Traverse Survey

Traverse
Survey

INTRODUCTION
Traversing is a form of a control survey that requires the establishment of a series
of stations that are linked together by angles and distances. The angles are
measured by theodolites, and the distances are measured conventionally by tapes
or electronic distance measuring equipment. The use of theodolite in traversing
surveys is very fundamental and has become one of the most common methods in
geomatic engineering work such as:
- general purpose angle measurement;
- provision of control surveys;
- contour and detail mapping; and
- setting out and construction work.

This topic will describe the construction and use of the theodolite in traversing. It
will explain the traverse design and the procedures of computing and adjusting a
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5. Determine the nature of errors affecting the traverse work.
4. Compute coordinates for traversing; and
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. Outline the basic components of a theodolite;
2. Carry out temporary adjustments of a theodolite;
3. Compute and adjust a theodolite traverse;
TOPIC 4 TRAVERSE SURVEY

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traverse. The application of coordinates for point location will also be covered in
this topic which will be very useful in civil engineering project.
THEODOLITE PRINCIPLES AND
APPLICATIONS
4.1
A theodolite is an instrument which is capable of measuring angles to the nearest
whole second [Figure 4.1]. This can be done for both vertical and horizontal
angles. Vertical angles are required for the calculation of elevation of points for
example the reduction of slope distance to the horizontal.

Figure 4.1: Atheodolite
Source: SouthGeosystems

Horizontal angles are required to obtain the relative direction to a survey control
station or points of detail.

Basically there are two types of modern theodolite which are in use today. These
are the:
(i) Optical theodolite; and
(ii) Electronic Digital theodolite.

Both types of instrument can be made to read to the nearest whole 1 which is
considered accurate enough for most engineering purposes. With the advancement
of modern electronics, most of the theodolites made today are of the electronic
digital type. But the older optical types are still being used except that it will take
longer time to read the angles than with an electronic one. The value of the angle
observed however will be the same. Electronic theodolites are more versatile than

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the optical type. Useful features in the form of software can be added to an
electronic theodolite. Thus modern instruments can be used in a variety of
surveying situations.

EXERCISE 4.1
What is the major difference between the optical and the electronic
theodolite? Differentiate between each type in terms of its construction.
4.1.1 Construction of a Theodolite
All theodolites have the same common features [Figure 4.2] which can be
described as follows:

1. A Tribrach
Allows the instrument to be connected to the top of a tripod and also allows
the instrument to be levelled with respect to a plate bubble.

2. The Horizontal Circle Compartment
This compartment is comprised of:
(i) The lower plate that carries the horizontal circle. In most instruments it
is made of glass with the graduations from 0to 360photographically
etched around the edge.
(ii) The upper plate that carries the horizontal circle indexing device and
fits concentric with the lower plate. Attached to the upper plate is the
plate bubble. When centered, the plate bubble ensures that the
instrument axis is vertical. In modern electronic theodolites, the spirit
bubble has been replaced with an electronic one. This electronic means
of levelling has made initial levelling of the instrument a less time
consuming task.

3. The Vertical Circle Compartment
The vertical circle is similar to the horizontal circle but is fixed to the
telescope. Thus it revolves with the rotation of the telescope. This
compartment has the vertical circle index. Most modern theodolites employ
an automatic compensator but some of the more elderly instruments use an
altitude bubble.


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4. The Horizontal Clamp
This clamp ensures that when engaged the horizontal circle is fixed. The
slow motion screws allow for the movement of the instrument around the
vertical axis. There is a similar slow motion screw and plate clamp for the
vertical circle.

5. The Optical Plummet
Built in the base of the instrument to allow the instrument to be precisely
centered over the station. The line of sight through the optical plummet is
exactly the same as the vertical axis of the theodolite.

