Chemistry

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Contents
Articles
Overview
Alchemy Chemistry History of chemistry Alchemy and chemistry in medieval Islam Timeline of chemistry 1 1 19 33 44 48 67 67 88 93 99 109 132 149 157 163 167 169 173 173 177 189 195 207 207 210 220 222 227 229

Atoms and molecules

Atom Atomic nucleus Proton Neutron Electron Chemical element Isotope Ion Molecule Chemical compound Chemical substance

Common phases of matter

Phases Gas Liquid Solid

Periodic table
Valence electron Periodic table Periodic trends Period Group

Chemical concepts

Ionic radius Effective nuclear charge Electronegativity Mole Lewis structure Chemical bond

229 237 240 249 253 257 266 266 282 283 286 297 305 305 307

Chemical reactions
Chemical reaction Chemical law Solution Acid Reductionoxidation

Miscellaneous
Etymology Chemical industry

References
Article Sources and Contributors Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 315 325

Article Licenses
License 330

Overview
Alchemy
Alchemy is an ancient tradition, the primary objective of which was the creation of the mythical "philosopher's stone," which was said to be capable of turning base metals into gold or silver, and also act as an elixir of life that would confer youth and immortality upon its user. Alchemy can be viewed as a protoscience, a precursor to modern chemistry, having provided procedures, equipment, and terminology that are still in use. However, alchemy also included various non-scientific mythological, religious, and spiritual concepts, theories and practices.

Overview
The best known goals of the alchemists were the transmutation of common metals into Gold or Silver, and the creation of a "panacea," a remedy that supposedly would cure all diseases and prolong life indefinitely; and the discovery of a universal solvent.[1] Although these Page from alchemic treatise of Ramon Llull, 16th were not the only uses for the discipline, they were the ones most century documented and well-known. Starting with the Middle Ages, Persian and European alchemists invested much effort in the search for the philosopher's stone, a legendary substance that was believed to be an essential ingredient for either or both of those goals. Modern discussions of alchemy are generally split into an examination of its exoteric practical applications, and its esoteric aspects. The former is pursued by historians of the physical sciences who have examined the subject in terms of proto-chemistry, medicine, and charlatanism. The latter is of interest to the historians of esotericism, psychologists, spiritual and new age communities, and hermetic philosophers.[2] The subject has also made an ongoing impact on literature and the arts. Despite the modern split, numerous sources stress an integration of esoteric and exoteric approaches to alchemy. Holmyard, when writing on exoteric aspects, states that they can not be properly appreciated if the esoteric is not always kept in mind.[3] The prototype for this model can be found in Bolos of Mendes' second century BCE work, Physika kai Mystika (On Physical and Mystical Matters).[4] Marie-Louise von Franz tells us the double approach of Western alchemy was set from the start, when Greek philosophy was mixed with Egyptian and Mesopotamian technology. The technological, operative approach, which she calls extraverted, and the mystic, contemplative, psychological one, which she calls introverted are not mutually exclusive, but complementary instead, as meditation requires practice in the real world, and conversely.[5]

Alchemy

Relation to the science of chemistry

Practical applications of alchemy produced a wide range of contributions to medicine and the physical sciences. Alchemists Jbir ibn Hayyn[6] and Robert Boyle[7] are both credited as being the fathers of chemistry. Paracelsian iatrochemistry emphasized the medicinal application of alchemy (continued in plant alchemy, or spagyric).[8] Studies of alchemy also influenced Isaac Newton's theory of gravity.[9] Academic historical research supports that the alchemists were searching for a material substance using physical methods.[10] The attempts of alchemists to arrange information on substances, so as to clarify and anticipate the products of their chemical reactions, resulted in early conceptions of chemical elements and the first rudimentary periodic tables. They learned how to extract metals from ores, and how to compose many types of inorganic acids and bases. During the 17th century, practical alchemy started to evolve into modern chemistry,[11] as it was renamed by Robert Boyle, the "father of modern chemistry".[12] In his book, The Skeptical Chymist, Boyle attacked Paracelsus and the natural philosophy of Aristotle, which was taught at universities. However, Boyle's biographers, in their emphasis that he laid the foundations of modern chemistry, neglect how steadily he clung to the Scholastic sciences and to Alchemy, in theory, practice and doctrine.[13] The decline of alchemy continued in the 18th century with the birth of modern chemistry, which provided a more precise and reliable framework within a new view of the universe based on rational materialism.

Relation to Hermeticism
In the eyes of a variety of esoteric and Hermetic practitioners, the heart of alchemy is spiritual. Transmutation of lead into gold is presented as an analogy for personal transmutation, purification, and perfection.[4] This approach is often termed 'spiritual', 'esoteric', or 'internal' alchemy. Early alchemists, such as Zosimos of Panopolis (c. 300 A.D.), highlight the spiritual nature of the alchemical quest, symbolic of a religious regeneration of the human soul.[14] This approach continued in the Middle Ages, as metaphysical aspects, substances, physical states, and material processes were used as metaphors for spiritual entities, spiritual states, and, ultimately, transformation. In this sense, the literal meanings of 'Alchemical Formulas' were a blind, hiding their true spiritual philosophy. Practitioners and patrons such as Melchior Cibinensis and Pope Innocent VIII existed within the ranks of the church, while Martin Luther applauded alchemy for its consistency with Christian teachings.[15] Both the transmutation of common metals into gold and the universal panacea symbolized evolution from an imperfect, diseased, corruptible, and ephemeral state towards a perfect, healthy, incorruptible, and everlasting state; and the philosopher's stone then represented a mystic key that would make this evolution possible. Applied to the alchemist himself, the twin goal symbolized his evolution from ignorance to enlightenment, and the stone represented a hidden spiritual truth or power that would lead to that goal. In texts that are written according to this view, the cryptic alchemical symbols, diagrams, and textual imagery of late alchemical works typically contain multiple layers of meanings, allegories, and references to other equally cryptic works; and must be laboriously decoded to discover their true meaning. In his 1766 Alchemical Catechism, Thodore Henri de Tschudi denotes that his usage of the metals was a symbol:

Q. When the Philosophers speak of gold and silver, from which they extract their matter, are we to suppose that they refer to the vulgar gold [16] and silver? A. By no means; vulgar silver and gold are dead, while those of the Philosophers are full of life.

During the renaissance, alchemy broke into more distinct schools placing spiritual alchemists in high contrast with those working with literal metals and chemicals.[17] While most spiritual alchemists also incorporate elements of exotericism, examples of a purely spiritual alchemy can be traced back as far as the sixteenth century, when Jacob Boehme used alchemical terminology in strictly mystical writings.[18] Another example can be found in the work of Heinrich Khunrath (15601605) who viewed the process of transmutation as occurring within the alchemist's soul.[17]

Alchemy The recent work of Principe and Newman, seeks to reject the 'spiritual interpretation' of alchemy, stating it arose as a product of the Victorian occult revival.[19] There is evidence to support that some classical alchemical sources were adulterated during this time to give greater weight to the spiritual aspects of alchemy.[20] [21] Despite this, other scholars such as Calian and Tilton reject this view as entirely historically inaccurate, drawing examples of historical spiritual alchemy from Boehme, Isaac Newton, and Michael Maier.[22]

Etymology
The word alchemy derives from the Old French alquimie, which is from the Medieval Latin alchimia, and which is in turn from the Arabic al-kimia ( .)This term itself is derived from the Ancient Greek chemeia () or chemia ()[23] with the addition of the Arabic definite article al- ( ]42[.)The ancient Greek word may have been derived from[25] a version of the Egyptian name for Egypt, which was itself based on the Ancient Egyptian word kme (hieroglyphic Khmi, black earth, as opposed to desert sand).[24] The word could also have originally derived from chumeia () meaning "mixture" and referring to pharmaceutical chemistry.[26] With the later rise of alchemy in Alexandria, the word may have derived from , and thus became spelled as , and the original meaning forgotten.[27] The etymology is still open, and recent research indicates that the Egyptian derivation may be valid.[28]

History
Alchemy covers several philosophical traditions spanning some four millennia and three continents. These traditions' general penchant for cryptic and symbolic language makes it hard to trace their mutual influences and "genetic" relationships. One can distinguish at least three major strands, which appear to be largely independent, at Extract and symbol key from a 17th century book on alchemy. The symbols used least in their earlier stages: Chinese have a one-to-one correspondence with symbols used in astrology at the time. alchemy, centered in China and its zone of cultural influence; Indian alchemy, centred around the Indian subcontinent; and Western alchemy, which occurred around the Mediterranean and whose center has shifted over the millennia from Greco-Roman Egypt, to the Islamic world, and finally medieval Europe. Chinese alchemy was closely connected to Taoism and Indian alchemy with the Dharmic faiths, whereas Western alchemy developed its own philosophical system that was largely independent of, but influenced by, various Western religions. It is still an open question whether these three strands share a common origin, or to what extent they influenced each other.

