Mustard Gas: From Deadly War Weapon to Life-Saving Medicine

Nicole Goodman and Marley Radcliff Junior Group Website National History Day Competition 2012

Primary Sources
Interviews:
Bjorkgren, Pat. Personal interview. 20 Feb. 2012 Mrs. Bjorkgren is a teacher at the Storm Lake Middle School. She received grueling chemotherapy for a few years, and is now a cancer survivor. Hearing her experience was very interesting. Chemotherapy is a very difficult process to go through.

Christiansen, Joan. Personal interview. 7 Feb. 2012. Our conversation with Joan, an oncologist at Buena Vista Regional Medical Center in Storm Lake, was very interesting and packed with information. The number one cancer for women is breast cancer and for men is prostate cancer. Joan explained how chemotherapy is given and what kind of medications are given to ease the doses. The interview concluded after a tour of some of the oncology rooms. We feel we learned a quite a bit.

Koster, Robin. Personal interview. 7 Feb. 2012. Robin is the Oncology Supervisor at Buena Vista Regional Medical Center in Storm Lake. She is a breast cancer survivor, nurse, and pharmacist technician. She is responsible for mixing the doses given to the patients. Robin explained that measuring the doses is very important for the patients quality of life.

Newspaper Articles:

"America Took Lead In Gas Production: Our Output for War at Time of Armistice Ten Times That of Germans. EXCELLED IN GAS MASKS Protection Twenty Times That of Foe-Germans Could Have Won by Pushing Gas Surprise. Production of Tear Gases. Germans' Great Gas." New York Times [New York City] 11 May 1919: n. pag. http://query.nytimes.com. Web. 23 Jan. 2012. There was never a failed gas mask for U. S. soldiers in World War One. Such gas casualties that occurred were due to the masks not utilized quickly enough or because the soldier was unaware of the presence of gas.

"Baker Answers Hooker on Gas Issue." New York Times [New York City] 24 Oct. 1920: n. pag. query.nytimes.com. Web. 16 Jan. 2011. American troops were first gassed with mustard agent in France. The United States had no familiarity with manufacturing toxic gases, so manufacturing our own was nearly impossible. In 1918, the United States shipped out fifteen tons of mustard agents to be traded for shells with the French.

Bauer, Gwen B., and Povirk, Lawrence F. "Specificity and Kinetics of Interastrand and Intrastrand

Bifunctional Alkylation by Nitrogen Mustards at a G-G-C Sequence." Nucleic Acids Research 25.6 (1997): 1211-1218. Print. Nitrogen mustards are best known for their effects in war and in chemotherapy. Nitrogen mustard also proves to be most effective in treating non-Hodgkin's Disease, multiple myeloma, Burkitt's Lymphoma and various carcinomas. A serious complication of treatment with nitrogen mustards is the increased risk of a secondary leukemia in long-term survivors.

Clayton, William, Alfred John Howard, and David Thomson. "Treatment of Mustard Gas Burns." British Medical Journal 23 (1946): 797-799. Print. This article describes a scientific trial to find a treatment for mustard gas burns. If mustard gas burns were not discovered within an amount of time, it was nearly impossible to treat. The scientists experimented on rabbits by giving them different doses of the gas with different treatments. After a majority of the treatments were successful, they determined they had a cure and combined the active ingredients into an ointment.

"Cure for Gas Poison; Ointment Provided for Men Who Are Exposed-Masks Again

Defended." New York Times [New York City ] 13 July 1918: n. pag. http://query.nytimes.com. Web. 16 Jan. 2012. Soldiers were given masks to protect themselves against any gases used by the Germans. The masks would protect soldiers as long as they were required to wear them in areas with gas exposure. The clothing they wore resisted the effects of gas for a normal period of time. For the parts of the body where mustard gas was likely to penetrate through the clothes, they had an ointment.

"Fighting at Verdun." Marlborough Express [MARLBOROUGH] 26 Sept. 1917: n. pag. paperspast.natlib.govt.nz. Web. 15 Feb. 2012. Mustard gas affects the eyes, lungs, and mucous membranes. It is very deadly, and the French took a hard hit from this attack. The Crown Prince tried to take his army away from it, and into an area where they had a better opportunity at counterattacks.

"Gains in Drive Due to the German Gas; It Was the Chief Factor in Their Recent Successes, Senate

Committee Learns." New York Times [New York City] 16 June 1918: n. pag. http://query.nytimes.com/. Web. 4 Feb. 2012. When the Germans distributed the gas into trenches, it did not disappear as soon as they wanted. A trace of mustard gas had the potential of staying in the trenches for days and possibility weeks. Most troops did not realize of this and went into an exposed areas unprotected.

