Tanzania Pavement and Materials Design Manual 1999 Chapter 1

MAY 1999
ISBN 9987 - 8891 - 1 - 5
THE UNITED REPUBLIC OF TANZANIA

MINISTRY OF WORKS
Pavement and Materials

Design Manual - 1999
Pavement and Materials Design Manual -1999
MAY 1999
ISBN 9987 8891 1 5
Reproduction of extracts from this Manual may be made
subject to due acknowledgement of the source.
Although this Manual is believed to be correct at the time of
printing, Ministry of Works does not accept any contractual,
tortious or other form of liability for its contents or for any
consequences arising from its use. People using the information contained in the Manual should apply and rely on their
own skill and judgement to the particular issue that they are
considering.
Printed by: Allkopi AS, Oslo Norway
Layout: Jan Edvardsen, ICG Oslo Norway
Ministry of Works
Pavement and Materials Design Manual - 1999
Preface
The Ministry of Works has prepared this Pavement and Materials Design Manual 1999 for design of new roads
and rehabilitation of existing roads in order to standardise design practises in the country. The road network
comprises a huge national asset that requires adherence to appropriate standards for design, construction and
maintenance in order to give a high level service. As the length of the engineered road network is steadily
growing, appropriate choice of methods to preserve this investment becomes increasingly important for
optimal use of available resources.
This Manual has particular reference to the prevailing conditions in Tanzania and reflects the Ministry of
Works experience gained through activities within the road sector during the last 20 to 30 years. The Manual
supersedes the Pavement Design and Materials part of the Draft Road Manual of 1989 and the intention is to
update the Manual when new technical information and performance data become available.
The design standards set out in this Manual shall be adhered to unless otherwise directed by the Ministry of
Works. However, it is emphasised that careful consideration to sound engineering practice shall be observed
in the use of the Manual, and under no circumstances shall the Manual waive professional judgement in
applied engineering.
It is my sincere hope that this Manual will provide all involved parties with a ready reference standard and
assist in a cost-effective operation, and environmentally sustainable development of our road network. I look
forward to incorporating the practices contained in this Manual into our operations, thereby making a
substantial contribution to the improved infrastructure of our country.
Dar es Salaam
May, 1999
Ministry of Works
Ministry of Works
Acknowledgements
This Pavement and Materials Design Manual 1999 has been prepared as a component under the Institutional
Cooperation between the Ministry of Works (MoW), Central Materials Laboratory (CML) and the Norwegian Public
Roads Administration (NPRA). The Government of Tanzania and the Norwegian Agency for International
Development (NORAD) have jointly financed the project, which forms part of a programme to establish technical
standards and guidelines for highway engineering.
This Manual has been prepared by a Working Group under the supervision of a Steering Committee comprising the
following members from the Ministry of Works:
Mr.
JL
Ngumbulu Director of Trunk Roads (Chairman)
Mr.
JW
Kijazi
Ag. Director of Rural Roads
Mr.
DJ
Mariki
Ag. Chief Engineer, CML
Mr.
LJ
Mujjungi
Ag. Chief Engineer, Design and Construction, Trunk Roads
Mr.
GJ
Kinyero
Ag. Chief Engineer, Design and Construction, Rural Roads
The Working Group consisted of the following members:

Mr.
AS
Idabaga
MoW
Mr.
ST
Rwegumisa MoW
Mr.
Overby
NPRA
Mr.
Refsdal
NPRA
Mr.
Johansen
Norconsult (Secretary)
The Steering Committee and the Working Group wish to acknowledge the significant contribution from all people
giving critical comments and advice during the preparation of this Manual. In particular, the comprehensive input
from contributors within the Ministry of Works, professional bodies, the private sector, educational institutions and
other stakeholders who commented on the draft, is gratefully acknowledged.
Ministry of Works
Summary of Terminology
Definitions of terms and abbreviations are presented in full in /Appendix A1/ and /Appendix A3/. Selected terms,
definitions and abbreviations are tabulated below for ease of reference in the use of this manual.
Materials testing methods
Base course
Bituminous binders
Bitumen emulsion (anionic, cationic, inverted)
Cutback bitumen (e.g. MC3000, MC800, MC30)
Penetration grade bitumen (e.g. 60/70, 80/100)
Bituminous layers
Asphalt concrete surfacing
Bitumen emulsion mix
Dense bitumen macadam
Foamed bitumen mix
Large aggregate mix for bases
Penetration macadam
AC
BEMIX
DBM
FBMIX
LAMBS
PM
Bituminous seals
Emulsion fogspray
Slurry seal
Surface treatments:
Surface dressing
Cape seal
Otta seal
Sand seal
Cemented materials (lime or cement)
C4
Stabilised,
UCS >4
C2
Stabilised,
UCS >2
C1
Stabilised,
UCS >1
CM
Modified,
UCS >0.5
Climatic zones
Dry
Moderate
Wet
MPa
MPa
MPa
MPa
Design depth
Earthworks
Fill
Improved subgrade layers
Roadbed
Environmental Impact Assessment
Fogspray (Sprayed on a surface dressing)
Granular materials
CRR Crushed fresh rock
CRS Crushed stones and oversize
G80 Natural gravel CBR >80%
Gravel roads
GC
Grading coefficient
GW
Gravel wearing course
SP
Shrinkage product (LSx%pass.75mm)
Materials for earthworks
DR
Dump rock: un-sorted rock
G15 Natural gravel/soil CBR >15%
G7
Natural gravel/soil CBR >7%
G3
Natural gravel/soil CBR >3%
(cold)
(hot)
(cold)
(hot)
(cold)
CBR
GM
ICL
LL
LS
MDD
OMC
PI
PL
TFV
UCS
California bearing ratio

Grading modulus
Initial consumption of lime
Liquid limit
Linear shrinkage
Maximum dry density
Optimum moisture content
Plasticity index
Plastic limit
Aggregate strength (10% fines value)
Unconfined compression strength
Materials testing standards

AASHTO
ASTM
BS
CML
NPRA
TMH
Issued by the American Association for

State Highway Officials
Issued by the American Society for Testing and
Materials
British Standard
Central Materials Laboratory (Ministry of Works),
Norwegian Public Roads Administration
Technical Methods for Highways (South African
series of standards)
Prime (Sprayed on granular layers)

