

- 5, 7, 11, 13, 243, 270, 271,

282 liners

- 268
Gunite

- 43
epoxy

- 25

Gunned Gunned

cement

- 638 - 15
monolithics

- 576, 577, 579,580 - 580, 581

arrangements membranes - 103, 104 resistances - 539 - 97, 100, 514, 515 fibers - 539 glass block - 7,

hydraulic

- 478-

489

- 648

application equipment Gunned Gunned Gunned linings

- 484-487
- 479-481

- 98-108

- 13
silicate - 9 silicate mono-

- 105-107

monolithic potassium - 493

ethylene-propylene

copolymer Fluorocarbons Fluorochemical Fluoroplastics Flyash Foamed 9 Foamed Fumed glass FRP liners

lithic - 491-496 application Gunned 489,490 Half-round Hardeners pipe - 559

- 503

sodium silicate monolithic

- 12, 300
borosilicate

- 272
and insulating cement brick

- 42 - 637, 641 - 242

251,

High alumina 7,9, alkaline 14 High alumina application composition curing

silica - 101, 369-372

Furan coating Furan grout 435 application Furan joint

hydrolysis

- 340-363 - 354, 355

- 242-244,246, - 246-248 - 248

- 249, 250

- 350, 358-362 - 340-343,356

water cleanable

- 24 - 8-10,
12, 25, 100,

Furan monolithics Furan mortars

240,243-246,250,251,672

- 345,346 - 350-356 failure analysis - 356-358 hydration - 344 inspection - 356-358 permeability - 347
deterioration

index

719

High alumina properties uses Horizontal

cement

(contd)

rigid true Methyl

-6 -6
methacrylate shielding

- 347

semi-6

- 348, 349, 358-362 fiber brick - 23 Hydration - 302 Hydraulic cement - 15, 17, 196,
197 Hydraulic Hypalon mortar - 89,91 brick

Moisture/heat Monolithics 692,699 Mortars

- 383 - 648

- 5, 13, 14, 17, 46, 267,

268,543,576-579,677,691,

- 10, 12

- 5, 8, 10-14,

22, 24, 31,

27 1,273,282,688,698,699 Independent Inhibitors 571 Inspection final - 694 preliminary Inspection 680-7 Inspection Installation Insulating Internal Latent Latex 15 and repairs - 689-694 firebrick repair

- 628,629
Neoprene

- 273 - 47, 563, 570,

- 16,89,91,364
CRM 11 in waste handling -

Inlets and outlets

Nonmetallic 594-6 Nozzles

- 47, 54, 570, 571

fibers

- 682
analysis

Organic

and failure

Oxidized

asphalt

- 508-510 - 248

- 608

- 165, 170-179

- 200 - 200, 201 Penetrations - 562, 563

Packing house tile Pavers Perfluoroalkoxy Phenolic resin - 539 monolithics mortars

- 610
materials

- 473-475

hydraulic 301

- 300,

Phenolic

- 10, 11, 12, 25,

100,230-239,240 catalyst concrete

- 13 - 376, 377 monolithics - 363- 363-369,

Latex-modified Latex-modified 369 Latex-modified 377 Latex-Portland Lead - 127-133, Liner plate Litharge Lumnite Manholes

curing agent fillers shrinkage

- 232, 233 - 232,233

mortars cement 669

- 234 - 236, 237 Phenolic resins - 11, 230-239

Pipe joints - 596, 598-601 Piping - 594 Plasticizer Plasticizer

- 246

- 224
and modifier for sulfur

- 23, 24
mortars

glycerine

- 240

225 Plastics

Loose liners - 91

- 85, 86, 503

terephthalate - 539 - 539

- 12

Polybutylene Polyester Polyester Polyester Polyester Polyester

Polychlorotrifluoroethylene

- 602-604,608 Masonry lining - 28 Masonry units - 4, 6-8, 22, 23 Mastic - 16, 677 Membranes - 4-l 0, 13, 15, 22, 23,
25, 28, 31,40,47-49, 98, 157, 185,675,689-691 impermeable nonrigid 54, 55,

cement grout mortar

- 274-276

monolithics

- 267, 274-276 - 440-457

- 10, 12, 25, 267,

274-276,675,676 resins - 11, 249, 267-279, ester grouts 669,677 Polyester/vinyl 425

- 246, 248

- 423-

-6

720

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

Polyethylene Polyethylene Polymer 699

- 13, 526-528
terephthalate - 539 Raw Red concrete cement -

201,677 material shale suppliers vessels - 277-279 144-150,677 - 170-179 Rectangular Refractory Refractory Reinforced concrete

concretes

- 5, 13, 270,

- 44

287,337,376,392-438, Polymer-impregnated 383-391 Polymer Polymethyl Polyphenylene Polypropylene Polystyrene 539 Polytetrafluoroethylene Polyvinyl Polyvinyl acetate chloride - 539 portland 376-382 methacrylate oxide - 539

- 7,8,42,
firebrick liners concrete

- 638-640
shells

- 632

Reinforcing Resin mortar hull 110 Rigid Rigid plastic 520-540 Rice Rigid

- 577
- 11, 25,672 ash (RHA)