Figure 4.2: The theodolite construction
4.1.2 Axis System of a Theodolite
The axis system of a theodolite is shown in Figure 4.3 and is explained as follows:
1. The horizontal circle [HC] is attached at the lower part of theodolite
tribrach. It is perpendicular and centric to the vertical axis [V]. The
horizontal circle reading microscope is attached to the upper body of the
theodolite.
2. The vertical circle [VC] is attached to the telescope centric and it is
perpendicular to the horizontal axis H. The reading microscope for the
vertical circle is attached to the adjustable (Vertical Bubble) pointer.
3. The horizontal and vertical circles are made of optical quality glass of a
diameter of about 10 cm with degrees, minutes and high-accuracy units of

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20 or 10 markings ached into its surface. Both circles are read through the
microscopes. The grading of the horizontal circle increases from 0 degree
clockwise to 360 degrees.
4. If the theodolite is viewed with the eyepiece towards you and the vertical
circle [VC] is to the left of the telescope, the theodolite is defined as being in
the Face Left. If the vertical circle [VC] is to the right of the telescope then
it is in the Face Right position.
5. The grading of the vertical circle is such that when in Face Left with the
telescope being horizontal, the zero (0) degree marking is vertically above
the horizontal axis H. The grading increases from the zero mark in the
direction of the eyepiece (90) with 180 vertically below H and 270 at the
object-lens.

Figure 4.3: The theodolite axis system

EXERCISE 4.2
Explain using a simple outline sketch the essential parts of a theodolite.
Name these parts and describe their purpose.

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4.1.3 Temporary Adjustments of Theodolite
The temporary adjustments are steps that must be carried out every time a
theodolite is used. It is a procedure of setting up a theodolite that involves the
following process:
- centering;
- leveling; and
- removing parallax.

(a) Centering the Theodolite
The instrument must be vertically above the survey station to ensure that
horizontal angle observations are correct. The steps are as follows:
1. Start with a plumbob to get it approximately right above the survey
station [Figure 4.4].
2. Using the foot screws, move the optical plummet cross hairs on to the
survey station.
3. Roughly level the instrument using the legs of the tripod the
theodolite should stay almost on target.
4. Level with foot screws. Move instrument above target; repeat level and
move until done.

Figure 4.4: Centering the theodolite

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(b) Levelling the Theodolite
1. Turn bubble parallel to two foot screws A and B [Figure 4.5], to bring
the horizontal bubble to the centre of its run by moving the foot screws
in opposite directions (the bubble moves in the direction of your left
thumb).
2. Turn the instrument through 90 and bring the bubble to the centre of
its run by adjusting the third foot screw C only.
3. Turn the instrument through a further 90 to check the adjustment of
the plate bubble.
4. If the bubble remains in centre, then it is adjusted.
5. If not, move it back one-half of the movement from the centre and re-
adjust for a further 90 turn.
6. Repeat the whole procedure; assuming this is the correct, the bubble
will stay in a stationary position.
7. The bubble must remain in the same place in the tube during a 360
rotation of the instrument.
8. If the stationary position of the bubble is still off the centre, then a
permanent adjustment should be made.

Figure 4.5: Levelling the theodolite

(c) Removing the Parallax
Point instrument to infinity (the sky), adjust eyepiece so cross-hairs are fine
and dark. Then focus on the target using the focusing knob or collar and
check for parallax by moving your eye slightly, and check for a stationary
image with respect to the cross-hairs


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4.1.4 Permanent Adjustments of Theodolite
These adjustments are carried out once and will not alter unless it is being roughly
handled or tampered with. There are certain basic requirements for a theodolite
that must be established particularly when using it. The basic requirements are as
follows:
(a) The vertical axis of a theodolite should be truly vertical.
(b) The line of sight should be perpendicular to the horizontal axis.
(c) The horizontal axis should be truly horizontal.
(d) The cross hairs should be truly vertical and horizontal.
(e) The vertical circle should be at zero when the line of sight is horizontal.

For this study it is appropriate to know only the basic requirements for permanent
adjustments. The steps in carrying out the adjustments should be handled by the
qualified person at the laboratory.

EXERCISE 4.3
1. Explain in detail how to set up a theodolite over a station mark.
2. Why is it necessary to remove parallax before an angle
observation is made?
3. Describe in detail the five permanent theodolite adjustments that
should be tested from time to time.
HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL ANGLE
MEASUREMENT
4.2
There are three main systems of reading the horizontal or vertical angles in a
theodolite;
- optical scale reading;
- optical micrometer reading; and
- electronic digital display.


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(a) Optical Scale Reading
This system is usually employed on theodolite which reads to 20 or less.
Both horizontal and vertical circles are displayed and read through the use of
an auxillary telescope.