Problem soils
Expansive soils
Dispersive soils
Saline soils/water
Subbase
Subgrade
Improved subgrade layers
In-situ subgrade and fill
S15
CBR > 15%
S7
CBR > 7%
S3
CBR > 3%
Surfacing
Binder course, bituminous hot mix
Surface treatments
Wearing course, bituminous hot mix
Tack coat (Sprayed on bituminous layers)
Traffic
Design period
E80 - Equivalent standard axle (8160 kg)
Heavy vehicles:> 3t un-laden weight
Very heavy goods vehicles:
4 or more axles
Heavy goods vehicles:
3 axles
Medium goods vehicles:
2 axles
> 40 seats
Buses:
Light vehicles: < 3t un-laden weight
VEF Vehicle equivalency factor (the number of E80 per
heavy vehicle)
Unfavourable subgrade conditions
Cavities, termites, rodents
High water table and swamps
Wells
Wet spots
Ministry of Works
Centre
line
Roadway
Cut back slope
Shoulder breakpoint
Carriageway
Shoulder
Open side drain
Lane
Shoulder
Lane
Embankment side slope
Figure 1 Cross section terms
Original ground level

Finished road level
Cutting
Pavement layers
Formation level
Improved
subgrade layers
Fill
In-situ subgrade
Roadbed
Subgrade
Figure 2 Cross section elements
Asphalt concrete surfacing
Surface treated pavements
Wearing course
Binder course (if required)
Surfacing
Surfacing
Subgrade
Subgrade
Gravel roads
Surfacing
Structural layer (improved subgrade, if required)
Subgrade
Figure 3 Pavement details
Ministry of Works
Table of Contents
Preface .......................................................................................................................................................................... 3
Acknowledgement ........................................................................................................................................................ 5
Summary of Terminology ............................................................................................................................................. 6
List of Tables and Figures ........................................................................................................................................... 13
1
Introduction ................................................................................................................................................ 1.1

1.1
The Manual - Background ...................................................................................................... 1.2
1.2
Purpose of the Manual ............................................................................................................ 1.2
1.3
Structure of the Manual .......................................................................................................... 1.2
1.3.1
Comment text ......................................................................................................................................... 1.2
1.3.2
Structure of the contents ........................................................................................................................ 1.2
1.4
Design Aspects and Policy ...................................................................................................... 1.4
1.4.1
Pavement design analysis ..................................................................................................................... 1.4
1.4.2
Material testing methods ....................................................................................................................... 1.4
1.4.3
New roads .............................................................................................................................................. 1.4
1.4.4
Pavement rehabilitation (paved roads) ................................................................................................. 1.5
1.4.5
Gravel roads .......................................................................................................................................... 1.5
1.5
Construction and Maintenance Considerations Affecting Pavement Design ......................... 1.6
1.5.0
General .................................................................................................................................................. 1.6
1.5.1
Extent and type of drainage .................................................................................................................. 1.6
1.5.2
Use of stabilisation with lime or cement .............................................................................................. 1.6
1.5.3
Availability of equipment and materials ............................................................................................... 1.6
1.5.4
Construction under traffic ..................................................................................................................... 1.7
1.5.5
Maintenance strategy ............................................................................................................................ 1.7
1.5.6
Type of surface on the shoulder ............................................................................................................ 1.7
1.5.7
Use of stage construction ...................................................................................................................... 1.7
References ........................................................................................................................................... 1.9
Environment ................................................................................................................................................ 2.1
2.0
General .................................................................................................................................... 2.2
2.1
Climatic Zones ........................................................................................................................ 2.2
2.2
Moisture Regime .................................................................................................................... 2.3
2.2.0
General .................................................................................................................................................. 2.3
2.2.1
Design moisture ..................................................................................................................................... 2.4
2.3
Pavement Temperature ........................................................................................................... 2.5
2.3.0
General .................................................................................................................................................. 2.5
2.3.1
Bituminous materials ............................................................................................................................ 2.5
2.3.2
Non-bituminous materials ..................................................................................................................... 2.5
2.4
Unfavourable Subgrade Conditions........................................................................................ 2.5
2.4.0
General .................................................................................................................................................. 2.5
2.4.1
Identification ......................................................................................................................................... 2.6
2.4.2
Treatment ............................................................................................................................................... 2.6
2.5
Other Physical Features .......................................................................................................... 2.7
2.5.1
Topography ........................................................................................................................................... 2.7
2.5.2
Geology ................................................................................................................................................. 2.7
2.5.3
Vegetation .............................................................................................................................................. 2.7
2.6
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) ............................................................................... 2.8
2.6.1
Purpose of EIA ...................................................................................................................................... 2.8
2.6.2
Commissioning of EIA .......................................................................................................................... 2.8
2.6.3
Implementing EIA ................................................................................................................................. 2.8
References
.................................................................................................................................. 2.9
Ministry of Works
Cross Section, Shoulders and Drainage ....................................................................................................... 3.1

3.1
Standard Cross Section ........................................................................................................ 3.2
3.2
Shoulders .............................................................................................................................. 3.2
3.2.0
General ................................................................................................................................................. 3.2
3.2.1
Bearing capacity of the shoulders ......................................................................................................... 3.2
3.2.2
Surface treatments for shoulders .......................................................................................................... 3.2
3.2.3
Preventing cracks to develop in the shoulders ...................................................................................... 3.3
3.2.4
Unpaved shoulders .............................................................................................................................. 3.3
3.3
Drainage ................................................................................................................................ 3.4
3.3.1
Drainage of the road surface ................................................................................................................ 3.4
3.3.2
Drainage of the pavement layers .......................................................................................................... 3.4
3.3.3
Drainage of the subgrade ..................................................................................................................... 3.4
References
................................................................................................................................. 3.6
Traffic ........................................................................................................................................................... 4.1
4.0 General ...................................................................................................................................... 4.2
4.0.1
Magnitude of the loads ......................................................................................................................... 4.2
4.0.2
Contact pressure .................................................................................................................................. 4.2
4.0.3
Load repetitions .................................................................................................................................... 4.2
4.1 Design Period ............................................................................................................................ 4.2
4.2 Design Traffic Loading ............................................................................................................ 4.3
4.2.1
Traffic counts ........................................................................................................................................ 4.4
4.2.2
Axle load surveys .................................................................................................................................. 4.4
4.2.3
Equivalency factors ............................................................................................................................... 4.5
4.2.4
Axles loaded to above 13 tonnes ........................................................................................................... 4.5
4.2.5
Traffic growth ........................................................................................................................................ 4.5
4.2.6
Lane distribution .................................................................................................................................. 4.6
4.2.7
Construction traffic ............................................................................................................................... 4.6
4.3
Traffic Load Classes (TLC) ................................................................................................. 4.6
4.4
Presentation of Data ............................................................................................................. 4.7
References ......................................................................................................................................... 4.8
Subgrade . ........................................................................................................................................ 5.1
5.0
General ................................................................................................................................. 5.2
5.1
Design Depth ........................................................................................................................ 5.2
5.2
Centreline Soil Surveys ....................................................................................................... 5.2
5.2.0
General ................................................................................................................................................. 5.2
5.2.1
Depth of investigations ......................................................................................................................... 5.3
5.2.2
Materials testing frequency ................................................................................................................... 5.3
5.2.3
Determination of CBRdesign ......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 5.4
5.3
Laboratory Testing ............................................................................................................... 5.5
5.4
Subgrade Classes ................................................................................................................. 5.5
5.5
Improved Subgrade Layers ................................................................................................. 5.6
5.5.0
General ................................................................................................................................................. 5.6
5.5.1
Design of improved subgrade ............................................................................................................... 5.6
5.5.2
Material characteristics ........................................................................................................................ 5.6
5.6
Fill .......................................................................................................................................... 5.8
5.7
Roadbed Preparation ........................................................................................................... 5.8
5.8
Filter Layers .......................................................................................................................... 5.8
5.8.0
General ................................................................................................................................................. 5.8
5.8.1
Filter criteria for soils/gravel ................................................................................................................ 5.9
5.8.2
Draining properties of filter layers ....................................................................................................... 5.9
Ministry of Works

