LEARNING MODULE

ENGLISH

PROGRAM DIPLOMA III KEUANGAN

MUHAMMAD AGUNG DARLIANTO

SEKOLAH TINGGI AKUNTANSI NEGARA TAHUN 2011

F O RE WO R D

Alhamdulillahirabbilalamin, Praise Allah SWT, The Lord of the universe, for His precious blessing and nimat that finally the author managed to finish publishing this Study Module of English exclusively for the students of Sekolah Tinggi Akuntansi Negara. Sincere gratitude has to be addressed to The Director of Sekolah Tinggi Akuntansi Negara, Mr. Kusmanadji, for the opportunity given to the author to develop himself by pouring the ideas, thoughts, and knowledges combined with all supporting materials from the online and offline sources into this module dedicated to all

readers who are in need of information of English Grammar and especially to all students of STAN. The greetings also go the authors supervisors and coleagues at STAN, Mr. Fadlil Usman, Mr. Budi Setiawan, Mrs. Aisyah Nur Kustiani, Mrs. Nancy G. Saija, Mrs. Dessy Bernawati, and also Titis and Ichsan who have been burdened with so many questions and requests by the author regarding the writing and compiling process. Biggest thanks to all mates at Room C-108 (the Room of Inspiration) where the author spent most of the time while working on the module, Mr. Bambang Widjajarso for his restless spirit and precious motivation; Mr. Izzudin, Heri, Diah, Ira, Vera, Mas Agus for being the very friendly buddies; and absolutely, Jeni Wardin, the authors best man, for all his never ending accompanying the author, even on extrahours-working on holidays. To the authors family; parents (Darmojo and Erlina Yusni), little brother (Chandra Kusuma), beloved wife (Risma Afriani), and the adorable Princess Nada, the author thanks them so much for their all endless supports. This hard work could not have been victoriously done without all of them. Learning module is one of supporting materials in determining the quality of the learning process standardization for subjects taught at Sekolah Tinggi Akuntansi Negara. The presence of this learning module is expected to ease students in understanding and comprehending the English subject in accordance with GBPP (Teaching Program Outlines) that had been developed in such a way as to further enhance the competence of the STAN graduates.

1|P a g e

This module contains minimum requirements to be met by readers and students who would like to know, comprehend, and try to develop English language as one of the crucial things to be mastered in this highly competitive era. That includes important subjects, rules, and knowledges of English Grammar. All materials in this module are written in English to encourage the readers and the students to start using the language from the very first as learning by doing is more likely to be better to improve ones verbal skill. The Review Exercises are also provided at the end of every chapter to measure and evaluate the understanding of the materials given. This module is also equipped with some useful supplements to help the readers and the students to gain more for the knowing in learning. Due to the great number of materials and discussion in English language, of course, it takes time toward the completeness and the perfection of this module. Improvement, additions and updates of the contents will continue to be performed. The author welcomes all criticism, suggestions and constructive ideas to assist the development of this module in the future. At the end, may this work be a great contribution to Sekolah Tinggi Akuntansi Negara in particular and education world in general. Lets speak up in English!

Jakarta, 20 April 2011

Darlianto, Muhammad Agung

2|P a g e

TABLE OF CONTENTS

FOREWORD ............................................................................................................. 1 TABLE OF CONTENTS ............................................................................................ 3 LIST OF TABLES ..................................................................................................... 7 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS ....................................................................................... 8 CHAPTER I PARTS OF SPEECH ......................................................................... 10 Parts of Speech Classification ........................................................................... 10 Noun ............................................................................................................ 10 Pronoun ....................................................................................................... 13 Adjective ...................................................................................................... 13 Verb ............................................................................................................. 14 Adverb ......................................................................................................... 14 Preposition ................................................................................................... 15 Conjunction .................................................................................................. 16 Interjection ................................................................................................... 17 Derivative .......................................................................................................... 18 Sentences ......................................................................................................... 19 Articles............................................................................................................... 21 Indefinite Article ........................................................................................... 22 Definite Article .............................................................................................. 23 Determiner & Quantifier ..................................................................................... 24 Determiner ................................................................................................... 24 Quantifier ..................................................................................................... 25 Adjective Word Order ........................................................................................ 27 Participial Adjective............................................................................................ 27 Modals ............................................................................................................... 28 Chapter Review Exercise................................................................................... 30

3|P a g e

CHAPTER II TENSES ........................................................................................... 31 Present Tense ................................................................................................... 31 Present Simple ............................................................................................ 31 Present Progressive..................................................................................... 32 Present Perfect ............................................................................................ 33 Present Perfect Progressive ........................................................................ 34 Past Tense ........................................................................................................ 35 Past Simple.................................................................................................. 35 Past Progressive .......................................................................................... 36 Past Perfect ................................................................................................. 37 Past Perfect Progressive.............................................................................. 38 Future Tense ..................................................................................................... 38 Future Simple .............................................................................................. 39 Future Progressive....................................................................................... 40 Future Perfect .............................................................................................. 40 Future Perfect Progressive .......................................................................... 41 Past-Future Tense ............................................................................................. 42 Past-Future Simple ...................................................................................... 42 Past-Future Progressive .............................................................................. 43 Past-Future Perfect ...................................................................................... 43 Past-Future Perfect Progressive .................................................................. 44 Chapter Review Exercise................................................................................... 46 CHAPTER III DEGREE OF COMPARISON .......................................................... 48 Introduction ........................................................................................................ 48 Positive/in-Line Comparison .............................................................................. 48 Comparative Comparison .................................................................................. 49 Superlative Comparison..................................................................................... 50 Common Exception ........................................................................................... 50 Chapter Review Exercise................................................................................... 51

4|P a g e

CHAPTER IV PASSIVE VOICE ............................................................................ 52 General Pattern ................................................................................................. 52 Stative Passive .................................................................................................. 53 Chapter Review Exercise................................................................................... 54 CHAPTER V QUESTION TAG .............................................................................. 55 Chapter Review Exercise................................................................................... 57 CHAPTER VI CAUSATIVE ................................................................................... 58 Chapter Review Exercise................................................................................... 59 CHAPTER VII CONDITIONAL & SUBJUNCTIVE ................................................. 60 Conditional ........................................................................................................ 60 Future Conditional........................................................................................ 60 Present Conditional...................................................................................... 61 Past Conditional ........................................................................................... 62 Zero Conditional .......................................................................................... 63 Subjunctive ........................................................................................................ 64 Expressing Hope, Desire, and Regret .......................................................... 64 Emphasizing The Importance of Doing Something....................................... 65 Chapter Review Exercise................................................................................... 66 CHAPTER VIII DIRECT & INDIRECT SPEECH .................................................... 67 Direct Speech .................................................................................................... 67 Indirect/Reported Speech .................................................................................. 68 Indirect Statement ........................................................................................ 69 Indirect Command/Order/Request ............................................................... 72 Indirect Question .......................................................................................... 73 Chapter Review Exercise................................................................................... 74 CHAPTER IX DEPENDENT CLAUSE .................................................................. 75 Introduction ........................................................................................................ 75 Classification ..................................................................................................... 76 Noun/Nominal Clause .................................................................................. 76

5|P a g e

Adjective Clause .......................................................................................... 77 Adverb Clause ............................................................................................. 78 Reduced Adjective Clause ........................................................................... 79 Chapter Review Exercise................................................................................... 80 CHAPTER X GERUND & INFINITIVE ................................................................... 83 Introduction ........................................................................................................ 83 Gerund .............................................................................................................. 84 Infinitive ............................................................................................................. 86 Chapter Review Exercise................................................................................... 88 CHAPTER XI PARAGRAPH WRITING ................................................................. 90 Introduction ........................................................................................................ 90 Writing A Good Paragraph ................................................................................. 92 Chapter Review Exercise................................................................................... 94 SUPPLEMENT 1 READING COMPREHENSION ................................................. 96 SUPPLEMENT 2 CUMULATIVE REVIEW EXERCISE ....................................... 125 SUPPLEMENT 3 AMERICAN & BRITISH ENGLISH .......................................... 143 SUPPLEMENT 4 LIST OF PHRASAL VERBS ................................................... 146 REFERENCES ...................................................................................................... 161 THE AUTHOR ....................................................................................................... 163

6|P a g e

LIST OF TABLES
Table 1. Table 2. Table 3. Table 4. Table 5. Table 6. Table 7. Table 8. Table 9. Table 10. Table 11. Table 12. Table 13. Table 14. Table 15. Certain Plural Forms in English ..................................................... Pronoun List in English ................................................................. Examples of Tenses-Changing Verb ............................................ Examples of Adverb Usage in Sentences .................................... Several Commonly Used Prepositions ......................................... Several Examples of Interjection .................................................. Forms of Quantifier ....................................................................... Forms of Quantifier 2 .................................................................... Basic Rules of Tag Question ........................................................ Imperative Tag Question .............................................................. Exceptions in Tag Question .......................................................... Tenses Changes in Reported Speech .......................................... Pronoun Changes in Reported Speech ........................................ Adverb Changes in Reported Speech .......................................... Languange Choices in Writing ..................................................... 11 13 14 15 15 17 26 26 55 56 56 70 70 71 91

7|P a g e

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
Illustration 1. Coordinative & Corelative Conjunction ........................................... Illustration 2. Subordinative Conjunction .............................................................. Illustration 3. Conjunctive Adverb ......................................................................... Illustration 4. Noun, Adjective, Verb, and Adverb Forming with Affixes .............. Illustration 5. Simple Sentence Formula .............................................................. Illustration 6. Compound Sentence Formula ........................................................ Illustration 7. Complex Sentence Formula ........................................................... Illustration 8. Complex-Compound Sentence Formula ........................................ Illustration 9. Present Simple Tense Formula ...................................................... Illustration 10. Present Progressive Tense Formula ............................................ Illustration 11. Present Perfect Tense Formula .................................................... Illustration 12. Present Perfect Progressive Tense Formula ............................... Illustration 13. Past Simple Tense Formula ......................................................... Illustration 14. Past Progressive Tense Formula .................................................. Illustration 15. Past Perfect Tense Formula ......................................................... Illustration 16. Past Perfect Progressive Tense Formula ..................................... Illustration 17. Future Simple Tense Formula ...................................................... Illustration 18. Future Progressive Tense Formula .............................................. Illustration 19. Future Perfect Tense Formula ...................................................... Illustration 20. Future Perfect Progressive Tense Formula .................................. Illustration 21. Past-Future Simple Tense Formula .............................................. Illustration 22. Past-Future Progressive Tense Formula ...................................... Illustration 23. Past-Future Perfect Tense Formula .............................................. Illustration 24. Past-Future Perfect Progressive Tense Formula ......................... Illustration 25. Positive/In-Line Comparison ......................................................... Illustration 26. Comparative Comparison ............................................................. Illustration 27. Superlative Comparison ................................................................ Illustration 28. Exceptions in Comparison ............................................................ Illustration 29. Passive Voice Formula ................................................................. Illustration 30. Verbs Functioned as Adjectives in Stative Passive ...................... 16 16 17 18 20 20 20 21 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 41 42 43 43 45 49 49 50 50 52 53

8|P a g e

Illustration 31. Causative Sentence Formula ........................................................ Illustration 32. Future / First Conditional Formula ................................................ Illustration 33. Present / Second Conditional Formula ......................................... Illustration 34. Past / Third Conditional Formula .................................................. Illustration 35. Zero Conditional Formula ............................................................. Illustration 36. Subjunctive Sentence Formula ..................................................... Illustration 37. Direct Speech General Formula ................................................... Illustration 38. Indirect / Reported Speech General Formula ............................... Illustration 39. Indirect / Reported Command/Order/Request .............................. Illustration 40. Indirect / Reported Question ......................................................... Illustration 41. Noun Clause ................................................................................. Illustration 42. Adjective Clause ........................................................................... Illustration 43. Adverb Clause .............................................................................. Illustration 44. Reduced Adjective Clause Clause ................................................ Illustration 45. Gerund .......................................................................................... Illustration 46. Infinitive .........................................................................................

58 60 61 62 63 64 67 69 72 72 76 77 78 79 84 86

9|P a g e

CHAPTER PARTS OF SPEECH

1
Special Instructional Objectives : Students are expected to acknowledge, comprehend, and apply the basic and advance rules of Parts of Speech in their daily oral and written english activities and be able to master all related exercises to measure their understanding about the materials.

A. Parts of Speech Classification There are thousands of words in any language. But not all words have the same function. For example, some words express "action". Other words express a "thing". Other words "join" one word to another word. These are the "building blocks" of the language. Think of them like the parts of a house. Concrete is used to make foundations or base. Bricks are for the wall. Window frames are placed to build the windows and door frames are created to make the doorways. To join all parts togetherin a house, cement is used as the element. Each part of the house has its own job. Building a sentence is not quite different from those analogies, different types of words are used. Each type of word has its own job. 1. Noun A noun is a word used to name a person, animal, place, thing, and abstract idea. Nouns are usually the first words which small children learn. A noun can function in a sentence as a subject, a direct object, an indirect object, a subject complement, an object complement, an appositive, an adjective or an adverb. Nouns can be further classified as countable nouns (which name everything that can be counted (four books, two continents, a few dishes, a dozen buildings), mass nouns or non-countable nouns) (which name everything that can't be counted (water, air, energy, blood)), and collective nouns (which can take a singular form but are composed of more than one individual person or items (jury, team, class, committee, herd)).

10 | P a g e

Below are given several brief facts about the use of singuar and plural nouns in English: Table 1. Certain Plural Forms in English song songs book books box boxes glass glasses baby babies fly - flies butterflies man men woman women child children ox oxen foot feet echo hero potato tomato auto kangaroo kilo memo radio mosquito tornado volcano zero knife leaf self thief belief chief cliff roof deer fish sheep shrimp phenomenon (phenomena) fungus (fungi) datum (data) In general, the plural forms take s suffixes behind the nouns. We put es suffixes after the nouns with the ending letters of sh, -ch, -s, -z, dan -x. For the nouns ending with y, the last consonant are altered using ies.

There are some nouns which have irregular forms of plural.

Some nouns ending with o, the plural forms will be taking es at the end of the words.

Some nouns ending with o, the plural forms will be taking only s at the end of the words. Some nouns ending with o, the plural forms may take both s and es at the end of the words (although the most common ones are the es). Nouns ending with f and fe are taking ves ending in their plural forms. Some nouns ending with f and fe are only taking s ending in their plural forms.

Some nouns have exactly the same singular and plural forms.

Some nouns adapted from foreign language take their plurals from their original forms.

11 | P a g e

Generally, countable nouns have characteristic of being able to be preceded by a/an article in their singular forms and be ended with -s/-es in their plural forms. In the contrary, such rule is not applicable to the uncountable nouns. Most of uncountable nouns include abstract noun which simply has no physical form, untouchable, and apparently, uncountable. Some of the uncountable nouns are stated below: 1. mass/collective noun; (baggage, clothing, equipment, food, fruit, furniture, garbage, hardware, jewelry, junk, luggage, machinery, mail, makeup, money/cash/change, postage, scenery, traffic) 2. fluid; (water, coffee, tea, milk, oil, soup, gasoline, blood) 3. solid things; (ice, bread, butter, cheese, meat, gold, iron, silver, glass, paper, wood, cotton, wool) 4. gas; (steam, air, oxygen, nitrogen, smoke, smog, pollution) 5. particle; (rice, chalk, corn, dirt, dust, flour, grass, hair, pepper, salt, sand, sugar, wheat) 6. abstract noun; (beauty, confidence, courage, education, enjoyment, fun, happiness, health, help, honesty, hospitality, importance, intelligence, justice, knowledge, laughter, luck, music, patience, peace, pride, progress, recreation, significance, sleep, truth, violence, wealth, advice, information, news, evidence, proof, time, space, energy, homework, work, grammar, slang, vocabulary) 7. language; (Arabic, Chinese, English, Spanish) 8. academic subject; (chemistry, engineering, history, literature, mathematics, psychology) 9. recreation; (baseball, soccer, tennis, chess, bridge, poker) 10. some activities; (driving, studying, swimming, travelling, walking) 11. natural phenomena (weather, dew, fog, hail, heat, humidity, lightning, rain, sleet, snow, thunder, wind, darkness, light, sunshine, electricity, fire, gravity)

12 | P a g e

2. Pronoun A pronoun is often defined as a word which can be used instead of a noun. For example, instead of saying John is a student, the pronoun he can be used in place of the noun John and the sentence becomes He is a student. We use pronouns very often, especially so that we do not have to keep on repeating a noun. Table 2. Pronoun List in English Person 1st 2nd 3rd Person 1st 2nd 3rd 3. Adjective An adjective modifies a noun or a pronoun by describing, identifying, or quantifying words. An adjective usually precedes the noun or the pronoun which it modifies. An adjective can be modified by an adverb, or by a phrase or clause functioning as an adverb. A given occurrence of an adjective can generally be classified into one of four kinds of uses: 1) Attributive adjectives are part of the noun phrase headed by the noun they modify; for example, happy is an attributive adjective in "happy people". In English, attributive adjectives usually precede their nouns in simple phrases, but often follow their nouns when the adjective is modified or qualified by a phrase acting as an adverb 2) Predicative adjectives are linked via a copula or other linking mechanism to the noun or pronoun they modify; for example, happy is a predicate adjective in "they are happy" and in "that made me happy." Subject I you he/she/it Subject We You They Object me you him/her/it Object us you them Possessive mine yours his/hers Possessive ours yours theirs Intensive / Reflexive Myself Yourself himself/herself/itself Intensive / Reflexive Ourselves Yourselves Themselves

13 | P a g e

3) Absolute adjectives do not belong to a larger construction (aside from a larger adjective phrase), and typically modify either the subject of a sentence or whatever noun or pronoun they are closest to; for example, happy is an absolute adjective in "The boy, happy with his lollipop, did not look where he was going." 4) Nominal adjectives act almost as nouns.

4. Verb A verb is often defined as a word which shows action or state of being. The verb is the heart of a sentence - every sentence must have a verb. One of the most important things about verbs is their relationship to time. Verbs tell if something has already happened, if it will happen later, or if it is happening now. For things

happening now, we use the present tense of a verb; for something that has already happened, we use the past tense; and for something that will happen later, we use the future tense. Table 3. Examples of Tenses-Changing Verb Present Look Move Talk Present See Hear Speak 5. Adverb An adverb can modify a verb, an adjective, another adverb, a phrase, or a clause. An adverb indicates manner, time, place, cause, or degree and answers questions such as "how," "when," "where," "how much". While some adverbs can be identified by their characteristic "ly" suffix, most of them must be identified by untangling the grammatical relationships within the sentence or clause as a whole. Unlike an adjective, an adverb can be found in various places within the sentence. Past looked moved talked Past saw heard spoke Future will look will move will talk Future will see will hear will speak

14 | P a g e

Table 4. Examples of Adverb Usage in Sentences Do it now. I always do my homework I will see you then. We sometimes get confused. They will be here soon. He usually gets good grades. I can't meet you today. I never went skiing. Let's go tomorrow. She rarely eats a big breakfast. They told me yesterday. He was once on TV. Have you traveled recently? He saw the movie twice. 6. Preposition A preposition describes a relationship between other words in a sentence. In it, words like "in" or "after" is rather meaningless and hard to define in mere words. Table 5. Several Commonly Used Prepositions about concerning onto above despite on top of according to down out across during out of after except outside against except for over along excepting past along with for regarding among from round apart from in since around in addition to through as in back of throughout as for in case of till at in front of to because of in place of toward before inside under behind in spite of underneath below instead of unlike beneath into until beside like up between near upon beyond next up to but* of with by off within by means of on without

15 | P a g e

7. Conjunction A conjunction is a word that "joins" or connects other words or groups of words. We may also state that a conjunction joins two parts of a sentence. Conjunctions have three basic forms: Single Word (and, but, because, although) Compound (often ending with as or that) (provided that, as long as, in order that) Correlative (surrounding an adverb or adjective) (so...that) Conjunctions have two basic functions or "jobs": Coordinating conjunctions (always come between the words or clauses that they join) are used to join two parts of a sentence that are grammatically equal Subordinating conjunctions (usually come at the beginning of the subordinate clause) are used to join a subordinate dependent clause to a main clause. Illustration 1. Coordinative & Corelative Conjunction

and ; or; both...and; not onlybut also; eitheror; neithernor

Illustration 2. Subordinative Conjunction

after although as as far as as soon as as if as though because before even if even though if in case (that)

in order (that) insofar as in that lest no matter how now that once provided (that) since so that supposing (that) that though

unless until when whenever where wherever whether while why how than inasmuch as till

16 | P a g e

Illustration 3. Conjunctive Adverb

after all also as a result besides consequently finally for example furthermore hence however

in addition incidentally indeed in fact in other words instead likewise meanwhile moreover nevertheless

next nonetheless on the contrary on the other hand otherwise still then therefore thus

8. Interjection Interjection is a big name for a little word. Interjections are short exclamations like Oh!, Um or Ah! They have no real grammatical value but we use them quite often, usually more in speaking than in writing. When interjections are inserted into a sentence, they have no grammatical connection to the sentence. An interjection is sometimes followed by an exclamation mark (!) when written. Table 6. Several Examples of Interjection Interjection Meaning expressing pleasure expressing realization expressing resignation expressing surprise expressing grief or pity expressing pity expressing surprise asking for repetition Eh expressing enquiry expressing surprise inviting agreement expressing hesitation expressing greeting expressing surprise Example "Ah, that feels good." "Ah, now I understand." "Ah well, it can't be heped." "Ah! I've won!" "Alas, she's dead now." "Oh dear! Does it hurt?" "Dear me! That's a surprise!" "It's hot today." "Eh?" "I said it's hot today." "What do you think of that, eh?" "Eh! Really?" "Let's go, eh?" "Lima is the capital of...er...Peru." "Hello John. How are you today?" "Hello! My car's gone!"

Ah

Alas Dear

Er

hello, hullo

17 | P a g e

Hey Hi Hmm oh, o Ouch Uh uh-huh um, umm Well

calling attention expressing surprise, joy etc expressing greeting expressing hesitation, doubt or disagreement expressing surprise expressing pain expressing pleading expressing pain expressing hesitation expressing agreement expressing hesitation expressing surprise introducing a remark

"Hey! look at that!" "Hey! What a good idea!" "Hi! What's new?" "Hmm. I'm not so sure." "Oh! You're here!" "Oh! I've got a toothache." "Oh, please say 'yes'!" "Ouch! That hurts!" "Uh...I don't know the answer to that." "Shall we go?" "Uh-huh." "85 divided by 5 is...um...17." "Well, I never!" "Well, what did he say?"