Alchemy

Alchemy in Greco-Roman Egypt

The origin of Western alchemy may generally be traced to Hellenistic Egypt. The Hellenistic city of Alexandria was a center of Greek alchemical knowledge, and retained its preeminence through most of the Greek and Roman periods.[29] Here, elements of technology, religion, mythology, and Greek philosophy, each with their own much longer histories, combined to form the earliest known records of alchemy in the West. Zosimos of Panopolis wrote the oldest known books on alchemy while Mary the Jewess is credited as being the first non-fictitious Western alchemist. They wrote in Greek and lived in Egypt under Roman rule. Mythology - It is claimed by Zosimos of Panopolis that alchemy dated back to pharaonic Egypt where it was the domain of the priestly [30] class; there is little or no evidence for such a claim though. Alchemical writers used Classical figures from Greek, Roman, and Egyptian mythology to illuminate their works and allegorize alchemical transmutation.[31] These included the pantheon of gods related to the Classical planets, Isis, Osiris, Jason, and many others. The central figure in the mythology of alchemy is Hermes Trismegistus (or Thrice-Great Hermes). His name is derived from the god Thoth and his Greek counterpart Hermes. Hermes and his caduceus or serpent-staff, were among alchemy's principal symbols. According to Clement of Alexandria, he wrote what were called the "forty-two books of Hermes", covering all fields of knowledge.[32] The Hermetica of Thrice-Great Hermes is generally understood to form the basis for Western alchemical philosophy and practice, called the hermetic philosophy by its early practitioners. These writings were collected in the first centuries of the common era. Technology - The dawn of Western alchemy is sometimes associated with that of metallurgy, extending back to 3500 BCE.[33] Many writings were lost when the emperor Diocletian ordered the burning of alchemical books[34] after suppressing a revolt in Alexandria (292 CE). Few original Egyptian documents on alchemy have survived, most notable among them the Stockholm papyrus and the Leyden papyrus X. Dating from 300 to 500 CE, they contained recipes for dyeing and making artificial gemstones, cleaning and fabricating pearls, and the manufacture of imitation gold and silver.[35] These writings lack the mystical, philosophical elements of alchemy, but do contain the works of Bolus of Mendes (or Pseudo-Democritus) which aligned these recipes with theoretical knowledge of astrology and the Classical elements.[36] Between the time of Bolus and Zosimos, the change took place that transformed this metallurgy into a Hermetic art.[37] Philosophy - Alexandria acted as a melting pot for philosophies of Pythagoreanism, Platonism, Stoicism and Gnosticism which formed the origin of alchemys character.[38] An important example of alchemys roots in Greek philosophy, originated by Empedocles and developed by Aristotle, was that all things in the universe were formed from only four elements: earth, air, water, and fire. According to Aristotle, each element had a sphere to which it belonged and to which it would return if left undisturbed.[39] The four elements of the Greek were mostly qualitative aspects of matter, not quantitative, as our modern elements are. "...True alchemy never regarded earth, air, water, and fire as corporeal or chemical substances in the present-day sense of the word. The four elements are simply the primary, and most general, qualities by means of which the amorphous and purely quantitative substance of all
Ambix, cucurbit and retort of Zosimos, from Marcelin Berthelot, Collection des anciens alchimistes grecs (3 vol., Paris, 1887-1888).

Alchemy bodies first reveals itself in differentiated form."[40] Later alchemists extensively developed the mystical aspects of this concept. Alchemy coexisted alongside emerging Christianity. Lactantius believed Hermes Trismegistus had prophesied its birth. Augustine (354-430 CE) later affirmed this, but also condemned Trismegistus for idolatry.[41] Examples of Pagan, Christian, and Jewish alchemists can be found during this period. Most of the Greco-Roman alchemists preceding Zosimos are known only by pseudonyms, such as Moses, Isis, Cleopatra, Democritus, and Ostanes. Others authors such as Komarios, and Chymes, we only know through fragments of text. After 400 CE, Greek alchemical writers occupied themselves solely in commenting on the works of these predecessors.[42] By the middle of the seventh century alchemy was almost an entirely mystical discipline.[43] It was at that time that Khalid Ibn Yazid sparked its migration from Alexandria to the Islamic world, facilitating the translation and preservation of Greek alchemical texts in the 8th and 9th centuries.[44] Much of the Greco-Roman knowledge of alchemy is now lost.

Alchemy in the Islamic world

After the fall of the Roman Empire, the focus of alchemical development moved to the Islamic World. Much more is known about Islamic alchemy because it was better documented: indeed, most of the earlier writings that have come down through the years were preserved as Arabic translations.[45] The word alchemy itself was derived from the Arabic word al-kimia. The Islamic world was a melting pot for alchemy. Platonic and Aristotelian thought, which had already been somewhat appropriated into hermetical science, continued to be assimilated during the late 7th and early 8th centuries. In the late 8th century, Jabir ibn Hayyan (known as "Geber" in Europe) introduced a new approach to alchemy, based on scientific methodology and controlled experimentation in the laboratory, in contrast to the ancient Greek and Egyptian alchemists whose works were often allegorical and unintelligible, with very little concern for laboratory work.[46] Jabir is thus "considered by many to be the father of chemistry",[47] albeit others reserve that title for Robert Boyle or Antoine Lavoisier. The historian of science, Paul Kraus, wrote:[46]

Jabir ibn Hayyan (Geber), considered a "father of chemistry", introduced a scientific and experimental approach to alchemy.

To form an idea of the historical place of Jabirs alchemy and to tackle the problem of its sources, it is advisable to compare it with what remains to us of the alchemical literature in the Greek language. One knows in which miserable state this literature reached us. Collected by Byzantine scientists from the tenth century, the corpus of the Greek alchemists is a cluster of incoherent fragments, going back to all the times since the third century until the end of the Middle Ages. The efforts of Berthelot and Ruelle to put a little order in this mass of literature led only to poor results, and the later researchers, among them in particular Mrs. Hammer-Jensen, Tannery, Lagercrantz , von Lippmann, Reitzenstein, Ruska, Bidez, Festugiere and others, could make clear only few points of detail The study of the Greek alchemists is not very encouraging. An even surface examination of the Greek texts shows that a very small part only was organized according to true experiments of laboratory: even the supposedly technical writings, in the state where we find them today, are unintelligible nonsense which refuses any interpretation. It is different with Jabirs alchemy. The relatively clear description of the processes and the alchemical apparatuses, the methodical classification of the substances, mark an experimental spirit which is extremely far

Alchemy away from the weird and odd esotericism of the Greek texts. The theory on which Jabir supports his operations is one of clearness and of an impressive unity. More than with the other Arab authors, one notes with him a balance between theoretical teaching and practical teaching, between the `ilm and the `amal. In vain one would seek in the Greek texts a work as systematic as that which is presented for example in the Book of Seventy. Jabir himself clearly recognized and proclaimed the importance of experimentation as follows: The first essential in chemistry is that thou shouldest perform practical work and conduct experiments, for he who performs not practical work nor makes experiments will never attain to the least degree of mastery.[48] Early Islamic chemists such as Jabir Ibn Hayyan ( in Arabic, Geberus in Latin; usually rendered in English as Geber), Al-Kindi (Alkindus) and Muhammad ibn Zakarya Rzi (Rasis or Rhazes in Latin) contributed a number of key chemical discoveries, such as the muriatic (hydrochloric acid), sulfuric and nitric acids, and more. The discovery that aqua regia, a mixture of nitric and hydrochloric acids, could dissolve the noblest metal; gold, was to fuel the imagination of alchemists for the next millennium. Islamic philosophers also made great contributions to alchemical hermeticism. The most influential author in this regard was arguably Jabir. Jabir's ultimate goal was Takwin, the artificial creation of life in the alchemical laboratory, up to and including human life. He analyzed each Aristotelian element in terms of four basic qualities of hotness, coldness, dryness, and moistness.[49] According to Jabir, in each metal two of these qualities were interior and two were exterior. For example, lead was externally cold and dry, while gold was hot and moist. Thus, Jabir theorized, by rearranging the qualities of one metal, a different metal would result.[49] By this reasoning, the search for the philosopher's stone was introduced to Western alchemy. Jabir developed an elaborate numerology whereby the root letters of a substance's name in Arabic, when treated with various transformations, held correspondences to the element's physical properties. The elemental system used in medieval alchemy also originated with Jabir. His original system consisted of seven elements, which included the five classical elements (aether, air, earth, fire and water), in addition to two chemical elements representing the metals: sulphur, the stone which burns, which characterized the principle of combustibility, and mercury, which contained the idealized principle of metallic properties. Shortly thereafter, this evolved into eight elements, with the Arabic concept of the three metallic principles: sulphur giving flammability or combustion, mercury giving volatility and stability, and salt giving solidity.[50] The atomic theory of corpuscularianism, where all physical bodies possess an inner and outer layer of minute particles or corpuscles, also has its origins in the work of Jabir.[51] During the 9th to 14th centuries, alchemical theories faced criticism from a variety of practical Muslim chemists, including Ja'far al-Sadiq,[52] Alkindus,[53] Ab al-Rayhn al-Brn,[54] Avicenna[55] and Ibn Khaldun. In particular, they wrote refutations against the idea of the transmutation of metals.