5.8.3
5.8.4
References
6
5.9
Cost ...................................................................................................................................................... 5.9
............................................................................................................................... 5.10
Geo-textiles as filter ..............................................................................................................................
Problem Soils .............................................................................................................................................. 6.1

6.0
General ................................................................................................................................. 6.2
6.1
Low-Strength Soils (CBR < 3%) ......................................................................................... 6.2
6.2
Expansive Soils .................................................................................................................... 6.2
6.2.0
General ................................................................................................................................................. 6.2
6.2.1
Type of distress ..................................................................................................................................... 6.3
6.2.2
Identification of expansive soils ............................................................................................................ 6.3
6.2.3
Classification of expansive soils ........................................................................................................... 6.4
6.2.4
Design on expansive soils ..................................................................................................................... 6.5
6.2.5
Construction on expansive soils ........................................................................................................... 6.6
6.3
Other Problem Soils ............................................................................................................. 6.7
6.3.0
General ................................................................................................................................................. 6.7
6.3.1
Dispersive soils .................................................................................................................................... 6.7
6.3.2
Saline soils or presence of saline water ................................................................................................ 6.8
6.3.3
Other deleterious matter ....................................................................................................................... 6.9
References
............................................................................................................................... 6.10
Pavement Materials ................................................................................................................................. 7.1
7.0
General ................................................................................................................................. 7.2
7.1
Material Types ....................................................................................................................... 7.2
7.1.1
Crushed, fresh rock or boulders ........................................................................................................... 7.2
7.1.2
Weathered rocks and laterites ............................................................................................................... 7.2
7.1.3
Coral rock and calcrete ......................................................................................................................... 7.3
7.1.4
Volcanic tuff (scoria) ............................................................................................................................. 7.3
7.1.5
Self-cementing materials ....................................................................................................................... 7.3
7.2
Unbound Materials .............................................................................................................. 7.4
7.2.1
Natural gravel ....................................................................................................................................... 7.4
7.2.2
Crushed materials ................................................................................................................................ 7.5
7.3
Cemented Materials ............................................................................................................. 7.6
7.3.1
Classification ........................................................................................................................................ 7.6
7.3.2
Material requirements .......................................................................................................................... 7.6
7.3.3
Type of stabiliser ................................................................................................................................... 7.7
7.3.4
Content of stabiliser .............................................................................................................................. 7.7
7.3.5
Construction ......................................................................................................................................... 7.8
7.3.6
Other chemical stabilisers .................................................................................................................... 7.9
7.4
Bituminous Base Course Materials ..................................................................................... 7.9
7.4.0
General ................................................................................................................................................. 7.9
7.4.1
Classification ...................................................................................................................................... 7.10
7.4.2
Hot bituminous mixes ......................................................................................................................... 7.10
7.4.3
Penetration macadam ......................................................................................................................... 7.12
7.4.4
Cold bituminous mixes ....................................................................................................................... 7.12
7.4.5
Construction ....................................................................................................................................... 7.14
7.5
Deleterious Minerals .......................................................................................................... 7.16
7.6
Surveys for Construction Materials .................................................................................. 7.16
7.6.1
Borrow pits ......................................................................................................................................... 7.16
7.6.2
Quarries ............................................................................................................................................. 7.17
7.7
Manufactured Materials ..................................................................................................... 7.17
10
Ministry of Works

7.7.1
Geo-textiles used as separating layers ................................................................................................ 7.17
7.7.2
Geo-grids for reinforcement ............................................................................................................... 7.18
References ....................................................................................................................................... 7.18

8
Pavement Design New Roads ................................................................................................................. 8.1

8.1
Objectives ............................................................................................................................. 8.2
8.2
Pavement Types .................................................................................................................... 8.2
8.2.1
Flexible pavements ................................................................................................................................ 8.2
8.2.2
Semi-rigid pavements ........................................................................................................................... 8.3
8.2.3
Rigid pavements .................................................................................................................................... 8.4
8.3
Structural Design .................................................................................................................. 8.4
8.3.0
General ................................................................................................................................................. 8.4
8.3.1
Input data ............................................................................................................................................. 8.4
8.3.2
Pavement design catalogues ................................................................................................................. 8.6
References
............................................................................................................................... 8.12
Pavement Rehabilitation ............................................................................................................................. 9.1

9.0
General ................................................................................................................................. 9.2

Rehabilitation needs .............................................................................................................................. 9.2
9.0.2
Pavement evaluation ............................................................................................................................. 9.2
9.0.3
Rehabilitation design ............................................................................................................................ 9.2
9.0.4
Rehabilitation options ........................................................................................................................... 9.2
9.1
Pavement Evaluation ........................................................................................................... 9.2
9.1.0
General ................................................................................................................................................. 9.2
9.1.1
Confidence level .................................................................................................................................... 9.3
9.1.2
Design traffic loading ........................................................................................................................... 9.3
9.1.3
Pavement investigation procedure ......................................................................................................... 9.3
9.1.4
Extent of investigations ......................................................................................................................... 9.6
9.1.5
Distress criteria .................................................................................................................................... 9.7
9.1.6
Data interpretation ............................................................................................................................... 9.8
9.2
Rehabilitation Design Methods ........................................................................................... 9.8
9.2.0
General ................................................................................................................................................. 9.8
9.2.1
Maximum deflection method ................................................................................................................. 9.9
9.2.2
Structural number method .................................................................................................................. 9.13
9.2.3
Mechanistic method ............................................................................................................................ 9.15
9.3
Rehabilitation Options ....................................................................................................... 9.16
9.3.0
General ............................................................................................................................................... 9.16
9.3.1
Overlays ............................................................................................................................................. 9.16
9.3.2
Partial reconstruction ......................................................................................................................... 9.19
9.3.3
Full reconstruction ............................................................................................................................. 9.19
9.4
Methods to Prevent Reflective Cracking ......................................................................... 9.19
9.4.0
General ............................................................................................................................................... 9.19
9.4.1
Conventional methods for overlays .................................................................................................... 9.19
9.4.2
Special methods and materials for overlays ....................................................................................... 9.20
9.4.3
Surface treatments .............................................................................................................................. 9.20
References
............................................................................................................................... 9.21
9.0.1
10
Bituminous Surfacings .............................................................................................................................. 10.1