Geiduschek, E. Peter. "Reversible DNA." National Academy of Science 47 (1961): 950-955. Print. A change in DNA or DNA patterns can cause serious effects on the body. Many cancers are caused by changed DNA or changed genes. The changed pieces of DNA react very different to medications depending on the circumstance. The reaction depends on the heat, coolness, other DNA and genes and many others.

Goodman, Louis S., Wintrobe, Maxwell M., Dameshek, William, Goodman, Louis, Gilman, Alfred, and McLennan, Margaret T. "Nitrogen Mustard Therapy: Use of Methyl-Bis(Beta-

Chloroethyl)amine Hydrochloride and Tris(Beta-Chloroethyl)amine Hydrochloride for Hodgkin's Disease, Lymphosarcoma, Leukemia and Certain Allied and Miscellaneous Disorders." Journal of the American Medical Association 251.17 (1984): 2255-2261. Print. These scientists tested sixty-seven patients, seven of whom were tested by Alfred Gilman and Louis Goodman so they could add nitrogen mustard to the experiments. They were trying to create a cure for diseases that formed blood around organs. They reviewed the compounds and monitored the results.

James, Edwin. "Allies at Last Have a Supply of Mustard Gas; Americans Get Quick Effect with It on the Marne." New York Times [New York City] 12 July 1918: n. pag. query.nytimes.com. Web. 31 Dec. 2011. Once a soldier was exposed to mustard gas, he was out of service for at least three months. The gas could remain in the area for days at a time, which would be much more dangerous.

Krumbhaar, E. B. "Role of the Blood and the Bone Marrow in Certain Forms of Gas Poisoning." Journal of the American Medical Association 72 (1919): 39-46. Print. As scientists learned after World War One, most chemical gases cause damage in bone marrow. Nitrogen is the hardest to cure because if you wait too long, it's too late. Many

ointments were created to heal the burns, but at the time, nothing could heal lost and damaged bone marrow.

"More Dirty Work On Part of Germans." Lewiston Daily Sun 21 Mar. 1918: n. pag. news.google.com. Web. 16 Feb. 2012. The United States used asphyxiating gas against the Germans in four different sectors. The gas had the desired effects on the Germans and they then attacked by air and dropped rubber balls filled with mustard gas on U.S. soldiers. None of the American soldiers were hurt.

"Mustard Gas Warfare Man Who Makes It Tells of Science's Deadliest Weapon and How The United States Will Use It in Quantities." New York Times 7 July 1918: n. pag. Oldmagazinearticles.com. Web. 10 Feb. 2012. Mustard gas wasn't a gas, it was actually an amber liquid. If you breathe it in, it could kill you or make you blind. The effects were sometimes known as chemical pneumonia.

"Nitrogen Mustard Therapy." New York Times 21 Sept. 1946: n. pag. medicine.yale.edu. Web. 10 Feb. 2012. Sixty-seven patients were studied and all had some type of Hodgkin's or Non- Hodgkin's disease. Twenty-six of the sixty-seven remained alive and under observation or therapy.

"Nobel Prize Winner Makes German Gas; Professor Nernst, However, Was Rewarded For His Work in Electro-Chemistry." New York Times [New York City] 13 Nov. 1921: n. pag. http://query.nytimes.com. Web. 10 Feb. 2012. Professor Nernst was one of the best known chemists in Germany. During the war he took a leading part in creating chemical warfare agents. German chemists had much more luck making up chemicals for warfare compared to the French and United States scientists.

"Our Super-Poison Gas; First Story of Compound 72 Times Deadlier Than "Mustard,'" Manufactured Secretly by the Thousands of Tons." New York Times [New York City] 20 Apr. 1919: n. pag. http://query.nytimes.com/. Web. 9 Feb. 2012. The oily amber liquid known as mustard gas was highly explosive and if it came in contact with water would burst into flames. In the smallest detectable portion it could be deadly by contact or inhalation. A drop of it could cause intolerable agony and/or death after a few hours.

Mustard Gas Warfare Man Who Makes It Tells of Science's Deadliest Weapon and How United States Army Will Use It in Quantities." New York Times 7 July 1918: n. pag. OldMagazineArticles.com. Web. 30 Nov. 2011. We learned that when mustard gas shells explode throwing a mist over a very wide area. If a soldier were to be walking in a trench and a tiny drop of the gas would get on their suit, it

would look like oil and he would think nothing of it, and it would have no effect on his clothing. But, after a few hours, the skin under the suit would be red and puffy and within a day the puffy skin would be an open blister.