B. Derivative An English word can consist of three parts: the root, a prefix and a suffix. The root is the part of the word that contains the basic meaning (definition) of the word. The root is the base element of the word. A prefix is a word element that is placed in front of a root. A prefix changes the word's meaning or makes a new word. A suffix is a word element that is placed after the root. The suffix changes the word's meaning as well as its function (use). Prefixes and suffixes are called affixes because they are attached to a root. Illustration 4. Noun, Adjective, Verb, and Adverb Forming with Affixes anti-; auto-; bi-; co; counter-; dis-; ex-; hyper-; in-; inter-; kilo-; mal-; mega-; mis-; mini-; mono-; neo-; out-; poly-; pseudo-; re-; semi-; sub-; super-; sur-; tele-; tri-; ultra-; under-; vice-; -tion/-sion; -er; -ment; -ant/-ent; -age; -al; -ance/-ence; -ery/-ry; -or; -ism; ship; -ity; -ness; -cy; -logy; -nomy; -ure; -hood

-al; -ent; -ive; -ous; -ful; -less; -able; un-; im-; in-; ir-; il-; non-; dis-; -ish; -ed; -ing

18 | P a g e

re-; dis-; over-; un-; mis-; out-; be-; co-; de-; fore-; inter; pre-; sub-; trans-; under-; en-; -ise; -ate; -fy; -en; -ed; -ing

-ward, -ly, adverb of time, place, manner, frequency and others

C. Sentences A sentence is defined an expression in natural language, and often defined to indicate a grammatical unit consisting of one or more words that generally bear minimal syntactic relation to the words that precede or follow it. A sentence can include words grouped meaningfully to express a statement, question, exclamation, request, command or suggestion. Based on the structure (the number and types of finite clauses), sentences are divided into four different types: a. A simple sentence consists of a single independent clause with no dependent clauses; b. A compound sentence consists of multiple independent clauses with no dependent clauses. These clauses are joined together using conjunctions, punctuation, or both; c. A complex sentence consists of at least one independent clause and one dependent clause; d. A complex-compound sentence (or compound-complex sentence) consists of multiple independent clauses, at least one of which has at least one dependent clause; While based on the purpose, sentenced can be classified as: a. A declarative sentence or declaration, the most common type, commonly makes a statement: "I am going home." b. An interrogative sentence or question is commonly used to request information "When are you going to work?"

19 | P a g e

c. An exclamative sentence or exclamation is generally a more emphatic form of statement expressing emotion: "What a wonderful day this is!" d. An imperative sentence or command tells someone to do something: "Go to work at 7:30 in the morning!"

1. Simple Sentence A simple sentence is a sentence structure that contains one independent clause and no dependent clauses. Illustration 5. Simple Sentence Formula

My aunt enjoyed taking the hayride with you. China's Han Dynasty marked an official recognition of Confucianism.

2. Compound Sentence A compound sentence is composed of at least two independent clauses. It does not require a dependent clause. The clauses are joined by a coordinating conjunction (with or without a comma), a correlative conjunction (with or without a comma), a semicolon that functions as a conjunction, or a conjunctive adverb preceded by a semicolon. A conjunction can be used to make a compound sentence. The use of a comma to separate two independent clauses is called a comma splice and is generally considered an error (when used in the English language). Illustration 6. Compound Sentence Formula

The clown frightened the little girl, and she ran off screaming. The Freedom Riders departed on May 4, 1961, and they were determined to travel through many southern states.

3. Complex Sentence A complex sentence is a sentence with one independent clause and at least one dependent clause. Illustration 7. Complex Sentence Formula

20 | P a g e

After Mary added up all the sales, she discovered that the lemonade stand was 32 cents short. While all of his paintings are fascinating, Hieronymus Bosch's triptychs, full of mayhem and madness, are the real highlight of his art.

4. Complex-Compound Sentence A complex-compound sentence or compound-complex sentence is a sentence with at least two independent clauses and one or more dependent clauses (also known as subordinate clauses). Illustration 8. Complex-Compound Sentence Formula

Catch-22 is widely regarded as Joseph Heller's best novel, and because Heller served in World War II, which the novel satirizes, the zany but savage wit of the novel packs an extra punch.

We decided that the movie was too violent, but our children, who like to watch scary movies, thought that we were wrong.

D. Articles Article is is a word that combines with a noun to indicate the type of reference being made by the noun. Articles are usually characterized as either definite or indefinite. A definite article indicates that its noun is a particular one (or ones) identifiable to the listener. It may be the same thing that the speaker has already mentioned, or it may be something uniquely specified. The definite article in English is "the". An indefinite article indicates that its noun is not a particular one (or ones) identifiable to the listener. It may be something that the speaker is mentioning for the first time, or its precise identity may be irrelevant or hypothetical, or the speaker may be making a general statement about any such thing. The indefinite article in English is "a" and "an". The form an is used before words that begin with a vowel sound (even if spelled with an initial consonant, as in an hour), and a is used before words that begin with a consonant sound (even if spelled with a vowel, as in a University).

21 | P a g e

1. Indefinite Article (a/an) In English, the indefinite articles are "a, an, some, any." They are "indefinite" because they do not refer to a particular thing as "the" does, but simply refer to an object or person in a non-specific way, that is, we do not specify exactly to which person or object we are referring to. A white house on a green hill. A cat ate the sardine

It is normal to use the indefinite article when we mention someone or something for the first time in our conversation or text. I've finally got a good job. We bought a new computer and it was cheap. Would you like a drink?

"A" and "an" are also used to refer to a particular member of a group or class. She is an English teacher. He wants to be a dancer. John is an Englishman.

We also use the indefinite article to talk about price / weight, speed. This car does 240 km an hour. It is 10 euros a kilo.

Certain numbers in English require the presence of an indefinite article. A hundred, a thousand, a million With singular nouns, after the words "what" and "such". What a day! What a shame! She's such a beautiful girl.

Meaning "one", referring to a single object or person. I'd like an orange and two lemons please. The burglar took a diamond necklace and a valuable painting.

22 | P a g e

2. Definite Article (the) The definite article is used before singular and plural nouns when the noun is specific or particular. The signals that the noun is definite, that it refers to a particular member of a group. The dog that bit me ran away. "The" is used to refer to something which has already been mentioned. An elephant and a mouse fell in love. The mouse loved the elephant's long trunk, and the elephant loved the mouse's tiny nose. The is required when the noun it refers to represents something in the abstract. The United States has encouraged the use of the private automobile as opposed to the use of public transit. We use the definite article with certain kinds of proper nouns. Geographical places the Sound, the Sea of Japan, the Mississippi, the West, the Sahara Pluralized names (geographic, family, teams) the Netherlands, the Bahamas, the Hamptons, the Johnsons, the New England Patriots , the Kusmanadji, the STANERS Public institutions/facilities/groups the Wadsworth Atheneum, the Sheraton, the House, the Presbyterian Church, the hospital, the PLASMA Newspapers the Times, the Jakarta Post, the Media Indonesia Nouns followed by a prepositional phrase beginning with "of the leader of the gang, the president of our club, the Head of Marketing We use the definite article with names of rivers, oceans, and seas; points on the globe; deserts, forests, gulfs, and peninsulas. the Nile, the Pacific; the Equator, the North Pole; the Sahara, the Persian Gulf, the Green Forest, the Korea Peninsula

23 | P a g e

 We DO NOT use the definite article (the) with: names of most countries/territories Italy, Mexico, Bolivia; however, the Netherlands, the Dominican Republic, the Philippines, the United States names of cities, towns, or states Seoul, Manitoba, Miami names of streets Washington Blvd., Main St. names of lakes and bays Lake Titicaca, Lake Erie except with a group of lakes like the Great Lakes names of mountains Mount Everest, Mount Fuji except with ranges of mountains like the Andes or the Rockies or unusual names like the Matterhorn names of continents (Asia, Europe) names of islands (Easter Island, Maui, Key West) except with island chains like the Aleutians, the Hebrides, or the Canary Islands

E. Determiner & Quantifier 1. Determiner Determiners are words placed in front of a noun to make it clear what the noun refers to. They may clarify: to define something or someone to state the amount of people, things or other nouns to state possessives to state something or someone is specific to state how things or people are distributed to state the difference between nouns to state someone or something is not specific

24 | P a g e

Determiner can be classified into: Definite and Indefinite articles the, a, an Demonstratives this, that, these, those Possessives my, your, his, her, its, our, their Quantifiers a few, a little, much, many, a lot of, most, some, any, enough, etc. Numbers one, ten, thirty, etc. Distributives all, both, half, either, neither, each, every Difference words other, another Question words Which, what, whose Defining words which, whose 2. Quantifier Like articles, quantifiers are words that precede and modify nouns. They tell us how many or how much. Selecting the correct quantifier depends on your understanding the distinction between Count and Non-Count Nouns. Quantifiers are words that are used to state quantity or amount of something without stating the actually number. Quantifiers answer the questions "How many?" and "How much?" Quantifiers can be used with plural countable nouns and uncountable nouns. There are 3 main types of quantifiers. quantifiers that are used with countable nouns; quantifiers that are used with uncountable nouns; quantifiers that are used with either countable nouns or uncountable nouns.

25 | P a g e

Table 7. Forms of Quantifier Countable Much Many Few Uncountable Examples I don't have much money. I don't have many apples. We know few people in the area. I would like to get to know more. We know a few people in the area. I know enough people to keep me happy. I know little English. I am going to have a problem getting around England. I know a little English, at least enough to get England. I have enough money. I have plenty of money.

X X X X X X X X X X

A few

Little

A little Enough Plenty

Table 8. Forms of Quantifier 2 many, both, much, less, little, a little, very little Count singular Count plural Non-count some, any, most, more, all, a lot of, no, none of the several, few/fewer/fewest, a few, one of the, a couple of each, every, any, one

XX XX XX XX XX

26 | P a g e

F. Adjective Word Order In forming a noun phrase, adjectives always go before nouns in English. There are rules about putting the right order of each different adjective before the noun. The orders are: 1. Numbers one, two, first 2. Opinion/judgement clever, beautiful, funny, lazy 3. Size/appearance/length big, tall,short, long 4. Weight slim, fat, skinny 5. Age young, new, old 6. Temperature hot, cold, warm 7. Humidity wet, dry 8. Shape round, square, pointed 9. Colour white, pink, blue 10. Nationality or origin British, Sudanese, Egyptian 11. Material synthetic, cotton, metal, paper 12. Purpose & defining adjectives engagement ring, shopping trolley, gardening gloves, sunny day Several examples of adjective word order in sentences are as follow: The interesting, small, rectangular, blue car is parked in my space. My father lives in a lovely, gigantic, ancient, brick house. I have an annoying, small, circular, American, tin, alarm clock waking me up. They all received several dazzling, small, ancient, gold coins. She owns a stunning, large, old, brown dog named Boris.

G. Participial Adjective The participial adjectives are a major subclass of adjectives. They can be distinguished by their endings, either er or ing. Some exceptions to the rules include misunderstood and unknown, which also function like these special adjectives even though they do not end in ed. They are called participial adjectives because they have the same endings as verb participles.

27 | P a g e

These adjectives are really meant to function like any other adjective: they help to describe a noun. They might come from a verb form, or they might merely imitate the structure, but they always function as a descriptive adjective. Several examples of participial adjectives are given below: The tempting cookie platter made my mouth salivate. The fascinating book was a thrilling read. The interesting story made a compelling point. Sally was bored by the conversation. I am tired today, and my work is really tiring. My frustrating experience at the restaurant made me angry. I have been agitated long enough.

H. Modals A modal verb (also modal, modal auxiliary verb, modal auxiliary) is a type of auxiliary verb that is used to indicate modality. They are used to moderate the main verb, that is to enhance or restrict the verb to a certain context. Modals are followed by only the base form of the verb and are not used alone unless there is a clear connection to a main verb. Below are some common modals in English.

may
polite request (only with I or we) formal permission less than 50% certainty

had better
advisability with threat of bad result

(be) supposed to
expectation unfulfilled expectation

might
less than 50% certainty polite request (rare)

must
strong necessity prohibition (negative) 95% certainty

should
advisability 90% certainty (expectation)

ought to
advisability 90% certainty

have to
necessity lack of necessity (negative)

28 | P a g e

 (be) going to
100% certainty (prediction) definite plan (intention) unfulfilled intention

can
ability/possibility informal permission informal polite request impossibility (negative only)

could
past ability polite request suggestion (affirmative only) less than 50% certainty impossibility (negative only)

used to
repeated action in the past past situation that no longer exists

shall
polite question to make suggestion future with I or we as Subject

(be) able to
ability

would
preference repeated action in the past polite for want (with like)

29 | P a g e

CHAPTER REVIEW EXERCISE Find and correct the mistake! 1. It was so difficult for American Indians to negotiate a peace treaty in their native A B language that they used a universal understood form of signs language. No error C D E 2. The Professor was considering postponing the examination until the following A B C week because the students confusion. No error. D E 3. Mira accidentally cut her while she was chopping the vegetables the moment A B C you were not home. No error. D E 4. Accountancy is a branch of mathematical science that is useful for

A B C discovering the causes of success and failure in business. No error.

D E 5. The manager was frustrated when he learnt about the disappointed results of A B C the training course for the employees. No error. D E 6. Bacterias are the smallest living things which are simple organism that A B C consist of one cell. No error. D E 7. Physiocrats, is a group of French thinkers and writers, developed the idea of A B C the economy as a circular flow of income and output. No error. D E 8. Kalimongso Daily Digest is one of the most well known newspaper in town A B for it always serves the latest and most reliable news. No error. C D E 9. We have only a little money left that we simply cant afford to buy anything for A B C our dinner tonight. No error. D E 10. The properly role of government provides a starting point for the analysis of A B C public finance in a country. No error. D E 11. Eventhough his disabilities force him to be not as strong as common people, A B C the young man never gave up his spirit in learning. No error. D E

30 | P a g e

CHAPTER TENSES

Special Instructional Objectives : Students are expected to acknowledge, comprehend, and apply the basic and advance rules of Tenses in their daily oral and written english activities and be able to master all related exercises to measure their understanding about the materials. A. Present Tense In general, Present Tense is used to express action at the present; a state of being; an occurrence in the (very) near future; or an action that occurred in the past and continues up to the present. 1.1. Present Simple

Present Simple is used to express permanent actions, actions that happen on a regular basis, general facts, statements that are always true, existence, feeling, static verbs, general actions. Illustration 9. Present Simple Tense Formula

31 | P a g e

Several examples of Present Simple Tense in sentences are given below: My brother always goes to scholl at 7 in the morning. She doesnt come to this group discussion too often. Do they know that they are all grown ups who ought to behave politely? My grandfather is a patriot who once fight for this nations independence. They are not the the students of this institution. What do I have to do to make up my mistakes to you? Why does she have to come to scholl on this holiday?

1.2.

Present Progressive (Continous)

Present Progressive (Continous) is used to elaborate the idea of temporary actions, an action which is going to be happened in the near future, an action which is happening/in progress at the time of speaking/writing, a future action which is planned. Illustration 10. Present Progressive Tense Formula

32 | P a g e

Several examples of Present Progressive Tense in sentences are given below: I am working on my Chemistry project right now. Anita and her friends are playing in the garden. They are not watching the program on the television. Why aren't you doing your homework? I surely need money now, would you please lend me some? This book belong to Rani; they are not mine. I remember the formula now; we have to provide extra salt on the recipe!

1.3.

Present Perfect

Present Perfect is used to express an action which has connection with the past, the exact time of the action is not known, the action is not completed at the time of speaking/writing, the action happened before expected, the action has been repeated numerous time, and is expected to be repeated in the future. Illustration 11. Present Perfect Tense Formula

33 | P a g e

Several examples of Present Perfect Tense in sentences are given below: They have moved into a new apartment. I have flown on an airplane many times. So far this week, I have had two tests and a quiz. I think I have met him once before. There have been many earthquakes in California. Have you read the book yet? Nobody has ever climbed that mountain.

1.4.

Present Perfect Progressive (Continous)

Present Perfect Progressive (Continuous) is an absolute-relative tense that refers to a time located in the future, relative to a contextually determined temporal reference point that itself must be located in the past relative to the moment of utterance. Illustration 12. Present Perfect Progressive Tense Formula

34 | P a g e

Several examples of Present Perfect Tense in sentences are given below: I have been sitting here since seven oclock. It has been raining all day. She has been thinking about changing her major. My back hurts, so I have been sleeping on the floor lately. Andrew has been working at the same store for about ten years. They have been talking for the last hour. She has been working at that company for three years. What have you been doing for the last 30 minutes? James has been teaching at the university since June.

B. Past Tense In Past Tense, the verb is used to express action, activity, state or being in the past of the current moment (in an absolute tense system), or prior to some other event, whether that is past, present, or future (in a relative tense system). 2.1. Past Simple

Past Simple is used to express the idea that an action started and finished at a specific time in the past. Sometimes, the speaker may not actually mention the specific time, but they do have one specific time in mind. Illustration 13. Past Simple Tense Formula

35 | P a g e

Several examples of Past Simple Tense in sentences are given below: I saw a movie yesterday. Last year, I didn't travel to Korea. Did you have dinner last night? I finished work, walked to the beach, and found a nice place to swim. He arrived from the airport at 8:00 and checked into the hotel at 9:00. Shauna studied Japanese for five years.

2.2.

Past Progressive (Continous)

Past Progressive (Continuous) is used to indicate that a longer action in the past was interrupted. The interruption is usually a shorter action in the Simple Past. Remember this can be a real interruption or just an interruption in time. Illustration 14. Past Progressive Tense Formula

Several examples of Past Progressive Tense in sentences are given below: I was watching TV when she called. When the phone rang, she was writing a letter. While we were having the picnic, it started to rain. What were you doing when the earthquake started? I was listening to my iPod, so I didn't hear the fire alarm. Last night at 6 PM, I was eating dinner. I was studying while he was making dinner. Were you listening while he was talking? Thomas wasn't working, and I wasn't working either.

36 | P a g e

2.3.

Past Perfect

Past Perfect is used to express the idea that something occurred before another action in the past. It can also show that something happened before a specific time in the past. Illustration 15. Past Perfect Tense Formula

Several examples of Past Perfect Tense in sentences are given below: I had never seen such a beautiful beach before I went to Kauai. I did not have any money because I had lost my wallet. Tony knew Istanbul so well because he had visited the city several times. We had had that car for ten years before it broke down. George had repaired many cars before he received his mechanic's license. She had visited her Japanese relatives once in 1993 before she moved here.

37 | P a g e

2.4.

Past Perfect Progressive (Continous)

Past Perfect Progressive (Continuous) is used to show that something started in the past and continued up until another time in the past. "For five minutes" and "for two weeks" are both durations which can be used with the Past Perfect Continuous. Notice that this is related to the Present Perfect Continuous; however, the duration does not continue until now, it stops before something else in the past. Illustration 16. Past Perfect Progressive Tense Formula

Several examples of Past Perfect Tense in sentences are given below: They had been talking for over an hour before Tony arrived. She had been working at that company for 3 years when it went broke. How long had you been waiting to get on the bus? Mike wanted to sit down because he had been standing all day at work. Jason was tired because he had been jogging. Sam gained weight because he had been overeating. Betty failed the final test because she had not been attending class. Chef Jones had been preparing the restaurant's fantastic dinners for two years before he moved to Paris. The restaurant's fantastic dinners had been being prepared by Chef Jones for two years before he moved to Paris.

C. Future Tense Future Tense marks the event described by the verb as not having happened yet, but expected to happen in the future (in an absolute tense system), or to happen subsequent to some other event, whether that is past, present, or future (in a relative tense system).

38 | P a g e

3.1.

Future Simple

Simple Future has two different forms in English: "will" and "be going to." Although the two forms can sometimes be used interchangeably, they often express two very different meanings. "Will" often suggests that a speaker will do something voluntarily. Will is also usually used in promises. "Be going to" expresses that something is a plan. It expresses the idea that a person intends to do something in the future. It does not matter whether the plan is realistic or not. Both "will" and "be going to" refer to a specific time in the future and can express the idea of a general prediction about the future. Illustration 17. Future Simple Tense Formula

Several examples of Future Simple Tense in sentences are given below: I will send you the information when I get it. Will you help me move this heavy table? He is going to spend his vacation in Hawaii. Who are you going to invite to the party? The year 2222 is going to be a very interesting year. Are you ever going to meet Jane? Shell be the next best Indonesian Idol. Will you make dinner? I will call you when I arrive.

39 | P a g e

If I am elected President of the United States, I will make sure everyone has access to inexpensive health insurance. I will be an artist when I am grown up.

3.2.

Future Progressive (Continous)

Future Progressive is used to indicate that a longer action in the future will be interrupted by a shorter action in the future; and to express the idea that two actions will be happening at the same time. The actions are parallel. Unlike Simple Future forms, Future Progressive forms are usually interchangeable. Illustration 18. Future Progressive Tense Formula

Several examples of Future Progressive Tense in sentences are given below: When I arrive at the party, everybody is going to be celebrating. Some will be dancing. Others are going to be talking. A few people will be eating pizza, and several people are going to be drinking beer. They always do the same thing. While Ellen is reading, Tim will be watching television. You are still going to be waiting for her when her plane arrives. I will be watching TV when she arrives tonight. Tonight at 6 PM, I am going to be eating dinner.

3.3.

Future Perfect

Future Perfect is used to express the idea that something will occur before another action in the future. It can also show that something will happen before a specific time in the future; and to show that something will continue up until another action in the future.

40 | P a g e

Illustration 19. Future Perfect Tense Formula

Several examples of Future Perfect Tense in sentences are given below: The project is going to have been completed before the deadline. By Monday, Susan is going to have had my book for a week. How many countries are you going to have visited by the time you turn 50? By the time I finish this course, I will have taken ten tests. I am not going to have finished this test by 3 o'clock. By next November, I will have received my promotion.

3.4.

Future Perfect Progressive (Continous)

Future Progressive is used to show that something started in the past and continued up until another time in the future. The tense is quite similar to Present Perfect Progressive and Past Perfect Progressive except that most part of the action is going to be done and finished in the future. Illustration 20. Future Perfect Progressive Tense Formula

Several examples of Future Perfect Progressive Tense in sentences are given below: You will have been waiting for more than two hours when her plane finally arrives at the airport.

41 | P a g e

They will have been talking for over an hour by the time Thomas arrives. How long will you have been studying when you graduate? Jason will be tired when he gets home because he will have been jogging for over an hour. The mural is going to have been being painted by the famous artist for over six months by the time it is finished.

D. Past-Future Tense The forms of the past future tense are similar in structure and implication to those of the present or future tense, only the auxiliary verb will or shall appears in its past form would or should. They find their basic use in indirect quotations, where they are really conversions from the corresponding present forms in direct quotations to suit the sequence of tense. 4.1. Past-Future Simple

Past-Future Simple basically expresses about a future plan in the past. The characteristic is the change of the modals will/shall into would/should. Illustration 21. Past-Future Simple Tense Formula

Several examples of Past-Future Tense in sentences are given below: If I had more time, I would come and see her for the last time. On my last vacation, I had this lovely dream that I would visit Eiffel Tower, yet all was just a dream. Professor McGonagall should take the responsibilty when the trial was conducted a year ago, but he didnt. I might find my way home if I didnt lose my map. Were I to be elected the Chairman of the organization, I would elaborate my programs in re-structuring the management.