10.0 General ............................................................................................................................... 10.2
10.1 Priming ............................................................................................................................... 10.2
10.1.0
General ............................................................................................................................................... 10.2
Ministry of Works
11

10.1.1
Materials and construction ................................................................................................................. 10.2
10.2
Surface Dressing ................................................................................................................ 10.3

10.2.0
General ............................................................................................................................................... 10.3
10.2.1
Application rates for planning purposes ............................................................................................. 10.3
10.2.2
Aggregate requirements ..................................................................................................................... 10.3
10.2.3
Binder ................................................................................................................................................. 10.4
10.2.4
Traffic .................................................................................................................................................. 10.5
10.2.5
Single surface dressing - reseals ........................................................................................................ 10.5
10.2.6
Double surface dressing ..................................................................................................................... 10.6
10.2.7
Aggregate spread rates ....................................................................................................................... 10.8
10.2.8
Pre-coating of aggregate .................................................................................................................... 10.8
10.2.9
Emulsion fogspray .............................................................................................................................. 10.9
10.2.10 Adhesion agents .................................................................................................................................. 10.9
10.3 Otta Seal .............................................................................................................................. 10.9
10.3.0
General ............................................................................................................................................... 10.9
10.3.1
Aggregate and binder ...................................................................................................................... 10.10
10.3.2
Types of Otta Seals .......................................................................................................................... 10.10
10.3.3
Material requirements and design of Otta Seals ............................................................................. 10.10
10.3.4
Construction .................................................................................................................................... 10.11
10.4 Other Surface Treatments ................................................................................................ 10.12
10.4.1
Sand seals ........................................................................................................................................ 10.12
10.4.2
Combined seals using a sand cover-seal ......................................................................................... 10.13
10.5 Slurry Seals ....................................................................................................................... 10.13
10.5.0
General ............................................................................................................................................ 10.13
10.5.1
Materials, design and construction ................................................................................................. 10.13
10.6 Surface Enrichment .......................................................................................................... 10.14
10.6.0
General ............................................................................................................................................ 10.14
10.6.1
Materials and construction .............................................................................................................. 10.14
10.7 Surfacing for Shoulders ................................................................................................... 10.15
10.7.0
General ............................................................................................................................................ 10.15
10.7.1
Selection and design of shoulder seals ............................................................................................ 10.15
10.8 Asphalt Concrete .............................................................................................................. 10.16
10.8.0
General ............................................................................................................................................ 10.16
10.8.1
Required properties ......................................................................................................................... 10.17
10.8.2
Severely loaded areas ...................................................................................................................... 10.17
10.8.3
Mix requirements ............................................................................................................................. 10.18
10.8.4
Construction .................................................................................................................................... 10.19
References
............................................................................................................................. 10.20
Gravel Roads ............................................................................................................................................. 11.1
11.0 General ............................................................................................................................... 11.2
11.1 Design Principles ............................................................................................................... 11.2
11.1.0
General ............................................................................................................................................... 11.2
11.1.1
Pavement and materials ...................................................................................................................... 11.2
11.1.2
Crossfall and drainage ....................................................................................................................... 11.2
11.2 Material Requirements ....................................................................................................... 11.3
11.2.0
General ............................................................................................................................................... 11.3
11.2.1
Earthworks ......................................................................................................................................... 11.3
11.2.2
Gravel wearing course (GW) ............................................................................................................. 11.3
11.3 Improved Subgrade and Pavement Design ...................................................................... 11.4
11.3.1
Subgrade CBR .................................................................................................................................... 11.4
11
12
Ministry of Works

11.3.2
Major gravel roads ............................................................................................................................. 11.4
11.3.3
Minor gravel roads ............................................................................................................................. 11.5
References
............................................................................................................................... 11.6
Appendices
A1
Definitions of Terms ..........................................................................................................................A2
A2
Units of Measurements .....................................................................................................................A8
A3
Abbreviations ..................................................................................................................................A9
A4
Cross Section and Pavement Performance ................................................................................... A12
A5
Handling of Bitumen Products ...................................................................................................... A13

A5.1 Safety - General .................................................................................................................. A13
A5.2 Heating Procedures ........................................................................................................... A13
A5.3 Temperature for Storage .................................................................................................... A14
A5.4 Cutting-back Operations ................................................................................................... A14
A5.5 Anti-Stripping Additives ..................................................................................................... A15
A5.6 Check of Bitumen Distributors .......................................................................................... A16
A5.7 Waste Disposal and Spillage ............................................................................................. A16
A6
Problem Soils Investigation Procedures .................................................................................... A17

A6.1 Expansive Soils .................................................................................................................. A17
A6.2 Dispersive Soils .................................................................................................................. A18
A7
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) .................................................................................... A21
A8
Worked Examples .......................................................................................................................... A23

A8.1 Design Traffic Loading ...................................................................................................... A23
A8.2 Subgrade CBR design ............................................................................................................. A25
A8.3 The CUSUM Method to Establish Homogenous Sets of Data ....................................... A27
A8.4 Pavement Rehabilitation Design Maximum Deflection Method ................................. A28
A8.5 Pavement Rehabilitation Design Structural Number Method ..................................... A29
A8.6 Surface Dressing Design Including Determination of ALD ........................................... A31
A9 Maps
A9.1
A9.2
A9.3
A9.4
A9.5
Physical (topography)
Geology
Soils
Vegetation
Rainfall
List of Tables and Figures