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Alchemy in Medieval Europe

Because of its strong connections to the Greek and Roman cultures, alchemy was rather easily accepted into Christian philosophy, and Medieval European alchemists extensively absorbed Islamic alchemical knowledge. Gerbert of Aurillac, who was later to become Pope Silvester II, (d. 1003) was among the first to bring Islamic science to Europe from Spain. Later men such as Adelard of Bath, who lived in the 12th century, brought additional learning. But until the 13th century the moves were mainly assimilative.[56] In this period there appeared some deviations from the Augustinian principles of earlier Christian thinkers. Saint Anselm (10331109) was a Benedictine who believed faith must precede rationalism, as Augustine and most theologians prior to Anselm had believed, but Anselm put forth the opinion that faith and rationalism were compatible and encouraged rationalism in a Christian context. His views set the stage for the philosophical explosion to occur. Peter Abelard followed Anselm's work, laying the foundation for Painting by Joseph Wright of Derby, 1771 acceptance of Aristotelian thought before the first works of Aristotle reached the West. His major influence on alchemy was his belief that Platonic universals did not have a separate existence outside of man's consciousness. Abelard also systematized the analysis of philosophical contradictions.[57] Robert Grosseteste (11701253) was a pioneer of the scientific theory that would later be used and refined by the alchemists. He took Abelard's methods of analysis and added the use of observations, experimentation, and conclusions in making scientific evaluations. Grosseteste also did much work to bridge Platonic and Aristotelian thinking.[58] Albertus Magnus (11931280) and Thomas Aquinas (12251274) were both Dominicans who studied Aristotle and worked at reconciling the differences between philosophy and Christianity. Aquinas also did a great deal of work in developing the scientific method. He even went as far as claiming that universals could be discovered only through logical reasoning, and, since reason could not run in opposition to God, reason must be compatible with theology.[59] This ran contrary to the commonly held Platonic belief that universals were found through divine illumination alone. Magnus and Aquinas were among the first to take up the examination of alchemical theory, and could be considered to be alchemists themselves, except that these two did little in the way of experimentation. The first true alchemist in Medieval Europe was Roger Bacon. His work did as much for alchemy as Robert Boyle's was to do for chemistry and Galileo's for astronomy and physics. Bacon (12141294) was an Oxford Franciscan who explored optics and languages in addition to alchemy. The Franciscan ideals of taking on the world rather than rejecting the world led to his conviction that experimentation was more important than reasoning: "Of the three ways in which men think that they acquire knowledge of things: authority, reasoning, and experience; only the last is effective and able to bring peace to the intellect." (Bacon p.367) "Experimental Science controls the conclusions of all other sciences. It reveals truths which reasoning from general principles would never have discovered."[58] Roger Bacon has also been attributed with originating the search for the philosopher's stone and the elixir of life: "That medicine which will remove all impurities and corruptibilities from the lesser metals will also, in the opinion of the

Alchemy wise, take off so much of the corruptibility of the body that human life may be prolonged for many centuries." The idea of immortality was replaced with the notion of long life; after all, man's time on Earth was simply to wait and prepare for immortality in the world of God. Immortality on Earth did not mesh with Christian theology.[60] Bacon was not the only alchemist of the high Middle Ages, but he was the most significant. His works were used by countless alchemists of the fifteenth through 19th centuries. Other alchemists of Bacon's time shared several traits. First, and most obviously, nearly all were members of the clergy. This was simply because few people outside the parochial schools had the education to examine the Arabic-derived works. Also, alchemy at this time was sanctioned by the church as a good method of exploring and developing theology. Alchemy was interesting to the wide variety of churchmen because it offered a rationalistic view of the universe when men were just beginning to learn about rationalism.[61] So by the end of the 13th century, alchemy had developed into a fairly structured system of belief. Adepts believed in the macrocosm-microcosm theories of Hermes, that is to say, they believed that processes that affect minerals and other substances could have an effect on the human body (for example, if one could learn the secret of purifying gold, one could use the technique to purify the human soul). They believed in the four elements and the four qualities as described above, and they had a strong tradition of cloaking their written ideas in a labyrinth of coded jargon set with traps to mislead the uninitiated. Finally, the alchemists practiced their art: they actively experimented with chemicals and made observations and theories about how the universe operated. Their entire philosophy revolved around their belief that man's soul was divided within himself after the fall of Adam. By purifying the two parts of man's soul, man could be reunited with God.[62] In the 14th century, these views underwent a major change. William of Ockham, an Oxford Franciscan who died in 1349, attacked the Thomist view of compatibility between faith and reason. His view, widely accepted today, was that God must be accepted on faith alone; He could not be limited by human reason. Of course this view was not incorrect if one accepted the postulate of a limitless God versus limited human reasoning capability, but it virtually erased alchemy from practice in the fourteenth and 15th centuries.[63] Pope John XXII in the early 14th century issued an edict against alchemy, and the Cistercians banned the practice amongst their members, which effectively removed all church personnel from the practice of the Art.[64] The climate changes, Black plague, and increase in warfare and famine that characterized this century no doubt also served to hamper philosophical pursuits in general. In the late 14th century, Piers the Ploughman and Chaucer both painted unflattering pictures of Alchemists as thieves and liars; and in 1403, Henry IV of England banned the practice of Alchemy without first receiving a licence to practise it from the King. Alchemy was kept alive by men such as Nicolas Flamel, who was noteworthy only because he was one of the few alchemists writing in those troubled times. Flamel lived from 1330 to 1417 and would serve as the archetype for the next phase of alchemy. He was not a religious scholar as were many of his predecessors, and his entire interest in the subject revolved around the pursuit of the philosopher's stone, which he is reputed to have found; his work spends a great deal of time describing the processes and reactions, but never actually gives the formula for carrying out the transmutations. Most of his work was aimed at gathering alchemical knowledge that had existed before him, especially as regarded the philosopher's stone.[65]

Nicolas Flamel had these mysterious alchemical symbols carved on his tomb in the Church of the Holy Innocents in Paris.

Alchemy Through the late Middle Ages (13001500) alchemists were much like Flamel: they concentrated on looking for the philosophers' stone and the elixir of youth, now believed to be separate. Their cryptic allusions and symbolism led to wide variations in interpretation of the art. For example, many alchemists during this period interpreted the purification of the soul to mean the transmutation of lead into gold (in which they believed elemental mercury, or 'quicksilver', played a crucial role). These men were viewed as magicians and sorcerers by many, and were often persecuted for their practices.[66] [67] One of these men who emerged at the beginning of the 16th century was the German Heinrich Cornelius Agrippa (14861535). This alchemist believed himself to be a wizard capable of summoning spirits. His influence was negligible, but like Flamel, he produced writings which were referred to by alchemists of later years. Again like Flamel, he did much to change alchemy from a mystical philosophy to an occultist magic. He did keep alive the philosophies of the earlier alchemists, including experimental science, numerology, etc., but he added magic theory, which reinforced the idea of alchemy as an occultist belief. In spite of all this, Agrippa still considered himself a Christian, though his views often came into conflict with the church.[68] [69]

Alchemy in the Renaissance and Modern Age

Further information: Renaissance magicandnatural magic European alchemy continued in this way through the dawning of the Renaissance. The era also saw a flourishing of con artists who would use chemical tricks and sleight of hand to "demonstrate" the transmutation of common metals into gold, or claim to possess secret knowledge thatwith a "small" initial investmentwould surely lead to that goal. However, it is important to emphasize that the terms "chemia" and "alchemia" were used as synonyms in the Renaissance, and the differences between alchemy, chemistry and small-scale assaying and metallurgy were not as neat as in the present day. There were important overlaps between practitioners, and trying to classify them into wizards (alchemists), scientists (chemists) and craftsmen (metallurgists) is anachronistic. The most important name in this period is Philippus Aureolus Paracelsus, (Theophrastus Bombastus von Hohenheim, 14931541) who cast alchemy into a new form, rejecting some of the occultism that had accumulated over the years and promoting the use of observations and experiments to learn about the human body. He rejected Gnostic traditions, but kept much of the Hermetical, neo-Platonic, and Pythagorean philosophies; however, Hermetical science had so much Aristotelian theory that his rejection of Gnosticism was practically meaningless. In particular, Paracelsus rejected the magic theories of Agrippa and Flamel. Paracelsus pioneered the use of chemicals and minerals in medicine, and wrote "Many have said of Alchemy, that it is for the making of gold and silver. For me such is not the aim, but to consider only what virtue and power may lie in medicines."[70] His hermetical views were that sickness and health in the body relied on the harmony of man the microcosm and Nature the macrocosm. He took an approach different from those before him, using this analogy not in the manner of soul-purification but in the manner that humans must have certain balances of minerals in their bodies, and that certain illnesses of the body had chemical remedies that could cure them.[71] While his attempts of treating diseases with such remedies as Mercury might seem ill-advised from a modern point of view, his basic idea of chemically produced medicines has stood time surprisingly well. Alchemy became known as the spagyric art after Greek words meaning to separate and to join together the word probably being coined by Paracelsus. Compare this with one of the dictums of Alchemy in Latin: Solve et Coagula Separate, and Join Together (or "dissolve and coagulate").[72]