42 | P a g e

4.2.

Past-Future Progressive (Continous)

Past-Future Progressive is used to state about a situation where an action was going to be done in the past time. In other words it can be described as a plan that was about to be happenning in the near future of the past. Illustration 22. Past-Future Progressive Tense Formula

Examples of Past-Future Progressive Tense in sentences are given below: This time last year, she would be studying Economics at the University of Toronto. When I arrived home last night, my daughter would be watching TV. While the president would be giving his speech last Monday, the audience would be listening to him carefully. I would not be discussing English with my classmates at 2 p.m. last Friday. Would she be copying the materials at 10 oclock this morning?

4.3.

Past-Future Perfect

Past-Future Perfect generally expresses an idea that an action would be finished in the past. This kind of tenses is commonly used to express regret and wish for something in the past in case another activity didnot happened which interrupt the action or even caused the action not to be done at all. Past-Future Perfect is well known as the result clause for Past Conditional. Illustration 23. Past-Future Perfect Tense Formula

43 | P a g e

Several examples of Past-Future Perfect Tense in sentences are given below: I predicted that by 3 p.m. yesterday, I would have finished reading this book. I thought Barcelona would have scored three goals when the first half was over. Because its opponent was tough, however, it didnt score even a single goal. They thought he would have already bought a gift before he went to his girlfriends birthday party last night. He wouldnt have got an accident, if he had not driven fast. She thought that she wouldnt have read the entire book before she went to campus yesterday afternoon. If I had asked come earlier, I would have bought the last copy of the book. If man had shown concern towards the Earth, it would not have been polluted to the present extent. John left for the front; by the time he should return, the field would have been burnt to stubble. We would have arrived on time If we walked faster I thought I would have already fallen asleep by the time Joni got home last night. I dont know why I was still awake when he did. We expected that dads plane wouldnt have arrived yet by the time we got to the air port yesterday. But we were late because the traffic was so terrible. Because of an immigration documentation problem, my dad knew that he wouldnt have been home when my mom gave birth last month. Did they think that he would have bought a gift before he went to his girlfriends birthday party last night?

4.4.

Past-Future Perfect Progressive (Continous)

Past-Future Perfect Progressive is a time form which state about an action that would be started in the past, would be being done in a certain time of the past, and would be continued until some other time in the future of the past.

44 | P a g e

Illustration 24. Past-Future Perfect Progressive Tense Formula

Examples of Past-Future Perfect Progressive Tense in sentences are: It was predicted that when Mr. Dodi retired last month, he would have been working for this company for forty-five years. She never expected that she would have been waiting for her boyfriend for 2 hours last night. I thought I would have been being at school only for 6 hours yesterday. In fact, I had to wait for another hour because my dads car broke down on the way to the school. I was completely sure that on August 17, I would have been living in this house for 10 years sharp. I expected that I would have been sleeping for 8 hours last night but I was awoken by my neighbors long big fight at 1 a.m. It was very loud and I couldnt fall asleep till morning. If your neighbor hadnt had a long big fight last night, would you have been sleeping for 4 hours last night? If Mr. Dodi were still strong, would he have been working for this company for more than fifty years? Did she expect that she would have been waiting for her boyfriend for 2 hours last night?

45 | P a g e

CHAPTER REVIEW EXERCISE Change the verbs in the brackects into their correct forms! 1. Usually, I (work) as a secretary at ABT, but this summer I (study) French at a language school in Paris. That is why I am in Paris. 2. I'm sorry I can't hear what you (say) because everybody (talk) so loudly. 3. Justin (write, currently) a book about his adventures in Tibet. I hope he can find a good publisher when he is finished. 4. The business cards (be, normally) printed by a company in New York. Their prices (be) inexpensive, yet the quality of their work is quite good. 5. Sebastian (arrive) at Susan's house a little before 9:00 PM, but she (be, not) there. She (study, at the library) for her final examination in French. 6. Sandy is in the living room watching television. At this time yesterday, she (watch, also) television. That's all she ever does! 7. When I (walk) into the busy office, the secretary (talk) on the phone with a customer, several clerks (work, busily) at their desks, and two managers (discuss, quietly) methods to improve customer service. 8. When I entered the bazaar, a couple of merchants (bargain, busily) and (try) to sell their goods to naive tourists who (hunt) for souvenirs. Some young boys (lead) their donkeys through the narrow streets on their way home. A couple of men (argue) over the price of a leather belt. I (walk) over to a man who (sell) fruit and (buy) a banana. 9. Since computers were first introduced to the public in the early 1980's, technology (change) a great deal. The first computers (be) simple machines designed for basic tasks. They (have, not) much memory and they (be, not) very powerful. Early computers were often quite expensive and customers often (pay) thousands of dollars for machines which actually (do) very little. Most computers (be) separate, individual machines used mostly as expensive typewriters or for playing games. 10. Did you hear that Ben was fired last month? He (work) for that import company for more than ten years and he (work) in almost every department. Nobody knew the company like he did.

46 | P a g e

11. Matt and Sarah (have) some difficulties in their relationship lately, so they (go) to a marriage counselor. I hope they work everything out. 12. John (work) for the government since he graduated from Harvard University. Until recently, he (enjoy) his work, but now he is talking about retiring. 13. I was really angry at John yesterday. By the time he finally arrived, I (wait) for over an hour. I almost left without him. 14. Times (change). Computers (become) powerful machines with very practical applications. Programmers (create) a large selection of useful programs which do everything from teaching foreign languages to bookkeeping. We are still playing video games, but today's games (become) faster, more exciting interactive adventures. Many computer users (get, also) on the Internet and (begin) communicating with other computer users around the world. We (start) to create international communities online. In short, the simple, individual machines of the past (evolve) into an international World Wide Web of knowledge. 15. When I (get) to the party, Sally and Doug (dance), John (make) drinks, Sue and Frank (discuss) something controversial, and Mary (complain) about something unimportant. They are always doing the same things. They are so predictable. 16. Thomas is an author. He (write) mystery novels and travel memoirs. He (write) since he was twenty-eight. Altogether, he (write) seven novels, three collections of short stories and a book of poetry. 17. We were late because we had some car problems. By the time we (get) to the train station, Susan (wait) for us for more than two hours. 18. Every day I (wake) up at 6 o'clock, (eat) breakfast at 7 o'clock and (leave) for work at 8 o'clock. However, this morning I (get) up at 6:30, (skip) breakfast and (leave) for work late because I (forget) to set my alarm. 19. By this time next summer, you (complete) your studies and (find) a job. I, on the other hand, (accomplish, not) anything. I (study, still) and you (work) in some new high paying job.

47 | P a g e

CHAPTER DEGREE OF COMPARISON

Special Instructional Objectives : Students are expected to acknowledge, comprehend, and apply the basic and advance rules of Degree of Comparison in their daily oral and written english activities and be able to master all related exercises to measure their understanding about the materials.

A. Introduction The Degrees of Comparison in English grammar are made with the Adjective and Adverb words to show how big or small, high or low, more or less, many or few, etc., of the qualities, numbers and positions of the nouns (persons, things and places) in comparison to the others mentioned in the other part of a sentence or expression. She works as meticulously as you do. Antonio is not as clever as Andy. The challenge in my second year of the college is getting harder and harder. My bike is the same colour as yours. Anita is more diligent than Rita. Widya is absolutely the most beautiful girl I have ever known. The more we tried to conquer the ocean, the more it fought us back.

B. Positive/In-Line Comparison The Positive/In-Line Comparison can be used to compare two people, places, or things that are equal or different in some way; and to compare two actions that are equal or different in some way. Sometimes, it is common not to mention both parts of the comparison since the meaning is quite clear from the context.

48 | P a g e

Illustration 25. Positive/In-Line Comparison

C. Comparative Comparison The Comparative Comparison is used when the focus is the difference between people, places, and things. There are 5 major types of comparative

comparison,namely: 1. using er suffix and than after the adjective/adverb; (common way of forming comparison with some common 1 or 2 syllable(s) word) 2. using more and than with the adjective/adverb; (common way of forming comparison with some common 2 or more syllables word) 3. using er suffix or more but without than; (when it is clear which things that are compared) 4. repeated comparative; (to talk about change; an increase or decrease) 5. double comparative (to show cause and effect) Illustration 26. Comparative Comparison

49 | P a g e

D. Superlative Comparison The focus of the superlative Comparison is to single out people, places, and things from other people, places, and things. The common characteristics of superlative comparison include the using of the word most and the adding est after the adjective or the adverb. Sometimes, the superlative comparison can also be followed by a clause which takes the Present Perfect form with the word ever. Illustration 27. Superlative Comparison

E. Common Exceptions Some words below do not take any suffix or any other word before them, but have changes in their spelling and pronunciation; different from the original form. Illustration 28. Exceptions in Comparison

50 | P a g e

CHAPTER REVIEW EXERCISE Change the verbs in the brackects into their correct forms! 1. This flower is (beautiful) than that one. 2. This is the (interesting) book I have ever read. 3. Non-smokers usually live (long) than smokers. 4. Which is the (dangerous) animal in the world? 5. A holiday by the sea is (good) than a holiday in the mountains. 6. It is strange but often a coke is (expensive) than a beer. 7. Who is the (rich) woman on earth? 8. The weather this summer is even (bad) than last summer. 9. He was the (clever) thief of all. 10. She greeted me (polite) of all. 11. She smiled (happy) than before. 12. This girl dances (graceful) of all. 13. Could you write (clear) ? 14. Planes can fly (high) than birds. 15. He had an accident last year. Now, he drives (careful) than before. 16. Jim can run (fast) than John. 17. Our team played (bad) of all. 18. He worked (hard) than ever before. Combine the ideas given into a double comparative! 1. As he got older, he became more and more bad-tempered. 2. He worked hard. He felt very bad. 3. When we think of the exam, we get more and more excited. 4. As this road gets busier, it becomes more and more dangerous. 5. When you get near to the Equator, the temperature becomes high. 6. If she stays in England a long time, her English will be very good. 7. When I write fast, my writing becomes illegible. 8. As I try hard to study, I just dont understand the materials. 9. When you feel better, you may find yourself comfortable. 10. The weather is getting hotter when the it reaches April in this city.

51 | P a g e

CHAPTER PASSIVE VOICE

Special Instructional Objectives : Students are expected to acknowledge, comprehend, and apply the basic and advance rules of Passive Voice in their daily oral and written english activities and be able to master all related exercises to measure their understanding about the materials. A. General Pattern The passive is particularly useful (even recommended) in two situations: 1. when it is more important to draw attention to the person or thing acted upon; 2. when the actor in the situation is not important; The passive voice is used to good effect in a paragraph in which we wish to shift emphasis from what was the object in a first sentence to what becomes the subject in subsequent sentences. The Passive can only be formed by an Active-Transitive verb (the verb that needs an object). The passive can also be formed using modals. Illustration 29. Passive Voice Formula

52 | P a g e

B. Stative Passive Stative Passive is a type of Passive Voice which describes the result of the action rather than describes the action. Some characteristics of the form include no physical actions that are in progress (the action has been done before) and no byphrase (not necessarily needed). The past participle verbs used in stative passive function as adjectives. Below are given some verbs (functioned as adjectives) commonly used to form the stative passive: Illustration 30. Verbs Functioned as Adjectives in Stative Passive

53 | P a g e

CHAPTER REVIEW EXERCISE Change the sentences into Passive! 1. Julia rescued three cats. 2. The students handed in the reports. 3. Maria crashed into the blue car. 4. Alex learned the poem. 5. Steven has forgotten the book. 6. The mechanic has not repaired the DVD recorder. 7. They play handball. 8. Sue puts the rucksack on the floor. 9. The girls had lost the match. 10. The teacher is not going to open the window. 11. Kevin asked Dennis a question. 12. She gives him a box. 13. The waiter brought Fred a big steak. 14. The teacher told us a joke. Choose the correct answer! 1. I'll never forget the earthquake (was happening /that happened) in Italy. It (occurred was occurred) on April 6, 2009. 2. We (married / got married) in 2007, so I may say that we (are married / married) now. 3. When I saw the original of Renoir's painting 'Le Moulin de la Galette' in the museum, I was so absorbed (on / at / in / from / with) it that when my husband tapped me on the shoulder, I jumped out of my skin. 4. According to the survey, some teenagers are addicted (from / at / about / with / to shopping and need treatment. 5. We are obliged (from / with / for / about / to) my sister and her husband for looking after our daughter when we go to America. 6. Marie Antoinette, the last Queen of France, is best remembered (about / for / to / from / of) reportedly saying, "Let them eat cake." when she was told that the peasants of Paris were rioting because they had no bread to eat.

54 | P a g e

CHAPTER QUESTION TAG

Special Instructional Objectives : Students are expected to acknowledge, comprehend, and apply the basic and advance rules of Question Tag in their daily oral and written english activities and be able to master all related exercises to measure their understanding about the materials.

A tag question is a special construction in English. It is a statement followed by a mini-question. The whole sentence is a "tag question", and the mini-question at the end is called a "question tag". We use tag questions at the end of statements to ask for confirmation. They mean something like: "Am I right?" or "Do you agree?" They are very common in English. The rules, including the exceptions are illustrated below. Table 9. Basic Rules of Tag Question

+ Positive statement, Snow is white, Negative statement, You don't want to lose me,

negative tag? isn't it? + positive tag? do you?

55 | P a g e

Table 10. Imperative Tag Question Tag Question Invitation Take a seat, won't you? Help me, can you? Help me, can't you? Close the door, would you? Order Do it now, will you? Notes polite quite friendly quite friendly (some irritation?) quite polite less polite with negative imperatives only will is possible

Don't forget, will you?

Table 11. Exceptions in Tag Question I am right, aren't I? You have to go, don't you? I have been answering, haven't I? aren't I (not amn't I) you (do) have to go... use first auxiliary treat statements with nothing, nobody etc like negative statements let's = let us he had better (no auxiliary)

Nothing came in the post, did it?

Let's go, shall we? He'd better do it, hadn't he?

56 | P a g e

CHAPTER REVIEW EXERCISE Provide the appropriate Tag questions! 1. She is collecting stickers, _______ ? 2. We often watch TV in the afternoon, _______ ? 3. You have cleaned your bike, _______ ? 4. John and Max don't like Maths, _______ ? 5. Peter played handball yesterday, _______ ? 6. They are going home from school, _______ ? 7. Mary didn't do her homework last Monday, _______ ? 8. He could have bought a new car, _______ ? 9. Kevin will come tonight, _______ ? 10. I'm clever, _______ ? 11. The car isn't in the garage, _______ ? 12. You are John, _______ ? 13. She went to the library yesterday, _______ ? 14. He didn't recognize me, _______ ? 15. Cars pollute the environment, _______? 16. Mr. Pritchard has been to Scotland recently, _______ ? 17. The trip is very expensive, _______ ? 18. He won't tell her, _______ ? 19. Hugh had a red car, _______ ? 20. Teresa is an accountant, _______ ? 21. Jacques and Alicia are students, _______ ? 22. You and I are busy right now, _______ ? 23. We must lock the doors, _______ ? 24. You wouldn't want to invite my Dad, _______ ? 25. Let's go for a walk, _______ ? 26. Close the window for me, _______ ? 27. Please deliver these gift to your parents, _______ ? 28. Lets attend Prof. Mariams seminar, _______ ? 29. Its going to rain soon, Irma, so please just stay inside, _______ ? 30. Everything for our camping plan has been set, _______ ?

57 | P a g e

CHAPTER CAUSATIVE

Special Instructional Objectives : Students are expected to acknowledge, comprehend, and apply the basic and advance rules of Causative in their daily oral and written english activities and be able to master all related exercises to measure their understanding about the materials.

Causative is an expression of an agent causing, letting, making or forcing a subject to perform an action or to be in a certain condition. It expresses the idea of someone causing someone to do something or something to take place. Causative is devided into Active and Passive Form which is actually different in the using of the verb. Illustration 31. Causative Sentence Formula

Several examples of causative sentences are: I have my brother apply for that prestigious scholarship. Yesterday, Maria made her old laptop repaired at that gadget store. Mr. Kusmanadji let the students prepare their final paper in English. The teacher get the students to finish their paper at home. Last night, Irma get the report taken by her staff.

58 | P a g e

CHAPTER REVIEW EXERCISE Provide the correct verb form for each sentence! 1. Instead of buying a new bicycle, why don't you have your old one (fix). 2. My mom always makes me (clean up) my room on Saturday mornings. 3. Your car engine is making some strange sounds. Why don't you have a mechanic (look) at it? 4. We should get Ben (buy) us some concert tickets when he goes to get his. 5. The government requires new drivers (display) a sticker with a large N on it on their cars for the first couple of years. 6. When I was little, my parents always made me (walk) to school because they thought it was too lazy to take the bus. 7. Yesterday I had my car (repair).I found a good mechanic on the Internet. 8. Are you having your room (clean) now? Let's go for a walk then! 9. She has always wanted to have red curly hair.She is having her hair (do). 10. I am going to have the mechanic (repair) my car. 11. My right leg really hurt, so I went to the doctor's to have it (examine). 12. I am going to have the gardener (water) my plants. 13. I had my sister (check) this maths exercise.She loves trigonometric functions. 14. I am going to have Peter (look at) my old computer.Perhaps he will be able to mend it. 15. I am going to have the hairdresser (dye) my hair. Give the appropriate Causative verb! 1. I _______ my uncle to fix my car when it gets damage. 2. She _______ her sister take care of the children 3. Yesterday Sara _______ Sam to clean her room 4. I always _______ a professional cut my hair 5. We usually _______ our brother to decor the house. 6. She will _______ a professional paint the house 7. Yesterday they _______ Mario to clean the rug.

59 | P a g e

CHAPTER CONDITIONAL & SUBJUNCTIVE

Special Instructional Objectives : Students are expected to acknowledge, comprehend, and apply the basic and advance rules of Conditional & Subjunctive in their daily oral and written english activities and be able to master all related exercises to measure their understanding about the materials. A. Conditional Conditional Sentences are also known as Conditional Clauses or If Clauses. They are used to express that the action in the main clause (without if) can only take place if a certain condition (in the clause with if) is fulfilled. All conditional sentences contain a dependent clause and an independent clause. The dependent clause usually begins with if; it expresses a condition. The independent clause expresses a result of the condition. The if-clause is usually first, but the order of the clauses is usually not important. There are three types of Conditional Sentences which are commonly known, namely Future, Present, and Past Conditional. 1.1. Future Conditional

The first conditional/future conditional (also called conditional type 1) is a structure used for talking about possibilities in the present or in the future. Illustration 32. Future / First Conditional Formula

60 | P a g e

Some rules about the future conditional include: The verb used in if and result clause are the bare infinitives (without to); Be forms used in the future conditional for the if clause are the present forms; It is also possible to use another form of future tense (be going to) for the result clause; When if clause is positioned as the beginning of the sentences, do not forget to insert the comma (,) between the two clauses; The negative form for the if clause use do not/does not, am/is/are not followed bare infinitive, while for the result clause the negative form only take not after the modal; The fact or the meaning of the future conditional mostly refer to possibility or probability in the present or the future, therefore there will often be perhaps, possibly, or probably words in the fact sentences. Several examples of Future/First Conditional are displayed below: If I go to my friend's house for dinner tonight, I will take a bottle of wine or some flowers. (I am still at home, but there is a possibility that I am going to my friends house, and there is also possibility that I will take a bottle of wine or some flowers.) If the weather is nice, she is going to walk to work. (The speaker is still not sure whether the weather is nice, but there is a possibility that she will walk to work when the weather is fine.) If you help me move tomorrow, I will buy you dinner. (There is a possibility of your helping me tomorrow.) 1.2. Present Conditional

The present conditional describes a situation now that isn't true or isn't happening. It is used to talk about what people normally do in real-life situations. Illustration 33. Present / Second Conditional Formula

61 | P a g e

Some rules about the present conditional include: The verb used in if clause is the past form (V2 / past modal), while for the result clause is the bare infinitive preceeded by past modal; Be used in the present conditional for the if clause is were. Was is incommonly used in English (only some Americans); When if clause is positioned as the beginning of the sentences, do not forget to insert the comma (,) between the two clauses; The negative form for the if clause use did not + Verb1 or were not followed bare infinitive, while for the result clause the negative form only take not after the modal; The fact or the meaning of the present conditional is always contrary to the mentioned sentence. The meaning or the fact is in the present tense form. Several examples of Present/Second Conditional are displayed below: If she had more time today, she could meet her friend for lunch. (She doesnt have enough time, therefore she cannot meet her.) If I knew how to sing, I could probably make a little money playing guitar on the weekends. (I am not too good in singing and i hope I will be better next time.) If the penguin could talk, he would probably tell us human beings to stop changing the climate. (The penguin cannot talk and it cannot tell us what it thinks about.) 1.3. Past Conditional

The Past Real Conditional describes what people used to do in particular real-life situations. It suggests that the habits have changed and you do not usually do these things today. Illustration 34. Past / Third Conditional Formula

62 | P a g e

Some rules about the past conditional include: The verb used in if clause is the past perfect form (had + V3 / past perfect modal), while for the result clause is the present perfect (have + V3/been) preceeded by past modal; Be used in the present conditional for the if clause is been preceeded by had; When if clause is positioned as the beginning of the sentences, do not forget to insert the comma (,) between the two clauses; The negative form for the if clause use had not + Verb3 or had not been, while for the result clause the negative form take past modal + not before the present perfect form; The fact or the meaning of the present conditional is always contrary to the mentioned sentence. The meaning or the fact is in the past tense form. Several examples of Present/Second Conditional are displayed below: If you had told me the truth, I would have believed you. (You didnt tell me the truth, therefore I didnt believe you.) If he had worked harder, he'd have received a better grade. (He didnt receive good grade since he didnt work hard.) I would have bought that computer if it had been cheaper. (The computer was expensive that I didnt buy it.) 1.4. Zero Conditional

The zero conditional is a structure used for talking about general truths; things which always happen under certain conditions. Illustration 35. Zero Conditional Formula

63 | P a g e

Several examples of Zero Conditional Sentences are: If you cross an international date line, the time changes. (This always happens; every time someone crosses a date line.) If it rains, the grass gets wet. (This is basically always true; the rain makes the grass wet.) Wood doesn't burn if there is no air. (This is a scientific fact; wood needs air in order to burn.)