Gilman, Alfred, and Frederick S. Philips. "The Biological Actions and Therapeutic Applications of the B-Chloroethyl Amines and Sulfides." Science 103 (1946): 409-436. Print. It was said that mustard gas was chemically unstable and could never be used for a positive purpose. Alfred Gilman and Louis Goodman proved them wrong. The reaction you get with the nitrogen mustard depends on the nitrogen atom. According to this article, there are no other chemical agents that resemble x-rays as much as nitrogen mustard. There were many cautious clinical trials to find the flaws with nitrogen mustard.

Books:
Chemotherapy and You: Support For People With Cancer. Rev. May 2007 ed. Bethesda, Md.: U.S. Dept. of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, National Institutes of Health, National Cancer Institute, 2007. Print. We had no idea all the precautions a patient needed to take while receiving chemotherapy

treatments. It is extremely important to protect your scalp at all times, whether you have hair or not. You also have to monitor your mouth at all times because it can tell you if you are sick, dehydrated, or have a cold sore. You must also be careful due to a low pain tolerance.

Facing Forward: Life After Cancer Treatment. Bethesda, Md.: National Cancer Institute, U.S. Dept. of Health and Human Services, National Institutes of Health, 2006. Print. Everyone thinks once treatment is over, you are finished with cancer. After treatment, you still are going to be very tired and weak. After a patient is in remission for a long time, they dont worry about cancer but after you have had cancer, there is always a chance of it coming back. If a part of the mutated cell(s) broke off and went into your tissue or blood at any time, that cell could attach itself to anything in the body and cause another tumor.

Goodman, Louis S. and Gilman, Alfred. "Anti-Proliferative Agents and Drugs Used for Immunosuppression." The Pharmacological Basics of Therapeutics. Sixth Edition ed. New York City: Macmillan Publishing Co., Inc., 1980. 1256-1311. Print. During the interval between World War One and World War Two, extensive studies were conducted on sulfur mustard to show what could happen if United States troops were gassed again. At first the studies were conducted in complete secrecy: only the government and a few practitioners at

Yale Department of Medicine knew of it.

Secondary Sources
Interviews:
Mercer, Keri L. Email interview. 14 Feb. 2012. We interviewed Mrs. Mercer and received some great information on skin protection and how weight affects your risk of cancer. Mrs. Mercer was very informative and helpful.

Articles:
Hirsch, Jules. "An Anniversary for Cancer Chemotherapy." Journal of the American Medical Association 296.12 (2006): 1518. Print. Louis Goodman and Alfred Gilman made their studies public much later than they hoped for, due to the secrecy of World War Two. They kept their scientific results secret until the end of 1946. We also learned, according to many scientists, there will be no end to chemical warfare.

Papac, Rose J. "Origins of Cancer Therapy." Yale Journal Of Biology and Medicine 74.6 (2002): 391-398. Print. Although we currently have the most effective states of chemotherapy or cancer treatment, the origins of cancer treatment are recorded in ancient documents. It has been documented that all the way back to the eleventh century. With the lack of knowledge in those early days, most of the treatments were home remedies and were not useful.

Books:
Adams, Valerie. Chemical Warfare, Chemical Disarmament. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1990. Print. Following the large exposures of mustard agent, masks were made for protection. The masks impaired vision and made verbal communication nearly impossible. People still bought the masks to protect them from the brown liquid.

Asprey, Robert B.. The German high command at war: Hindenburg and Ludendorff conduct World War I. New York: W. Morrow, 1991. Print. We learned a lot about the German use of mustard gas. This book talked about the first dispersion of the gas at Ypres, which was against the British troops.

Barnett, Correlli. The Great War. London: BBC, 2003. Print. This book had images from the beginning, middle and end of the war. The middle of this book showed the uses of poison gas distributed from trenches and airplanes. The airplane attack was much more precise, but the soldiers could prepare themselves more easily. With trench warfare, mustard gas was a surprise attack. Although trench warfare was much more secretive, it wasn't always precise. We found this book helpful.

Edelhart, Mike, and Jean Lindenmann. Interferon: the New Hope for Cancer. Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley Pub. Co., 1981. Print. Interferon is a naturally-occurring protein, and a new approach to cancer research. With the use of Interferon, radiation, and surgery you may get the best treatment available. This is a new and successful approach to fighting cancer.

Ferguson, Niall. The Pity of War. New York, NY: Basic Books, 1999. Print.

We saw some of the aftereffects of World War One. Many people believe the Great War is a cause of terrorism. The fighting between the countries continued as each reacted to the other.