Alchemy

10

At the beginning of the 16th century, King James IV of Scotland kept an alchemist, John Damian, and a furnace of the quintessence in Stirling Castle.[73] In England, the topic of alchemy in that time frame is often associated with Doctor John Dee (13 July 1527 December, 1608), better known for his role as astrologer, cryptographer, and general "scientific consultant" to Queen Elizabeth I. Dee was considered an authority on the works of Roger Bacon, and was interested enough in alchemy to write a book on that "Alchemist Sdziwj" (15661636) by Jan Matejko, 1867 subject (Monas Hieroglyphica, 1564) influenced by the Kabbalah. Dee's associate Edward Kelley who claimed to converse with angels through a crystal ball and to own a powder that would turn mercury into gold may have been the source of the popular image of the alchemist-charlatan. Rudolf II, Holy Roman Emperor, in the late 16th century, sponsored various alchemists in their work at his court in Prague, one of which was a particular alchemist named Edward Kelley. Kelley had been a protegee of John Dee in England. Another lesser known alchemist was Michael Sendivogius (Micha Sdziwj, 15661636), a Polish alchemist, philosopher, medical doctor and pioneer of chemistry. According to some accounts, he distilled oxygen in a lab sometime around 1600, 170 years before Scheele and Priestley, by warming nitre (saltpetre). He thought of the gas given off as "the elixir of life". Shortly after discovering this method, it is believed that Sendivogious taught his technique to Cornelius Drebbel. In 1621, Drebbel practically applied this in a submarine. Tycho Brahe (15461601), better known for his astronomical and astrological investigations, was also an alchemist. He had a laboratory built for that purpose at his Uraniborg observatory/research institute. Up to the 17th century, alchemy was practiced by scientists, such as Isaac Newton who devoted considerably more of his writing to the study of alchemy (see Isaac Newton's occult studies) than he did to either optics or physics. Other alchemists of the Western world who were eminent in their other studies include Roger Bacon, and Tycho Brahe.

The decline of Western alchemy

The demise of Western alchemy was brought about by the rise of modern science with its emphasis on rigorous quantitative experimentation and its disdain for "ancient wisdom". Although the seeds of these events were planted as early as the 17th century, alchemy still flourished for some two hundred years, and in fact may have reached its apogee in the 18th century. As late as 1781 James Price claimed to have produced a powder that could transmute mercury into silver or gold. Robert Boyle (16271691), better known for his studies of gases (cf. Boyle's law) pioneered the scientific method in chemical investigations. He assumed nothing in his experiments and compiled every piece of relevant data; in a typical experiment, Boyle would note the place in which the experiment was carried out, the wind characteristics, the position of the Sun and Moon, and the barometer reading, all just in case they proved to be relevant.[74] This approach eventually led to the founding of modern chemistry in the 18th and 19th centuries, based on revolutionary discoveries of Lavoisier and John Dalton which finally provided a logical, quantitative and reliable framework for understanding matter transmutations, and revealed the futility of longstanding alchemical goals such as the philosopher's stone. Meanwhile, Paracelsian alchemy led to the development of modern medicine. Experimentalists gradually uncovered the workings of the human body, such as blood circulation (Harvey, 1616), and eventually traced many diseases to

Alchemy infections with germs (Koch and Pasteur, 19th century) or lack of natural nutrients and vitamins (Lind, Eijkman, Funk, et al.). Supported by parallel developments in organic chemistry, the new science easily displaced alchemy from its medical roles, interpretive and prescriptive, while deflating its hopes of miraculous elixirs and exposing the ineffectiveness or even toxicity of its remedies. It is a popular belief that Alchemists made contributions to the "chemical" industries of the dayore testing and refining, metalworking, production of gunpowder, ink, dyes, paints, cosmetics, leather tanning, ceramics, glass manufacture, preparation of extracts, liquors, and so on (it seems that the preparation of aqua vitae, the "water of life", was a fairly popular "experiment" among European alchemists). Alchemists contributed distillation to Western Europe. During the seventeenth century, a short-lived "supernatural" interpretation of alchemy become popular, including support by fellows of the Royal Society: Robert Boyle and Elias Ashmole. Proponents of the supernatural interpretation of alchemy believed that the philosopher's stone might be used to summon and communicate with angels.[75] In the 17th century, practical alchemy started to evolve into modern chemistry,[11] as it was renamed by Robert Boyle, the "father of modern chemistry".[12] In his book, The Skeptical Chymist, Boyle attacked Paracelsus and the venerable natural philosophy of Aristotle, which was taught at universities. However, Boyle's biographers, in their emphasis that he laid the foundations of modern chemistry, neglect how steadily he clung to the Scholastic sciences and to Alchemy, in theory, practice and doctrine.[13] The decline of alchemy continued in the 18th century with the birth of modern chemistry, which provided a more precise and reliable framework within a new view of the universe based on rational materialism. The words "alchemy" and "chemistry" were used interchangeably during most of the seventeenth century; only during the eighteenth century was a distinction drawn rigidly between the two.[76] In the eighteen century, "alchemy" was considered to be restricted to the realm of "gold making", leading to the popular belief that most, if not all, alchemists were charlatans, and the tradition itself nothing more than a fraud.[77] The obscure and secretive writings of the alchemists was used as a case by those who wished to forward a fraudulent and non-scientific opinion of alchemy.[78] In order to protect the developing science of modern chemistry from the negative censure of which alchemy was being subjected, academic writers during the scientific Enlightenment attempted, for the sake of survival, to separate and divorce the "new" chemistry from the "old" practices of alchemy. This move was mostly successful, and the consequences of this continued into the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, and even to the present day.[79] During the occult revival of the early nineteenth century, alchemy received new attention as an occult science.[80] The esoteric or occultist school, which arose during the nineteenth century, held (and continues to hold) the view that the substances and operations mentioned in alchemical literature are to be interpreted in a spiritual sense, and it downplays the role of the alchemy as a practical tradition or protoscience.[81] This interpretation further forwarded the view that alchemy is an art primarily concerned with spiritual enlightenment or illumination, as opposed to the physical manipulation of apparatus and chemicals, and claims that the obscure language of the alchemical texts were an allegorical guise for spiritual, moral or mystical processes.[82] In the first half of the 19th century, one established chemist, Baron Carl Reichenbach, worked on concepts similar to the old alchemy, such as the Odic force, but his research did not enter the mainstream of scientific discussion. In the nineteenth century revival of alchemy, the two most seminal figures were Mary Anne Atwood, and Ethan Allen Hitchcock who independently published similar works regarding spiritual alchemy. Both forwarded a completely esoteric view of alchemy, as Atwood claimed: "No modern art or chemistry, notwithstanding all its surreptitious claims, has any thing in common with Alchemy." [83] [84] Atwood's work influenced subsequent authors of the occult revival including Eliphas Levi, Arthur Edward Waite, and Rudolf Steiner. Hitchcock, in his Remarks Upon Alchymists (1855) attempted to make a case for his spiritual interpretation with his claim that the alchemists wrote about a spiritual discipline under a materialistic guise in order to avoid accusations of blasphemy from the

11

Alchemy church and state. Thus, as science steadily continued to uncover and rationalize the clockwork of the universe, founded on its own materialistic metaphysics, alchemy was left deprived of its chemical and medical connections but still incurably burdened by them. Reduced to an arcane philosophical system, poorly connected to the material world, it suffered the common fate of other esoteric disciplines such as astrology and Kabbalah: excluded from university curricula, shunned by its former patrons, ostracized by scientists, and commonly viewed as the epitome of charlatanism and superstition. These developments could be interpreted as part of a broader reaction in European intellectualism against the Romantic movement of the preceding centuries.

