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The notes are revised without notice and they are provided as is without warranty of any kind. You are encouraged to submit comments, suggestions, and questions to terje@civil.ubc.ca. It is unnecessary to print these notes because they will remain available online.
A structure has many characteristics, many of which are properties of the structural members. This document, however, describes some global characteristics that are important in linear static structural analysis. The characteristics are stability and degree of static and kinematic indeterminacy.
Stability
Stability
implies
that
there
are
no
modes
of
deformation
with
zero
stiffness.
Such
modes
are
often
called
mechanisms
and
they
make
the
structure
unstable.
An
unstable
structure
will
collapse
even
without
load.
For
2D
structural
models
it
is
often
straightforward
to
see
that
a
structure
is
unstable.
Figure
1
shows
examples
of
unstable
structural
models.
The
two
hinges
at
the
top
of
the
frame
combined
with
the
pinned
supports
means
that
this
structure
will
collapse
sideways.
Even
one
hinge
would
be
sufficient
to
make
it
unstable.
The
truss
structure
in
Figure
1
is
also
unstable;
a
cross
brace
is
required
to
make
this
a
useful
structure.
Terje Haukaas
www.inrisk.ubc.ca
Frame
Truss
Obviously, great care must be exercised to avoid the presence of instabilities in structures. Fortunately, there exist indicators that expose instabilities. The first is a negative degree of static indeterminacy, described shortly. However, this indicator is imperfect. A structure can be statically determinate and still unstable. Another way of detecting instabilities is to model the structure by the stiffness method and attempt to solve the resulting linear system of equations. If the stiffness matrix is singular, i.e., it cannot be inverted, then instability may be the cause.
A structures degree of static indeterminacy (DSI) exposes the deficit of equilibrium equations compared with the number of unknown internal forces in the structure. In other words, for a statically determinate structure (DSI=0) it is possible to compute the section forces (M, V, N) by equilibrium equations alone. More advanced methods are required for structures that are statically indeterminate. Different engineers have different habits when it comes to determining the DSI. However, every rule boils down to counting the number of unknowns and comparing it with the number of available equilibrium equations. In this document, this calculation is set up as follows:
DSI = ( f ! m + r ) " ( e ! j + h )
f
=
forces
m
=
members
r
=
restraints
e
=
equations
j
=
joints
h
=
hinges
=
number
of
internal
force
in
each
member
=
number
of
members
=
number
of
restraints,
i.e.,
boundary
conditions
=
number
of
equilibrium
equations
per
joint
=
number
of
joints
=
number
of
hinges
or
other
section
force
releases
(1)
where all variables are non-negative integers with the following meaning:
The
number
of
internal
forces,
f,
in
each
member
depends
on
the
member
type.
A
truss
member
has
only
one
unknown
force:
the
axial
force.
Conversely,
a
frame
member
in
a
2D
structural
model
has
three
internal
forces:
axial
force,
shear
force,
and
bending
moment.
This
number
increases
from
three
to
six
for
3D
frame
members.
Table
1
summarizes
the
value
of
f
for
different
structures.
The
number
of
equilibrium
equations,
e,
per
joint
is
obtained
by
counting
the
orthogonal
directions
in
which
equilibrium
can
be
considered.
For
the
typical
case
of
2D
frame
structures
there
are
three
equilibrium
equations
per
joint:
horizontal,
Stability and Degrees of Indeterminacy Page 2
Terje Haukaas
www.inrisk.ubc.ca
vertical,
and
angular
equilibrium.
For
a
joint
in
a
2D
structure
with
only
truss
members
entering,
i.e.,
member
without
bending
stiffness,
rotational
equilibrium
is
cancelled.
Table
1
summarizes
the
value
of
e
for
different
structures.
Table
1:
Forces
per
member
and
equations
per
joint.
f 1 3 1 6
e 2 3 3 6
The
number
of
restraints,
r,
is
obtained
by
counting
the
number
of
support
reactions.
Although
rather
trivial,
Figure
2
provides
an
overview
of
the
number
of
unknown
reaction
forces
for
different
kinds
of
2D
boundary.
The
arrows
in
the
figure
show
the
forces.
The
degrees
of
freedom
will
be
described
later.
Support type Fixed Unknown forces Degrees of freedom
!"
#"
Pinned
$"
%"
Roller
%"
$"
!"#$%&'
$"
%"
Hinge
$"
&"
Figure
2:
Number
of
unknown
forces
and
degrees
of
freedom
for
some
2D
joint
types.
Stability and Degrees of Indeterminacy Page 3
Terje Haukaas
www.inrisk.ubc.ca
The number of hinges, h, is obtained by counting the number of hinges and releases in the structure. Each hinge represents one release, i.e., the specification of one internal force. The typical example is to replace a moment connection with a hinge so that the bending moment becomes known and equal to zero. The determination of h can sometimes seem difficult, especially when section forces other than bending moments are released. Examples will help. For frames the number of members, m, and joints, j, in a structural model is subjective. However, the subjectivity does not affect the final DSI. Usually, joints are identified wherever there is a boundary condition or a bend or intersection in the structure. If for some reason the analyst places a joint in the middle of a frame member then this increases j and m in a way that leaves DSI unchanged.
While DSI provides information about unknown member forces the degree of kinematic indeterminacy (DKI) exposes the number of unknown joint displacements and rotations. DSI is a key number in force-based structural analysis methods and DKI is the key figure in displacement-based methods. In fact, the DSI is the size of the flexibility matrix and DKI is the size of the stiffness matrix, for the flexibility methods and the stiffness method, respectively. The DKI is easier to determine than the DSI. Even a computer can do it in a straightforward manner. This is why the stiffness method is implemented in all structural analysis software, while the flexibility method is not. Essentially, DKI counts the number of degrees of freedom (DOFs) of a structure. Each joint, usually called node in displacement-based methods, has a pre-defined number of DOFs. A 2D structure has three DOFs per node, i.e., three possible directions to move: horizontal, vertical, and rotation. Similarly, a 3D structural model has six degrees of freedom per node: three displacements and three rotations. For truss structures the rotational DOFs are neglected altogether because they are associated with zero stiffness from the truss elements. Some structural analysis programs deal with trusses by first keeping all rotational degrees of freedom and later restraining them in the same way as nodes with boundary conditions are restrained. When doing hand calculations there are two exceptions to the rule that every node has equally many DOFs. The first is for nodes with boundary conditions. For
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Terje Haukaas
www.inrisk.ubc.ca
example, a fixed node has zero DOFs. Figure 2 provides an overview for 2D structures of the number of DOFs per node for different boundary conditions. The second exception to the rule appears when axial deformations are neglected in the analysis of frame structures. This is quite common in hand calculations with the classical stiffness method because the axial stiffness of frame members is usually significantly higher than the bending stiffness. Neglecting axial deformations requires careful consideration of the DOFs at each node, which is difficult for a computer. Hence, in computer analysis it is easier to always account for axial deformations. By hand, one simply removes the DOFs that will experience zero displacement when the members do not deform axially.
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