Gavin, Lettie. American Women in World War I: They Also Served. Niwot, Colo.: University Press of Colorado, 1997. Print. This book gave great information about the medical aspect of World War One. The United States wanted to recruit women for the Red Cross. Women Red Cross Workers were expected to do their part in the war. Following mustard gas, Red Cross Workers had to inject a medicine into the infected soldiers eyes to try to prevent future blindness.

Goemans, Hein. War & Punishment. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 2000. Print. The use of mustard gas in World War One caused many people to be killed and severely injured. Many soldiers questioned why they were serving in the war. Some soldiers took the cruel use of mustard gas as a punishment for being true to their country. Hargittai, Istvan, and Magdolna Hargittai. Candid Science II: Conversations with Famous Biomedical Scientists. London: Imperial College Press, 2002. Print. Alfred Gilman and Louis Goodman are very important in history. Many scientists admit that Gilman and Goodman studies were monumental in our current medical treatments.

Keegan, John. The First World War. New York: A. Knopf ;, 1999. Print. This book explained how many troops attacked successfully. It also explained the Allied,

Central, and Neutral powers and how they were chosen. This book gave very expressive words on how devastating the war was.

Mauroni, Albert J.. Chemical and Biological Warfare: A Reference Handbook. Santa Barbara, Calif.: ABC-CLIO, 2003. Print. This book showed the effects of chemical warfare and why it is so dangerous. The gas masks that were invented in the early 1900s have saved millions of soldiers lives. Without the invention of the protective masks, the death counts would have been much higher.

Mauroni, Al. Chemical and Biological Warfare a Reference Handbook, Second Edition. 2nd ed. Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO, 2006. Print. The mustard agent was first used by the Germans fighting the British at Ypres on July 12, 1917. They killed 87 people. Mustard gas caused the most injuries of all war gasses.

Moncrieff, Joanna. The Myth of the Chemical Cure: a Critique of Psychiatric Drug Treatment. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2008. Print. The cause of cancer isn't well understood. Most researchers are confused by the mutated cells. It is known that many farm chemicals used to grow crops can cause healthy cells to become mutated and cancerous.

Quallen, Sudipta. Chemotherapy. San Diego: Tomson/Gale, 2004. Print. Before chemotherapy could be legally prescribed, it was tested on both animals and

humans who were willing to be a part of the scientific studies. One of the tests was when Gilman, Goodman, and Philips tested nitrogen mustard found in mustard gas on mice with tumors. With two injections, the tumor shrunk until it was no longer detectable by touch. When the injections stopped, tumors came back and they treated it with a second dose of injections.

Solomon, Brian. Chemical and Biological Warfare. New York: H.W. Wilson Co., 1999. Print. Due to the great impact and potential danger to civilians, mustard gas was banned for any use in further wars at the Geneva Convention. This book also explained what the gas actually did to the skin. The blisters you receive from the gas look as if they are puss filled, but it is just the skin bubbling.

Stallworthy, Jon. Great Poets of World War I: Poetry From the Great War. New York: Carroll and Graf, 2002. Print. This book showed the emotion soldiers held inside them. We included a poem by a soldier who was gassed but was lucky enough to survive on our website. One of his teammates died due to the gas.

Stranchan, Hew . "The Origins of War." World War I A History. Oxford, New York: Oxford

University Press, 1998. 9 - 26. Print. This book gave a great overview of what World War One was. The book also mentioned the use of poison gas and how it was distributed. The troop holding the gas would use it as trench warfare. They could dig a trench and distribute the gas from there. The other troops had no idea it was coming or any idea it was in there presence.

Taylor, A. J. P.. Illustrated History of the First World War. 1st American ed. New York: Putnam, 1964. Print. This book emphasized the importance of the Red Cross. This medical aspect of World War One has saved many soldiers lives. The Red Cross helped cure and ease the pain to many soldiers.

Tucker, Jonathan B. War of Nerves: Chemical Warfare From World War I to Al-Qaeda. New York: Pantheon Books, 2006. Print. The effects of mustard agents were tremendous. The oily liquid would absorb through your skin and cause burns and blisters. The symptoms would normally occur with a delay of ten to twelve hours after exposure. Once you knew of the deadly exposure, it was too late to avoid the symptoms.

Watkins, T. F., J. C. Cackett, and R. G. Hall. Chemical warfare, pyrotechnics and the fireworks

industry. [1st ed. Oxford, New York: Pergamon Press, 1968. Print. Mustard gas is quite stable chemically. The gas is a serious threat and hazard because it gives off a vapor. After hundreds of casualties, an ointment was developed. Several million tins of this ointment were made between 1938 and 1939. It was soon replaced by small medications placed in lead tubes.