Summary of Terminology
Figures
1
Cross section terms ..................................................................................................................7
2
Cross section elements .............................................................................................................7
3
Pavement details .......................................................................................................................7
Chapter 2 - Environment
Tables
2.1
Climatic zones ...................................................................................................................... 2.2
2.2
Design moisture .................................................................................................................... 2.4
Ministry of Works
13
Figures
2.1
Map showing climatic zones ............................................................................................... 2.3
Chapter 4 Traffic
Tables
4.1
Heavy vehicle categories .................................................................................................... 4.4
4.2
Traffic load distribution between lanes .............................................................................. 4.6
4.3
Traffic Load Classes - TLC .................................................................................................. 4.7
Figures
4.1
Design period ....................................................................................................................... 4.3
4.2
Procedure to determine the design traffic loading ............................................................ 4.3
Chapter 5 - Subgrade
Tables
5.1
Design depth ......................................................................................................................... 5.2
5.2
Minimum materials testing frequency ................................................................................ 5.3
5.3
Density for determination of CBR ...................................................................................... 5.5
5.4
Subgrade strength classes ................................................................................................... 5.6
5.5
Material requirements for improved subgrade layers ....................................................... 5.7
5.6
Required standards for fill ................................................................................................... 5.8
5.7
Required roadbed compaction ............................................................................................ 5.8
Figures
5.1
Design depth ......................................................................................................................... 5.2
5.2
Procedure to determine CBRdesign ........................................................................................ 5.4
5.3
CBRdesign as the 90%-ile value ............................................................................................. 5.5
5.4
Design of improved subgrade layers.................................................................................. 5.7
Chapter 6 - Problem Soils
Tables
6.1
Features of expansive soils soil descriptions ................................................................. 6.4
6.2
Expansive soils - classification ........................................................................................... 6.5
6.3
Expansive soils methods for treatment............................................................................ 6.6
Figures
6.1
Procedure to classify expansive soils ................................................................................. 6.3
6.2
Cross section and construction on expansive soils .......................................................... 6.7
6.3
Cross section and construction on expansive soils with soil replacement ..................... 6.7
Chapter 7 - Pavement Materials
Tables
7.1
Natural gravel, material classes ......................................................................................... 7.4
7.2
Material requirements G80 and G60 .............................................................................. 7.4
7.3
Material requirements G60 and G25 .............................................................................. 7.5
7.4
Crushed materials, material classes .................................................................................. 7.5
7.5
Material requirements CRR and CRS .............................................................................. 7.6
7.6
Cemented materials, material classes ................................................................................ 7.6
7.7
Material requirements C2, C1 and CM ........................................................................... 7.7
7.8
Selection of stabiliser for cemented materials ................................................................... 7.7
7.9
Cemented materials, time for completion of the layer ...................................................... 7.8
7.10 Bituminous base course material classes ..................................................................... 7.10
7.11 Material requirements DBM ........................................................................................... 7.10
7.12 Material requirements LAMBS ....................................................................................... 7.11
7.13 Material requirements penetration macadam .............................................................. 7.12
7.14 Requirements for foamed bitumen .................................................................................... 7.13
14
Ministry of Works
7.15 Material requirements FBMIX ....................................................................................... 7.14

7.16 Material requirements BEMIX ........................................................................................ 7.15
7.17 Sulphide minerals in aggregates ....................................................................................... 7.16
7.18 Borrow pits minimum test pit frequency prior to opening ............................................ 7.17
7.19 Geo-textile separating layers - required weight per m2 ................................................... 7.18
Chapter 8 Pavement Design New Roads
Tables
8.1
Traffic Load Classes - TLC .................................................................................................. 8.4
8.2
Pavement materials ............................................................................................................... 8.5
8.3
List of pavement design catalogues .................................................................................... 8.6
8.4
Pavements with granular base course - dry or moderate climatic zones ........................ 8.7
8.5
Pavements with granular base course - wet climatic zones .............................................. 8.8
8.6
Pavements with cemented base course ................................................................................ 8.9
8.7
Pavements with a bituminous mix in the base course ...................................................... 8.10
8.8
Pavements with penetration macadam base course ......................................................... 8.11
Chapter 9 Pavement Rehabilitation
Tables
9.1
Conditions that require scheme A or B respectively for frequency of investigations ..... 9.6
9.2
Required extent of pavement investigations ....................................................................... 9.6
9.3
Pavement distress criteria..................................................................................................... 9.7
9.4
Selection of appropriate design method ............................................................................. 9.9
9.5
Design parameters used in the deflection design charts ................................................ 9.12
9.6
Material coefficients (a) for existing pavement layers .................................................... 9.14
9.7
Determination of required structural number, SNrequired ................................................... 9.15
9.8
Material coefficients (a) for new pavement layers .......................................................... 9.17
9.9
Overlay design .................................................................................................................... 9.18
Figures
9.1
Pavement evaluation and rehabilitation procedure ........................................................... 9.3
9.2
Assessment of one homogenous section .............................................................................. 9.4
9.3
Interpretation of pavement data .......................................................................................... 9.8
9.4
Design procedure, maximum deflection method ............................................................... 9.10
9.5
Deflection design chart, graular base course ................................................................. 9.12
9.6
Deflection design chart, lightly cemented base course ................................................... 9.13
9.7
Determination of required strengthening SNdiff ................................................................ 9.13
Chapter 10 Bituminous Surfacings
Tables
10.1 Surface dressing application rates for planning purposes ......................................... 10.3
10.2
Aggregate requirements for surface dressing .................................................................. 10.4
10.3 Bitumen spray rates, single surface dressing and reseals .............................................. 10.6
10.4 Aggregate sizes for double surface dressing ................................................................... 10.7
10.5 Bitumen spray rates - 1st layer ........................................................................................... 10.7
10.6 Bitumen spray rates - 2nd layer .......................................................................................... 10.8
10.7 Recommended Otta Seal concept..................................................................................... 10.10
10.8 Material requirements for Otta Seals .............................................................................. 10.10
10.9 Design of Otta Seals ......................................................................................................... 10.11
10.10 Aggregate requirements for sand seals ........................................................................... 10.12
10.11 Bitumen and aggregate application rates for sand seals.............................................. 10.12
10.12 Aggregate requirements for slurry seals ......................................................................... 10.14
10.13 Mix requirements for asphalt concrete ............................................................................ 10.18
Ministry of Works
15
10.14 Mix proportions for asphalt concrete ............................................................................. 10.19

10.15 Temperature for field compaction of AC layers ............................................................. 10.19
Figures
10.1 Expected resurfacing frequency ........................................................................................ 10.2
Chapter 11 Gravel Roads
Tables
11.1 Material requirements - gravel wearing course (GW) ..................................................... 11.3
Figures
11.1 Expected performance of gravel wearing course materials ........................................... 11.4
11.2 Pavement and improved subgrade major gravel roads ............................................... 11.5
11.3 Pavement and improved subgrade minor gravel roads ................................................ 11.5
Appendices
Tables
A1.1 Definitions of Terms, CML Test Methods with References ............................................. A7
A2.1 Definition of prefixes ............................................................................................................ A8
A2.2 Basic units, multiples and sub-multiples ............................................................................. A8
A4.1 Cross section design for enhanced pavement performance ........................................... A12
A5.1 Maximum temperature for storage .................................................................................... A14
A5.2 Cutters ................................................................................................................................ A14
A6.1 Features of expansive soils - soil descriptions ................................................................. A17
Figures
A6.1 Crumb test bottom of the glass ....................................................................................... A19
A8.1 CBRdesign as the 90%-ile value for section 1 ..................................................................... A26
A8.2 CBRdesign as the 90%-ile value for section 3 ..................................................................... A26
A8.3 Determination of median size ............................................................................................. A31
A8.4 Determination of average least dimension ....................................................................... A32
16
Ministry of Works
Project appraisal
Ch
Cross Section,
Shoulders and Drainage
Traffic
Subgrade
Ch
Problem Soils
Pavement Materials
STRUCTURAL
DESIGN
DESIGN ELEMENTS
Environment
Pavement DesignNew Roads