(b) Optical Micrometer Reading
This system is employed in a non-electronic instruments reading up to 1.
Generally only one circle reading can be displayed and read. A switch is
required to read and display the other circle.

(c) Electronic Digital Display
This system provides reading to both circles and is displayed on a screen as
numbers. Therefore it reduces the likelihood of error in reading the circles.
There are two systems which can be used:
- incremental; and
- code method.

In both systems a pattern is etched into the glass circles and these are read
and scanned electronically. The final reading is converted to a series of
figures which are then displayed. Thus because the display is free from
misreading errors, it is in a form which is suitable for automatic recording
and data processing.
4.2.1 Horizontal Angle Measurement
The concept of measuring the horizontal and vertical circles is simple in either
the traditional theodolite or the modern electronic theodolite. The following
procedures should be used to measure the horizontal angles between three stations
A, B and C [Refer Figure 4.6].
1. Setup the theodolite and center the instrument on station B. The theodolite
instrument has two faces; Face left or Face right.
2. Starting from the face left, the telescope is pointed at station A. The
horizontal reading is then noted. E.g. 25 30 00.
3. The instrument is then turned in a clockwise direction to point at station C.
Again the horizontal reading is noted. E.g. 145 50 00.
4. The horizontal angle can be calculated, by finding the difference between
the two horizontal readings,

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i.e., C A = 14550'00 2530'00
= 12020'00
5. Change the face of the theodolite instrument. Whilst pointing at station C the
horizontal reading is again recorded. E.g. 32550'00.
6. Turn the instrument in a clockwise manner and point at station A. Record
the horizontal reading. E.g. 20530'00. This time the readings must be
subtracted in the correct order,
i.e., C A = 32550'00 205 30'00
= 12020'00

Figure 4.6: Horizontal angle measurements

Note that changing the face will change the readings by 180. This gives a check
on the observations and ensures that reading errors can be eliminated. If there is a
great difference in the two readings, the observations are repeated until readings
agree.
4.2.2 Vertical Angle Measurement
A vertical angle is the angle measured vertically from a horizontal plane of
reference [Refer Figure 4.7].
1. When the telescope is pointed in the horizontal plane (level), the reading of
the vertical angle is zero (0).

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2. When the telescope is pointed up [elevated], then the vertical angle increases
from zero and the reading is a positive (+ve) vertical angle [known as angle
of elevation]. The reading increase from 0 to +90 when the telescope is
pointed straight up.
3. If the telescope is depressed [pointed down], then the angle reading will
increase in numerical value. The depressed telescope reading indicates
that it is below the horizontal plane and the reading is a negative (ve)
vertical angle or [known as angle of depression]. These numerical values
increase from 0 to 90 when the telescope is pointed straight down.

Figure 4.7: Vertical angle reading

EXERCISE 4.4
1. Name the three main reading systems for angular measurement in
theodolite.
2. The horizontal angles read at station A and station C are
7530'00 and 14520'00 respectively. If the theodolite is set up
at station B. What will be the internal angle ABC?
3. If the face left reading of the horizontal angle is 22520'00, what
is the most probable reading that you will obtain if the theodolite
is transit and read in the face right?
4. The vertical angle reading of a theodolite is 10530' indicating
that it is above the horizontal plane. What will be the true vertical
angle?

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TRAVERSING AND COORDINATE SYSTEM 4.3
This section describes briefly the meaning of traversing in terms of its
applications, positioning by coordinates, the equipment and field procedures and
methods of reduction and adjustment of data.
4.3.1 Traverse Definition
A traverse is a series of straight lines that are used to connect a series of selected
points. This selected points are called traverse stations where distance and angle
measurements are made. The relative positions of the traverse stations are then
computed using some coordinate systems.

For a better understanding, the definition of traverse survey can be summarized as
follows [Figure 4.8]:
- A measurement of straight lines using measuring tapes or other electronic
distance measuring instruments from one point to another and the horizontal
angle between them is observed using theodolite.
- The sides can be expressed as either polar coordinates or as rectangular
coordinates.
- A traverse framework comprising of a series of connected lines where the
lengths and directions are observed and measured. The traverse framework
can be an open or closed traverse i.e, starts at a known point and ends at
another known point or the same start point.

Figure 4.8: Travers survey


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4.3.2 Coordinates System
The following information enables you to understand the concept of coordinates
referring to the location of points either on the surface of the earth or on a plan.