Winter, J. M.. The Experience of World War I. New York: Oxford University Press, 1989. Print. This book showed the experience soldiers had during World War One. There were many graphs, charts and other visuals that helped us understand the statistics of the war. This book was one of the most helpful sources we found.

Zimmerman, Barry E., and David J. Zimmerman. Killer Germs: Microbes and Diseases that Threaten Humanity. Rev. and updated ed. Chicago: Contemporary Books, 2003. Print. The first use of chemotherapy was by Paul Ehrlich. He was actually experimenting for a cure of diphtheria.

Websites:
"Cancer Facts & Figures of 2012." Cancer Facts & Figures of 2012. N.p., n.d. Web. 18 Jan. 2012. <www.cancer.org/acs/groups/content/@epidemiologysurveilance/documents/document/ac spc-031941.pdf>. There are many predictions on how many people will be diagnosed with cancer in 2012. The American Cancer Society divided it. There are probably more than the average person would imagine. In Iowa alone, they are guessing an average of 17,010 will get cancer this year. They estimated California to be about 165,810.

"Chemotherapy at Mayo Clinic." Mayo Clinic. N.p., n.d. Web. 13 Dec. 2011. <http://mayoclinic.org/chemotherapy>. Chemotherapy can be a lifesaving tool, but it can also cause serious complications. The side effects could include nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, hair loss, fatigue, fever, constipation, and pain. Patients are also at risk for damage to lung tissue, heart complications, infertility, kidney problems, nerve damage, and a risk of second cancer.

"Chemotherapy Information and Education for Cancer Patients and Caregivers Chemotherapy.com." Chemotherapy Information and Education for Cancer Patients and Caregivers @ Chemotherapy.com. N.p., n.d. Web. 27 Jan. 2012. <http://www.chemotherapy.com>. This website gave us great amounts of information about chemotherapy. It is targeted for people who are about to undergo chemotherapy for cancer. It stated that treating cancer is a long process and as a patient you need to set goals and consider what kind of treatments you may undergo.

"Cryosurgery in Cancer Treatment: Q & A - National Cancer Institute." Comprehensive Cancer Information - National Cancer Institute. N.p., n.d. Web. 6 Nov. 2011. <http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/factsheet/Therapy/cryosurgery>. Cryosurgery is when a physician applies liquid nitrogen (mustard gas) to freeze the tumor. After the liquid nitrogen thaws, the tumor naturally dissolves into the body. Just like any other treatment, there is a large risk.

Whittington, Elizabeth. "CureToday.com: Special Issue 2008 Article - "Timeline: Milestones in Cancer Treatment"." CureToday.com - Combining science with humanity, CURE makes cancer understandable.. N.p., n.d. Web. 16 Feb. 2012. <http://www.curetoday.com/index.cfm/fuseaction/article.show/id/2/article_id/631>. This was a timeline that helped us realize the long journey to where we are in our research today.

"Dealing With Cancer Recurrence | Cancer.Net." Doctor-approved cancer information from ASCO | Cancer.Net. N.p., n.d. Web. 24 Jan. 2012. <http://www.cancer.net/patient/All+About+Cancer/Treating+Cancer/Dealing+ with+Cancer+Recurrence>. Cancer can reoccur when it is least expected. During treatment, cancerous cells could

follow through your blood stream and embed themselves in other healthy tissue any time after your cancer has gone into remission.

"Gene therapy." American Cancer Society : Information and Resources for Cancer: Breast,

Colon, Prostate, Lung and Other Forms. N.p., n.d. Web. 24 Feb. 2012. <http://www.cancer.org/Treatment/TreatmentsandSideEffects/PhysicalSideEffects/Dealing withSymptomsatHome/caring-for-the-patient-with-cancer-at-home-gene-therapy>. This website gave us information on how gene therapy is conducted. It is still a clinical study; therefore it cannot be conducted on patients. The article explained who this treatment is best for, what it actually is and does, and how it is conducted.

Gene Therapy for Cancer: Questions and Answers National Cancer Institute. Comprehensive Cancer Information National Cancer Institute. N.P., n.d. Web 18 Dec. 2011. <http://cancer.gov/cancertopics/factsheet/Therapy/gene> . This website also gave us a look at gene therapy. Gene therapy is where they try to take damaged genes and fix them to avoid costly medicine and procedures. This could actually take us closer to the cure to cancer.

"Learn About Low White Blood Cell Counts." Before You Start Chemotherapy, Learn About Neulasta (pegfilgrastim). N.p., n.d. Web. 27 Jan. 2012. <http://www.neulasta.com/patient/about/about-low-white-blood-cell-count.html? src=ppc&WT.srch=1&SRC=2>. Chemotherapy works by killing fast-growing cancer cells and it can't always tell the difference between good and bad cells, so it kills them all. Chemotherapy even suppresses the amount of white blood cells. Before you undergo chemotherapy you need to be in good health disregarding the cancer.