- 538

- 12,369-372
membranes - 109,

nonmetallic

- 13, 91, 528-534 homopolymers - 538,

- 13
fabrications

thermoplastic

- 363,
(PVC)

364,

376

Rubber butyl hard

- 88,503,669,675
- 89, natural 90 90

- 13, 89-

91,533-538 plasticized Polyvinyl 677 Polyvinylidene Porcelain Porosity Portland blended chemical composition deterioration Portland 669 Portland Portland Potassium Potassium 218 Pozzolans Preformed Press-molded brick Prestressed Prestressing Primer Pulp Quarry - 299-302 of brick liners - 559 bonded hydraulic Preconditioning cement cement silicate based mortar brick - 219 brick - 543 cement 340,669 - 298, 299 - 293 - 294-303 resistance fluoride - 539

chlorobutyl

- 16, 89, 90
- 90 isoprene 90, polymer 248, 363, -

- 248
sheet membrane

chloride

isobutylene, natural nitrile

- 16, 89, 376

- 8, 180-182
- 12, 57-73,293Nordel sponge Saran brick Sealants acrylic

- 91
- 91 - 91

polyisobutylene

- 503

- 89

- 303-337

Scrubbers

- 608 - 501
- 499 502, 503

cement/aggregate

- 675

asphalt-urethane butyl epoxy

- 674-677
212-

- 501
- 498,499,

hydroxide

- 8, 9, 14-17,

Hypalon mastics

- 501
and thermoplastics 500-503 putty - 499,

- 648

Neoprene polysulfide silicone urethane Seismic Shale Sheet

- 501
500, 503 503 502, 502, 503 502,

- 500,
- 499,

- 7, 10
brickwork

- 614-623
575 - 669-678

loads

- 635
57,669 - 88-97

- 574,
paper

- 155-l
linings metallic supported effects

- 276
and industry

Shell, Shell Side

- 28
steel - 629

tile

- 7, 10, 11, 24, 198,

- 584

Index

727

Silica Silica Silicate Silicate Silicate Silicon

brick

- 7, 9, IO, 150-154
- 11, 218-221

Sulfur Sulfur Sulfur

cement concrete mortars 240,24

- 24,395-398
- 392-417

mortars

Silica sol

- 220 - 374, 375 - 212-217, 374, 375

- 11, 35, 212-217,

- 10,11,222-229,
1,246

castables grouts mortars 241 carbide

application Sulfur spray concrete Support Supporting Surface Surfacer Synthetic Tank Superplasticized

- 226-228
coatings - 659-668 cement portland

- 15, 187-192 Silicon carbide brick - 7, 10, 14 Silicones - 25

Slag cement Sleeve Sliding joints

- 436, 437 for waste lines - 601

structure - 17

- 299
- 549, 550

preparation rubber

- 48, 265 - 248

- 47, 54 - 503 - 503

felt

(see Monolithics)

Armalon Hypalon Kynar

bottoms

- 567, 568 - 258

impregnated Neoprene

- 503

Tanks Thrust Tile

- 607
blocks- 556,557
10, 11, 15, 23, 24, 578, 582,583

- 503 - 503 polyethylene - 503 Teflon - 503 uncured rubber _ 503 vinyl - 503 Sloped bottoms - 560, 561, 567
Sodium Sodium Specialty Specialty Sponges Spray Square Stability Steel hydroxide silicate brick 218,240,374,375 - 9 tile - 670-678 - 501,503 epoxy monolithic - 219 - 11, 14, 17, 212-

Thixotropy

- 7,8,

Trenches

- 556-563,604-607 - 557, 558 gratings - 557, 558 walls - 551

covers independent liners concrete acrylics

Unlined Urethane Urethane

- 641 - 281 - 473, 476,

modified monolithics

applied 458-472 vessels

477 Urethanes

- 13, 669, 675

fiber brick

- 44
Vertical Vessels Vinyl Vinyl Vinyl Vinyl

- 548, 549 - 30-37, 39-45,47-55 Steel decking - 46 Steel liners - 637 Steel shells - 631
Steel substrate Strength Structural Structural Stud

- 23

- 565-575
ester cement

ester grout 417

- 274-276 - 267, 274-276, - 440-457 - 12, 267, 274-

- 15

ester monolithics ester mortar 276,675,676

- 543
points support

Stress relief

- 47
Vinyl

glazed tile - 669

ester resins - 10, 13, 17, 267279,669

- 4, 5

anchors 368.376, 538

Styrene-butadiene

- 15, 17 - 363, 364,

377, 379, 380,

catalysts curing Vinylidene Vinyl Viton Vitrified - 91

- 272 - 272
chloride - 89

sponge

- 503

Substrate

preparation

- 17, 22, 23, 583, 584 - 263, 275, 289

clay pipe - 11

72.2
Walls

Corrosion

and Chemical

Resistant

Masonry

Materials

Handbook

Wall stiffeners

- 570, 582 - 570 - 564-565

Welds Wood

- 48 - 645 - 74-84

Wet gas conditions

Weirs and overflows