Points on the surface of the earth can be accurately positioned by taking
measurements to a known, stable point of reference.

Assume that the axes of a graph are referred to as North, South, East and West as
shown in Figure 4.9.

Figure 4.9: Measurement of positions

In the above Figure, Point A is at (1,2) and Point B is at (9,5). The referencing
used is that the x-axis is known as EASTINGS and the y-axis is known as
NORTHINGS.

There are two methods of referring the point:
- Rectangular coordinates; or
- Polar coordinates.

(a) Rectangular Coordinates (Grid)
Rectangular coordinates are a system of locating points by means of the
measurement of two perpendicular distances from the principal axes to that
point. These two perpendicular distances are the easting and northing. The
origin of these points is usually located at the extreme south and west of the
area so that all the coordinates have positive values.

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(b) Polar Coordinates
The polar coordinate is explained as follows [Refer Figure 4.10]:

If R is the origin and P is the reference object, then point P can be located by
its polar coordinates of angle and distance i.e. and D, where D is the
distance from the origin and is a clockwise angle between R and P.

Coordinates of this type are often used in survey calculations when fixing
and plotting detail, especially when setting out data on the ground.
Northing
R
P [ Reference Object ]
D
Northing
R
P [ Reference Object ]
D

Figure 4.10: Polar coordinates

EXERCISE 4.5
1. What are the characteristics of a traverse?
2. Explain the significant difference between the two methods of
coordinate referencing in traverse?
4.3.3 Northing
There are three (3) reference directions [or datum meridian] that are used as
traverse reference we should be associated with. They are:
- Magnetic North;
- Grid North; and
- True North.

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(a) Magnetic North
The earth has its magnetic field with its North and South poles in the
vicinity of the true positions of the North and South poles of the planet. This
magnetic field will orientate a free swinging magnetic needle in a
north/south direction. Based on this principle, it is therefore possible to
orientate angular measurements to magnetic north.

The magnetic north moves about the central axis of the earth. This variation
is known as Magnetic Declination. Magnetic Declination is the angular
difference between the true Whole Circle Bearing (WCB) (measured relative
to true north) and magnetic WCB (measured relative to magnetic north).
Magnetic declination varies according to the observers position relative to
its distance to the pole.

(b) Grid North
It is a grid of lines parallel to the true meridian of one point on the grid,
usually the origin of the grid. Since the central meridian points to true north,
therefore as we move east or west away from the central meridian, the
difference between grid north and true north increases.

(c) True North
This is the point at which all the lines of longitude converge (the axis of
rotation of the planet).
4.3.4 Bearing Calculation
The two main types of bearing that are commonly used in geomatic engineering
are:
- Whole Circle Bearings (WCB); and
- Quadrant Bearings (QB) or Reduced Bearing (RB).


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(a) Whole Circle Bearing

Figure 4.11: Whole Circle Bearing (WCB)

The Whole Circle Bearing (WCB) of a line AB is defined as the clockwise
angle from 0 to 360 at A between the direction to North and the direction
to B. This is the standard way of defining a bearing in surveying. In
Figure 4.11;
Bearing of AB = u and Bearing BA =
Bearing of BA = Bearing AB 180 and Bearing AB = Bearing of BA 180

(b) Quadrant Bearing
A quadrant bearing can be defined as the angle lying between 0 and 90,
between the direction to the north or south and the direction of the line
[Refer Figure 4.12].

East and West directions are never used as reference lines, but they are
included since they indicate direction either east or west of the line from grid
north.

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Figure 4.12: Quadrant Bearing
4.3.5 Angular Observation and Booking
Two most common methods in making angular observation in theodolite
traversing are:
- Internal angle method; and
- Bearing method.

(a) The Internal Angle Method
The procedure and booking to be followed are as follows [Refer to
Figure 4.13]:
(i) Theodolite is set up at station B and station A is sighted in face left
with circle reading of 0
o
00 00.
(ii) With the zero reading fixed, the upper clamp of the theodolite is
released and station C is sighted. The circle reading is observed and
recorded [Refer to Table 4.1].
(iii) The telescope is then transitted to change to the face right.
(iv) Station A is again sighted and the angle reading in the face right is
recorded.
(v) Station C is sighted and the angle is read.