"Mustard Gas." dictionary.reference.com. N.p., n.d. Web. 21 Jan. 2012. <dictionary.reference.com/browse/mustard+gas>. This website gave us a formal definition of what mustard gas is. It matched what all of the articles said, but we wanted to look at an official dictionary.

"Mustard Gas (Sulphur Mustard) (IARC Summary & Evaluation, Supplement7, 1987)." IPCS INCHEM. N.p., 9 Feb. 1998. Web. 12 Feb. 2012. <http://www.inchem.org/documents/iarc/suppl7/mustardgas.html>. Mustard gas was first tested as a positive treatment for cancer in mice. Mice with lung tumors were tested and after an injection of the nitrogen mustard, the tumors were no longer detectable by touch and healed at a fast pace.

Frunzi, Johnathan. "From Weapon to Wonder Drug :: Article - The Hospitalist." Homepage - The Hospitalist. N.p., n.d. Web. 4 Jan. 2012. <http://www.thehospitalist.org/details/article/243771/From_Weapon_to_Wonder_Drug.html>. This website gave us a great look on how mustard gas is truly a wonder drug. Without mustard gas, otherwise known as nitrogen mustard, there is no sense of where we would be in cancer research today.

"Goodman, Louis S., M.D.." CONTENTdm Collection : Home. N.p., n.d. Web. 24 Feb. 2012. <http://content.lib.utah.edu/cdm4/item_viewer.php?

CISOROOT=/UU_SOM_Photos&CISOPTR=221>. This helped us understand how Louis Goodman contributed to the world. We have benefited from many of his studies, but he is best known for his mustard gas studies. It gave us great information such as his qualifications and experiments.

"Radiation Therapy for Cancer - National Cancer Institute." Comprehensive Cancer Information National Cancer Institute. N.p., n.d. Web. 3 Nov. 2011. <http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/factsheet/Therapy/radiation>. Radiation therapy is another form of cancer treatment. It is a slower process, and not as powerful. It has the potential of killing cancerous cells. The healthy cells are not as damaged as they would be with a liquid dosage.

Ritchie, Murdoch. "Alfred Gilman, February 5, 1908January 13, 1984 | By Murdoch Ritchie | Biographical Memoirs." The National Academies Press. N.p., n.d. Web. 2 Feb. 2012. <http://www.nap.edu/html/biomems/agilman.html>. Gilman was known worldwide for his contributions to science. Louis Goodman and he decided to write a college medical book "The Pharmacological Basics of Therapeutics". This website taught us about Gilmans background.

"Surgery." American Cancer Society : Information and Resources for Cancer: Breast, Colon, Prostate, Lung and Other Forms. N.p., n.d. Web. 31 Oct. 2011.

<http://www.cancer.org/Treatment/TreatmentsandSideEffects/TreatmentTypes/Surgery/sur gery-and-cancer>. If your tumor is isolated, surgery is mainly the best option. It can most likely get the tumor out of your system very quickly, but healing time depends on the patient's health and quality of life.

"Yale Bulletin and Calendar." Yale University. N.p., n.d. Web. 1 Dec. 2011. <http://www.yale.edu/opa/arc-ybc/v31.n1/story19.html>. Professor Gustaf Lindskog was a professor of surgery and played a large role in the clinical trials of mustard gas. Lindskog is not recognized near as much as he should be.

"Yale Medicine Online Extra November 2011 > Surgeons find new twists to an old story." Home > Yale School of Medicine | Yale University. N.p., n.d. Web. 21 Nov. 2011. <http://info.med.yale.edu/external/pubs/ym_online_extra/ym_nov11/chemo.html>. This article mainly talks about J.D. and his cancer treatment. Although it was not a complete success, it helped research for cancer. J.D. was the very first patient to receive mustard gas chemotherapy as a patient.

"What are the different types of chemotherapy drugs?" American Cancer Society : Information and Resources for Cancer: Breast, Colon, Prostate, Lung and Other Forms. N.p., n.d.

Web. 28 Oct. 2011. <http://www.cancer.org/Treatment/TreatmentsandSideEffects/TreatmentTypes/Chemother apy/ChemotherapyPrinciplesAnIndepthDiscussionoftheTechniquesanditsRoleinTreatment/ chemotherapy-principles-types-of-chemo-drugs>. There are many different kinds of chemotherapy treatments. Alkylating agents are the most common. Although the agents help kill cancer cells, they kill healthy cells along with it such as hair molecules and nail cells.