B. Subjunctive Subjunctive discussed in this chapter focuses more on the using of wish, as if, as though, and would rather to express hope, desire, or regret which is contrary to the fact that happens at present or occurred in the past. It can also state about an action that is not really happening or is not true, or sometimes in other words is called hypothetical sentence. Another usage of subjunctive is to emphasize the importance of doing something. There are certain verbs or expression that commonly followed by subjunctive. 2.1. Expressing Hope, Desire, and Regret

To express hope, desire, or regret in english, it is common to use the word wish, as if/as though, or would rather. The form for each word is not too different. For the word wish, it is generally accepted that the sentence after the wish cannot be in future form, but may refer to future meaning. Illustration 36. Subjunctive Sentence Formula

64 | P a g e

Several examples of the above subjunctive formulas are displayed below: Noel wishes he had visited the Sorbonne when he was in Paris. We wish we had been kinder to her before she got sick. They wish they hadnt spent so much money on their shopping trip. I'd rather you didn't tell anyone what I said. "Do you mind if I smoke?" "I'd rather you didn't." She answered all the questions confidently as if she had read all the materials from the textbook. 2.2. Emphasizing The Importance Of Doing Something

This type of subjunctive is only noticeable in certain forms and tenses. It can be used in positive, negative, continuous and passive forms. Regarding the forms for following some certain verbs, many english language experts classify them as thatclause (dependent clause) though the meanings are slightly different. Certain verbs followed by subjunctive include: advise (that) desire (that) request (that) ask (that) insist (that) urge (that) command (that) propose (that) suggest (that) demand (that) recommend (that)

Certain expressions followed by subjenctive include: It is best It is essential It is recommended It is a good idea It is crucial (that) It is imperative (that) It is urgent (that) It is a bad idea (that) It is desirable (that) It is important (that) It is vital (that)

Several examples of this type of subjunctives are displayed below: Donna requested Frank come to the party. The teacher insists that her students be on time. It is crucial that you be there before Tom arrives. The boss insisted that Sam not be at the meeting. We suggested that you be admitted to the organization. It is crucial that a car be waiting for the boss when the meeting is over. Professor William suggested that Wilma should study harder for the final exam.

65 | P a g e

CHAPTER REVIEW EXERCISE Provide the correct verb form for each sentence! 1. You wouldn't have been angry if you (know) the reason. 2. We'll send for the doctor if he (feel) worse. 3. Unless they turn the radio off I (go) mad. 4. Unless it is a nice day we (not go) anywhere. 5. The grass would look better if you (take care) of it. 6. If I had tried it again I think that I (be) successful. 7. If I had a car I (go) to my parents every week. 8. If I (bring) my coat I wouldn't have been so cold. 9. If he (take) my advice he wouldn't have ended up in prison. 10. I wouldn't have ordered dinner for you if I (know) you weren't hungry. Complete the sentences by using your own words! 1. If he studied the new words, __________. 2. You would have slept much better __________. 3. If you wait a minute, __________. 4. The teacher will not be happy __________. 5. If I were you, __________. Provide the proper conditional for each situation or fact! 1. Dr. Mercer decided not to accept the research grant at Harvard because he is going to take six months off to spend more time with his family. 2. She will take care of the children for us next weekend because her business trip was canceled. 3. She is not worried about the conference tomorrow because she is not giving a speech. 4. They are not releasing the prisoner next month because there was so much public opposition to his parole. 5. I will not help you study for your test because you have spent the last two weeks partying and wasting time.

66 | P a g e

CHAPTER DIRECT & INDIRECT SPEECH

Special Instructional Objectives : Students are expected to acknowledge, comprehend, and apply the basic and advance rules of Direct & Indirect Speech in their daily oral and written english activities and be able to master all related exercises to measure their understanding about the materials.

A. Direct Speech Direct speech is quoted speech that is presented without modification, as it might have been uttered by the original speaker. In direct speech, various punctuation conventions are used to separate the quoted words from the rest of the text: this allows a reader to follow whats going on. The words from the speaker are given between quotation marks (" ") in writing. Illustration 37. Direct Speech General Formula

The basic writing rules of direct speech are as below: The words that are actually spoken should be enclosed in inverted commas; Hes very clever, you know. Every time a new speaker says something, you should start a new paragraph; They think its a more respectable job, said Jo. I dont agree, I replied. There should be a comma, full stop, question mark, or exclamation mark at the end of a piece of speech. This is placed inside the closing inverted comma or commas; Can I come in? he asked. Just a moment! she shouted.

67 | P a g e

 If direct speech comes after the information about who is speaking, you should use a comma to introduce the piece of speech, placed before the first inverted comma; Steve replied, No problem. If the direct speech is broken up by information about who is speaking, you need a comma (or a question mark or exclamation mark) to end the first piece of speech and a full stop or another comma before the second piece (before the inverted comma or commas). Youre right, he said. It feels strange. Thinking back, she said, I didnt expect to win. No! he cried. You cant leave now!

B. Indirect/Reported Speech Indirect Speech (also referred to as 'reported speech') refers to a sentence reporting what someone has said. There are some important things to be taken into account in forming an indirect speech. The things include the reporting verbs, the tenses changes, the pronoun changes, and the adverb changes. Reporting verbs are crucial since they determine whether the subordinate clause will be change. In general, if the reporting verbs are in present form, it is not necessary to alter the tenses of the subordinate clause. However, if the reporting verbs are in past form then there will be changes in the subordinate clause. Sometimes, there are also special rules for special cases of sentences. Some of the details are: If the sentence reported is something which is still true, it is not necessary to change the verb. D: R: "My car is bigger than yours." He said his car is / was bigger than mine.

If the event is past tense, and the reporter sees the event from the same viewpoint as the original speaker, it is not necessary to change the tense. D: R: "The earthquake happened at half past seven." The radio said that the earthquake happened at half past seven.

68 | P a g e

Modal verbs could, might, would, should, ought, had better usually do not change in reported speech. D: R: "I should go to the dentist." He said that he should go to the dentist.

If the report is in question, the subject comes before the verb. D: R: "Where are you going?" He asked me where I was going.

The auxiliary verbs do/does/did are not used, except in negative questions. D: R: "Who doesn't like cheese?" She asked me who didn't like cheese.

To report yes/no questions the reported speech will use if or whether. D: R: "Do you want me to come?" I asked him if he wanted me to come.

To report a command/order/request, simply put to infinitive (to+verb1) for positive sentence or not + to + infinitive (not + to + verb1). D: R: Rita orderd her students, "Study hard for your exam!" Rita ordered her students to study hard for their exam.

2.1.

Indirect/Reported Statement

The important things to remember is that the changes in the subordinate clause depend on the reporting verb. If the reporting verb is in present form, there is no change in the subordinate clause. If the reporting verb is in past form, there will be some changes in the subordinate clause. the changes include tenses, pronoun, and adverb. All of the changes below are used for all types of indirect/reported speech (positive, negative, interrogative, and imperative). Illustration 38. Indirect / Reported Speech General Formula

69 | P a g e

The commonly used reporting verbs for statement forms are as follows: acknowledge argue conclude explain observe report warn add assert confess indicate promise say write admit believe declare maintain remark state announce claim deny mean repeat suggest answer complain exclaim note reply tell

The tenses changes are: Table 12. Tenses Changes in Reported Speech

Some of the pronoun changes are: Table 13. Pronoun Changes in Reported Speech

70 | P a g e

While the adverb changes are as displayed below: Table 14. Adverb Changes in Reported Speech

Some examples of reported speech sentences in statement forms are as follow: Frank declared: " I am thinking about moving" Frank declared he was thinking about moving She said: " I have just seen an old friend of mine" She said she had just seen an old friend of hers. He asked: "Paul, how long have you been studying English?" He asked Paul how long he had been studying English Anna declared:" I will be announcing my engagement next month" Anna declared she would be announcing her engagement the following month He says the test is difficult. She has said that she watches TV every day. Jack will say that he comes to school every day.

71 | P a g e

2.2.

Indirect/Reported Command/Order/Request

Some rules concerning the forming of Imperative Indirect/Reported Speech are: Imperative Indirect/Reported Speech applies the base form of the verb preceeded by to (to + V1). It uses infinitive verb to report: Instructions; Commands; Requests; Invitations.

To form the negative imperatives, use negative infinitive (not + to + V1). Illustration 39. Indirect / Reported Command/Order/Request

The reporting verbs used for imperative indirect/reported speech which mean instructions, commands, requests, or invitations include: advise demand say 2.3. ask instruct tell caution invite urge command order warn

Some examples of indirect/reported speech in imperative forms are: He warned us to come early to the meeting. They instruct us to finish our paper soon. Prof. Schmit demanded us not to forget to keep working on our project.

Indirect/Reported Question

The most important rule in forming indirect question is that there will be no question mark/question form in the sentences (this type of question is also known as embedded question) although there is a question word in it. Illustration 40. Indirect / Reported Question

72 | P a g e

Indirect questions can be formed by using some reporting verbs or some common expression introducing embedded questions. If an expression is in a form of a question with a question mark at the end of the sentences, remember that the question mark is for the expression, not the indirect question. The common reporting verbs are: ask inquire question want to know wonder

While the common expression used to preceed the indirect questions are: I dont know... Im not sure... It doesnt say... Id like to find out... Do you know...? Could you explain...? Who knows...? Several examples of indirect questions or embedded questions are: He asked if I knew the name of the participants. The officers of the summit inquired us to provide our invitations. She doesnt know where the boss had gone for the past three days. Do you know who set this decoration? Can you tell me when the next flight leaves? I dont understand... I cant remember... Id like to know... We need to find out... Do you understand...? can you remember...? I wonder... I cant imagine... I want to understand... Lets ask... Can you tell me...? Would you show me...?

73 | P a g e

CHAPTER REVIEW EXERCISE Provide the correct indirect speech for each sentence! 1. David : "There is an excellent band playing later on." 2. Christine : "I saw Amy at the bank on Monday." 3. The driver : "I'm going to turn right at the traffic lights." 4. Shop assistant: "Are you looking for something special?" 5. The doctor : "I'll send you the results as soon as they arrive." 6. Charles: "I didn't have time to do my homework." 7. Jason and Victoria: "We will do our best in the exams tomorrow." 8. Patricia: "My mother will celebrate her birthday next weekend." 9. Frank: "How much pocket money does Lisa get?" 10. Andrew: "Will Mandy have lunch with Sue?" 11. Karen: "Don't play football in the garden!" 12. Jamie: "Don't eat so much junk food!" 13. Are you coming with us? he asked me. 14. He asked, When do you intend to make the payment? 15. Do you come from China? said the prince to the girl. 16. The poor man exclaimed, Will none of you help me? 17. Which way should I go? asked the little girl. 18. Alladin said to the magician, What have I done to deserve so severe a punishment? 19. Dont you know the way home? I said to her. 20. Do you write a good hand? the teacher said to the student. 21. Have you anything to say on behalf of the accused? said the judge finally. 22. Have you anything to tell me, little bird? asked Ulysses. 23. Who are you, sir, and what do you want? they asked. 24. The king was impressed with the magician and asked, What can I do for you? 25. She asked, What is it that makes you stronger and braver than other men? 26. Can you solve this problem? he asked me.

74 | P a g e

CHAPTER DEPENDENT CLAUSE

Special Instructional Objectives : Students are expected to acknowledge, comprehend, and apply the basic and advance rules of Adjective Clause, Adverb Clause, and Noun Clause in their daily oral and written english activities and be able to master all related exercises to measure their understanding about the materials.

A. Introduction A dependent clause (also called a subordinate clause) is a clause that cannot stand alone, because something about it implies that there is more to come. On its own, a dependent clause is left hanging, its meaning incomplete. It must be combined with an independent clause in order to form a complete sentence. In this chapter, three types of dependent clause are going to be described; Noun/Nominal Clause, Adjective clause, and Adverb Clause. Another part of the discussion would be Reduced Relative Clause. Several examples of dependent clause are displayed below: Before the trial ended, but after the judge ruled on the defense motion, defense counsel preserved her objection for appeal. Because I was late, I had to run all the way to school. When Jim studied in the Sweet Shop for his chemistry quiz, it was very noisy. While Bailey slept on the sofa in front of the television, Samson, the family dog, gnawed on the leg of the coffee table. Diane decided to plant tomatoes in the back of the yard where the sun blazed the longest during the day. When a six-foot snake slithered across the side walk, Rhonda gasped.

75 | P a g e

B. Classification 2.1. Noun/Nominal Clause.

A noun clause is an entire clause that takes the place of a noun in another clause or phrase. Like a noun, a noun clause acts as the subject or object of a verb or the object of a preposition. Noun/Nominal clauses may begin with interrogatives: who whomever whom whatever what when which where whoever how why

Illustration 41. Noun Clause

Several examples of noun clause are: That George learned how to swim is a miracle. Whether Fred can get a better job is not certain. We didnt know Billy would jump. Can you tell me if Fred is here? The truth is Billy was not very smart. The question is whether other boys will try the same thing. Billy didnt listen to what Mary said. He wants to learn about whatever is interesting. He is happy that he is learning English. We are all afraid that the final exam will be difficult.

76 | P a g e

2.2.

Adjective Clause.

An adjective clause is a dependent clause which takes the place of an adjective in another clause or phrase. Like an adjective, an adjective clause modifies a noun or pronoun. The words used in adjective clause include who, which, that, whose, whom, where, and when. Adjective clauses can be restrictive or nonrestrictive. A restrictive adjective clause contains information that is necessary to identify the noun it modifies. If a restrictive adjective clause is removed from a sentence, the meaning of the main clause changes. A restrictive adjective clause is not separated from the main clause by a comma or commas. Most adjective clauses are restrictive; all of the examples of adjective clauses above are restrictive. For example: People who cant swim should not jump into the ocean. A nonrestrictive adjective clause gives additional information about the noun it modifies but is not necessary to identify that noun. If a nonrestrictive adjective clause is removed from a sentence, the meaning of the main clause does not change. A nonrestrictive adjective clause is separated from the main clause by a comma or commas. The relative pronoun that cannot be used in nonrestrictive adjective clauses. The relative pronoun cannot be omitted from a nonrestrictive clause. For example: Billy, who couldnt swim, should not have jumped into the ocean. Illustration 42. Adjective Clause

Several examples of adjective clause are: People who are living in glass houses should not throw stones. Mary applied for a job that was advertised in the paper. The building where he works is new. The girl whose mother won the lottery is excited. Yesterday I met rina to whom I fell in love with two years ago.

77 | P a g e

2.3.

Adverb Clause

An adverb clause (also known as an adverbial clause) begins with a subordinating conjunction (such as if, when, because, although) and includes a subject and a predicate. Like a single-word adverb, an adverbial clause describes a verb (in the sentence's main clause). Adverb clause may give explanation about place (where), time (when), cause (why), purpose (why), concession (why unexpected), or condition (what circumstance). There some subordinative conjunction often used in adverb clause. Those conjunctions define time, place, cause and effect, contrast, and condition. Time: after, before, when, while, as, by the time, whenever, since, until, as soon as, once, as long as Place: where, in which, on which Cause and Effect: because, now that, as, as long as, in as much as, so (that), in order that Contrast: although, even though, though, whereas, while Condition: if, unless, only if, whether or not, even if, providing (that), provided (that), in case, in the event (that) Illustration 43. Adverb Clause

Several examples of adverb clause are: After he took lessons, George could swim well. Billy drowned because he couldnt swim. Although he isnt interested in food, Fred works as a cook. You must practice if you want to write well. Although Jay has a Master's degree, he works as a store clerk.

78 | P a g e

2.4.

Reduced Adjective Clause

Adjective clauses can be reduced to phrases. The relative pronoun must be the subject of the verb in the adjective clause. Adjective clauses can be reduced to phrases in two different ways depending on the verb in the adjective clause. The first one is by substituting the relative pronoun of the adjective clause with bare V-ing for the predicate (for active meaning sentence). The second option is by substituting the relative pronoun of the adjective clause with bare V3 (past participle form of verb) (for passive meaning sentence). Illustration 44. Reduced Adjective Clause Clause

Other examples of reduced adjective clause are displayed below: Children playing in the streets may get run over. STAN students attending DINAMIKA program must register by Friday. Students not practicing their English during class time today will be punished. The plane leaving at 6:03 was delayed today. All the students wishing for a better grade are here studying hard. The students waiting for their funding from the government were disappointed. The books lying on the floor are mine. I can't find my notebook containing all my addresses. She has never met the lecturer leading today's seminar.

79 | P a g e

CHAPTER REVIEW EXERCISE Provide the correct answer based on the information given! 1. What time is it? I would like to know _______ . 2. Why dont they like go dancing? _______ is a mystery. 3. Who left open the door of the car? He doesnt saw ________ . 4. Who is the lady in the black dress? I wonder to know __________ . 5. Whose car is this? Does he know __________ ? 6. What time did the flight arrive? She would like to know __________ . 7. How much cost the T-shirt? Tom didnt ask __________ . 8. Which one is the capital of India? __________ was the question that the teacher made. 9. When is mothers day? Melissa doesnt remember __________ . 10. Why she couldnt take the bus on time? Her mother can understand __________ . Provide your own words to complete the sentences! 1. I feel that __________ . 2. I wonder if __________ . 3. You are lucky that __________ . 4. It is a fact that __________ . 5. I doubt that __________ . 6. I am worried that __________ . 7. I don't know if __________ . 8. I am amazed that __________ .

80 | P a g e

Choose the best answer! 1. I took my car to the garage. My husband asked me where ________. (A) is my car (B) my car was (C) my car is (D) was my car (E) is your car? 2. The old lady must have a lot of cats. I don't know how many ________ . (A) cats does she have (B) does she has cats (C) she has cats (D) cats she has (E) cats has she 3. Do you know ____________ from the earth? I have no idea. (A) how far the moon is (B) how far is the moon (C) how the moon is far (D) if how far the moon is (E) whether how is the moon far 4. Your brother is playing his music too loud. I can't hear what ___________ . (A) is saying your brother (B) that your brother is saying (C) is saying your brother (D) your brother is saying (E) your brother says 5. When I left home, my uncle gave me advice. He said __________ give up. (A) I shouldn't (B) that shouldn't (C) don't (D) that I don't (E) no 6. Jill didn't want to go there. Her husband insisted that _________ with him. (A) she come (B) she came (C) she had come (D) she comes (E) she has come

81 | P a g e

7. My boss wants this report immediately. He demanded that it _________ ready by 5:00. (A) is (B) will be (C) be (D) was (E) should be 8. Did he tell you where __________ the report when you finish? (A) should you put (B) you to put (C) you put (D) to put (E) will you put 9. My friend predicted _____________ receive a lot of praise for my work. (A) that I would (B) that I (C) what would I (D) what I (E) that I will 10. My friend saw an accident. He told me ____________ at the scene of the accident. (A) if he'd seen (B) what he saw (C) what he'd seen (D) whether he saw (E) that he'd seen 11. Is it true that all movies will be available online? _______ is wonderful! (A) That all movies will be available (B) All movies will be available (C) Due to the fact that all movies will be available (D) It is that all movies will be available (E) Being available all movies 12. Can you tell me how to fix my computer? That depends on ____________ an old computer. (A) have you (B) whether you have (C) that have you (D) if have you (E) about your having

82 | P a g e

CHAPTER GERUND & INFINITIVE

10

Special Instructional Objectives : Students are expected to acknowledge, comprehend, and apply the basic and advance rules of Gerund & Infinitive in their daily oral and written english activities and be able to master all related exercises to measure their understanding about the materials.

A. Introduction Both gerunds and infinitives can be nouns, which mean they can do just about anything that a noun can do. Although they name things, like other nouns, they normally name activities rather than people or objects. Gerunds and infinitives can function as subject and object. They can also follow some expressions and adjective. Below are given examples of the using of gerunds and infinitives. Reading helps you learn English. The best thing for your health is not smoking. She wants to go to a movie. Mary needs to talk about her problems. I decided not to go. The most important thing is not to give up. I saw him going up the stairs. We had problems finding our way back home. Its easier to swim downstream.

The discussion about gerunds and infinitives mostly deal with the verbs, adjective, or expression related to them. There are some words which can only be followed by gerunds, some can only be followed by infinitives, but some other words can be followed by either gerunds or infinitives. However, sometimes for the words followed by either gerunds or infinitives, there are differences in the meanings.

83 | P a g e

B. Gerund Gerund may function as subject and object. It may also follow adjective, preposition, and noun. Gerund is always singular and is followed by third person singular singular form of the verb when it is placed as subject. It is also common to find gerund following go expression. Since gerund is a noun, it can also be placed as object of possesive adjective pronoun. Illustration 45. Gerund

List of the verbs followed by gerunds are: admit avoid complete detest endure forgive mention practice recollect resent tolerate advise cant bear consider discontinue enjoy imagine mind propose recommend resist understand anticipate cant help delay discuss feel like justify miss quit regret risk appreciate celebrate deny dislike finish keep postpone recall report suggest

84 | P a g e

List of preposition combinations followed by gerunds are: (be) excited about dream about/of apologize for have an excuse for thank (someone) for prohibit (one) from (be) interested in (be) accused of (be) guilty of take care of (be) accustomed to (be) devoted to (be) opposed to (be) worried about talk about/of blame (someone) for have a reason for keep (someone) from stop (someone) from participate in (be) capable of instead of (be) tired of in addition to look forward to (be) used to complain about/of think about/of forgive (someone) for (be) responsible for prevent (someone) from believe in succeed in for the purpose of take advantage of insist on (be) committed to object to

Some expressions followed by gerund are: have fun/a good time have a hard time/difficult time waste + time expression/money stand + place expression find + pronoun have trouble/difficulty spend + time expression/money sit + place expression lie + place expression catch + pronoun

There are some expression with go followed by gerund which include: go boating go fishing go sailing go skiing go bowling go hiking go shopping go skydiving go camping go jogging go sightseeing go swimming go dancing go running go skating

85 | P a g e

C. Infinitive Infinitive (to + V1) can be used both as subject and object. There are some verbs that can be followed by an infinitive directly but there are also some other verbs which need an object before the infinitive. To form the negative infinitive, simply place not before the infinitive. However, the most important thing to remember is that the negative infinitive sentence may have a very different meaning from a sentence with a negative main verb. Illustration 46. Infinitive

List of the verbs followed by infinitive are: afford attempt claim fail learn offer promise struggle wish agree beg decide grow manage pay refuse swear yearn appear care demand hesitate mean plan request volunteer arrange choose deserve hope need prepare regret wait ask consent expect hurry neglect pretend seem want

List of verbs followed by Pronoun + Infinitive are below: advise challenge force order allow convince hire permit ask dare instruct persuade beg encourage invite remind cause forbid need urge

86 | P a g e

List of common adjectives followed by infinitive are below: glad to relieved to upset to prepared to determined to likely to shocked to happy to lucky to proud to anxious to careful to certain to stunned to pleased to delighted to content to sad to

fortunate to sorry to ready to eager to hesitant to

ashamed to disappointed to willing to reluctant to motivated to afraid to astonished to

surprised to amazed to

List of verbs that can be followed either by gerund or infinitive are: attempt continue like start begin forget love stop bother go on prefer try cant stand hate regret cease intend remember

List of Perceptive Verbs (verbs that can be followed either by gerund or bare infinitive (without to-) are: see listen to notice feel watch smell look at taste observe overhear hear

87 | P a g e

CHAPTER REVIEW EXERCISE Put Gerund, Infinitive, or Bare Infinitive to replace the word in the bracket! 1. I can't imagine Peter (go) by bike. 2. He agreed (buy) a new car. 3. The question is easy (answer). 4. The man asked me how (get) to the airport. 5. I look forward to (see) you at the weekend. 6. Are you thinking of (visit) London? 7. We decided (run) through the forest. 8. The teacher expected Sarah (study) hard. 9. She doesn't mind (work) the night shift. 10. I learned (ride) the bike at the age of 5. 11. We decided (buy) a new car. 12. They've got some work (do). 13. Peter gave up (smoke) . 14. He'd like (fly) an aeroplane. 15. I enjoy (write) picture postcards. 16. Martha asked me if I fancied(go) to the party. 17. The principal ordered him(stop) (shout). 18. The man threatened (crash) the vase. 19. I cannot delay(write) to him any longer. 20. He keeps(complain) about different things. 21. I regret(not/tell) you earlier. 22. As soon as they had finished (eat) they went to school. 23. I just cannot (persuade) him(tell) the truth. 24. You need not(urge) us (do) it. 25. I absolutely adore (play) the piano. 26. He really desires(go) to that country. 27. I will manage(persuade) him (come) 28. All of us would prefer (speak) to each other more than (write) a test.