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Figure 4.13: Internal angle method

Table 4.1: Booking for Internal Angle Method

From
Station
To
Station
Face Left Face Right Angle Mean
A 000'00 18000'00 30 26'20
B 30 26'30
C 3026'20 21026'40 30 26'40

(b) The Bearing Method
The procedure and bookings to be followed are as follows [Refer to
Figure 4.14]:
(i) Instrument is set up at station B and station A is sighted in face left. A
known bearing e.g. 4520'20 is set on station A using the lower
clamp.
(ii) By releasing the upper clamp, station C is sighted and the reading is
recorded [Refer to Table 4.2].
(iii) Next, station D is sighted and the bearing is read.
(iv) The telescope is then transit to change to the face right.
(v) With the face right setting, bearings to station A, C and D are recorded.

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Figure 4.14: Bearing method

Table 4.2: Booking for Bearing Method

From
Station
To
Station
Face Left Face Right Mean Angle
A 4520'20 22520'25 4520'22.5
B
C 10525'40 28525'47 10525'43.5 6005'21

D 14030'52 32030'58 14030'55.0 3505'11.5

For improved precision the angle measurement can be repeated any number of
times. The number of face left observations must equal the number of face right
observations.

EXERCISE 4.6
1. Name the FOUR quadrant bearings by referring to the North and
South directions.
2. The whole circle bearing (WCB) of a traverse line is 115 30.
What will be the value if it is described in quadrant bearing?
3. What is the relation between magnetic declination and magnetic
north?
4. Explain in detail the procedure and booking method of angular
observation in theodolite traverse.

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LINEAR MEASUREMENT IN TRAVERSE
Most theodolite traverses would now use an electronic distance measuring
instrument [EDM] to measure distance. The EDMs are usually built with
theodolites e.g. total station instrument. The procedure of linear measurement is as
follows [Refer to Figure 4.15]

Figure 4.15: Linear measurements in traverse

Tripod with targets is set up at Stations A and C. Theodolite or total station is set
up on station B. Linear measurement or distance to BA and BC are taken and
recorded. The tripod is then moved from station A to station D. The theodolite is
removed from station B and set up at station C. Targets will be set up at station B
and D simultaneously. Finally, distance CD is measured and recorded.

If the process of linear measurement requires the use of steel tape, spring balance
is required for applying tension, vertical angle must be taken for slope correction,
and thermometer required for temperature correction.
TRAVERSE COMPUTATION 4.5
4.4
The following steps describe the traverse adjustment based on a closed loop
traverse.

Step 1 Angular Misclosure
The general limits for the angular misclosure of a traverse is 20 n '' , where n is
the number of instrument setups. This equates to a second order engineering
survey.

If the traverse is a closed loop type, then the internal angles should sum to:
(2n 4) 90;
where n is the number of stations.


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In the following example [Figure 4.16], the traverse have five sides with five
internal angles. The sum of internal angles was found to be 53959'00, whereas
the sum should be (2 5 4) 90 = 54000'00. The angular misclosure is
+01' 00 or 60. Therefore the correction to be applied is 60/5 = +12 per angle.

Figure 4.16: Internal angles of closed traverse

The value of the misclosure lies within acceptable limits such as those for a
second order traverse i.e. 20 5 45
(
'' '' =

. Since all the angles were measured with
the same degree of accuracy, then each angle can be adjusted equally because they
were all equally liable to error. The distribution of error equally to all angles to
adjust out error is shown in Table 4.3.

Table 4.3: Adjustment to Internal Angles
Observed Angles Adjusted Angles
A 10124'00 +12 10124'12
B 14913'00 +12 14913'12
C 8058'30 +12 8058'42
D 11619'00 +12 11619'12
E 9204'30 +12 9204'42
Sum 53959'00

54000'00


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Step 2 Calculations of Bearing
Once the starting bearing has been obtained, the whole circle bearings [WCB] of
all the other lines can be calculated. The general rule to determine the bearing of a
line at a given station is:
- Add the included (Direct Angle) at the station to the WCB of the previous
line.
- If the sum obtained is <180, then add 180 to it.
- If the sum obtained is >180, then subtract 180 from it.
- If the sum obtained is >540, then subtract 540 from it.