Pavement
Rehabilitation
Bituminous
Surfacings
Gravel Roads
Comparison of alternatives and

selection of design
Refinement of design, if required
Ministry of Works
Chapter 1
Introduction
Chapter 1
Introduction
Comments:
1.1 The Manual Background

The need to update the Pavement Design and Materials part of the Draft
Road Manual of 1989 has been realised for some time. Preparation of the
new Pavement and Materials Design Manual 1999 was commissioned
following an extensive desk study of relevant road design manuals from
the region and other relevant guidelines with validity for countries with
similar environment. /1-17/. The Manual is a reflection of the Ministry of
Works experience gained in the road sector through the last 20 30 years.
1.2 Purpose of the Manual

The main purpose of this Manual is to ensure a standardised policy in the
procedures for structural pavement design of new roads and rehabilitation
of old pavements.
Although the Manual is primarily a standard for the design policy of the
Ministry of Works, the Manual may serve as a reference for other
authorities that design and construct roads and assist in training carried
out by educational institutions. The Ministry of Works has aimed to
present a user-friendly format of the Manual and worked examples are
provided as deemed necessary to improve clarity.
1.3 Structure of the Manual

1.3.1
Comment text
1.3.2
Structure of the contents
Comment text is clearly distinguished from the formal main text of this
Manual by separate columns. The purpose of the comment text is to
provide background and additional information to explain the main text and
to improve clarity.
The Manual is divided into 11 main chapters. Following the general
introduction given in Chapter 1 Introduction, the environmental
factors that affect pavements design and performance are dealt with in
Chapter 2 Environment. In this chapter 2 a country map defines three
climatic zones established for the purpose of pavement design. The
chapter furthermore offers guidance to engineers on the need for
Environmental Impact Assessments (EIA) and explains the use of an EIA
when available.
Chapter 3 Cross section, Shoulders and Drainage presents factors
affecting the function and performance of paved and unpaved shoulders
and outlines elements of cross section layout affecting structural pavement performance. The basic requirements for drainage of the pavement
and subgrade are furthermore discussed in the chapter.
The effect of traffic loading on paved roads is described in Chapter 4
Traffic. The chapter sets out methods to assess design traffic loading,
division into traffic classes for the purpose of pavement design and gives
minimum requirements for presentation of data in project design reports.
1.2
Ministry of Works
Chapter 1
The chapter establishes procedures to assess the effect of heavily loaded

axles in excess of 13 tonnes.
Introduction
Comments:
Chapter 5 Subgrade defines design depth, describes centreline soil

surveys, and sets out the required laboratory testing and material
requirements for earthworks. Subgrade strength classes are defined in this
chapter and the procedure for design of improved subgrade layers,
including fill and roadbed preparation, is given.
Occurrences of problem soils in the project area are too often neglected,
resulting in unnecessary high maintenance cost and even costly premature
pavement rehabilitation. Such conditions are brought to the designers
attention in Chapter 6 Problem Soils, which describes identification,
classification and construction methods on low-strength soils and
expansive soils. Other problem soils such as dispersive soil, saline soils,
organic matter in large quantities and deleterious minerals are also dealt
with in this chapter.
The required properties of materials to use in the pavement structure are
defined in Chapter 7 Pavement Materials. As far as possible all unbound
material types commonly used in the country are included. The chapter
describes the use of crushed materials, weathered rocks, laterite, coral rock,
calcrete and volcanic tuff. The chapter gives requirements for cemented
layers and bituminous mixes produced in a hot or cold process and gives
limits to the content of deleterious minerals in pavement layers. Minimum
frequencies of material testing to carry out at the time of prospecting are
given and the laboratory test standards of Central Materials Laboratory,
Ministry of Works are referred to wherever possible. Finally the chapter
gives requirements for geo-textile materials and provides directives for
use of geo-grids in reinforcement of earthworks.
Pavement design for new roads is dealt with in Chapter 8 Pavement
Design New Roads. The pavement design uses a catalogue format and
is based on a minimum subgrade strength of CBR 15%, that shall be
achieved by using improved subgrade layers where necessary. The design
is based on traffic loading, defined into seven Traffic Load Classes. The
consequences of heavy axle loads (above 13 tonnes) are shown in the
pavement design procedure, which puts restrictions on certain material types
in the base course under such conditions. A deeper structure is necessary
in such heavily loaded pavements requiring the addition of one additional
improved subgrade layer. The chapter describes flexible pavements and
pavements containing one or more cemented layers. Literature references
are made for design of concrete pavements, but detailed procedures for
design of such pavements are not given.
Chapter 9 Pavement Rehabilitation is based on measured properties
of materials and thickness of layers in the existing pavement, alternatively
criteria for maximum surface deflection. Based on either design method a
catalogue design for overlays is provided, alternatively partial or full
reconstruction is employed depending on the condition of the existing
pavement. Procedures for pavement evaluation and selection of
rehabilitation design methods and rehabilitation options are described.
Ministry of Works
1.3
Chapter 1
Introduction
Comments:
Chapter 10 Bituminous Surfacings describes the design and material

requirements for surfacing layers of asphalt concrete and surface
treatments such as surface dressings, Otta Seals (using graded
aggregate), sand seals and slurry seals.
Material requirements and structural design procedures for gravel roads
are given in Chapter 11 Gravel Roads. Fully engineered gravel roads
and minor gravel roads are described separately in the chapter.
Nine appendices to the Manual include worked examples and five maps
presenting features that are useful in pavements design.
1.4 Design Aspects and Policy