Videocassette:
The American Experience: The Great War - 1918. Dir. David McCullough. Perf. .. Public Broadcasting System Video, 2006. VHS. This video also gave an overview of World War One. It focused on the effects of mustard gas. Mustard gas is responsible for approximately thirteen percent of all World War One deaths. World War I Cause and Effect. Dir. Kurt Cobain. Perf. American Institute for Education, 2009. VHS. This video gave an overview of the causes of World War One. It is hard to believe that a Serbian native actually started the First World War. No one imagined the war to get as big as it was, but eventually the whole world was involved.

Videos:
"3D Medical Animation - Cancer Treatments - YouTube." YouTube - Broadcast Yourself. N.p., n.d. Web. 18 Jan. 2012. <http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=q8sw2FI-_bI>.

This video was great. It served as a visual aid demonstrating how each of the three most popular treatments is given.

"3D Medical Animation - What is Cancer? - YouTube." YouTube - Broadcast Yourself. N.p., n.d. Web. 19 Dec. 2011. <http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LEpTTolebqo>. This video showed us what cancer actually is. We found many answers to this question, and it was great to actually watch an animation on how cancer starts and progresses.

"China's Cancer Drug - China - YouTube." YouTube - Broadcast Yourself. N.p., n.d. Web. 8 Jan. 2012. <http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lZ2igN5Nogk>. China has licensed gene therapy, which is not yet legal in the United States. This video showed us a negative outcome of gene therapy. Many think it will be the cure to cancer, but in this case it made a womans tumor larger and life expectancy shorter. This was helpful by showing gene therapy isn't always great. "Obesity and Cancer - Grace Wang, MD - YouTube ." YouTube - Broadcast Yourself. . N.p., n.d. Web. 2 Feb. 2012. <http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LD-us7BN9vo>. This video was great because it showed a cancer specialist tell how obesity can affect you in the future. Many people don't think of cancer stemming from obesity.

"Obesity and Cancer / PSA Video - YouTube ." YouTube - Broadcast Yourself. N.p., n.d. Web. 14 Jan. 2012. <http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gnOEAfknGlU>. This video was made to raise awareness about obesity and its relation to cancer. Obesity is a condition for nearly 65% of the United States population. This video showed us how

important it is to stay active throughout your life.

"Poison Gas in World War I - YouTube." YouTube - Broadcast Yourself . N.p., n.d. Web. 29 Feb. 2012. <http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DTY7v1Q_vnc>. This website helped us understand how soldiers were exposed to the poison gas. It was an interesting video.

"Poison gas in World War I - YouTube." YouTube - Broadcast Yourself. N.p., n.d. Web. 29 Nov. 2011. <http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DTY7v1Q_vnc>. This video showed us the various poison gases of World War One. Mustard gas was by far the most dangerous.

"Terminal Cancer Treatment - GENDICINE GENE THERAPY : Biological Physics - ElectroMedicine - YouTube ." YouTube - Broadcast Yourself . N.p., n.d. Web. 16 Jan. 2012. <http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VOLMbthF7qs>. This video showed us a middle-aged man with an estimated life expectancy of two months. With the gene therapy, his tumor was eliminated. This experiment brought hope to gene therapy treatments.

"The Birth of Chemotherapy - YouTube ." YouTube - Broadcast Yourself. . N.p., n.d. Web. 13 Jan. 2012. <http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Bn0pTG9JmJ8>.

Yale University is proud of their "Birth of Chemotherapy". They made this short video. It was very helpful.

"WWI - Weapons and Technology - YouTube." YouTube - Broadcast Yourself. . N.p., n.d. Web. 17 Feb. 2012. <http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=c-LxzD6Luj4>. This video gave us many facts about the gas. It confirmed that mustard gas caused open blisters, burned the skin and blinded some soldiers. It caused about one fourth of the war deaths.

Photo Sources: YaleNews | Setting the record straight: The birth of chemotherapy at Yale." YaleNews. N.p., n.d.
Web. 15 Apr. 2012. <http://news.yale.edu/2011/02/22/setting-record-straight-birthchemotherapy-yale>. J.D.s medical charts on our page The First Study were found on this website. "4. Use of Genetically Modified Stem Cells in Experimental Gene Therapies [Stem Cell Information]." NIH Stem Cell Information Home Page. N.p., n.d. Web. 15 Apr. 2012. <http://stemcells.nih.gov/info/2006report/2006Chapter4.htm>. The last two pictures in our slide show on Gene Therapy showing where gene therapy is licensed and how gene therapy works were found on this page.