12

Indian alchemy
According to Multhauf & Gilbert (2008):[85] The oldest Indian writings, the Vedas (Hindu sacred scriptures), contain the same hints of alchemy that are found in evidence from ancient China, namely vague references to a connection between gold and long life. Mercury, which was so vital to alchemy everywhere, is first mentioned in the 4th- to 3rd-century-BC Artha-stra, about the same time it is encountered in China and in the West. Evidence of the idea of transmuting base metals to gold appears in 2nd- to 5th-century-AD Buddhist texts, about the same time as in the West. Since Alexander the Great had invaded Ancient India in 325 BC, leaving a Greek state (Gandhra) that long endured, the possibility exists that the Indians acquired the idea from the Greeks, but it could have been the other way around. Significant progress in alchemy was made in ancient India. Will Durant wrote in Our Oriental Heritage: "Something has been said about the chemical excellence of cast iron in ancient India, and about the high industrial development of the Gupta times, when India was looked to, even by Imperial Rome, as the most skilled of the nations in such chemical industries as dyeing, tanning, soap-making, glass and cement... By the sixth century the Hindus were far ahead of Europe in industrial chemistry; they were masters of calcinations, distillation, sublimation, steaming, fixation, the production of light without heat, the mixing of anesthetic and soporific powders, and the preparation of metallic salts, compounds and alloys. The tempering of steel was brought in ancient India to a perfection unknown in Europe till our own times; King Porus is said to have selected, as a specially valuable gift from Alexander, not gold or silver, but thirty pounds of steel. The Moslems took much of this Hindu chemical science and industry to the Near East and Europe; the secret of manufacturing "Damascus" blades, for example, was taken by the Arabs from the Persians, and by the Persians from India." An 11th century Persian chemist and physician named Ab Rayhn Brn reported that they "have a science similar to alchemy which is quite peculiar to them, which in Sanskrit is called Rasayna and in Persian Rasavtam. It means the art of obtaining/manipulating Rasa, nectar, mercury, juice. This art was restricted to certain operations, metals, drugs, compounds, and medicines, many of which have mercury as their core element. Its principles restored the health of those who were ill beyond hope and gave back youth to fading old age." One thing is sure though, Indian alchemy like every other Indian science is focused on finding Moksha: perfection, immortality, liberation. As such it focuses its efforts on transumation of the human body: from mortal to immortal. Many are the traditional stories of alchemists still alive since time immemorial due to the effects of their experiments. The texts of Ayurvedic Medicine and Science have aspects similar to alchemy: concepts of cures for all known diseases, and treatments that focus on anointing the body with oils. Since alchemy eventually became engrained in the vast field of Indian erudition, influences from other metaphysical and philosophical doctrines such as Samkhya, Yoga, Vaisheshika and Ayurveda were inevitable. Nonetheless, most of the Rasayna texts track their origins back to Kaula tantric schools associated to the teachings of the personality of Matsyendranath.

Alchemy The Rasayna was understood by very few people at the time. Two famous examples were Nagarjunacharya and Nityanadhiya. Nagarjunacharya was a Buddhist monk who, in ancient times, ran the great university of Nagarjuna Sagar. His famous book, Rasaratanakaram, is a famous example of early Indian medicine. In traditional Indian medicinal terminology "rasa" translates as "mercury" and Nagarjunacharya was said to have developed a method to convert the mercury into gold. Much of his original writings are lost to us, but his teachings still have strong influence on traditional Indian medicine (Ayureveda) to this day.

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Chinese alchemy
Whereas Western alchemy eventually centered on the transmutation of base metals into noble ones, Chinese alchemy had a more obvious connection to medicine. The philosopher's stone of European alchemists can be compared to the Grand Elixir of Immortality sought by Chinese alchemists. However, in the hermetic view, these two goals were not unconnected, and the philosopher's stone was often equated with the universal panacea; therefore, the two traditions may have had more in common than initially appears. Black powder may have been an important invention of Chinese alchemists. Described in use this alternate version 9th century texts and used in fireworks in China by the 10th century, it was used in of the Taijitu. cannons by 1290. From China, the use of gunpowder spread to Japan, the Mongols, the Arab world, and Europe. Gunpowder was used by the Mongols against the Hungarians in 1241, and in Europe by the 14th century. Chinese alchemy was closely connected to Taoist forms of traditional Chinese medicine, such as Acupuncture and Moxibustion, and to martial arts such as Tai Chi Chuan and Kung Fu (although some Tai Chi schools believe that their art derives from the philosophical or hygienic branches of Taoism, not Alchemical). In fact, in the early Song Dynasty, followers of this Taoist idea (chiefly the elite and upper class) would ingest mercuric sulfide, which, though tolerable in low levels, led many to suicide. Thinking that this consequential death would lead to freedom and access to the Taoist heavens, the ensuing deaths encouraged people to eschew this method of alchemy in favor of external sources (the aforementioned Tai Chi Chuan, mastering of the Qi, etc.).
Taoist Alchemists often

Alchemy as a subject of historical research

The history of alchemy has become a significant and recognized subject of academic study.[86] As the language of the alchemists is analyzed, historians are becoming more aware of the intellectual connections between that discipline and other facets of Western cultural history, such as the evolution of science and philosophy, the sociology and psychology of the intellectual communities, kabbalism, spiritualism, Rosicrucianism, and other mystic movements.[87] Institutions involved in this research include The Chymistry of Isaac Newton project at Indiana University, the University of Exeter Centre for the Study of Esotericism (EXESESO), the European Society for the Study of Western Esotericism (ESSWE), and the University of Amsterdam's Sub-department for the History of Hermetic Philosophy and Related Currents. A large collection of books on alchemy is kept in the Bibliotheca Philosophica Hermetica in Amsterdam.

Modern alchemy
Due to the complexity and obscurity of alchemical literature, and the eighteenth century disappearance of remaining alchemical practitioners into the area of chemistry; the general understanding of alchemy in the general public, modern practitioners, and also many historians of science, have been strongly influenced by several distinct and radically different interpretations.[88] Hundreds of books including adulterated translations of classical alchemical literature were published throughout the early nineteenth century.[20] Many of these continue to be reprinted today by esoteric book publishing houses, along with modern books on spiritual alchemy and poor translations of older

Alchemy alchemical texts. These are then used as sources by modern authors to support spiritual interpretations. Over half of the books on alchemy published since 1970 support spiritual interpretations, mostly using previously adulterated documents to support their conclusions. Many of these books continue to be taken seriously, even appearing in university bookshelves.[89] Esoteric interpretations of alchemy remains strong to this day, and continue to influence both the public and academic perceptions of the history of alchemy. Today, numerous esoteric alchemical groups continue to perpetuate modern interpretations of alchemy, sometimes merging in concepts from New Age or radical environmentalism movements.[90] Rosencrutzians and freemasons have a continued interest in alchemy and its symbolism.

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Alchemy in traditional medicine

Traditional medicine sometimes involves the transmutation of natural substances, using pharmacological or a combination of pharmacological and spiritual techniques. In Ayurveda the samskaras are used to transform heavy metals and toxic herbs in a way that removes their yosi. These processes are actively used to the present day.[91] Twentieth century spagyrists Albert Richard Riedel and Jean Dubuis merged Paracelsian alchemy with occultism, teaching laboratory pharmaceutical methods. The schools they founded, Les Philosophes de la Nature and The Paracelsus Research Society, popularized modern spagyrics including the manufacture of herbal tinctures and products.[92] The courses, books, organizations, and conferences generated by their students continue to influence popular applications of alchemy as a new age medicinal practice.

Nuclear transmutation
In 1919, Ernest Rutherford used artificial disintegration to convert nitrogen into oxygen.[93] From then on, this sort of scientific transmutation is routinely performed in many nuclear physics-related laboratories and facilities, like particle accelerators, nuclear power stations and nuclear weapons as a by-product of fission and other physical processes. The synthesis of noble metals enjoyed brief popularity in the 20th century when physicists were able to convert platinum atoms into gold atoms via a nuclear reaction. However, the new gold atoms, being unstable isotopes, lasted for under five seconds before they broke apart. More recently, reports of table-top element transmutationby means of electrolysis or sonic cavitationwere the pivot of the cold fusion controversy of 1989. None of those claims have yet been reliably duplicated. Synthesis of noble metals requires either a nuclear reactor or a particle accelerator. Particle accelerators use huge amounts of energy, while nuclear reactors produce energy, so only methods utilizing a nuclear reactor are of economic interest.

Psychology
Alchemical symbolism has been used by psychologists such as Carl Jung who reexamined alchemical symbolism and theory and presented the inner meaning of alchemical work as a spiritual path.[94] [95] Jung was deeply interested in the occult since his youth, participating in seances, which he used as the basis for his doctoral dissertation "On the Psychology and Pathology of So-Called Occult Phenomena."[96] In 1913, Jung had already adopted a "spiritualist and redemptive interpretation of alchemy", likely reflecting his interest in the occult literature of the nineteenth century.[97] Jung began writing his views on alchemy from the 1920s and continued until the end of his life. His interpretation of Chinese alchemical texts in terms of his analytical psychology also served the function of comparing Eastern and Western alchemical imagery and core concepts and hence its possible inner sources (archetypes).[98] [99] [100] Jung saw alchemy as a Western proto-psychology dedicated to the achievement of individuation.[94] [100] In his interpretation, alchemy was the vessel by which Gnosticism survived its various purges into the Renaissance,[100] [101] a concept also followed by others such as Stephan A. Hoeller. In this sense, Jung viewed alchemy as

Alchemy comparable to a Yoga of the East, and more adequate to the Western mind than Eastern religions and philosophies. The practice of Alchemy seemed to change the mind and spirit of the Alchemist. Conversely, spontaneous changes on the mind of Western people undergoing any important stage in individuation seems to produce, on occasion, imagery known to Alchemy and relevant to the person's situation.[102] Jung did not completely reject the material experiments of the alchemists, but he massively downplayed it, writing that the transmutation was performed in the mind of the alchemist. He claimed the material substances and procedures were only a projection of the alchemists' internal state, while the real substance to be transformed was the mind itself.[103] Marie-Louise von Franz, a disciple of Jung, continued Jung's studies on alchemy and its psychological meaning. Jung's work exercised a great influence on the mainstream perception of alchemy, his approach becoming a stock element in many popular texts on the subject to this day.[104] Modern scholars are sometimes critical of the Jungian approach to alchemy as overly reflective of nineteenth century occultism.[105]