88 | P a g e

Put Gerund, Infinitive, or Bare Infinitive to replace the word in the bracket! 1. After a short break they will resume (work). 2. I can (swim) very well. 3. I will not forget (send) your letter. 4. They plan (finish) (build) the ground floor this week. 5. I want (talk) to you. 6. I cant help(cry). I am very sad. 7. I will help you (explain) your parents what has happened. 8. They cannot (postpone) (get) married. 9. I have already warned you (not/do) it ever again. 10. I will better choose (not/go). Complete the text with either Gerund or Infinitive! Yuri was in his first year at university, studying History. He was rather a lazy student, and he tended to avoid (work) whenever he could. In the middle of the semester, his history professor gave out an assignment, due in two weeks. Yuri intended (do) the assignment, but he postponed (write) it for a week. The following week, he forgot (do) it. The night before the assignment was due, he suddenly remembered it, and rushed to the library. He tried (read) as much as possible on the topic, but there wasn't enough time. Yuri considered (ask) for more time to do his paper, but the History professor was known to be very tough on students, so finally he decided (cheat) and copy his paper from

somewhere else. He found an old article on the same topic, and quickly typed it out. The next day, he submitted the paper. The following week, he was alarmed (see) the professor approaching him, looking angry. "Is this your own work, or did you copy it?" asked the professor. Yuri denied (copy) the paper. "If you expect me (believe) that, you must be very stupid," said the

professor. "Every word is taken from an article I wrote myself five years ago. Did you really think I would forget (write) it?"

89 | P a g e

CHAPTER PARAGRAPH WRITING

11

Special Instructional Objectives : Students are expected to acknowledge, comprehend, and apply the basic and advance rules of Paragraph Writing in their daily written english activities and be able to write a short structurized paragraph based on the given topics to measure their understanding about the materials.

A. Introduction A paragraph is a self-contained unit of a discourse in writing dealing with a particular point or idea. A paragraph consists of several sentences that are grouped together. This group of sentences together discusses one main subject. In an essay, each paragraph explains or demonstrates a key point or thought of the central idea, usually to inform or persuade. In fiction, each paragraph serves to advance the plot, develop a character, describe a scene or narrate an actionall to entertain the reader. All paragraphs support each other, leading the reader from the first idea to the final resolution of the written work. Basically, a paragraph has three principal parts. These three parts are the topic sentence, body sentences, and the concluding sentence. A topic sentence usually comes at the beginning of a paragraph; that is, it is usually the first sentence in a formal academic paragraph. Not only is a topic sentence the first sentence of a paragraph, but, more importantly, it is the most general sentence in a paragraph. It means that there are not many details in the sentence, but that the sentence introduces an overall idea that you want to discuss later in the paragraph. When a reader reads a topic sentence, there must be a possibility that questions exist. The second part of a paragraph, the supporting sentences, will elaborate the whole idea to back up the topic sentences with all posible answers to the questions. They are called "supporting" because they "support," or explain, the idea expressed in the topic sentence.

90 | P a g e

In formal paragraphs, sometimes exists a sentence at the end of the paragraph which summarizes the information that has been presented. It is known as the

concluding sentence. It is acceptable to consider concluding sentence as a sort of topic sentence in reverse. Not all academic paragraphs contain concluding sentences, especially if the paragraph is very short. However, if the paragraph is very long, it is a good idea to use a concluding sentence. In addition to having a particular kind of structure, academic paragraphs are different from "ordinary writing" (such as letter writing). There are certain kinds of expressions which are not allowed to be used. For example, in formal essays,

contractions such as don't or aren't is prohibited. Instead, most of the words are written in full, for example, do not and are not. Table 15. Languange Choices in Writing

INFORMAL (Common) don't doesn't aren't weren't can't couldn't won't

I, my, you, d like Id been The woman you are talking about is my boss. Neither of the answers are correct. Im really into hockey. Psychobabble is a bunch of crap that confuses people.

FORMAL (Acceptable) do not does not are not were not cannot could not will not
the writer, the writers would like the writer had been The woman about whom you are talking is my boss. Neither of the answers is correct. I really enjoy hockey. Psychobabble is a set of repetitive verbal formalities that obfuscates the lucidity of comprehension it feigns to advance.

The use of first and second person in formal essays must also be avoided. That is, do not use the pronouns I or you. The pronouns we and us are sometimes used in formal essays in some major fields, but in general they should not be applied unless it is certain that they are customary in the field and/or allowed by the report supervisor. It is safer to simply use the third person.

91 | P a g e

B. Writing A Good Paragraph There are several things to be remembered in writing a paragraph, a good and "readable" paragraph. Those are not compulsory things, yet wise things to keep in mind to practice and master a good writing skill. Some of them are: There are no hard-and-fast rules for how long a paragraph should be. Instead, make sure there are natural breaks. Each paragraph should contain one main idea and whatever writing supports it; If a paragraph looks like it is getting too long, it may be rephrased or separated into two new ones; The most important thing to remember is that the essay or article is already interesting. Let the interest shines through in the writing; Adjust the writing to its purpose. The paragraph should be written in a style that suits initial aim; Simply leave out things that are not related or relevant to the paragraph; Spelling and grammatical errors can detract from even the most well-planned writing. Use a spell-checker or ask someone to read the work should there be any hesitation; Learning what a paragraph is by experience will train the ability to divide writing in appropriate parts by feel; Format the paragraphs appropriately and consistently;

Some steps below may also be an option to start practicing writing. Follow the points and never stop trying to write other new things. Determine the purpose of the paragraph. This is the most important part. The paragraph should communicate what the writer wishes to say or explain. Strictly differ the type of writing which is going to be taken to precautiosly apply the appropriate language and words. Start the paragraph with the main idea. Asking a question is a good way to draw readers in. It may also state a general statement and give details to back it up or expand on the point. The main idea could be stated using one of the four types of sentences.

92 | P a g e

 Develop the idea further in the next few sentences. Go into more detail on one or two aspects mentioned in the opening paragraph. Try not to cover more than one or two main ideas in each paragraph. As the writing continues, address each new idea or group of ideas in a new paragraph. Start each paragraph with a topic sentence and build it with supporting sentences. Use transition words to show the relationship of different ideas in your writing. Transition words can a good help to compare and contrast, show sequence, show cause and effect, highlight important ideas, and progress smoothly from one idea to the next. Vary the structure of the sentences. Tie together any loose ends in a final, concluding sentence. Reread and proofread the writing. Change it if it does not say what it is intended. Practice! Like any process, writing paragraphs gets easier as the trials go more of it.

93 | P a g e

CHAPTER REVIEW EXERCISE Decide which paragraph shows more focus in its sentence development and provide the reasons and evidences! 1. When I first brought my cat home from the humane society she was a mangy, pitiful animal. It cost a lot to adopt her: forty dollars. And then I had to buy litter, a litterbox, food, and dishes for her to eat out of. Two days after she came home with me she got taken to the pound by the animal warden. There's a leash law for cats in Fort Collins. If they're not in your yard they have to be on a leash. Anyway, my cat is my best friend. I'm glad I got her. She sleeps under the covers with me when it's cold. Sometimes she meows a lot in the middle of the night and wakes me up, though. 2. When I first brought my cat home from the Humane Society she was a mangy, pitiful animal. She was so thin that you could count her vertebrae just by looking at her. Apparently she was declawed by her previous owners, then abandoned or lost. Since she couldn't hunt, she nearly starved. Not only that, but she had an abscess on one hip. The vets at the Humane Society had drained it, but it was still scabby and without fur. She had a terrible cold, too. She was sneezing and sniffling and her meow was just a hoarse squeak. And she'd lost half her tail somewhere. Instead of tapering gracefully, it had a bony knob at the end. Decide which paragraph shows stronger coherence in its sentence development and provide the reasons and evidences! 1. For me, the worst thing about waiting tables is the uniform. All the waitresses had to wear this ugly brown striped jumper. The shirts were polyester. Sometimes someone you know comes in. Now I have a job in an office. 2. For me, the worst thing about waiting tables was the uniform. At the last place I worked, all the waitresses had to wear an ugly brown striped jumper. Underneath it we had to wear an even uglier polyester shirt. Sometimes someone I knew would come in and I'd feel embarrassed by my outfit. Now I have a job in an office, where I can wear my own clothes.

94 | P a g e

Give a brief description / explanation / interpretation to each image with your own words in a paragraph with the minimum of 100 words!

95 | P a g e

SUPPLEMENT READING COMPREHENSION

A. Reading 1 ACCOUNTANCY Accountancy is the process of communicating financial information about a business entity to users such as shareholders and managers. The communication is generally in the form of financial statements that show in money terms the economic resources under the control of management; the art lies in selecting the information that is relevant to the user and is reliable. Accountancy is a branch of mathematical science that is useful in discovering the causes of success and failure in business. The principles of accountancy are applied to business entities in three divisions of practical art, named accounting, bookkeeping, and auditing. Accounting is defined by the American Institute of Certified Public Accountants (AICPA) as "the art of recording, classifying, and summarizing in a significant manner and in terms of money, transactions and events which are, in part at least, of financial character, and interpreting the results thereof." Accounting is thousands of years old; the earliest accounting records, which date back more than 7,000 years, were found in Mesopotamia (Assyrians). The people of that time relied on primitive accounting methods to record the growth of crops and herds. Accounting evolved, improving over the years and advancing as business advanced. Early accounts served mainly to assist the memory of the businessperson and the audience for the account was the proprietor or record keeper alone. Cruder forms of accounting were inadequate for the problems created by a business entity involving multiple investors, so double-entry bookkeeping first emerged in northern Italy in the 14th century, where trading ventures began to require more capital than a single individual was able to invest.

96 | P a g e

The development of joint stock companies created wider audiences for accounts, as investors without firsthand knowledge of their operations relied on accounts to provide the requisite information. This development resulted in a split of accounting systems for internal (i.e. management accounting) and external (i.e. financial accounting) purposes, and subsequently also in accounting and disclosure regulations and a growing need for independent attestation of external accounts by auditors. Today, accounting is called "the language of business" because it is the vehicle for reporting financial information about a business entity to many different groups of people. Accounting that concentrates on reporting to people inside the business entity is called management accounting and is used to provide information to employees, managers, owner-managers and auditors. Management accounting is concerned primarily with providing a basis for making management or operating decisions. Accounting that provides information to people outside the business entity is called financial accounting and provides information to present and potential shareholders, creditors such as banks or vendors, financial analysts, economists, and government agencies. Because these users have different needs, the presentation of financial accounts is very structured and subject to many more rules than management accounting. The body of rules that governs financial accounting is called Generally Accepted Accounting Principles, or GAAP. (Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accounting )

Questions: 1. How does communication take form in Accountancy? 2. What is the core connection between accountancy and math as science? 3. How was the earlier journey of Accountancy concerning the trading ventures issue? 4. What is the main cause of the creation of the term the language of business for Accountancy? 5. What is the primary distinction between management and financial accounting?

97 | P a g e

B. Reading 2 ECONOMICS Economics is the social science that analyzes the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services. The term economics comes from the Ancient Greek (oikonomia, "management of a household, administration") from (oikos, "house") + (nomos, "custom" or "law"), hence "rules of the house(hold)". Current economic models emerged from the broader field of political economy in the late 19th century. A primary stimulus for the development of modern economics was the desire to use an empirical approach more akin to the physical sciences. Economics aims to explain how economies work and how economic agents interact. Economic analysis is applied throughout society, in business, finance and government, but also in crime, education, the family, health, law, politics, religion, social institutions, war, and science. The expanding domain of economics in the social sciences has been described as economic imperialism. Common distinctions are drawn between various dimensions of economics. The primary textbook distinction is between microeconomics, which examines the behavior of basic elements in the economy, including individual markets and agents (such as consumers and firms, buyers and sellers), and macroeconomics, which addresses issues affecting an entire economy, including unemployment, inflation, economic growth, and monetary and fiscal policy. Other distinctions include: between positive economics (describing "what is") and normative economics (advocating "what ought to be"); between economic theory and applied economics; between mainstream economics (more "orthodox" dealing with the "rationality-individualismequilibrium nexus") and heterodox economics (more "radical" dealing with the "institutions-history-social structure nexus"); and between rational and behavioral economics. Economic writings date from earlier Mesopotamian, Greek, Roman, Indian, Chinese, Persian, and Arab civilizations. Notable writers from antiquity through to the 14th century include Aristotle, Xenophon, Chanakya (also known as Kautilya), Qin Shi Huang, Thomas Aquinas, and Ibn Khaldun.

98 | P a g e

The works of Aristotle had a profound influence on Aquinas, who in turn influenced the late scholastics of the 14th to 17th centuries. Joseph Schumpeter described the latter as "coming nearer than any other group to being the 'founders' of scientific economics" as to monetary, interest, and value theory within a natural-law perspective. Two groups, later called 'mercantilists' and 'physiocrats', more directly influenced the subsequent development of the subject. Both groups were associated with the rise of economic nationalism and modern capitalism in Europe. Mercantilism was an economic doctrine that flourished from the 16th to 18th century in a prolific pamphlet literature, whether of merchants or statesmen. It held that a nation's wealth depended on its accumulation of gold and silver. Nations without access to mines could obtain gold and silver from trade only by selling goods abroad and restricting imports other than of gold and silver. The doctrine called for importing cheap raw materials to be used in manufacturing goods, which could be exported, and for state regulation to impose protective tariffs on foreign manufactured goods and prohibit manufacturing in the colonies. Physiocrats, a group of 18th century French thinkers and writers, developed the idea of the economy as a circular flow of income and output. Physiocrats believed that only agricultural production generated a clear surplus over cost, so that agriculture was the basis of all wealth. Thus, they opposed the mercantilist policy of promoting manufacturing and trade at the expense of agriculture, including import tariffs. Physiocrats advocated replacing administratively costly tax collections with a single tax on income of land owners. In reaction against copious mercantilist trade regulations, the physiocrats advocated a policy of laissez-faire, which called for minimal government intervention in the economy. Modern economic analysis is customarily said to have begun with Adam Smith (17231790). Smith was harshly critical of the mercantilists but described the physiocratic system "with all its imperfections" as "perhaps the purest approximation to the truth that has yet been published" on the subject.

99 | P a g e

Smith discusses the benefits of the specialization by division of labour. His "theorem" that "the division of labor is limited by the extent of the market" has been described as the "core of a theory of the functions of firm and industry" and a "fundamental principle of economic organization." To Smith has also been ascribed "the most important substantive proposition in all of economics" and foundation of resource-allocation theory that, under competition, owners of resources (labor, land, and capital) will use them most profitably, resulting in an equal rate of return in equilibrium for all uses (adjusted for apparent differences arising from such factors as training and unemployment). In Smith's view, the ideal economy is a self-regulating market system that automatically satisfies the economic needs of the populace. He described the market mechanism as an "invisible hand" that leads all individuals, in pursuit of their own self- interests, to produce the greatest benefit for society as a whole. Smith incorporated some of the Physiocrats' ideas, including laissez-faire, into his own economic theories, but rejected the idea that only agriculture was productive. In his famous invisible-hand analogy, Smith argued for the seemingly paradoxical notion that competitive markets tended to advance broader social interests, although driven by narrower self-interest. The general approach that Smith helped initiate was called political economy and later classical economics. It included such notables as Thomas Malthus, David Ricardo, and John Stuart Mill writing from about 1770 to 1870. The period from 1815 to 1845 was one of the richest in the history of economic thought. While Adam Smith emphasized the production of income, David Ricardo focused on the distribution of income among landowners, workers, and capitalists. Ricardo saw an inherent conflict between landowners on the one hand and labor and capital on the other. He posited that the growth of population and capital, pressing against a fixed supply of land, pushes up rents and holds down wages and profits. Thomas Robert Malthus used the idea of diminishing returns to explain low living standards. Human population, he argued, tended to increase geometrically, outstripping the production of food, which increased arithmetically. The force of a rapidly growing population against a limited amount of land meant diminishing returns to labor.

100 | P a g e

The result, he claimed, was chronically low wages, which prevented the standard of living for most of the population from rising above the subsistence level. Malthus also questioned the automatic tendency of a market economy to produce full employment. He blamed unemployment upon the economy's tendency to limit its spending by saving too much, a theme that lay forgotten until John Maynard Keynes revived it in the 1930s. Coming at the end of the Classical tradition, John Stuart Mill parted company with the earlier classical economists on the inevitability of the distribution of income produced by the market system. Mill pointed to a distinct difference between the market's two roles: allocation of resources and distribution of income. The market might be efficient in allocating resources but not in distributing income, he wrote, making it necessary for society to intervene. (Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economics )

Questions: 1. Where did the term economics originally come from? 2. What does economics basically elaborate? 3. What were the core ideas stated by the Physiocrats? 4. Why did the Smiths era of scientific argument noted as the era of economics? 5. Who was considered as the most rival to Smiths theory?

101 | P a g e

C. Reading 3 TECHNOLOGY IN ACCOUNTING TODAY Information technology seems to be the buzzword today. Ever since the introduction of the personal computer, it has done a great job of taking the world by storm, and businesses have adapted it, transferring their paper records to computer hard drives. It is not uncommon for accounting graduates these days to have a deep background in certain office suites such as Excel, Word, and even Access. It's almost essential for those in accounting jobs to have these skills, especially considering the number of records that are being kept in programs like Excel. The thing is: Excel isn't a program that you can just pick up and learn. It can sometimes take years of practice to actually get the hang of it, as there are all kinds of intricate commands and functions, some of which can actually involve visual basic scripting. Accounting careers have definitely become more complicated, but they just get more complicated as you work your way up the corporate ladder. While moving upward used to just be dependent on business knowledge and the ability to speak, now you need all of that, and the ability to work some of the more complicated systems. One of these systems is SAP, a piece of database software that many companies use to keep track of their expenses, employee records, and compliance information. It is important for those in accounting careers to know that SAP is not an easy program to operate. While you don't need to be able to code it, you do need to be able to extract data from it and be able to get work done. On top of that, you're going to need to know more than just the basics of the computer, you're going to need to have an in-depth information about how it works, that way your work flow won't be interrupted if something happens to go wrong. Fortunately there are many different technology related courses you can take in order to be up to speed. There are SAP certification tests and courses which can be taken as well, and these will definitely make you more promotable within a company. On top of that, they will actually make you essential to the company as most of those in clerk jobs are not SAP certified, or at least not to a huge extent.

102 | P a g e

Now that you know what it takes to be successful in clerk jobs and accounting jobs these days, you need to act on it. You can do this by learning everything you can, regarding technology, making sure that you focus on database software. To add to this, you need to fill out your resume in a manner that highlights your computer skills along with your accounting skills. As always, make sure that you have an attractive cover letter which tells your employer what type of resume he's about to look at. With any luck you will get the employer excited, which is almost a guarantee that you'll get the job, so long as the excitement doesn't stop after the first line of the resume. There are plenty of accounting careers out there, just make sure that you're prepared to get the one you want, and you can prepare by learning as much as humanly possible! (Source: http://www.accountingcrossing.com)

Questions: 1. Why is it so important to master information technology for accounting professionals? 2. According to the text how does accounting become more complicated nowadays? 3. What do you know about SAP? 4. Why are accounting professionals demanded to know much about computer? 5. According to the text above, what are the elegant manners of impressing employers?

103 | P a g e

D. Reading 4 CORPORATE FINANCE Corporate Finance is the field of finance dealing with financial decisions that business enterprises make and the tools and analysis used to make these decisions. The primary goal of corporate finance is to maximize corporate value while

managing the firm's financial risks. Although it is in principle different from managerial finance which studies the financial decisions of all firms, rather than corporations alone, the main concepts in the study of corporate finance are applicable to the financial problems of all kinds of firms. The discipline can be divided into long-term and short-term decisions and techniques. Capital investment decisions are long-term choices about which projects receive investment, whether to finance that investment with equity or debt, and when or whether to pay dividends to shareholders. On the other hand, short term decisions deal with the short-term balance of current assets and current liabilities; the focus here is on managing cash, inventories, and short-term borrowing and lending (such as the terms on credit extended to customers). The terms corporate finance and corporate financier are also associated with investment banking. The typical role of an investment bank is to evaluate the company's financial needs and raise the appropriate type of capital that best fits those needs. Thus, the terms corporate finance and corporate financier may be associated with transactions in which capital is raised in order to create, develop, grow or acquire businesses. Achieving the goals of corporate finance requires that any corporate investment be financed appropriately. As above, since both hurdle rate and cash flows (and hence the riskiness of the firm) will be affected, the financing mix can impact the valuation. Management must therefore identify the "optimal mix" of financingthe capital structure that results in maximum value. The sources of financing will, generically, comprise some combination of debt and equity financing. Financing a project through debt results in a liability or obligation that must be serviced, thus entailing cash flow implications independent of the project's degree of success.

104 | P a g e

Equity financing is less risky with respect to cash flow commitments, but results in a dilution of share ownership, control and earnings. The cost of equity is also typically higher than the cost of debt, and so equity financing may result in an increased hurdle rate which may offset any reduction in cash flow risk. One of the main theories of how firms make their financing decisions is the Pecking Order Theory, which suggests that firms avoid external financing while they have internal financing available and avoid new equity financing while they can engage in new debt financing at reasonably low interest rates. Another major theory is the Trade-Off Theory in which firms are assumed to trade-off the tax benefits of debt with the bankruptcy costs of debt when making their decisions. An emerging area in finance theory is right-financing whereby investment banks and corporations can enhance investment return and company value over time by determining the right investment objectives, policy framework, institutional structure, source of financing (debt or equity) and expenditure framework within a given economy and under given market conditions. One last theory about this decision is the Market timing hypothesis which states that firms look for the cheaper type of financing regardless of their current levels of internal resources, debt and equity. (Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corporate_finance )

Questions: 1. What do you know about corporate finance? 2. Hows the procedure of capital investment decisions? 3. What is the function of studies the financial decisions? 4. According to the text above, what are the elegant manners of corporate finance and corporate financier? 5. What is the major theory of the Trade-Off Theory?