1.4.1
Pavement design analysis
Distress is primarily induced by traffic loading while direct environmental

influence on pavement performance, such as thermal stress and associated damage, is not included. Indirect environmental influence, such as the
temperatures effect on the stability of bituminous layers and the moisture
contents effect on the strength soils and granular materials, is included
wherever necessary in the design procedure. Normal maintenance is
assumed to take place throughout the design period of the pavement.
Expected axle loading of this magnitude
in the traffic stream is reflected in the
design of improved subgrade layers, and
in the design catalogue by limiting the
type of material allowed in the base
course.
The method to determine the traffic design load includes procedures to

assess the effect of heavily loaded axles in excess of 13 tonnes.
This Manual assumes drained conditions for the pavement throughout its
design period, ensured through adequate maintenance of the drainage
system. Methods to ensure internal drainage of the pavement layers are
described in the manual while surface drainage and flow calculations are not
included. Varying risk of moisture ingress, and associated loss of strength, is
reflected by the manner in which climatic zone influences the pavement
design. Climatic zone affects the selection of pavement material types,
material requirements for pavement and earthworks, moisture for testing
of CBR and design of improved subgrade layers.
The Manual gives requirements for soils and materials, and nominal
compaction requirements for pavement and earthworks layers. Statistical
acceptance criteria for assessment of field test data obtained during
construction control are given in Standard Specifications for Highway
Construction.
1.4.2
Material testing methods
1.4.3
New roads
In order to ensure consistency in road construction and maintenance

work, the material testing methods adopted in the Manual follows those of
the Central Materials Laboratory (CML) of Ministry of Works.
References to the CML test methods are shown tabulated in /Appendix A1/.
The aim of structural design of pavements is to protect the subgrade by
provision of appropriate pavement layers to achieve a determined level of
1.4
Ministry of Works
Chapter 1
service - with maintenance - over a chosen design period. A successful

pavement design will meet these requirements at the lowest possible total
cost over the design period. The design catalogue for paved roads requires
that all subgrade is brought to a design strength of CBR minimum 15% by
constructing one or more improved subgrade layers before the pavement
is placed.
1.4.4
Introduction
Comments:
Pavement rehabilitation (paved roads)
General
Pavement rehabilitation is defined as taking constructive measures to
restore the structural and functional condition of roads where distress has
caused unacceptable pavement serviceability. It is normally understood to
mean measures whereby the structural strength of the existing pavement
is utilised to some extent in the design of the rehabilitated pavement.
Pavement evaluation
One of the most important steps in this procedure is the evaluation of the
existing pavement. This involves relating the symptoms of pavement
distress to their causes, explaining how the distress mechanism develops.
The outcome of this exercise is largely decisive in selection of the method
to rehabilitate a given section of distressed pavement.
Rehabilitation design
The Manual describes pavement rehabilitation based on the maximum
deflection method or the use of Structural Number determined on the basis
of laboratory tests to assess the existing pavement and calculate its strength
deficiency. Mechanistic design is not described in detail, but reference is
made to recommended procedures if such analysis is required.
Rehabilitation options
Rehabilitation measures may include the following options:
a)
re-processing of one or more of the pavement layers, or
b)
overlays with one or more new pavement layers
c)
combinations of the two - a) and b)
The time of intervention determines the extent and degree of required

rehabilitation measures.
Pavement overlay may be the chosen option for pavement rehabilitation or
be an exercise to strengthen an existing pavement although terminal
serviceability has in fact not been reached yet. Measured to minimise
reflective cracking through pavement overlays are specifically outlined.
1.4.5
The rate of deterioration is often rapid

towards the end of the service life and
successful prediction of the pavements
condition at the time when physical
construction work can start requires
good knowledge about contract
procurement besides sound technical
judgement.
Gravel roads
Design of gravel roads is limited to roads with a traffic volume up to AADT

of 300 at the time of construction. The manual sets out design standards
for fully engineered major gravel roads as well as minor gravel roads and
a catalogue format is used in structural pavement design. A flexible approach is required in the design of gravel roads as construction economy is
usually of vital importance for successful execution of these projects.
Ministry of Works
1.5
Chapter 1
Introduction
Comments:
Knowledge about past performance of locally occurring materials for gravel

roads is essential. One may divert from the given material standards if
necessary to take advantage of available gravel sources provided past
experience has proved they give satisfactory performance.
1.5 Construction and Maintenance

Considerations Affecting
Pavement Design
1.5.0
General
The design procedures set out in the Manual assume that appropriate
standards of construction and maintenance practice will be adopted.
However, several construction and maintenance considerations must be
taken into account in the pavement design because they can influence the
type of pavement that is adopted or material standards and type of
surfacing to be used. The significant construction and maintenance
factors are:
n extent and type of drainage
n use of stabilisation
n availability of equipment, materials and human resources
n construction under traffic
n maintenance strategy
n use of stage construction
Underestimation of the need for drainage

may cause early pavement distress and
premature need for costly rehabilitation.
Stabilisation can give increased speed

of construction and reduced need for
replacement or processing of soils in
locations with high natural moisture
content.
1.5.1
Extent and type of drainage
1.5.2
Use of stabilisation with lime or cement
1.5.3
Availability of equipment and materials
Special drainage provisions such as subsurface drains may be desirable,

but economically prohibitive. In such cases it may be possible to minimise
the risks of pavement failures by deepening of surface ditches and paying
particular attention to maintenance of the drainage system.
Materials stabilised with lime or cement have minimal sensitivity to moisture. Stabilisation can therefore give benefits during construction and
reduce the risks of failure in locations where future upkeep of the
drainage system is particularly difficult, like in cuts or near urban centres.
The availability of specialised equipment and materials in the construction

industry needs to be considered when selecting material types in the pavement design. This is particularly important when considering admixture of
stabilisers and the choice of bituminous seals or mixes. Specialised materials
or equipment requiring specialised skills shall as far as possible be avoided
in the design as these resources may not be readily available at competitive
prices.
1.6
Ministry of Works
Chapter 1
1.5.4
Construction under traffic
1.5.5
Maintenance strategy
Some projects may be particularly demanding with regards to the control

of public traffic during construction. Construction of the road while open
to traffic or with a minimum period of closure at a time may be necessary.
Such conditions can be decisive in the choice of material types for pavement layers by provision of materials that can be trafficked soon after
construction.
Certain conditions may justify periodic maintenance to be carried out at a

low frequency with extensive methods such as overlay being employed, as
opposed to a conventional and more frequent resealing schedule using surface
treatments. Such conditions can include locations that are particularly
hazardous for the traffic or where there is profound inconvenience and
cost to the public by disruption of traffic.
Introduction
Comments:
Particular attention to maintenance

strategy is required for project roads
passing through urban or industrial
centres, or those carrying large amounts
of traffic.
Aspects concerning maintenance strategy can affect the choice of surfacing type or pavement type and requires careful consideration with due
regard for current policies.
1.5.6
Type of surface on the shoulders
Surfacing for shoulders shall be bituminous, or concrete which is used only

under special site conditions encountered in urban areas.
Gravel surfaced shoulders are not part of standard cross sections for
paved roads, and shall not be used for reasons that include:
n exessive maintenance is required in order to ensure adequate
performance
n increased risk of water ingress into the pavement layers
n reduced traffic safety where shoulders are unpaved
n edge drop from the surface to the gravel shoulders increases traffic
hazards
1.5.7
Unpaved shoulders will reduce traffic

safety.
Use of stage construction
Stage construction consists of planned improvements to the pavement

structure at fixed times through the design period. Stage construction of
the pavement structure in paved roads shall not be employed because
such design systems carry risks that future upgrading does not take
place at the appropriate time thus resulting in lost benefits from the
project.
Stage construction shall be considered in the context of designing
appropriate parts of the work to give construction cost benefits at the
time of future upgrading of the road. Such parts of the work include:
Bridges and other major structures are

normally designed with a longer time
horizon for their useful life than the rest
of the works.
n earthworks and culverts

n horizontal and vertical alignment
n bridges and other major structures
Ministry of Works
1.7
Chapter 1
Introduction
Comments:
1.8
References
1-1
AUSTROADS (1992). Pavement Design: A guide to the structural

design of road pavements. Sydney, Australia.
1-2
BOTSWANA ROAD DESIGN MANUAL (1994). Draft Volume 3,