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Magnum opus
The Great Work of Alchemy is often described as a series of four stages represented by colors. nigredo, a blackening or melanosis albedo, a whitening or leucosis citrinitas, a yellowing or xanthosis rubedo, a reddening, purpling, or iosis[106]

Notes
[1] Alchemy at Dictionary.com (http:/ / dictionary. reference. com/ browse/ alchemy). [2] For a detailed look into the problems of defining alchemy see Stanton J. Linden. Darke Hierogliphicks: Alchemy in English literature from Chaucer to the Restoration. University Press of Kentucky, 1996.p.6-36 [3] E. J. Holmyard. Alchemy. p.16 [4] Antoine Faivre, Wouter J. Hanegraaff. Western esotericism and the science of religion. 1995. p.96 [5] von Franz, M-L. Alchemical Active Imagination. Shambala. Boston. 1997. ISBN 0-87773-589-1. [6] N.C. Datta. The Story of Chemistry. p.23 [7] Arthur Greenburg. From alchemy to chemistry in picture and story. [8] H. Stanley Redgrove. Alchemy Ancient and Modern p.60 [9] Mitch Stokes. Isaac Newton p.57 [10] Secrets of Nature, Astrology and Alchemy in Modern Europe by William R. Newman, Anthony Grafton, MIT Press, 2006, p397-8,400 [11] William R Newman & Lawrence M Principe (1998) "The Etymological Origins of an Historiographic Mistake" in Early Science and Medicine, Vol. 3, No. 1 pp.32-65 [12] Deem, Rich (2005). "The Religious Affiliation of Robert Boyle the father of modern chemistry. From: Famous Scientists Who Believed in God" (http:/ / www. adherents. com/ people/ pb/ Robert_Boyle. html). adherents.com. . Retrieved 2009-04-17. [13] More, Louis Trenchard (January 1941). "Boyle as Alchemist". Journal of the History of Ideas (University of Pennsylvania Press) 2 (1): 6176. doi:10.2307/2707281. JSTOR2707281. [14] Allen G. Debus. Alchemy and early modern chemistry. The Society for the History of Alchemy and Chemistry. p.34. [15] Raphael Patai. The Jewish Alchemists: A History and Source Book. Princeton University Press. p.4 [16] Thodore Henri de Tschudi. Hermetic Catechism in his L'Etoile Flamboyant ou la Socit des Franc-Maons considere sous tous les aspects. 1766. (A.E. Waite translation as found in The Hermetic and Alchemical Writings of Paracelsus.) [17] Raphael Patai. The Jewish Alchemists: A History and Source Book. Princeton University Press. p.3 [18] Daniel Merkur. Gnosis: an esoteric tradition of mystical visions and unions. State University of New York Press. p.75 [19] Alchemy Tried in the Fire by William R. Newman, Lawrence M Principe, p37 [20] Newton and Newtonianism by James E. Force, Sarah Hutton, p211 [21] Secrets of Nature, Astrology and Alchemy in Modern Europe by William R. Newman, Anthony Grafton, MIT Press, 2006, p395-6 [22] Calian, George (2010). Alkimia Operativa and Alkimia Speculativa. Some Modern Controversies on the Historiography of Alchemy. Annual of Medieval Studies at CEU. [23] alchemy (http:/ / oxforddictionaries. com/ view/ entry/ m_en_gb0017630#DWS-M_EN_GB-037342), Oxford Dictionaries [24] " alchemy (http:/ / oed. com/ search?searchType=dictionary& q=alchemy)". Oxford English Dictionary. Oxford University Press. 2nd ed. 1989. Or see Harper, Douglas. "alchemy" (http:/ / www. etymonline. com/ index. php?term=alchemy). Online Etymology Dictionary. . Retrieved 2010-04-07..

Alchemy
[25] See, for example, the etymology for in Liddell, Henry George; Robert Scott (1901). A Greek-English Lexicon (Eighth edition, revised throughout ed.). Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN0199102058. [26] See, for example, both the etymology given in the Oxford English Dictionary and also that for in Liddell, Henry George; Robert Scott, Henry Stuart Jones (1940). A Greek-English Lexicon (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ hopper/ morph?l=xumeia& la=greek#lexicon) (A new edition, revised and augmented throughout ed.). Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN0199102058. . [27] The original source for this analysis is the article on pp.8185 of Mahn, Carl August Friedrich (1855). Etymologische untersuchungen auf dem gebiete der romanischen sprachen (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=-BMLAAAAQAAJ). F. Duemmler. . [28] The article by David Bain, entitled " , an unnoticed Greek name for Egypt: New evidence for the origins and etymology of alchemy?" expresses the current debate. The world of ancient magic (http:/ / www. norwinst. gr/ Publikasjoner/ Papers. htm). Bergen: The Norwegian Institute at Athens. 1999. . [29] New Scientist, Dec 24-31, 1987 [30] Garfinkel, Harold (1986). Ethnomethodological Studies of Work. Routledge &Kegan Paul. pp.127. ISBN0415119650. [31] Yves Bonnefoy. Roman and European Mythologies. University of Chicago Press, 1992. p. 211-213 [32] Clement, Stromata, vi. 4. [33] Stanton J. Linden. Darke Hierogliphicks: Alchemy in English literature from Chaucer to the Restoration. University Press of Kentucky, 1996. p.12 [34] Partington, James Riddick (1989). A Short History of Chemistry. New York: Dover Publications. pp.20. ISBN0486659771. [35] The Alchemy Reader: From Hermes Trismegistus to Isaac Newton, Stanton J. Linden, Cambridge University Press, 2003, p46 [36] A History of Chemistry, Bensaude-Vincent, Isabelle Stengers, Harvard University Press, 1996, p13 [37] Stanton J. Linden. Darke Hierogliphicks: Alchemy in English literature from Chaucer to the Restoration. University Press of Kentucky, 1996. p.14 [38] A History of Chemistry, Bensaude-Vincent, Isabelle Stengers, Harvard University Press, 1996, p13 [39] Lindsay, Jack (1970). The Origins of Alchemy in Graeco-Roman Egypt. London: Muller. p.16. ISBN0-389-01006-5. [40] Hitchcock, Ethan Allen (1857). Remarks Upon Alchemy and the Alchemists. Boston: Crosby, Nichols. p.66. ISBN0405079559. [41] Fanning, Philip Ashley. Isaac Newton and the Transmutation of Alchemy: An Alternative View of the Scientific Revolution. 2009. p.6 [42] F. Sherwood Taylor. Alchemists, Founders of Modern Chemistry. p.26. [43] Allen G. Debus. Alchemy and early modern chemistry: papers from Ambix. p. 36 [44] Glen Warren Bowersock, Peter Robert Lamont Brown, Oleg Grabar. Late antiquity: a guide to the postclassical world. p. 284 - 285 [45] Burckhardt, Titus (1967). Alchemy: Science of the Cosmos, Science of the Soul. Trans. William Stoddart. Baltimore: Penguin. p.46. ISBN0906540968. [46] Kraus, Paul, Jbir ibn Hayyn, Contribution l'histoire des ides scientifiques dans l'Islam. I. Le corpus des crits jbiriens. II. Jbir et la science grecque,. Cairo (1942-1943). Repr. By Fuat Sezgin, (Natural Sciences in Islam. 67-68), Frankfurt. 2002: (cf. Ahmad Y Hassan. "A Critical Reassessment of the Geber Problem: Part Three" (http:/ / www. history-science-technology. com/ Geber/ Geber 3. htm). . Retrieved 2008-08-09.) [47] Derewenda, Zygmunt S. (2007). "On wine, chirality and crystallography". Acta Crystallographica Section A: Foundations of Crystallography 64: 246258 [247]. doi:10.1107/S0108767307054293. PMID18156689. [48] Holmyard, E. J. (1931). Makers of Chemistry (http:/ / www. archive. org/ details/ makersofchemistr029725mbp). Oxford: Clarendon Press. p.60. . [49] Burckhardt, Titus (1967). Alchemy: Science of the Cosmos, Science of the Soul. Trans. William Stoddart. Baltimore: Penguin. p.29. ISBN0906540968. [50] Strathern, Paul. (2000), Mendeleyevs Dream the Quest for the Elements, New York: Berkley Books [51] Moran, Bruce T. (2005). Distilling knowledge: alchemy, chemistry, and the scientific revolution. Harvard University Press. p.146. ISBN0674014952. "a corpuscularian tradition in alchemy stemming from the speculations of the medieval author Geber (Jabir ibn Hayyan)" [52] Research Committee of Strasburg University, Imam Jafar Ibn Muhammad As-Sadiq A.S. The Great Muslim Scientist and Philosopher, translated by Kaukab Ali Mirza, 2000. Willowdale Ont. ISBN 0969949014. [53] Felix Klein-Frank (2001), "Al-Kindi", in Oliver Leaman & Hossein Nasr, History of Islamic Philosophy, p. 174. London: Routledge. [54] Marmura Michael E. (1965). "An Introduction to Islamic Cosmological Doctrines: Conceptions of Nature and Methods Used for Its Study by the Ikhwan Al-Safa'an, Al-Biruni, and Ibn Sina by Seyyed Hossein Nasr". Speculum 40 (4): 7446. doi:10.2307/2851429. [55] Robert Briffault (1938). The Making of Humanity, p. 196-197. [56] Hollister, C. Warren (1990). Medieval Europe: A Short History (6th ed.). Blacklick, Ohio: McGraw-Hill College. pp.124, 294. ISBN0-07-557141-2. [57] Hollister, C. Warren (1990). Medieval Europe: A Short History (6th ed.). Blacklick, Ohio: McGraw-Hill College. pp.287f. ISBN0-07-557141-2. [58] Hollister, C. Warren (1990). Medieval Europe: A Short History (6th ed.). Blacklick, Ohio: McGraw-Hill College. pp.294f. ISBN0-07-557141-2. [59] Hollister, C. Warren (1990). Medieval Europe: A Short History (6th ed.). Blacklick, Ohio: McGraw-Hill College. pp.290294, 355. ISBN0-07-557141-2. [60] Edwardes, Michael (1977). The Dark Side of History. New York: Stein and Day. pp.3738. ISBN0552114634. [61] Edwardes, Michael (1977). The Dark Side of History. New York: Stein and Day. pp.2427. ISBN0552114634.