105 | P a g e

E. Reading 5 PUBLIC FINANCE The proper role of government provides a starting point for the analysis of public finance. In theory, under certain circumstances private markets will allocate goods and services among individuals efficiently (in the sense that no waste occurs and that individual tastes are matching with the economy's productive abilities). If private markets were able to provide efficient outcomes and if the distribution of income were socially acceptable, then there would be little or no scope for government. National defense is one example of non-rival consumption, or of a public good. "Market failure" occurs when private markets do not allocate goods or services efficiently. The existence of market failure provides an efficiency-based rationale for collective or governmental provision of goods and services. Externalities, public goods, informational advantages, strong economies of scale, and network effects can cause market failures. Public provision via a government or a voluntary association, however, is subject to other inefficiencies, termed "government failure." Under broad assumptions, government decisions about the efficient scope and level of activities can be efficiently separated from decisions about the design of taxation systems (Diamond-Mirlees separation). In this view, public sector programs should be designed to maximize social benefits minus costs (cost-benefit analysis), and then revenues needed to pay for those expenditures should be raised through a taxation system that creates the fewest efficiency losses caused by distortion of economic activity as possible. In practice, government budgeting or public budgeting is substantially more complicated and often results in inefficient practices. Government can pay for spending by borrowing (for example, with government bonds), although borrowing is a method of distributing tax burdens through time rather than a replacement for taxes. A deficit is the difference between government spending and revenues. The accumulation of deficits over time is the total public debt. Deficit finance allows governments to smooth tax burdens over time, and gives governments an important fiscal policy tool. Deficits can also narrow the options of successor governments.

106 | P a g e

Public finance is closely connected to issues of income distribution and social equity. Governments can reallocate income through transfer payments or by designing tax systems that treat high-income and low-income households differently. The Public Choice approach to public finance seeks to explain how self-interested voters, politicians, and bureaucrats actually operate, rather than how they should operate. (Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_finance )

Questions: 1. What is the meaning of Market failure in the text? 2. What are the differences of "Market failure" and Government failure? 3. Why the violation occurred on private market? 4. What the function the deficit finances for government? 5. According to the text above what the meaning of Public Finance?

107 | P a g e

F. Reading 6 MARKET STRUCTURE The market structure definition as proposed by Wikipedia goes as "market structure (also known as market form) describes the state of a market with respect to competition." The product type (homogeneous/ heterogeneous) also plays a significant role in determining the form and extent of competition. Let's take a look at each of these four major types of market structure one by one. Perfect Competition: A perfect competition market structure is characterized by the presence of an infinite number of buyers of homogeneous products and an equally infinite number of sellers. The price of such a product is decided by the automatic demand-supply mechanism. The price of the product would be fixed at such a price at which the buyer can willingly afford to purchase the product and the seller is willing to supply the product. Therefore, the point of intersection of the demand and supply curves that denotes the point of equilibrium between the two is taken as the price of the product. Monopoly: This market structure is characterized by the presence of a single seller or manufacturing enterprise for a single product that lacks any close substitute, thereby ruling out any sort of competition. The number of buyers is large and due to the fact that a single seller holds monopoly of production and supply of a particular product which has no close substitute, the price of such a product is determined by the seller and the buyers have no other option but to agree to pay such a price if they wish to procure that product. Chief among all characteristics of monopoly is the absence of an alternative product or supplier for the buyer. Present day monopoly market structure examples include SAQ (Socit des alcools du Qubec) and LIPA (Long Island Power Authority). Monopolistic Competition: This is a form of imperfect competition where there are many sellers and many buyers but the product in question is neither homogeneous nor heterogeneous - each seller differentiates the same product a bit, say, add or remove a feature, so as to influence the price. This is where customized products come into picture.

108 | P a g e

Say, for instance, there are 5 firms selling bathing soap. Firm #1 sells a moisturizing soap for dry skin, Firm #2 sells astringent soap for oily skin, Firm #3 sells antiseptic soap, Firm #4 sells anti-pimple soap and Firm #5 sells exfoliating soap. Each of these firms uses the same basic material that is used for soap in their products but each adds a different feature to it in order to suit the needs of different customers. This way, although the price of each firm's offering differs from the others, each firm manages to have its own share of customers in the market. Oligopoly: The oligopoly market structure is characterized by the presence of a few suppliers or sellers to fulfill the demands of a large number of buyers. In this market setup, we can see various competitive tactics by these few suppliers to attract maximum customers towards their product. Such tactics, the visible oligopoly characteristics, may include manipulating the marketing mix in such a way as to outstrip the marketing efforts and revenue earnings of the other competitors. Price wars and promotional battles are common in an oligopolistic market structure. Market Structure
Perfect Competition Monopoly Monopolistic Competition Oligopoly

Number of Suppliers
Infinite One Many Few

Price Influencing Power

None Absolute Somewhat Limited Owing to Competition

Product Type
Homogeneous Unique Product, No Close Substitutes Differentiated Homogeneous/ Differentiated

Market Entry Barriers

None Extremely High Somewhat Low Somewhat High

Basis of Competition
Price No Competition Product Attributes Price, Product Attributes, Promotion, etc.

That was a simplified overview of the major types of market structure, complete with a comparative analysis of their mutual differences. While perfectly competitive set ups (also known as pure competition) do not exit in reality and it is indeed a hypothetical situation, examples of the other three forms can be seen all around the world. For instance, newspaper, gas, electricity and other public utility vendors exercise absolute monopoly in small towns. Similarly, the automobile, soft drinks, computers and cereal industries fall under oligopoly. Fast food and retail chains make up the monopolistically competitive segment. Hope this concluding example helps you in grasping the essence of each of these market structures. (Source: http://www.buzzle.com/articles/market-structure.html )

109 | P a g e

Questions: 1. Whats the characteristic of the monopoly market? 2. What about the state of the market price on the perfect competition? 3. What is type of goods sold on the market monopoly? 4. Whats distinguished the oligopoly market with the other? 5. What's the equation of the five markets in the text above?

110 | P a g e

G. Reading 7 INTERNATIONAL TRADE International trade is exchange of capital, goods, and services across international borders or territories. In most countries, it represents a significant share of gross domestic product (GDP). While international trade has been present throughout much of history (see Silk Road, Amber Road), its economic, social, and political importance has been on the rise in recent centuries. Industrialization, advanced transportation, globalization, multinational

corporations, and outsourcing are all having a major impact on the international trade system. Increasing international trade is crucial to the continuance of globalization. Without international trade, nations would be limited to the goods and services produced within their own borders. International trade is in principle not different from domestic trade as the motivation and the behavior of parties involved in a trade do not change fundamentally regardless of whether trade is across a border or not. The main difference is that international trade is typically more costly than domestic trade. The reason is that a border typically imposes additional costs such as tariffs, time costs due to border delays and costs associated with country differences such as language, the legal system or culture. Another difference between domestic and international trade is that factors of production such as capital and labour are typically more mobile within a country than across countries. Thus international trade is mostly restricted to trade in goods and services, and only to a lesser extent to trade in capital, labor or other factors of production. Then trade in goods and services can serve as a substitute for trade in factors of production. Instead of importing a factor of production, a country can import goods that make intensive use of the factor of production and are thus embodying the respective factor. An example is the import of labor-intensive goods by the United States from China. Instead of importing Chinese labor the United States is importing goods from China that were produced with Chinese labor.

111 | P a g e

Traditionally trade was regulated through bilateral treaties between two nations. For centuries under the belief in mercantilism most nations had high tariffs and many restrictions on international trade. In the 19th century, especially in the United Kingdom, a belief in free trade became paramount.[citation needed] This belief

became the dominant thinking among western nations since then. In the years since the Second World War, controversial multilateral treaties like the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) and World Trade Organization have attempted to promote free trade while creating a globally regulated trade structure. These trade agreements have often resulted in discontent and protest with claims of unfair trade that is not beneficial to developing countries. Free trade is usually most strongly supported by the most economically powerful nations, though they often engage in selective protectionism for those industries which are strategically important such as the protective tariffs applied to agriculture by the United States and Europe.[citation needed] The Netherlands and the United Kingdom were both strong advocates of free trade when they were economically dominant, today the United States, the United Kingdom, Australia and Japan are its greatest proponents. However, many other countries (such as India, China and Russia) are increasingly becoming advocates of free trade as they become more economically powerful themselves. As tariff levels fall there is also an increasing willingness to negotiate non tariff measures, including foreign direct investment, procurement and trade facilitation.[citation needed] The latter looks at the transaction cost associated with meeting trade and customs procedures. Traditionally agricultural interests are usually in favour of free trade while manufacturing sectors often support protectionism.[citation needed]This has changed somewhat in recent years, however. In fact, agricultural lobbies, particularly in the United States, Europe and Japan, are chiefly responsible for particular rules in the major international trade treaties which allow for more protectionist measures in agriculture than for most other goods and services. During recessions there is often strong domestic pressure to increase tariffs to protect domestic industries. This occurred around the world during the Great Depression. Many economists have attempted to portray tariffs as the underlining reason behind the collapse in world trade that many believe seriously deepened the depression.

112 | P a g e

The regulation of international trade is done through the World Trade Organization at the global level, and through several other regional arrangements such as MERCOSUR in South America, the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) between the United States, Canada and Mexico, and the European Union between 27 independent states. The 2005 Buenos Aires talks on the planned establishment of the Free Trade Area of the Americas (FTAA) failed largely because of opposition from the populations of Latin American nations. Similar agreements such as the Multilateral Agreement on Investment (MAI) have also failed in recent years. Companies doing business across international borders face many of the same risks as would normally be evident in strictly domestic transactions. For example, Buyer insolvency (purchaser cannot pay); Non-acceptance (buyer rejects goods as different from the agreed upon specifications); Credit risk (allowing the buyer to take possession of goods prior to payment); Regulatory risk (e.g., a change in rules that prevents the transaction); Intervention (governmental action to prevent a transaction being completed); Political risk (change in leadership interfering with transactions or prices); and War and other uncontrollable events.

(Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_trade )

Questions: 1. According to the text above what the meaning of International Trade? 2. Whats the meaning of PDB? 3. Whats the difference of international and domestic trade? 4. Whats the function of General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) and World Trade Organization for international trade? 5. Whats the role of Agriculture for International Trade?

113 | P a g e

H. Reading 8 FOREIGN EXCHANGE MARKET The foreign exchange market most often called the forex market, or simply the FX market is the most traded financial market in the world. We like to think of the forex market as the Big Kahuna of financial markets. The forex market is the crossroads for international capital, the intersection through which global commercial and investment flows have to move. International trade flows, such as when a Swiss electronics company purchases Japanese-made components, were the original basis for the development of the forex markets. Today, however, global financial and investment flows dominate trade as the primary non-speculative source of forex market volume. Whether its an Australian pension fund investing in U.S. Treasury bonds, or a British insurer allocating assets to the Japanese equity market, or a German conglomerate purchasing a Canadian manufacturing facility, each cross-border transaction passes through the forex market at some stage. More than anything else, the forex market is a traders market. Its a market thats open around the clock six days a week, enabling traders to act on news and events as they happen. Its a market where half-billion-dollar trades can be executed in a matter of seconds and may not even move prices noticeably. Try buying or selling a half billion of anything in another market and see how prices react. While commercial and financial transactions in the currency markets represent huge nominal sums, they still pale in comparison to amounts based on speculation. By far the vast majority of currency trading volume is based on speculation traders buying and selling for short-term gains based on minute-tominute, hour-to-hour, and day-to-day price fluctuations. Estimates are that upwards of 90 percent of daily trading volume is derived from speculation (meaning, commercial or investment-based FX trades account for less than 10 percent of daily global volume). The depth and breadth of the speculative market means that the liquidity of the overall forex market is unparalleled among global financial markets. The bulk of spot currency trading, about 75 percent by volume, takes place in the so-called major currencies, which represent the worlds largest and most developed economies.

114 | P a g e

Additionally, activity in the forex market frequently functions on a regional currency bloc basis, where the bulk of trading takes place between the USD bloc, JPY bloc, and EUR bloc, representing the three largest global economic regions. (Source: Currency Trading for Dummies )

Questions: 1. Whats the manner of foreign exchange market? 2. According to the text whats the meaning of the Forex market? 3. According to the text above, what are the elegant manners of major currencies? 4. Whats the underlying of currency trading? 5. Theres a term in activity in the forex market currency block. Can you elaborate the term?

115 | P a g e

I.

Reading 9 HEALTH INSURANCE We take a look at the health insurance basics. Types of health insurance,

choosing a plan, and getting a free health insurance quote are covered. Health care costs continue to rise and many people dont have the means to pay for their medical expenses. Those that start out with a healthy savings account and no health insurance, soon find their savings depleted and medical bills mounting. Medical bills are one of the primary sources of debt for American families. When you dont have family health insurance to cover you and your familys medical expenses, your financial life can be ruined in no time. A premium is the amount you (the policy holder) pay each month for health insurance. Its similar to auto and homeowners insurance you pay. The deductible is the amount you have to pay out of pocket before your health insurance covers any expenses. If you have a $1,000 deductible, you will have to pay $1,000 worth of expenses yourself before your insurance pays for anything. Affordable health insurance often has a high deductible. Health insurance providers often require you to make a copayment at the time of service. Your copayment is an addition to the amount the health insurance company pays for the service. If your copayment for a doctors visit is $25 and the price of the visit is $125. You pay $25 and your insurance pays the remaining $100. Copayments are also applied to prescriptions. With coinsurance, your insurance provider pays a certain percentage of your health bill and you pay the other percentage. Also known as percentage participation, coinsurance rates are often stated a rate, like 80/20 or 90/10, or as a flat fee per doctors visit. If your coinsurance rate is 80/20, your insurance provider pays 80% of the service charge and you pay 20% of the service charge. Many health insurance providers have a coinsurance cap that will limit your out of pocket expenses. Exclusions are services that are not covered by the insurance company. Youll have to completely cover any medical services that your health insurance does not cover. Some examples are dental and eye coverage, cosmetic surgery, and preexisting conditions.

116 | P a g e

A coverage limit is the maximum amount your health insurance will pay over a period of time. The coverage limit might only apply to each year, or it can apply to the lifetime of the insurance policy. Youll have to completely cover any expenses that exceed the coverage limit. Out-of-pocket maximums define the maximum amount of money youll pay out of pocket for medical expenses during a period of time. Once you reach your out-ofpocket maximum, the insurance provider completely covers the remaining expenses. Some individual health insurance providers offer whats known as managed care health insurance plans. Under managed care, there is a network or panel of health care providers doctors, hospitals, and clinics that your insurance covers. Your health insurance will only cover services if they are provided by one of these health care providers. (Source: http://www.themoneyalert.com/healthinsurance.html )

Questions: 1. According to text above, what is the essence of having a health insurance? 2. What is the acceptable meaning of the term deductible? 3. What is the difference between the term copayment and coinsurance? 4. Can you elaborate the meaning of exclusion based on the information given in the text? 5. How does managed care differ from other types of insurance?

117 | P a g e

J. Reading 10 ASEAN The Association of Southeast Asian Nations, or ASEAN, was established on 8 August 1967 in Bangkok, Thailand, with the signing of the ASEAN Declaration (Bangkok Declaration) by the Founding Fathers of ASEAN, namely Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore and Thailand. Brunei Darussalam then joined on 8 January 1984, Viet Nam on 28 July 1995, Lao PDR and Myanmar on 23 July 1997, and Cambodia on 30 April 1999, making up what is today the ten Member States of ASEAN. As set out in the ASEAN Declaration, the aims and purposes of ASEAN are: 1. To accelerate the economic growth, social progress and cultural development in the region through joint endeavors in the spirit of equality and partnership in order to strengthen the foundation for a prosperous and peaceful community of Southeast Asian Nations; 2. To promote regional peace and stability through abiding respect for justice and the rule of law in the relationship among countries of the region and adherence to the principles of the United Nations Charter; 3. To promote active collaboration and mutual assistance on matters of common interest in the economic, social, cultural, technical, scientific and

administrative fields; 4. To provide assistance to each other in the form of training and research facilities in the educational, professional, technical and administrative spheres; 5. To collaborate more effectively for the greater utilization of their agriculture and industries, the expansion of their trade, including the study of the problems of international commodity trade, the improvement of their transportation and communications facilities and the raising of the living standards of their peoples; 6. To promote Southeast Asian studies; and 7. To maintain close and beneficial cooperation with existing international and regional organizations with similar aims and purposes, and explore all avenues for even closer cooperation among themselves.

118 | P a g e

In their relations with one another, the ASEAN Member States have adopted the following fundamental principles, as contained in the Treaty of Amity and Cooperation in Southeast Asia (TAC) of 1976: 1. Mutual respect for the independence, sovereignty, equality, territorial integrity, and national identity of all nations; 2. The right of every State to lead its national existence free from external interference, subversion or coercion; 3. Non-interference in the internal affairs of one another; 4. Settlement of differences or disputes by peaceful manner; 5. Renunciation of the threat or use of force; and 6. Effective cooperation among themselves.

The ASEAN Vision 2020, adopted by the ASEAN Leaders on the 30th Anniversary of ASEAN, agreed on a shared vision of ASEAN as a concert of Southeast Asian nations, outward looking, living in peace, stability and prosperity, bonded together in partnership in dynamic development and in a community of caring societies. At the 9th ASEAN Summit in 2003, the ASEAN Leaders resolved that an ASEAN Community shall be established. At the 12th ASEAN Summit in January 2007, the Leaders affirmed their strong commitment to accelerate the establishment of an ASEAN Community by 2015 and signed the Cebu Declaration on the Acceleration of the Establishment of an ASEAN Community by 2015. The ASEAN Community is comprised of three pillars, namely the ASEAN Political-Security Community, ASEAN Economic Community and ASEAN SocioCultural Community. Each pillar has its own Blueprint, and, together with the Initiative for ASEAN Integration (IAI) Strategic Framework and IAI Work Plan Phase II (20092015), they form the Roadmap for and ASEAN Community 2009-2015. (Source: http://www.aseansec.org/64.htm)

119 | P a g e

Questions: 1. When was ASEAN originally established? 2. What do you think to be the elaboration of ASEAN aims and purpose of to promote Southeast Asian studies? 3. Give some examples of ASEAN active collaboration and mutual assistance on matters of common interest in the field of scientific and administrative? 4. What does the Treaty of Amity and Cooperation in Southeast Asia (TAC) mainly regulate? 5. Based on the information stated on the text, what is The ASEAN Community?

120 | P a g e

K. Reading 11 REALITY TELEVISION Reality television is a genre of television programming which, it is claimed, presents unscripted dramatic or humorous situations, documents actual events, and features ordinary people rather than professional actors. It could be described as a form of artificial or "heightened" documentary. Although the genre has existed in some form or another since the early years of television, the current explosion of popularity dates from around 2000. Reality television covers a wide range of television programming formats, from game or quiz shows which resemble the frantic, often demeaning programmes produced in Japan in the 1980s and 1990s (a modern example is Gaki no tsukai), to surveillance- or voyeurism- focused productions such as Big Brother. Critics say that the term "reality television" is somewhat of a misnomer and that such shows frequently portray a modified and highly influenced form of reality, with participants put in exotic locations or abnormal situations, sometimes coached to act in certain ways by off-screen handlers, and with events on screen manipulated through editing and other post-production techniques. Part of reality television's appeal is due to its ability to place ordinary people in extraordinary situations. For example, on the ABC show, The Bachelor, an eligible male dates a dozen women simultaneously, travelling on extraordinary dates to scenic locales. Reality television also has the potential to turn its participants into national celebrities, outwardly in talent and performance programs such as Pop Idol, though frequently Survivor and Big Brother participants also reach some degree of celebrity. Some commentators have said that the name "reality television" is an inaccurate description for several styles of program included in the genre. In competition-based programs such as Big Brother and Survivor, and other special-living-environment shows like The Real World, the producers design the format of the show and control the day-to-day activities and the environment, creating a completely fabricated world in which the competition plays out.

121 | P a g e

Producers specifically select the participants, and use carefully designed scenarios, challenges, events, and settings to encourage particular behaviors and conflicts. Mark Burnett, creator of Survivor and other reality shows, has agreed with this assessment, and avoids the word "reality" to describe his shows; he has said, "I tell good stories. It really is not reality TV. It really is unscripted drama." (Source: http://www.usingenglish.com/comprehension/8.html)

Questions: 1. Based on information above, what is Reality Television? 2. What does Reality Television cover? 3. What do critics say about Reality Television? 4. How does Reality Television keep potential to turn its participants into national celebrities? 5. Why do some commentators said that the name Reality Television is inaccurate for some description?

122 | P a g e

L. Reading 12 MUSIC THERAPHY Research has shown that music has a profound effect on your body and psyche. In fact, theres a growing field of health care known as Music Therapy, which uses music to heal. Those who practice music therapy are finding a benefit in using music to help cancer patients, children with ADD, and others, and even hospitals are beginning to use music and music therapy to help with pain management, to help ward off depression, to promote movement, to calm patients, to ease muscle tension, and for many other benefits that music and music therapy can bring. This is not surprising, as music affects the body and mind in many powerful ways. The following are some of effects of music, which help to explain the effectiveness of music therapy: Brain Waves: Research has shown that music with a strong beat can

stimulate brainwaves to resonate in sync with the beat, with faster beats bringing sharper concentration and more alert thinking, and a slower tempo promoting a calm, meditative state. Also, research has found that the change in brainwave activity levels that music can bring can also enable the brain to shift speeds more easily on its own as needed, which means that music can bring lasting benefits to your state of mind, even after youve stopped listening. Breathing and Heart Rate: With alterations in brainwaves comes changes in other bodily functions. Those governed by the autonomic nervous system, such as breathing and heart rate can also be altered by the changes music can bring. This can mean slower breathing, slower heart rate, and an activation of the relaxation response, among other things. This is why music and music therapy can help counteract or prevent the damaging effects of chronic stress, greatly promoting not only relaxation, but health. State of Mind: Music can also be used to bring a more positive state of mind, helping to keep depression and anxiety at bay. This can help prevent the stress response from wreaking havoc on the body, and can help keep creativity and optimism levels higher, bringing many other benefits.