"A Repository for Bottled Monsters: World War 1 volume on Gas Warfare finally posted." A Repository for Bottled Monsters. N.p., n.d. Web. 15 Apr. 2012. <http://bottledmonsters.blogspot.com/2008/03/world-war-1-volume-on-gas-warfare.html>.

This website gave us the picture of soldiers wearing gas masks on the Mustard Gas page.

"Butterworth Hospital History." Spectrum Health System | Grand Rapids, Michigan (MI). N.p., n.d. Web. 15 Apr. 2012. <http://www.spectrumhealth.org/butterworth_timeline/>. The picture of doctors looking at x-rays of cancerous tumors on our Reform of Chemotherapy page came from here.

"Celebrating South Street Hospital." London Health Sciences Centre. N.p., n.d. Web. 15 Apr. 2012. <http://www.lhsc.on.ca/About_Us/LHSC/Who_We_Are/SSH/scrapbooks/Era06/Main_196 7_Eldorado.htm>. The picture of the radiation machine from the early 1900s on the page Reform of Chemotherapy came from here.

Curtis, John. "From the field of battle, an early strike at cancer > Capsule > Summer 2005 | Yale Medicine." Home > Yale School of Medicine | Yale University . N.p., n.d. Web. 15 Apr. 2012. <htttp://medicine.yale.edu/publications/yalemedicine/summer2005/features/capsule/52276

>. Our article about Nitrogen Mustard Therapy on found on The First Study came from this source.

"Disability History Panels." Alaska Department of Health and Social Services. N.p., n.d. Web. 15 Apr. 2012. <http://www.hss.state.ak.us/gcdse/history/HTML_Content_Main.htm>. The picture found here is on An Overview and shows a hospital where soldiers are getting treated during World War One.

"First World War.com - Weapons of War: Poison Gas." First World War.com - A Multimedia History of World War One. N.p., n.d. Web. 15 Apr. 2012. <http://www.firstworldwar.com/weaponry/gas.htm> This website gave us the picture of the chart showing how many deaths and casualties were caused by gas in World War One. The picture is found on our Mustard Gas page.

"For faculty - past, present and future > Cover Stories > Jan/Feb 2009 | Medicine@Yale." March 2012 | Medicine@Yale. N.p., n.d. Web. 15 Apr. 2012. <http://medicineatyale.org/janfeb2009/features/coverstories/55647>. Both of the photos we have on our Goodman and Gilman page came from this website. This website also gave us our photo Goodman on The First Study.

"Mustard Gas 4acre's Blog." 4acre's Blog. N.p., n.d. Web. 15 Apr. 2012. <http://4acre.wordpress.com/2010/12/06/mustard-gas/>. Our photo from this website is a soldier in a gas mask on our Mustard Gas page.

"Official Site of the U.S. Air Force - Media Gallery." Official Site of the U.S. Air Force - Home. N.p., n.d. Web. 15 Apr. 2012. <http://www.af.mil/photos/mediagallery.asp? galleryID=845&page=5>. This website gave us the picture found on An Overview that shows two nurses giving treatment to a soldier.

Sweetheart_1776. "Mustard gas." Newspaper.li - Explore popular trends. N.p., n.d. Web. 15 Apr. 2012. <http://newspaper.li/mustard-gas/>. The picture found here shows a soldier and some dogs all wearing gas masks in a trench. This is found on our Mustard Gas page. "The Soldiers." Home Page. N.p., n.d. Web. 15 Apr. 2012. <http://web.viu.ca/davies/h482.wwi/soldiers.reality.photos.htm>. We found a picture of soldiers in a trench that is used on our Mustard Gas page.

"The Three Stages of Mustard Gas and the Effects of Lewisite - a photo on Flickriver." Flickriver A new way to view Flickr photos and more.... N.p., n.d. Web. 15 Apr. 2012. <http://www.flickriver.com/photos/elephipelephi/2815325773/>.

This website gave us a photo of four hands showing the effects of mustard gas over time on our Mustard Gas page.

"Image of Woman walking in snow. from Crestock Stock Photos ." Crestock.com | Royalty-Free Stock Photos & Vector Illustrations . N.p., n.d. Web. 15 Apr. 2012. <http://www.crestock.com/image/374938-Woman-walking-in-snow.aspx>. This website gave us the photo of the woman exercising on our Todays Threats page.

"World War 1 Battle Pictures." World at War Great Stories and Facts of the World's Unforgotten Wars . N.p., n.d. Web. 13 Feb. 2012. <http:/http://worldwar42.blogspot.com/2011/12/world-war-1-battlepictures.html>. This resource was very helpful.