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Alchemy
[62] Burckhardt, Titus (1967). Alchemy: Science of the Cosmos, Science of the Soul. Trans. William Stoddart. Baltimore: Penguin. p.149. ISBN0906540968. [63] Hollister, C. Warren (1990). Medieval Europe: A Short History (6th ed.). Blacklick, Ohio: McGraw-Hill College. p.235. ISBN0-07-557141-2. [64] Edwardes, Michael (1977). The Dark Side of History. New York: Stein and Day. p.49. ISBN0552114634. [65] Burckhardt, Titus (1967). Alchemy: Science of the Cosmos, Science of the Soul. Trans. William Stoddart. Baltimore: Penguin. pp.170181. ISBN0906540968. [66] Edwardes, Michael (1977). The Dark Side of History. New York: Stein and Day. pp.5075. ISBN0552114634. [67] Norton, Thomas (Ed. John Reidy) (1975). Ordinal of Alchemy. London: Early English Text Society. pp.lxiiilxvii. ISBN0-19-722274-9. [68] Edwardes, Michael (1977). The Dark Side of History. New York: Stein and Day. pp.5659. ISBN0552114634. [69] Wilson, Colin (1971). The Occult: A History. New York: Random House. pp.2329. ISBN0-394-46555-5. [70] Edwardes, Michael (1977). The Dark Side of History. New York: Stein and Day. p.47. ISBN0552114634. [71] Debus, Allen G. and Multhauf, Robert P. (1966). Alchemy and Chemistry in the Seventeenth Century. Los Angeles: William Andrews Clark Memorial Library, University of California.. pp.612. [72] Davis, Erik. "The Gods of the Funny Books: An Interview with Neil Gaiman and Rachel Pollack" (http:/ / www. techgnosis. com/ gaiman. html). Gnosis (magazine). Techgnosis (reprint from Summer 1994 issue). . Retrieved 2007-02-04. [73] Accounts of the Lord High Treasurer of Scotland, vol. iii, (1901), 99, 202, 206, 209, 330, 340, 341, 353, 355, 365, 379, 382, 389, 409. [74] Pilkington, Roger (1959). Robert Boyle: Father of Chemistry. London: John Murray. p.11. Journal of the History of Ideas, 41, 1980, p293-318 Secrets of Nature, Astrology and Alchemy in Modern Europe by William R. Newman, Anthony Grafton, MIT Press, 2006, p399 The Aspiring Adept: Robert Boyle and His Alchemical Quest, by Lawrence M. Principe, 'Princeton University Press', 1998, p188-90

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Alchemy Tried in the Fire by William R. Newman, Lawrence M Principe, p37 Secrets of Nature, Astrology and Alchemy in Modern Europe by William R. Newman, Anthony Grafton, MIT Press, 2006, p386 [77] Secrets of Nature, Astrology and Alchemy in Modern Europe by William R. Newman, Anthony Grafton, MIT Press, 2006, p386 [78] Secrets of Nature, Astrology and Alchemy in Modern Europe by William R. Newman, Anthony Grafton, MIT Press, 2006, p387 [79] Secrets of Nature, Astrology and Alchemy in Modern Europe by William R. Newman, Anthony Grafton, MIT Press, 2006, p386-7 On the Edge of the Future by Jeffrey John Kripal, Glenn W. Shuck, p27 Secrets of Nature, Astrology and Alchemy in Modern Europe by William R. Newman, Anthony Grafton, MIT Press, 2006, p387

Alchemy Tried in the Fire by William R. Newman, Lawrence M Principe, p37 The Theosophical Enlightenment by Mircea Eliade, State University of New York Press, 1994, p49 Secrets of Nature, Astrology and Alchemy in Modern Europe by William R. Newman, Anthony Grafton, MIT Press, 2006, p388 [82] Secrets of Nature, Astrology and Alchemy in Modern Europe by William R. Newman, Anthony Grafton, MIT Press, 2006, p388 [83] Secrets of Nature, Astrology and Alchemy in Modern Europe by William R. Newman, Anthony Grafton, MIT Press, 2006, p391 [84] Secrets of Nature, Astrology and Alchemy in Modern Europe by William R. Newman, Anthony Grafton, MIT Press, 2006, p143. [85] Multhauf, Robert P. & Gilbert, Robert Andrew (2008). Alchemy. Encyclopdia Britannica (2008). [86] Antoine Faivre, Wouter J. Hanegraaff. Western esotericism and the science of religion. 1995. p.viii-xvi [87] See Exeter Centre for the Study of Esotericism website (http:/ / centres. exeter. ac. uk/ exeseso/ ) [88] Secrets of Nature, Astrology and Alchemy in Modern Europe by William R. Newman, Anthony Grafton, MIT Press, 2006, p385 [89] Secrets of Nature, Astrology and Alchemy in Modern Europe by William R. Newman, Anthony Grafton, MIT Press, 2006, p395-6 [90] Secrets of Nature, Astrology and Alchemy in Modern Europe by William R. Newman, Anthony Grafton, MIT Press, 2006, p396 [91] Junius, Manfred M; The Practical Handbook of Plant Alchemy: An Herbalist's Guide to Preparing Medicinal Essences, Tinctures, and Elixirs; Healing Arts Press 1985 [92] Joscelyn Godwin. The Golden Thread: The Ageless Wisdom of the Western Mystery Traditions. Quest Books, 2007. p.120 [93] [ |Amsco School Publications (http:/ / worthyisthelamb. info/ amsco/ newtitles. html)]. "Reviewing Physics: The Physical Setting" (http:/ / www. stmary. ws/ physics/ amsco_review_and_glencoe/ chapter05. pdf). Amsco School Publications. . ""The first artificial transmutation of one element to another was performed by Rutherford in 1919. Rutherford bombarded nitrogen with energetic alpha particles that were moving fast enough to overcome the electric repulsion between themselves and the target nuclei. The alpha particles collided with, and were absorbed by, the nitrogen nuclei, and protons were ejected. In the process oxygen and hydrogen nuclei were created." [94] Jung, C. G. (1944). Psychology and Alchemy (2nd ed. 1968 Collected Works Vol. 12 ISBN 0-691-01831-6). London: Routledge. [95] Jung, C. G., & Hinkle, B. M. (1912). Psychology of the Unconscious : a study of the transformations and symbolisms of the libido, a contribution to the history of the evolution of thought. London: Kegan Paul Trench Trubner. (revised in 1952 as Symbols of Transformation, Collected Works Vol.5 ISBN 0-691-01815-4). [96] The Jung Cult, by Ricard Noll, Princeton University Press, 1994, p144 [97] Noll. Aryan Christ. p171 [98] C.-G. Jung Preface to Richard Wilhelm's translation of the I Ching. [99] C.-G. Jung Preface to the translation of The Secret of The Golden Flower. [100] Polly Young-Eisendrath, Terence Dawson. The Cambridge companion to Jung. Cambridge University Press. 1997. p.33

Alchemy
[101] Jung, C. G., & Jaffe A. (1962). Memories, Dreams, Reflections. London: Collins. This is Jung's autobiography, recorded and edited by Aniela Jaffe, ISBN 0-679-72395-1. [102] Jung, C. G. - Psychology and Alchemy; Symbols of Transformation. [103] Redemption in Alchemy, by Carl Jung, p210 [104] Secrets of Nature, Astrology and Alchemy in Modern Europe by William R. Newman, Anthony Grafton, MIT Press, 2006, p401 Secrets of Nature, Astrology and Alchemy in Modern Europe by William R. Newman, Anthony Grafton, MIT Press, 2006, p418 Alchemy Tried in the Fire, by William R. Newman, Lawrence M. Principe, p37 On the Edge of the Future, by Jeffrey John Kripal, Glenn W. Shuck, p27 [106] Joseph Needham. Science & Civilisation in China: Chemistry and chemical technology. Spagyrical discovery and invention : magisteries of gold and immortality. Cambridge. 1974. p.23