123 | P a g e

Other Benefits: Music has also been found to bring many other benefits, such as lowering blood pressure (which can also reduce the risk of stroke and other health problems over time), boost immunity, ease muscle tension, and more. With so many benefits and such profound physical effects, its no surprise that so many are seeing music as an important tool to help the body in staying (or becoming) healthy.

With all these benefits that music can carry, it's no surprise that music therapy is growing in popularity. While music therapy is an important discipline, you can also achieve benefits from music on your own. This article on music, relaxation and stress management can explain more of how music can be an especially effective tool for stress management, and can be used in daily life. (Source: http://stress.about.com/od/tensiontamers/a/music_therapy.htm)

Questions: 1. What does research say about the effect of music to our body and psyche? 2. What is the effectiveness of music to our brain waves according to the text above? 3. What kind of music do you think that can relax our breathing and heart rate in common case? 4. What is your opinion toward the research result that music therapy may boost our immunity? 5. As far as you concern, has this kind of therapy been practiced in Indonesia? What about the result?

124 | P a g e

SUPPLEMENT CUMULATIVE GRAMMAR EXERCISE

PART A. VOCABULARY (Choose the best answer to replace the underlined word!) 01. New foreign investment approvals in Indonesia fell by almost two-thirds between 1997 and 1999. (A) development (B) incensement (C) outlay (D) outburst (E) outcome 02. As of 28 June 2010, the Indonesia Stock Exchange had 341 listed companies with a mutual market capitalization of $269.9 billion. (A) reluctant (B) communal (C) vital (D) denial (E) benefit 03. The government and House settled the distribution of the Special Autonomy Fund for 2011 to be continued. (A) accounted (B) taken (C) overcome (D) published (E) matured

125 | P a g e

04. Sunk costs are money already spent and gone, which will not be recovered no matter what course of action is taken. (A) improved (B) taken care (C) cured (D) concerned (E) provided 05. Profit is the amount left over when expenses are subtracted by revenues. (A) cash-flow (B) liabilities (C) accounts (D) outflows (E) outcomes 06. Endorsement can be described as a signature or stamp on the back of a check transferring ownership. (A) contract (B) signatory (C) assignment (D) approval (E) raise 07. Adjustments pictures the changes recorded on a worksheet to update general ledger accounts at the end of a fiscal period. (A) judgment (B) valuation (C) amendment (D) concordance (E) settlement 08. Current Assets are assets that expected to turn into cash within a year or less. (A) possessions (B) cash (C) benefits (D) goodwill (E) stocks

126 | P a g e

09. The amounts received by or due a company for goods or services it provides to customers are also known as revenue. (A) expense (B) yield (C) bribe (D) gratification (E) return 10. Accountancy is the process of communicating financial information about a business entity to users such as shareholders and managers. (A) legal (B) market (C) type (D) unit (E) doer 11. An accountant is a practitioner of accounting which is the measurement or disclosure about financial information. (A) research (B) revelation (C) enclosure (D) appendices (E) works 12. Economics is the social science that analyzes the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services. (A) eating (B) selling (C) spending (D) wasting (E) ingestion 13. Debit and credit are formal bookkeeping and accounting terms. (A) savings (B) dwell (C) draft

127 | P a g e

(D) deduction (E) debt 14. The matching principle is a culmination of accrual accounting and the revenue recognition principle. (A) zenith (B) nadir (C) pits (D) equilibrium (E) constancy 15. The general ledger can be supported by one or more subsidiary ledgers that provide details for accounts in the general ledger. (A) sublimates (B) submission (C) subsequent (D) subordinate (E) acquiescence 16. The statement of cash flows is useful in determining the short-term viability of a company, particularly its ability to pay bills. (A) body (B) bankruptcy (C) liquidity (D) insolvency (E) feasibility 17. Audit seeks to provide only reasonable assurance that the statements are free from material error. (A) remuneration (B) assertion (C) statement (D) improvement (E) adjustment

128 | P a g e

18. The financial audit is one of many assurance or attestation functions provided by accounting and auditing firms, whereby the firm provides an independent opinion on published information. (A) expansion (B) examination (C) collaboration (D) corroboration (E) elaboration 19. Internal auditing frequently involves measuring compliance with the entity's policies and procedures. (A) scheme (B) fraud (C) conformity (D) eligibility (E) capability 20. A business that makes or buys goods to sell must keep track of inventories of goods under all accounting and income tax rules. (A) provisions (B) shares (C) distribution (D) supplies (E) allotment 21. Generally Accepted Accounting Principles (GAAP) includes the standards, conventions, and rules accountants follow in recording and summarizing transactions, and in the preparation of financial statements. (A) planning (B) posing (C) arranging (D) assembling (E) abridgement

129 | P a g e

22. A Qualified Opinion report is issued when the auditor encountered one of two types of situations that do not comply with generally accepted accounting principles. (A) suggestion (B) outlook (C) advice (D) instruction (E) order 23. Macroeconomists study aggregated indicators such as GDP, unemployment rates, and price indices to understand how the whole economy functions. (A) appended (B) detached (C) component (D) unit (E) cumulative 24. The use of professional ethics should be governed when providing a service to the public. (A) coped (B) overcome (C) summoned (D) sentenced (E) qualified 25. Governmental financial statements must be accompanied by required

supplementary information (RSI). (A) temporary (B) refinery (C) recovery (D) ancillary (E) recuperation

130 | P a g e

PART B. STRUCTURE & GRAMMAR EXPRESSION (Choose the best answer for each question!) 26. Some people are convinced _______ something for their health by _______ on energy bars or cornflakes. (A) do; live (B) do; living (C) to do; living (D) doing; to live (E) doing; living 27. When the alarm _______, everyone proceeded calmly to the emergency exits; the fire chief was very impressed with the organization of the drill. (A) went off (B) came out (C) shut down (D) lie down (E) stroked down 28. Products which are made from natural earths and are _______ are known as ceramics. (A) being subject to high temperatures (B) subjected to high temperatures (C) subject to high temperatures (D) subjecting to high temperatures (E) having been subjected to high temperatures 29. It is generally true that the lower the stock market falls, _______ (A) higher the price of gold rises. (B) the price of gold rises high. (C) the price of the gold will rise. (D) rises high the price of gold. (E) the higher the price of gold rises. 30. There are three small rooms in the house. _______ serves as a kitchen. (A) Smallest of that (B) The smallest of which (C) The smaller of which

131 | P a g e

(D) The bigger of them (E) Of which the smallest 31. Synthetic polymers may be _______ thermoplastic or thermosetting depending on the action of tolylene diisocyanate. (A) both (B) but also (C) as well as (D) either (E) even 32. A major problem in the construction of new building _______ (A) is that window has been eliminated while air conditioning system have not been perfected. (B) is they have eliminated windows and still dont have good air conditioning. (C) is because windows are eliminated but air conditioners dont work good. (D) is dependent on the fact that while they have eliminated windows, they are not capable to produce efficient air conditioning systems. (E) They will have eliminated windows and still dont have good air conditioning. 33. I am sure that their flight to New York was delayed _______ the heavy fog. (A) since (B) as it is (C) due to (D) despite (E) in addition to 34. Our English teacher suggested that we _______ experiences when we were on holidays in Bali. (A) write a composition on our (B) write a composition about our (C) to write a composition on our (D) should write composition on our (E) should write a composition about our

132 | P a g e

35. The acids, salts, and vitamins that fruits furnish are very helpful _______ a balanced and healthful diet. (A)to keep (B) keep (C) keeping (D) to keeping (E) being kept 36. The coach will have the rules _______. (A) to be officially applied in the game (B) be officially applied in the game (C) been officially applied in the game (D) being officially applied in the game (E) to apply in the game 37. Centuries of erosion have exposed _____ rock surfaces in the Painted Desert of northern Arizona. (A) a rainbows coloring (B) rainbow-color (C) in colors of the rainbow (D) colored like a rainbow (E) rainbow-colored 38. Dust storms most often occur in areas where the ground has little vegetation to protect _____ of the wind (A) from the effects (B) it from the effects (C) to effect it from (D) the effects from it (E) it the effects 39. _______ of their size and weight, grizzly bears are remarkably nimble animals. (A) Animals (B) As animals (C) To be animals (D) For animals (E) Those animals

133 | P a g e

40. New words are constantly being invented _____ new objects and concepts (A) to describe (B) a description of (C) they describe (D) describe (E) describing 41. The chief advantages of using satellite to predict weather _____ can survey vast regions of the Earth at one time (A) they (B) is that they (C) if they (D) or not they (E) that they 42. _____ types of guitars: acoustic and electric (A) Basically, there are two (B) Two basic (C) Two of the basic (D) They are two basic (E) Basically, two 43. The water if the Gulf Stream may be ____ 20 percent warmer than the surrounding water. (A) as much (B) much as (C) much more as (D) as more than (E) as much as 44. All of Agnes Reppliers writings, ______ the most serious subjects, show her sense of humor. (A) even though those about (B) despite those on (C) even those on (D) furthermore those on (E) even that about

134 | P a g e

45. I think Jane deserved to be fired for her __________. (A) totally behavior irresponsible (B) behavior totally irresponsible (C) irresponsible totally behavior (D) irresponsible behavior totally (E) totally irresponsible behavior 46. The lecturer simply didn't know _______. (A) which noun clauses to teach (B) that noun clause to teach (C) when noun clauses to teach (D) which noun clauses teach (E) why noun clauses to teach 47. Can you please tell me ________ ? (A) what time the next bus arrives (B) what time does the next bus arrive (C) when does arrive the next bus (D) when will the next bus arrive (E) when the next bus does arrive 48. _____ will be invited to join us for lunch on Saturday (A) Whoever came (B) Whoever will come (C) Whoever would come (D) Whoever come (E) Whoever comes 49. Washington once said that _______ have virtue to withstand the highest bidder. (A) so few men (B) so little (C) a few men (D) few men (E) little men

135 | P a g e

50. The police were greatly outnumbered by rioters, _______ ran into the hundreds. (A) that figures (B) its figures that (C) whose figures (D) that its figures (E) those figures PART C. READING COMPREHENSION (Read the text carefully and choose the best answer for each question!) TEXT 1 The more difficult task of ensuring global economic stability was assigned to the IMF. Those who convened Bretton Woods had the global depression of the 1930's very much on their minds. Almost three quarters of a century ago, capitalism faced the most severe crisis to date. The Great Depression enveloped the whole world and led to unprecedented increases in unemployment. At the worst point, a quarter of America's workforce was unemployed. The British economist John Maynard Keynes, who would later be a key participant at Bretton Woods, put forward a simple explanation, and a corresponding simple set of prescriptions; lack of sufficient aggregate demand explained economic downturns; government policies could help stimulate aggregate demand. In cases where monetary policy is ineffective, governments could rely on fiscal policies, either by increasing expenditures or cutting taxes. While the models underlying Keynes' analysis have subsequently been criticized and refined, bringing a deeper understanding of why market forces do not work quickly to adjust the economy to full employment, the basic lessons remain valid. 51. The IMF was assigned ______ (A) The task of accelerating economic growth of the world. (B) The task of controlling inflation in the world economy. (C) The task of ensuring economic stability in the world economy. (D) The task of removing imbalances from the U.S.A. (E) The task of handling money from developed countries.

136 | P a g e

52. During the Great Depression _______ (A) Unemployment rate in the World was 25%. (B) Unemployment rate in England was 20%. (C) Unemployment rate in the U.S.A. was 25%. (D) Unemployment rate in India was 20%. (E) Unemployment rate in the World except U.S.A. was 20%. 53. According to Keynes, the cause for the unprecedented global depression of the 1930's was _____ (A) High interest rate in the USA. (B) Low interest rate in the UK. (C) Break down of the gold standard. (D) Lack of sufficient aggregate demand. (E) Break down of all economic standards. 54. Keynes' prescription to fight global depression was that _______ (A) The government should pursue active monetary policy. (B) The government should pursue a combination of fiscal policy and monetary policy. (C) The government should pursue fiscal policy where monetary policy is in effective. (D) The government should have a policy of balanced budget (E) The government should have a focused attention on monetary policy only. 55. The word unprecedented in above passage has the closest meaning to: (A) unpredictable (B) exceptional (C) incidental (D) subsidiary (E) additional

137 | P a g e

TEXT 2 Cooperation is the common endeavor of two or more people to perform a task or reach a jointly cherished goal. Like competition and conflict, there are different forms of cooperation, based on group organization and attitudes. In the first form, known as primary cooperation, group and individual fuse, the group contains nearly all of each individuals life. The rewards of the groups work are shared with each member. There is an interlocking identify of individual, group and task performed. Means and goals become one, for cooperation itself is valued. While primary cooperation is most often characteristic of preliterate societies, secondary cooperation is characteristic of many modern societies. In secondary

cooperation, individuals devote only part of their lives to the group. Cooperation itself is not a value. Most members of the group feel loyalty, but the welfare of the group is not the first consideration. Members perform tasks so that they can separately enjoy the fruits of their cooperation in the form of salary, prestige, or power. Business offices and professional athletic teams are examples of secondary cooperation. In the third type, called tertiary cooperation or accommodation, latent conflict underlies the shared work. The attitudes of the cooperating parties are purely Accommodation involves

opportunistic; the organization is loose and fragile.

common means to achieve antagonistic goals; it breaks down then the common means cease to aid each party in reaching its goals. This is not, strictly speaking, cooperation at all, and hence the somewhat contradictory term antagonistic cooperation is sometimes used for this relationship. 56. What is the authors main purpose in the first paragraph of the passage? (A) To explain how cooperation differs from competition and conflict. (B) To show the importance of group organization and attitudes. (C) To offer a brief definition of cooperation. (D) To urge readers to cooperated more often. (E) To persuade readers to abandon the form of cooperation.

138 | P a g e

57. Which of the following statements about primary cooperation is supported by information in the passage? (A) Cooperation is not too important.. (B) It is most commonly seen among people who have not yet developed reading and writing skills. (C) It is an ideal that can never be achieved. (D) It is usually the first stage of cooperation achieved by a group of individuals attempting to cooperate. (E) It was confined to prehistoric times. 58. According to the passage, why do people join groups that practice secondary cooperation? (A) To endure the business atmosphere. (B) To defeat a common enemy. (C) To associate with people who have similar backgrounds. (D) To get rewards for themselves. (E) To experience the satisfaction of cooperation. 59. Which of the following is NOT given as a name for the third type of cooperation? (A) Tertiary cooperation (B) Accommodation (C) Opportunistic parties (D) Latent conflict (E) Antagonistic cooperation 60. Which of the following best describes the overall organization of the passage? (A) The author describes a concept by analyzing its three forms. (B) The author compares and contrasts two types of human relations. (C) The author presents the points of view of three experts on the same topic. (D) The author provides a number of examples and then draws a conclusion. (E) The author defends one type of organization.

139 | P a g e

PART D. ERROR ANALYSIS AND CORRECTION (Find the mistake and correct the sentence!) 61. If only I set my alarm clock last night, I would not have been late for course and get humiliated in front of the class. 62. A symbol of prosperity in the past, the old castle, stood firmly on the island,are frequently visited by foreign tourists. 63. National income is defined as the total income earned, but not necessarily received by all persons lived in a country during a periods of time. 64. Platos most last contribution to mathematics was his insistence on using reasoning in geometry. 65. Some researchers believe that an unfair attitude toward the poors will contribute to the problem of poverty in a country. 66. Professor Strahowsky, a noted scientist, was intrigued by the mysterious fish kill in Summit Lake and undertook to study the reasons why did it occurred. 67. Harry is only a 22 year old man however he seems enough capable of being the member of Parliament. 68. Could we please talk over it before you turn the whole idea down? 69. If I did set my alarm clock last night I wouldnt have been late for todays course. 70. Lynn wishes she has a chance to visit her aunty in Chicago after a long time of not seeing each other. 71. Could you tell me when will the next train leave and where to buy the tickets? 72. Why would you rather stay home than to go out with your friends tonight? 73. You drove for seven hours today so I suggest that youd better not drive tonight. 74. The harder Sylvia tries to conquer those math problems, less she gets the solutions. 75. I know youre too busy to stay but I really look forward to see you again.

140 | P a g e

76. Getting enough rest is very important in order not falling asleep in class. 77. I am trying hard to persuade my sister to drive me but I cant make her to do it. 78. Joel giving up smoking has caused him to be irritable with his acquaintances. 79. They asked me what did happen last night, but I was unable to let them know. 80. All the scouts got theirselves ready for the long camping trip by spending weekends living in the open. 81. Currently, I sit at my computer and try to do these English exercises. 82. While John's sitting on the bus going to work, he's reading the newspaper. 83. The little girl did cry when she fall and hurting herself. 84. She didn't knowing what was happened when she hearing that big bang. 85. Is Susan want to come with us to the movie? 86. Michael is needs a ride tomorrow. He's without a car for the week. 87. He arose his pen from the desk and starting to write. 88. When I saw my ex-boyfriend, he was very upset and he become angry with me. 89. I was waiting for the bus while there was an accident. 90. Even though he was sleepy, he went to bed and falling asleep immediately. 91. Since the weather was so cold, we were swimming in the outdoor pool and shopped at the local open-air market. 92. If it snows tomorrow, I wear my warm jacket and am taking a hot drink with me. 93. Before leaving work for the day, the computer crashes and I lost all of my data. 94. Unless you are ill, we won't plan to go skiing over the holidays. 95. Upon I discovered that I had lost my purse, I am extremely upset. 96. Why don't you listening to me when I am tell you about a problem? 97. Lay down and take a rest. You're seem very tired. 98. I asked him not to rose his voice when he speaking to me.

141 | P a g e

99. When I was shopping yesterday, I wasn't know that you were walked behind me. 100. 101. When you call out, I am startle because I think I am alone. In most parts of the world, people have an unreasonable fear of snakes. Snakes, however, are beneficial to the environment because they kill many small animals and other agricultural pest. It has been estimated, that if all the snakes in India were killed, all crop yields, including wheat's, rice, sugar cane's and fruit would decrease because of losses due to rats. Many people fear of snakes because they think they are dangerous and aggression towards people. The reality is that many are non-poisonous and fearing of people, so peope don't usually see them unless you look for them. 102. 103. While was at the bus stop, my friends drove by, stop, and give me a ride. In the event that is a nice day tomorrow, we will take a picnic lunch and hike around the lake. 104. They are planning to go to the mountains this weekend whether the weather is nice or it is not nice. 105. While watching the concert, the amplifiers quit working and an electrical short circuit caused a small fire backstage. PART E. PARAGRAPH WRITING (Choose one topic and write an essay with minimum of 3 paragraph about it!) 1. Child Labour 2. Erradicating Corruption 3. Improving National Education 4. Social Networking Sites 5. Sexuality Education in Schools

142 | P a g e

SUPPLEMENT AMERICAN & BRITISH ENGLISH

Listed below are few of the common words which are different in American and British English. This is only meant to highlight some of the variety which exists within English, and is not a complete list by any means. It also does not address different vocabulary which is used in Australia, Canada, South Africa and India as well as the Caribbean, Africa, and the many other places in the world which use English as the language of commerce or government.

AMERICAN
analyze
apartment

BRITISH
analyse
flat

apologize
argument

apologise
row

attorney
baby carriage band-aid

barrister
pram plaster

bathrobe be on vacation burned can (of beans) center check color cookie corn curb defense diaper

dressing gown be on holiday burnt tin (of beans) centre cheque colour biscuit maize kerb defence nappy

143 | P a g e

dreamed drivers license drug store elevator eraser flashlight forever fulfill gas, gasoline honor hood of a car jail jewelry labor lawyer license
line

dreamt driving license chemists lift rubber torch for ever fulfil petrol honour bonnet of a car gaol jewellry labour solicitor licence
queue

liter living room

movie, theater muffler napkin nothing

litre sitting room/drawing room

cinema silencer serviette nought

odor offense
overpass pacifier pants parking lot potato chips pharmacist

odour offence
flyover dummy trousers car park crisps chemist

program raise in salary realize

programme rise in salary realise

144 | P a g e

rent

hire

rest room
sausage

public toilet/water closet

banger

schedule sidewalk sink skillful smelled soccer specialty spelled spoiled story stove
sweater

timetable pavement/footpath basin skilful smelt football speciality spelt spoilt storey (of a building) cooker
jumper

theater tire traveler truck trunk of a car

vacation vest windshield

theatre tyre (of a car) traveller lorry/van boot of a car

holiday waistcoat windscreen

woolen
zip code

woollen
postal code

145 | P a g e

SUPPLEMENT LIST OF PHRASAL VERBS

A phrasal verb is a complex verb consisting of a simple verb and an adverb particle. Phrasal verbs are different from prepositional verbs. A prepositional verb consists of a verb and a preposition. Below are given some example of phrasal verbs commonly used in English, both formal and informal. Account for - To explain Ache for - Want something or someone a lot Act on - To take action because of something like information received Act out - Perform something with actions and gestures. - Express an emotion in your behavior Act up - Behave badly or strangely Add on - Include in a calculation Add up - To make a mathematical total - Be a satisfactory explanation for something Add up to - Have a certain result Aim at - To target Allow for - Include something in a plan Angle for - Try to get something indirectly, by hinting or suggesting Answer back - To reply rudely to someone in authority Answer for - Be held responsible for a problem - Speak on behalf of someone or from knowing him or her Argue out - Argue about a problem to find a solution Ask after - Enquire about someone's health, how life is going Ask around - Ask a number of people for information of help - Invite someone Ask for - To provoke a negative reaction - Request to have or be given Ask in - To invite somebody into your house Ask out - To invite someone for a date Ask over - Invite Ask round - Invite someone Auction off - Sell something in an auction Back away - Retreat or go backwards Back down - Retract or withdraw your position or proposal in an argument

146 | P a g e

Back into - Enter a parking area in reverse gear Back off - Retreat Back out - Fail to keep an arrangement or promise Back out of - Fail to keep an agreement - Exit a parking area in reverse gear Back up - Make a copy of computer data - Support - Drive a vehicle backwards Bag out - Criticize Bail out - Save, rescue - Remove water from something that is flooded - Jump out of a plane because it is going to crash Bail out of - Pay a bond to release someone from jail Bail out on - Stop supporting someone when they are in trouble Bail up - Talk to someone and delay them - Rob someone at gunpoint Ball up - Confuse or make things complicated - Roll or form into a round shape Balls up - Spoil, ruin Bank on - Count or rely on Barge in - Enter a place and interrupt Bash in - Break, damage or injure by hitting Be after - Try to find or get Be along - Arrive

Be down - Be depressed - Be reduced or less Be down with - Be ill Be fed up - Be bored, upset or sick of something Be snowed under - Have too much work Be taken with - Like something Be up to - Be good enough - Doing something naughty or wrong Bear down on - Move towards Bear on - Influence, affect Bear out - Confirm that something is correct - Confirm that something is correct Bear up - Resist pressure Bear with - Be patient Beat up - Attack violently Beaver away - Work hard Bed down - Sleep somewhere less comfortable than normal - Become established or successful over time Belt up - Be quiet - Fasten your seatbelt Bitch up - Spoil or ruin something Black out - Fall unconscious - Lose light Blank out - Censor text so words cannot be read - Have a temporary memory failure Boil down - Simplify, reduce to the essentials