Materials and Pavement Design. Ministry of Works, Transport and
Communications, Roads Department. Republic of Botswana.
1-3
BS 6100: Part 0: 1992. Glossary of Building and civil engineering terms.

Part 0. Introduction.
1-4
BS 6100: Subsection 2.4.1:1992. Glossary of Building and civil engineering terms. Subsection 2.4.1 Highway engineering.
1-5
COMMITTEE OF STATE ROAD AUTHORITIES. TRH 4 (1997):

Structural design of flexible pavements for interurban and rural roads.
CSRA, Pretoria, Republic of South Africa.
1-6
INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATION FOR STANDARDIZATION. SI

units and recommendations for the use of their multiples and of certain
other units. International Standard ISO 1000-1981.
1-7
JONES T E, R ROBINSON and M S SNAITH (1984). A field study on

the deterioration of unpaved roads and the effect of different
maintenance strategies. Proc. 8th Regional Conference for Africa on
Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, Harare, Zimbabwe.
1-8
MITCHELL, R L, C P VAN DER MERWE and H K GEEL (1975).

Standard Flexible Pavement Design For Rural Roads with Light to
Medium Traffic. Republic of Zimbabwe.
1-9
ROAD DESIGN MANUAL (1987). Part III, Materials and Pavement

Design for New Roads. Ministry of Transport and Comm., Roads
Department. Republic of Kenya.
1 - 10
SOUTHERN AFRICAN TRANSPORT AND COMMUNICATION

COMMISSION - SATCC (1998). Draft: Code of practice for pavement
rehabilitation. CSIR, Pretoria, South Africa, for SATCC.
1 - 11
SOUTHERN AFRICAN TRANSPORT AND COMMUNICATION

COMMISSION - SATCC (1997). Draft: Pavement Design Guide. CSIR,
Pretoria, South Africa, for SATCC.
1 - 12
THE ASPHALT INSTITUTE (1969). Asphalt overlays and pavement

rehabilitation. Asphalt Institute manual (MS-17), USA.
1 - 13
TRANSPORT RESEARCH LABORATORY (1988). A guide to road

project appraisal. Overseas Road Note No. 5. TRL, Crowthorne, for
ODA, London, UK.
1 - 14
TRANSPORT RESEARCH LABORATORY (1993). A guide to the

structural design of bitumen-surfaced roads in tropical and subtropical countries. Overseas Road Note No. 31. TRL, Crowthorne, for
ODA, London, UK.
1 - 15
WEINERT, H H (1980). The natural road construction materials of

Southern Africa. Academica, Pretoria, Republic of South Africa.
1 - 16
YODER E J, WITCZAK M W (1975). Principles of pavement design.

Second edition. A Wiley-Interscience Publication, USA and Canada.
1 - 17
CENTRAL MATERIALS LABORATORY (1997). Desk Study of Pavement/Materials Design Manuals. CML Report No. I 010. Ministry of
Works, Tanzania.
Ministry of Works

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MAY 1999

ISBN 9987 - 8891 - 1 - 5

THE UNITED REPUBLIC OF TANZANIA

Pavement and Materials

Pavement and Materials Design Manual -1999

Pavement and Materials Design Manual - 1999

Pavement and Materials Design Manual -1999

Pavement and Materials Design Manual - 1999

Ngumbulu Director of Trunk Roads (Chairman)

Ag. Director of Rural Roads

Ag. Chief Engineer, CML

Ag. Chief Engineer, Design and Construction, Trunk Roads

Ag. Chief Engineer, Design and Construction, Rural Roads

The Working Group consisted of the following members:

Pavement and Materials Design Manual -1999

California bearing ratio

Materials testing standards

Issued by the American Association for

Prime (Sprayed on granular layers)

Pavement and Materials Design Manual - 1999

Cut back slope

Embankment side slope

Figure 1 Cross section terms

Original ground level

Asphalt concrete surfacing

Surface treated pavements

Structural layer (improved subgrade, if required)

Figure 3 Pavement details

Pavement and Materials Design Manual -1999

Introduction ................................................................................................................................................ 1.1

Pavement and Materials Design Manual - 1999

Cross Section, Shoulders and Drainage ....................................................................................................... 3.1

Pavement and Materials Design Manual -1999

Geo-textiles as filter ..............................................................................................................................

Problem Soils .............................................................................................................................................. 6.1

Pavement and Materials Design Manual - 1999

Geo-textiles used as separating layers ................................................................................................ 7.17

Geo-grids for reinforcement ............................................................................................................... 7.18

References ....................................................................................................................................... 7.18

Pavement Design New Roads ................................................................................................................. 8.1

Pavement Rehabilitation ............................................................................................................................. 9.1

General ................................................................................................................................. 9.2

Bituminous Surfacings .............................................................................................................................. 10.1

Pavement and Materials Design Manual -1999

Materials and construction ................................................................................................................. 10.2

Surface Dressing ................................................................................................................ 10.3

Pavement and Materials Design Manual - 1999

Major gravel roads ............................................................................................................................. 11.4

Minor gravel roads ............................................................................................................................. 11.5

Units of Measurements .....................................................................................................................A8

Cross Section and Pavement Performance ................................................................................... A12

Handling of Bitumen Products ...................................................................................................... A13

Problem Soils Investigation Procedures .................................................................................... A17

Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) .................................................................................... A21

Worked Examples .......................................................................................................................... A23

List of Tables and Figures

Pavement and Materials Design Manual -1999

Pavement and Materials Design Manual - 1999

7.15 Material requirements FBMIX ....................................................................................... 7.14

Pavement and Materials Design Manual -1999

10.14 Mix proportions for asphalt concrete ............................................................................. 10.19

Pavement and Materials Design Manual - 1999

Pavement DesignNew Roads