The calculated bearings of sides from the internal angles are described in
Table 4.4 and Figure 4.17.

Table 4.4: Bearing Calculations
Bearing AB 5122'00(given)
Bearing BA [180 + 5122'00] 23122'00
Angle B 14913'12
Bearing BC [23122'00 1493'12] 8208'48
Bearing CB [180 + 8208'48] 26208'48
Angle C 8058'42
Bearing CD [26208'48 8058'42] 1810'06
Bearing DC [18110'06 180] 10'06
Angle D 116 19'12
Bearing DE 360 + [110'06] 11619'12 24450'54
Bearing ED [24450'54 180] 6450'54
Angle E 9204'42
Bearing EA 360 + [6450'54] 9204'42 33246'12
Bearing AE 33246'12 180 15246'12
Angle A 10124'12
Bearing AB 15246'12 10124'12 5122'00

On the last line the calculation [AB] comes back to the starting bearing, providing
a check on the work.


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Figure 4.17: Traverse bearings

Step 3 Reduction of Length
Reduce length for slope, temperature, sag, tension and standard if conventional
measurement of distance is being applied. This part has being discussed earlier,
please refer to Topic 2 Linear distance meaurement.

Step 4 Linear Misclosure and Partial Coordinates
The determination of linear misclosure, calculated by summing the positive (+ve)
and negative (ve) partial coordinates for both eastings and northings (departure
E and latitude N), is known as partial coordinates. The algebraic sum should be
zero in both cases, i.e. the traverse should finish at the same point at which it
started. The following steps should be followed:
1. Take algebraic sum of columns distance, E and N.
2. For a closed traverse E = N = 0.
3. Calculate linear misclosure:

( ) ( )
2 2 2
/ 0.056 / 2081.19
0.483 / 2081.19
1: 4325.
E N L
2
( (
\ EA + EA E = \ 0.48 +

=
=

4. Linear misclosure is acceptable for second order engineering traverse
[Acceptable misclosure is greater than 1:4000 for 2nd class traverse].


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Once the linear misclosure is accepted, the partial coordinates of the traverse
stations can be calculated. The coordinates for the traverse stations are derived
from easting and northing differences. Thus the next step is to calculate the partial
coordinates for each line in the traverse. The partial coordinates can be obtained
from the two equations below:
Departure E = Horizontal Length L * sin WCB [ ]
Latitude N = Horizontal Length L * cos WCB [ ]

The tabulation of bearings and distances, depature E and latitude N is
described in Table 4.5 and Figure 4.18:

Table 4.5: Partial Coordinates
WCB [] Departure E Latitude N
Deg Min Sec Length [L] L sin [] L cos []
AB 51 22 00 401.58 313.697 250.720
BC 82 08 48 382.20 378.615 52.223
CD 181 10 06 368.28 7.509 368.203
DE 244 50 54 579.03 524.130 246.097
EA 332 46 12 350.10 160.193 311.301

Sum [] 2081.19 0.48 0.056

Figure 4.18: Northing and easting

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4.5.1 Bowditch Rule of Traverse Adjustment
The Bowditch rule of traverse adjustment is the most commonly used method,
since it is easy to implement. It assumes that the error in the bearing of a line
caused by inaccurate angular measurement produces a displacement at one end of
a line relative to the other end which is equal and perpendicular to the
displacement along that line due to an error in linear measurement, which is taken
to be the square root of the length of the line.

This leads to the following relationships:

1. Adjustment for partial eastings [N] for a given line is:
d
d
E
E
A
= A
o

2. Adjustment for partial northings [N] for a given line is:
d
d
N
N
A
= A
o

Adjust traverse by Bowditch Rule. The corrections to the delta eastings and delta
northings are proportional to the lengths of the traverse sides.
E' = E + E and N' = N + N

Calculate the adjusted bearings and distances as shown in Table 4.6.

Table 4.6: Bowditch Adjustment
Distance Easting Northing Corrections Corrected

d E N E N E' N'
A 401.58 313.697 250.720 0.093 0.011 313.604 250.731
B 382.20 378.615 52.223 0.088 0.010 378.527 52.233
C 368.28 7.509 368.203 0.084 0.010 7.593 368.193
D 579.03 524.130 246.097 0.134 0.016 524.264 246.081
E 350.10 160.193 311.301 0.081 0.009 160.274 311.310

2081.19 0.48 -0.056 0.00 0.00


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For a closed line type traverse, the traverse will finish on a point of known
coordinates. By summing the partial coordinates for both eastings and northings, a
determination of the coordinates for the closing station can be obtained. In this
case, the coordinates should be the same as those given for this closing
coordinates [Table 4.7].