147 | P a g e

Boil up - Feel a negative emotion strongly - Cook or heat something to boiling point Book in - Make a reservation in advance - Check in at a hotel Boot up - Start a computer Boss around - Use excessive authority to control people Bounce into - Force someone Break down - End negotiations unsuccessfully - Start crying - Stop working Break in - Go into a building to steal something - Interrupt something - Train a horse to be ridden - Carefully use new products until they are fully functional. Break off - Break a piece from something - End a relationship Break up - Break into many pieces - Close an educational institution for the holidays - Finish a relationship - Become inaudible over the telephone because of interference Breeze along - Move easily and quickly Breeze in - Enter a place quickly Bring along - Bring someone or something to certain place - Help someone improve Bring up - Mention - Raise a child Brush up - Improve a skill quickly

Burst into - Catch fire very quickly - Laugh, cry or clap loudly Buy off - Pay someone to stop them causing trouble Buzz around - Move quickly around a place Buzz off - Leave somewhere Buzz off! - Go away (imperative) Call after - Name someone after somebody else Call forth - Make something happen Call off - Cancel - Order someone to stop attacking Calm down - Stop being angry or emotionally excited Carried away - Get so emotional that you lose control Carry on - Continue Carry out - Perform a task - Food bought from a restaurant to take away Cast aside - Dispose, get rid of, ignore because you no longer like something or someone Catch up - Get work, etc, up to date. - Reach someone who was ahead of you Chalk up - To achieve something good Cheat on - Be sexually unfaithful - Deceive or betray, often in a sexual and/or emotional context Cheer up - Be less unhappy

148 | P a g e

Chicken out - Be too afraid to do something Chill out - Relax Choke up - Become tearfully emotional - Grip a handle farther from the end for better control Chuck away - Dispose of something you no longer need or want Chuck in - Quit something - Make a comment Clean out - Tidy up thoroughly and throw away unwanted things. - Cause someone to spend all their money Clean up - Tidy and clean - Profit, sometimes suddenly Clear away - Leave a place - Remove or tidy Cling on - Hold tight Close up - Completely close something - Join together - Move closer together Come across - Find by accident - Agree to have sex with someone - The way other people see you Come along - Accompany - Move faster or keep up Come apart - Break into pieces Come around - Recover consciousness Come from - Country or town where you were born Come off - When something breaks off - Be successful

Dawn on - Finally realize or understand something Die for - Want something a lot Die away - Become quieter or inaudible (of a sound) Dig in - Start eating greedily - Excavate a protective shelter (military) Dig up - Find something that is supposed to be secret Dish out - Serve food - Give something, usually when you shouldn't - Criticize, when you can't take criticism in return Dive in - Start doing something, usually without planning - Start eating Draw back - Retreat, move backwards Dress down - Dress casually - Scold Dress up - Dress very smartly Drink up - Finish a drink Drop around - Visit someone, often without making an arrangement - Deliver Drop by - Pay a brief visit Drop out - Quit a course Ease up - Relax, calm down Eke out - Make something like money last as long as possible

149 | P a g e

End up - Become or do something unplanned End up with - Get as a result of something Eye up - Look carefully at someone Face off - Confront Fall apart - Break into pieces - Become emotionally disturbed and unable to behave normally Fall back - Retreat Fall for - Be attracted to somebody, fall in love - Believe a lie or a piece of deception Fart about - Waste time doing silly things Fasten up - Close, attach Feed on - Grow stronger - Consume in an animal's diet - Give someone a particular food Fight back - Defend yourself, resist an attack - Try to control and emotion and keep it hidden Figure on - Plan, expect Figure out - Find the answer to a problem Fill in - Complete a form - Substitute someone at work Fill up - Fill something completely Fire off - Send quickly, angrily or many (letter, emails, etc) - Shoot, fire a gun (usually repeatedly) Fire up - Start a computer - Excite, become excited Fit up - Frame someone- make them look guilty of something they haven't done

Fix up - Make an arrangement Flame out - Fail Flame up - Burn brightly Flip out - Become very excited and lose control Fly by - When time appears to move quickly Follow up - Do something to check or improve an earlier action - Find our about a problem and act Fool around - Not be serious - Be unfaithful Freeze out - Shut out or exclude by unfriendly treatment - Force to retire or withdraw from membership, a job, etc Freshen up - Wash quickly and improve appearance - Add more alcohol to a glass before it is empty - Quickly improve the appearance of something Gear up - Get ready for a busy period Get along - Have a good relationship - Leave - Progress - Criticize - Mean - Be able to reach, find, access - Use threats, payments, bribes, etc, to affect someone's testimony or decision Grind up - Reduce to small pieces Grow apart - Become distant, stop having a close relationship because time, distance

150 | P a g e

Hack around - Waste time Hack into - Break into a computer system Hack off - Annoy Ham up - Perform or act in an excessive way to attract attention or amuse people Hammer away at - Work relentlessly Hammer into - Repeat something over a period of time to make someone remember it Hammer out - Negotiate and reach an agreement Hand back - Return Hand down - Pass on to the next generation - Give a formal decision Hand in - Submit work for appraisal Hand on - Give to someone else - Transmit knowledge to the next generation Hand out - Distribute Hand over - Give Hang about - Spend time somewhere not doing much Hang on - Wait - Hold tightly Hang onto - Keep Hang out - Spend time socially Hang out for - Wait or refuse to do something until you get what you want Hang over - Worry or trouble

Heat up - Make food hot Help out - Give assistance Hide away - Put something in a place where it won't be found - Go or stay somewhere where you won't be found or away from people Hide out - Go or stay somewhere to avoid being caught or found Hinge on - Depend very much or completely - Be an essential point for the development of a story Hinge upon - Depend very much or completely Hit back - Attack or criticize Hit for - Get someone to pay or donate money Hit it off - Have a good relationship from the first time you meet a person Hit it off with - Like someone from the first time you meet them Hit on - Have an idea - Talk to someone to try to attract them sexually - Ask for money Hit out at - Respond angrily to criticism Hit upon - Have an idea - Try to attract someone sexually Hit with - Surprise someone with some information or news Hold against - Have a grudge against someone, or little respect Hold back - Not show emotion

151 | P a g e

Hush up - Try to keep something bad from becoming widely known Iron out - Remove small problems or irregularities Issue forth - Come out of a place Jabber away - Talk fast or incomprehensibly Jack around - Make trouble for someone, fail to keep promises Jack in - Quit, give up Jack up - Raise a car to be able to do mechanical work - Increase sharply Jam on - Apply or operate something forcefully Jaw away - Talk just for the point of talking rather than having anything to say Jazz up - Make something more interesting or attractive Joke around - Be funny, or try to Jot down - Make a quick note Juice up - Make something more exciting or perform better Jump at - Accept eagerly Jump in - Enter a conversation Jump on - Criticize, attack Keel over - Turn upside down - Surrender, give in - Fall to the ground Keep around - Keep something near you Keep away - Don't allow someone near something

Kick off - Start a game of football - Die - When trouble starts - Argue, protest and refuse to cooperate Kick out - Expel Kick up - Cause trouble or pain Kill off - Reduce or exterminate a population by hunting, pollution, development, etc. Kiss off - Used to tell someone to go away - Consider something to be unimportant or inferior Kiss up to - Try to get into someone's favor Knock about - Beat someone Knock around - Discuss casually Knock back - Cost someone a lot of money - Finish a drink quickly, drink a lot of alcohol - Shock Knock down - Demolish - Hit and injure someone Knock it off! - Stop doing something annoying Knock off - Finish work for the day - Reduce the price of something - Reduce the time required to do something - Steal - Produce or create something quickly Knock out - Hit and make somebody unconscious - Sell, distribute Lash out - Suddenly become violent - React angrily

152 | P a g e

Lay down - Establish rules or procedures - Kill, murder Lay into - Criticize angrily Lay off - Make an employee redundant Lay on - Organize, supply Lay out - Spend money Lead on - Falsely or cruelly raise hopes Lead to - Result in Leak out - Become public knowledge Lean on - Put pressure on someone to get them to do what you want Leap at - Take an opportunity enthusiastically Leap on - Show interest in or try to use something to your advantage Leap out at - Be very noticeable Leap upon - Show interest in or try to use something to your advantage Leave on - Not turn off Leave out - Not include Let down - Disappoint, fail to keep an arrangement - Make clothes longer Let in - Allow someone to enter Let off - Not punish Let on - Tell a secret Let out - Allow to leave or go out - Make a sound - Make clothes bigger

Line up - Arrange in a line - Arrange something in a line - Arrange events for someone Link up - Connect, join Link up with - Connect with someone or contact them Listen out for - Listen for a particular noise or sound Listen up - Pay attention (often used as a command) Live by - Follow a belief system to guide your behavior Live down - Stop being embarrassed about something Live for - Believe something is extremely important Live in - Live in the place where you work or study. Live it up - Have a good time by spending a lot of money Live off - Use money earned - Be financially supported Live on - Use money for basic necessities - Not be forgotten Live out - Stay somewhere until you die - Fulfill an ambition or fantasy - Not live at the place where you study or work Log in - Enter a restricted area on a computer system Log into - Enter a restricted area of a computer system Log off - Exit a computer system

153 | P a g e

Log on - Enter a computer system Log out - Exit a computer system Look after - Take care Look back - Think about the past Look down on - Have a low opinion of Look for - Try to find Look forward to - Wait for or anticipate something pleasant Look in - Make a quick visit Look in on - Visit briefly to see if everything's all right Look into - Research, investigate Look on - Watch something like a crime without helping Look on as - Consider, regard Look out - Be careful Look over - Inspect Look round - Inspect a house Look to - Expect, hope Look up - Consult a reference work (dictionary, phonebook, etc.) for a specific piece of information. - Improve - Find, trace an old friend Look up to - Respect Lose out - Be at a disadvantage Make after - Chase

Make for - Head in a certain direction - Produce a result or situation Make into - Change something into something else Make it - Arrive or get a result Make it up to - Try to compensate for doing something wrong Make of - Understand or have an opinion Make off - Leave somewhere in a hurry Make off with - Steal Make out - Make a cheque payable to somebody - Pretend - Progress - Kiss and pet - Discern a small detail - Be able to see or hear something - Understand someone's nature or personality Make over - Change appearance - Give money or possessions to someone in a legal way Make towards - Head in the direction Make up - Stop being angry with someone - Put on cosmetics - Invent a story Make up for - Compensate Mess over - Treat someone badly Mess up - Spoil or ruin - Make something untidy or dirty - Cause mental, physical or emotional problems Mock up - Make a model of to show or test it

154 | P a g e

Name after - Give someone a name to remember another person Narrow down - Remove less important options to make it easier to choose Nip out - Go somewhere quickly Nod off - Fall asleep Nose about - Look for something hidden or secret Nose around - Look around for evidence Nose out - Find out, discover- usually information, secrets, etc - Narrowly beat someone Note down - Write something short like a phone number for future reference. Nut out - Find an answer to a problem Occur to - Enter one's mind Open up - Start to talk freely about something - Open a shop or business for the day - Allow goods into a market Opt for - Choose Opt out - Choose not to be part of something Owe to - Be the reason for something Own up - Confess Pack away - Put something where it belongs Pack in - Stop doing something - End a relationship - Fill a venue - Break down, stop working Pack it in - Stop doing something (used as an imperative)

Pack up - Stop doing something - Finish work - Break down, stop working - Collect things and put them where you keep them Pair up - Form a pair Pass away - Die Pass back - Return Pass by - Go past without stopping - Visit briefly - Miss an opportunity Pass down - Transmit information or give property to younger generations Pass for - Be accepted as something, usually when not Pass off - Convince something that something is real - Happen in a certain way Pass on - Give a message to someone - Decline an invitation or opportunity - Die Pass on to - Change topic or subject Pass out - Faint, lose consciousness - Distribute Patch up - Fix or make things better - Give an injured person basic medical treatment Pay back - Repay money borrowed - Take revenge on Pay for - Purchase Play off - Play a game to decide who the winner is

155 | P a g e

Put up - Allow someone to stay at your house for a night or a few days. - Increase prices, taxes, duties, etc. Put up with - Tolerate Reach out for - Try to achieve something difficult Reach out to - Ask for help - Offer help - Try to communicate and establish good relations with people Read off - Read a list aloud for someone to write down Read out - Read aloud rather than silently Read up on - Research Reason out - Come to a conclusion or solution after some thought Reckon on - The minimum expected Reel in - Catch a fish on a line and pull the line to land - Attract people, especially customers, to get them to do what you want them to Reel off - Quote statistics or facts rapidly - Score a lot of points or win a lot of games one after the other Ring back - Return a phone call Ring off - Finish a phone conversation Ring up - Telephone Rip off - Charge excessively or obtain money unfairly Roll on - When something continues to happen

Run away - Escape from people chasing you - Leave home because of problems with other family members or to elope Run down - Hit a pedestrian with a vehicle - Lose energy or power - Criticize, disparage - Find the source or origin of something Run for - Campaign for a position Run in - Arrest, take to police station for questioning - Drive a new car carefully in order not to damage the engine - Pay a casual visit - Insert Run into - Cost - Meet by accident Run off - Make photocopies Run on - Be powered by Run out of - Have none left Run over - Explain quickly - Hit with a vehicle - Exceed a time limit Run through - Practice a dramatic work like a play quickly - Stab or wound deeply with a knife, sword, etc. Run to - Go to someone for help - Include in things you like - Have enough money to buy something, often negative Run up - Move quickly to where someone is - Hoist, raise a flag - Do or make something very quickly - Spend a lot of money on credit

156 | P a g e

Salt away - Save money Save on - Reduce or avoid consumption to cut costs Save up - For money for a particular purpose - Collect or store something for future use Scale back - Make something smaller than originally planned Scale down - Make something smaller than originally planned Scale up - Increase, make bigger Scare away - Frighten someone some much that they go away Scare off - Make someone so frightened that he or she away Scout about - Look in different places for something Scout around - Look in different places for something Scout out - Search for something Scout round - Look in different places for something Scout up - Try to find someone for a task or requirement Screw over - Treat harshly or cheat Screw up - Do badly or fail See about - Arrange, consider See to - Deal with something Sell off - Sell a business or part of it

Send in - Order people into a place to handle a problem - Write to get information Send off - Expel a sports player from a match - Post a letter Ship off - Send someone away, often because of a problem Ship out - Leave a place Shoot away - Leave somewhere quickly Shoot back - Return quickly Shoot for - Have as a goal Shoot off - Leave promptly and quickly Sign for - Write a signature on behalf on someone Sign in - Register in a hotel - Open a computer program that requires a name and password - Write your name when entering a place Sign into - Open a particular computer program that requires a name and password Sign off - End a message - Close a claim for unemployment benefit - Stop doing something to leave - Give someone a letter to be away from work Sign off on - Give official approval Sign on - Open a claim for unemployment benefit - Agree to participate - Start broadcasting - Employ

157 | P a g e

Stay up - Not go to bed Step back - Look at something from a different perspective Step down - Leave a job or position so that someone can take over - Reduce Step forward - Offer help Step in - Get involved by interrupting something Step on it - An imperative used to tell someone to go faster, especially when driving Step out - Leave a place for a very short time Step to - Confront - Chat, talk to Step up - Increase Sum up - Summarize Summon up - Get the energy or courage to do something Swear by - Have great confidence in Swear down - Promise that something is true Tag along - Accompany someone, especially if they haven't specifically invited you Tag on - Add an additional point to something written or spoken Tag with - Add a keyword link or bookmark to a blog entry or webpage Take after - Look like, resemble Take apart - Take something to pieces Take away - Remove

Take off - Make great progress - Reduce the price of an item - When a plane departs or leaves the ground - Remove Talk over - Discuss Tear away - Stop someone doing something unwillingly - Remove a surface violently Tear down - Demolish Tee off - Start or launch an event - Place a golf ball on a short plastic or wooden stick before hitting it at the start of a hole. - Annoy someone Throw away - Discard something when no longer needed Throw in - Join, accompany - Add something to a deal Throw off - Remove item of clothing quickly - Get rid of - Produce light or heat Throw on - Put clothes on quickly Throw out - Get rid of Throw away - Discard something when no longer needed Throw in - Join, accompany - Add something to a deal Throw off - Remove item of clothing quickly - Get rid of - Produce light or heat Throw on - Put clothes on quickly Throw out - Get rid of

158 | P a g e

Trade in - Exchange something old as part of the price of something new - Leave your wife or husband to marry someone younger Trade off - Bargain, make a deal or compromise - Accept something you don't really want to get something you do want Turn away - Not allow someone to enter a place Turn down - Reduce volume, temperature, etc. - Reject an offer, invitation, etc. Turn in - Go to bed Turn into - Become Turn off - Stop a machine Turn on - Cause someone to feel attraction or pleasure - Start a machine - Attack Turn out - Produce - Produce an unexpected result - Stop a light - Attend Turn over - Give to the authorities Turn to - Try to get help - Take up a habit Turn up - Appear - Increase volume, temperature, etc. Type out - Write a full or finished version of a text on a computer Use up - Finish or consume all of something Vacuum up - Consume Venture forth - Leave somewhere safe or comfortable

Wait around - Wait somewhere doing nothing Wait behind - Stay somewhere after other people have left Wait in - Stay at home because someone is going to visit Wait on - Serve people in a restaurant - Sell goods in a shop - Provide someone with everything they need or want - Wait for a result before being able to make a decision Wait out - Wait till something has finished, usually something unpleasant Wake up - Stop sleeping Walk away from - Leave something you don't like Walk away with - Win easily Walk out - Leave work because of a dispute with the management - Leave a place angrily or because you are not satisfied Wash away - When floods or waves completely remove a structure, building, etc. Wash down - Drink in order to swallow something solid Wash out - Rain so heavily that an event has to be cancelled Wash over - Suddenly experience a strong emotion Wash up - Clean everything used to prepare food and eat it - Wash face and hands Watch out - Be careful (imperative)

159 | P a g e

Water down - Make something weaker and less effective Wean off - Slowly stop a dependency on something Wear away - Erode, remove gradually Wear down - Make something weaker Wear off - Stop having an effect Wear out - Use something until it stops working Weed out - Remove, get rid of Weigh in - Have a certain weight (in sports like boxing) - Enter an argument forcefully Weigh up - Assess Well up - Feel tears starting - Feel an emotion strongly While away - Spend time doing something because you have nothing better to do Whip into - Enter rapidly (as for a brief errand) Whip out - Remove quickly Whip out of - Exit rapidly Whip through - Do something quickly Whip up - Make food quickly - Mix liquid food quickly to make it thick and creamy - Make people feel more strongly about something Whisk away - Take to another place quickly White out - Use correction fluid to cover a mistake in a written text

Work on - Improve or develop Work out - End nicely - Find the answer or solution Wrap up - Cover in paper - Dress warmly - Finish Write down - Make notes Write in - Send a letter to a TV station, etc. Write up - Make complete written version Yack on - Talk continuously, especially if it is an annoying way Yammer on - Talk continuously, especially if it is an annoying way Yield to - Surrender Zip up - Keep quiet Zone out - Not pay attention - Dissociate yourself from a situation Zonk out - Fall asleep Zoom in - Focus more closely Zoom in on - Focus more closely Zoom off - Go somewhere quickly Zoom out - Focus less closer

160 | P a g e

REFERENCES

Azar, Betty Schrampfer. (2002). Understanding and Using English Grammar, Third edition with Answer Key. New York: Pearson Education, Longman. Azar, Betty Schrampfer. (2003). Fundamentals of English Grammar, Third edition with Answer Key. New York: Pearson Education, Longman. Brathwaite, Rudolph. (1995). Writing Through Grammar. McGraw-Hill. Burnette, Dawn. (2003). Daily Grammar Practice. Peachtree City, GA: DGP Publishing. Comrie, Bernard. (1985).Tense. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University. Crystal, David. (1980). A First Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics. Boulder, CO: Westview. Fuchs, Margaret, and Margareth Bonner. (2003). Grammar Express. Malaysia: Pearson Education Limited. Greenbaum, Sydney. (1996). Oxford English Grammar. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Gucker, Philip. (1966). Essential English Grammar. New York: Dover Publishing, Inc. Hartmann, R.R.K., and F.C. Stork. (1972). Dictionary of Language and Linguistics. London: Applied Science. Hasibuan, Sofia Rangkuti. (2000). English Language Structure. Jakarta: Djambatan. Krohn, Robert. (1973). English Sentence Structure. Michigan: The University of Michigan Press. Lyons, John. (1977). Semantics. Volumes I, II. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. Mish, Frederick. (1991). Webster's Ninth New Collegiate Dictionary. Springfield, MA: Merriam-Webster. Murphy, Raymond. (1985). English Grammar In Use. Second Edition. England: Cambridge University Press.

161 | P a g e

Oshima, Alice, and Ann Hogue. (1997). Introduction to Academic Writing: Second Edition. New York: Longman. http://eslus.com http://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu http://perso.wanadoo.es/autoenglish/gr.comp.i.htm http://specialchildren.about.com/od/learningissues/ht/paragraph.htm http://www.englishclub.com http://www.howtowriteaparagraph.com/ http://www.nonstopenglish.com/allexercises/grammar/grammar-conditional.asp http://www.usingenglish.com/reference/phrasal-verbs/b.html http://www.wikihow.com/Write-a-Paragraph http://www.wikipedia.org http://www.writingcentre.uottawa.ca

162 | P a g e

THE AUTHOR
Nama Alamat korespondensi : Muhammad Agung Darlianto : Serpong City Paradise Blok G.12/5 Babakan Tangerang Selatan 15315 Unit Instansi Telp./Faks HP E-mail : Umum : 021-7566770 / 021-7566770 : 081513142211 : agung.darlianto@yahoo.com abinada@thedarlianto.com Website/Blog : www.thedarlianto.com

Author started his career in teaching since his high school time by being an English Instructor at well known public english course in his hometown, Bengkulu. Continuing his education at a popular state university in Padang, West Sumatera, he kept improving his career as a teacher at a national non-formal education center there. After finishing his bachelor degree and enrolling at post graduate course at a private university in Jakarta, he proceeded his work as an educator at the university where he achieved his Master's degree and at Sekolah Tiinggi Akuntansi Negara in which he found himself to be potential in writing.

At Sekolah Tinggi Akuntansi Negara, the author is given the responsibity for handling english subject teaching and materials designing. Beside the English Learning Module, the author has been working on some books related to English learning and teaching, training, motivation, and some true-story-based novels which are going to be published soon. The author has shown a restless dedication to the teaching, training, and education world that he is willing to abdicate his life to the better improvement of learning process at his institution.

163 | P a g e

164 | P a g e