Table 4.7: Coordinates of Traverse
Coordinates
Corrected East North

E' N' 10,000.000 20,000.000 A
313.604 250.731 10,313.604 20,250.731 B
378.527 52.233 10,692.131 20,302.964 C
7.593 368.193 10,684.538 19,934.771 D
524.264 246.081 10,160.274 19,688.690 E
160.274 311.310 10,000.000 20,000.000 A
4.5.2 Transit Rule of Traverse Adjustment
In the Bowditch method of traverse adjustment, all the lines will have some
corrections made in both eastings and northings, as called for in the totals of E
and N. In the Transit Rule, the lengths of the individual lines do not enter into the
calculations and the errors in easting and nothings are distributed uniformly,
throughout the traverse.

If the misclosure in eastings and northings are given as E and N and there are
n legs in the traverse, then for each leg of the traverse, the adjustment to both
partial eastings and northings is given by:
E' = E + E /n and
N' = N + N/n

where E' and N' are the differences in eastings and northings as obtained in the
preliminary calculations.


76

Work Example 1

Bearing
Distan
ce

12 10608'50" 50.502

23 14222'40" 16.341

34 18614'30'' 26.236

45 26727'50'' 36.454

56 27947'40" 25.034

67 34921'10" 30.974

71 2910'50" 22.892

The table above shows a simple traverse booking by whole circle bearing
[WCB] method. Your task is to carry out the necessary traverse adjustment to
determine the correct coordinates of each station. Coordinate of station is given
1 as E.5000 N.5000

Solution

Step1 Determine the linear misclosure and partial coordinates
1. Find sum of distance, d.
2. Calculate E = d * sin WCB
3. Calculate N = d * cos WCB
4. Calculate linear misclosure = [(E
2
+ N
2
) ]/ L

Step 2 Adjust the traverse using Bowditchs Rule
d
d
N
N
A
= A o
d
d
E
E
A
= A
o and

E' = E + E and N' = N + N

77

Step 3 Calculate the final coordinates of Easting and Northing for all the
traverse stations
Present all your calculation in a tabular form as shown:
(i) Linear misclosure and partial coordinates
Easting Northing Corrections
Station Bearing
d
(Meters) E N E N

12 10608'50" 50.502 48.510 14.045 +0.004 0.001

23 14222'40" 16.341 9.975 12.943 +0.001 0

34 18614'30'' 26.236 2.852 26.080 +0.002 0.001

45 26727'50'' 36.454 36.418 1.613 +0.003 0.001

56 27947'40" 25.034 24.669 4.259 +0.002 +0.001

67 34921'10" 30.974 5.723 30.441 +0.002 +0.001

71 2910'50" 22.892 11.161 19.987 +0.002 +0.001

208.433 0.016 0.006
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2 2 2 2
0.016 0.006
0.01709
208.433 208.433
E N
d
A + A +
= = =

Linear Misclosure 1 : 12000
(ii) Bowditch Adjustment and Final coordinates
Final Coordinate
Station
Corrected
E'
Corrected
N'
E N
5000.000 5000.000
12 48.514 14.046 5040.514 4985.954

23 9.976 12.943 5058.490 4973.011

34 2.850 26.081 5055.640 4946.930

45 36.415 1.614 5019.225 4945.316

56 24.667 4.258 4994.558 4949.574

67 5.721 30.440 4980.837 4980.014

71 11.163 19.986 5000.000 5000.000

0.000 0.000

78
TRAVERSE FIELD WORK 4.6
Traversing is carried out with a minimum of three tripods. One is for the
instrument and the other two are for the back and front stations. A minimum of
three people is required in a traversing team. The leader of the team, reads the
instrument, while the 2nd person has the important job of recording the readings
on the booking sheet. The 3rd person has the task of moving and setting up the
tripods as the traverse progresses. There are several steps which should be
followed that will lead to a smooth traverse [refer Figure 4.19].
1. Level and center the instrument.
2. Set the theodolite to read zero or near zero.
3. Record face left horizontal reading to back station.
4. Record face left vertical reading [ VA1] to back station.
5. Record slope distance to backsight station [SD1]. Obtain three readings for
this distance and mean (Readings should be within 3 mm).
6. Turn instrument and sight front station.
7. Record face left horizontal reading to front station.
8. Record face left vertical reading [VA2] to front station.
9. Record slope distance [SD2] to foresight station. Obtain three readings for
this distance and mean (Readings should be within 3 mm).

Transit the instrument to change to the face right setting.
1. Record face right horizontal reading to front station.
2. Record face right vertical reading to front station.
3. Turn instrument to face back station.
4. Record face right horizontal reading to back station.
5. Record face right vertical reading to back station.


79

Figure 4.19: Field traversing

Repeat the field procedure so that two complete sets of horizontal and vertical
readings are obtained. This will allow check to be made in the field, in case of
gross reading errors.

Ensure that all the required information has been obtained before the instrument is
moved. When the leader and the booker are satisfied that all the information has
been recorded then only the instrument is moved to the next station.
TRAVERSING ERRORS 4.7
Traversing errors normally falls into three categories, i.e. centering, angular and
distance. By taking precautions during the field work, it is possible to reduce their
effect.

1. Centering
It is important to ensure that the theodolite instrument and targets are
centered correctly over each survey station. Remember that angles and
distances may be required from or to a known station. This will not be the
case if the theodolite or targets are not centered correctly.


80
2. Angles
When clamping the instrument, apply light clamp to the vertical and
horizontal locks. Hard clamping can affect the pointing of the instrument
and is not necessary. Failure to eliminate parallax and poor focusing can
affect accurate pointing. Always keep the target in the center of the field of
view. All movement of the theodolite should be kept as smooth as possible
and all movement around the instrument should be kept to a minimum.

3. Distances
When recording these, all distances should be obtained to 3 decimal places
and three readings should be taken and the mean calculated.

There is a possibility that that some of the errors outlined below will occur from
time to time, so be aware of them. Dont rush and hopefully you will not forget to
record any information which is required.
- Turning the wrong screw.
- Sighting the wrong target.
- Using the stadia instead of the cross-hairs.
- Forgetting to set the micrometer reading before taking a reading.
- Misreading the circles.
- Transposing the figures when booking the data.

EXERCISE 4.7
1. What personnel and instrument would be required in order to
undertake a traverse survey?
2. Explain briefly the field procedures usually adopted in theodolite
traversing.
3. State the precautions to be observed against making errors in
traversing.

81

- Traversing is a form of a control survey that requires the establishment of a
series of stations that are linked together by the angles and distances. The
angles are measured by theodolites, and the distances are measured
conventionally by tapes or electronic distance measuring equipment.
- A theodolite is an instrument which is capable of measuring both vertical and
horizontal angles to the nearest whole seconds.
- Basically there are two types of modern theodolite i.e. the optical theodolite
and electronic digital theodolite. But both have the same common features in
terms of their construction.
- The theodolite system is comprised of the horizontal circle where it is
perpendicular to the vertical axis and the vertical circle where it is
perpendicular to the horizontal axis. Theodolites in correct adjustment have
their axes and line of sight of the telescope mutually perpendicular. All three
should intersect at one point.
- The temporary adjustment of a theodolite is a procedure of setting up a
theodolite that involves centering it over a ground mark, levelling it and
collimating it (adjusting the eyepiece focus).
- The three main systems of reading the horizontal or vertical angles in a
theodolite are:
(i) optical scale reading;
(ii) optical micrometer reading; and
(iii) electronic digital display.
- Angles must be read in both the face left and face right positions to
eliminate most instrumental errors.
- Horizontal angle readings on face left and face right will be 180 different.
- Vertical angle reading (zenith angles), face left and face right should sum to
360.
- A bearing is a direction (in degrees, etc.) measured clockwise from north.

82
- All angles and distances of a traverse are measured to provide redundancy.
- Adjustments to angles, and to bearings and distances are made only when the
error is within the expected tolerance.
- Adjustment is not used to disguise gross errors.

Figure 4.1 Optical theodolite by SouthGeosystems
[http://www.southgeosystems.com/index.html]

Traverse Survey

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