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References
Calian, George (2010). Alkimia Operativa and Alkimia Speculativa. Some Modern Controversies on the Historiography of Alchemy (http://www.archive.org/stream/AlkimiaOperativaAndAlkimiaSpeculativa. SomeModernControversiesOnThe/FlorinGeorgeCalian-AlkimiaOperativaAndAlkimiaSpeculativa. SomeModernControversiesOnTheHistoriographyOfAlchemy#page/n0/mode/2up). Annual of Medieval Studies at CEU. Eliade, Mircea (1978). The Forge and the Crucible (http://books.google.com/books?id=SQDJ1aCtMV8C& printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Halleux, Robert (1979). Les textes alchimiques. Brepols Publishers. Holmyard, Eric John (1957). Alchemy (http://books.google.com/books?id=7Bt-kwKRUzUC&lpg=PP1& dq=alchemy&pg=PP1&hl=en#v=onepage&q&f=false). Courier Dover Publications. Linden, Stanton J. (2003). The Alchemy Reader: from Hermes Trismegistus to Isaac Newton (http://books. google.com/books?id=isJY9jWdru0C&lpg=PP1&dq=alchemy&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false). Cambridge University Press. Newman, William R.; Principe, Lawrence M. (2002). Alchemy Tried in the Fire (http://books.google.com/ books?id=eQERmMdykZEC&lpg=PP1&dq=alchemy&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false). The University of Chicago Press.. von Franz, Marie Louise (1980). Alchemy: An Introduction to the Symbolism and the Psychology (http://books. google.com/books?id=wOVUUMirSnEC&lpg=PP1&dq=alchemy&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false). Inner City Books.

Further reading
Encyclopdia Britannica (2011). Alchemy (http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/13282/alchemy).

External links
Alchemy (http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p003k9bn) on In Our Time at the BBC. ( listen now (http:// www.bbc.co.uk/iplayer/console/p003k9bn/In_Our_Time_Alchemy)) Etymology of "alchemy" (http://www.balashon.com/2009/03/alchemy.html) Hidden Symbolism of Alchemy and the Occult Arts (http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/27755) by Herbert Silberer Alchemy images (http://www.alchemywebsite.com/emb_apparatus.html) Dictionary of the History of Ideas: (http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/cgi-local/DHI/dhi.cgi?id=dv1-04) Alchemy Antiquity, Vol. 77 (2003) (http://antiquity.ac.uk/ProjGall/martinon/index.html) - "A 16th century lab in a 21st century lab". The Story of Alchemy and the Beginnings of Chemistry (http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/14218), Muir, M. M. Pattison (1913)

Alchemy "Transforming the Alchemists" (http://www.nytimes.com/2006/08/01/science/01alch. html?ex=1312084800&en=4445e5f8f9c7b3c0&ei=5090&partner=rssuserland&emc=rss), New York Times, August 1, 2006. Historical revisionism and alchemy. Electronic library (http://www.revistaazogue.com/biblio.htm#N_3_) with hundreds of alchemical books (15th- and 20th century) and 160 original manuscripts. SHAC: Society for the History of Alchemy and Chemistry (http://www.ambix.org/) Book of Secrets: Alchemy and the European Imagination, 1500-2000 (http://beinecke.library.yale.edu/ digitallibrary/alchemy.html) A digital exhibition from the Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library at Yale University (http://www.library.yale.edu/beinecke/)

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Chemistry
Chemistry is the science of matter, especially its properties, structure, composition, behavior, reactions, interactions and the changes it undergoes.[1] [2] Chemistry is sometimes called "the central science" because it connects physics with other natural sciences such as astronomy, geology and biology.[3] [4] Physics also studies matter, but physics is the science of quantities of space and matter, and laws governing them. Chemistry is a branch of physical science but not a branch of physics.[5] However, chemistry utilizes physics. For example, chemistry uses quantities like energy and Chemistry is the science of matter, its properties, entropy in relation to the spontaneity of chemical processes. It also structure, composition and its changes during explains the structure and properties of matter as a consequence of the interactions and chemical reactions. physical properties of chemical substances and their interactions. For example, steel is harder than iron because its atoms are bound together in a more rigid crystalline lattice; wood burns or undergoes rapid oxidation because it can react spontaneously with oxygen in a chemical reaction above a certain temperature; sugar and salt dissolve in water because their molecular/ionic properties are such that dissolution is preferred under the ambient conditions. Synthesis is the major aspect that separates Chemistry from Physics and Biology as sciences. Chemistry includes the knowledge (science) to design and make more complex substances from simpler ones. These new substances might then be analyzed for their physical or biological properties. The etymology of the word chemistry has been much disputed.[6] The genesis of chemistry can be traced to certain practices, known as alchemy, which had been practiced for several millennia in various parts of the world, particularly the Middle East.[7]

Chemistry

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Theory
Traditional chemistry starts with the study of Elementary_particles, atoms, molecules,[8] substances, metals, crystals, .. and other aggregates of matter. in solid, liquid, and gas states, whether in isolation or combination. The interactions, reactions and transformations that are studied in chemistry are a result of interaction either between different chemical substances or between matter and energy. Such behaviors are studied in a chemistry laboratory using various forms of laboratory glassware.

Levels of magnification: 1. Macroscopic level Matter 2. Molecular level 3. Atomic level Protons, neutrons, and electrons 4. Subatomic level Electron 5. Subatomic level Quarks 6. String level

During chemical reactions, bonds between atoms break and form, resulting in different substances with different properties. In a blast furnace, iron oxide, a compound, reacts with carbon monoxide to form iron, one of the chemical elements, and carbon dioxide.

Chemistry

21 A chemical reaction is a transformation of some substances into one or more other substances.[9] It can be symbolically depicted through a chemical equation. The number of atoms on the left and the right in the equation for a chemical transformation is most often equal. The nature of chemical reactions a substance may undergo and the energy changes that may accompany it are constrained by certain basic rules, known as chemical laws.

Energy and entropy considerations are invariably important in almost all chemical studies. Chemical substances are classified in terms of Laboratory, Institute of Biochemistry, University their structure, phase as well as their chemical compositions. They can of Cologne be analyzed using the tools of chemical analysis, e.g. spectroscopy and chromatography. Scientists engaged in chemical research are known as chemists.[10] Most chemists specialize in one or more sub-disciplines.

History
Ancient Egyptians pioneered the art of synthetic "wet" chemistry up to 4,000 years ago.[11] By 1000 BC ancient civilizations were using technologies that formed the basis of the various branches of chemistry such as; extracting metal from their ores, making pottery and glazes, fermenting beer and wine, making pigments for cosmetics and painting, extracting chemicals from plants for medicine and perfume, making cheese, dying cloth, tanning leather, rendering fat into soap, making glass, and making alloys like bronze. The genesis of chemistry can be traced to the widely observed phenomenon of burning that led to metallurgythe art and science of processing ores to get metals (e.g. metallurgy in ancient India). The greed for gold led to the discovery of the process for its purification, even though the underlying principles were not well understoodit was thought to be a transformation rather than purification. Many scholars in those days thought it reasonable to believe that there exist means for transforming cheaper (base) metals into gold. This gave way to alchemy and the search for the Philosopher's Stone which was believed to bring about such a transformation by mere touch.[12] Greek atomism dates back to 440 BC, as what might be indicated by the book De Rerum Natura (The Nature of Things)[13] written by the Roman Lucretius in 50 BC.[14] Much of the early development of purification methods is described by Pliny the Elder in his Naturalis Historia. A tentative outline is as follows: 1. Egyptian alchemy [3,000 BCE 400 BCE], formulate early "element" theories such as the Ogdoad. 2. Greek alchemy [332 BCE 642 CE], the Greek king Alexander the Great conquers Egypt and founds Alexandria, having the world's largest library, where scholars and wise men gather to study. 3. Arab alchemy [642 CE 1200], the Muslim conquest of Egypt; development of alchemy by Jbir ibn Hayyn, al-Razi and others; Jbir modifies Aristotle's theories; advances in processes and apparatus.[15] 4. European alchemy [1300 present], Pseudo-Geber builds on Arabic chemistry. From the 12th century, major advances in the chemical arts shifted from Arab lands to western Europe.[15] 5. Chemistry [1661], Boyle writes his classic chemistry text The Sceptical Chymist. 6. Chemistry [1787], Lavoisier writes his classic Elements of Chemistry. 7. Chemistry [1803], Dalton publishes his Atomic Theory. 8. Chemistry [1869], Dmitry Mendeleev presented his Periodic table being the framework of the modern chemistry

Democritus' atomist philosophy was later adopted by Epicurus (341270 BCE).

Chemistry The earliest pioneers of Chemistry, and inventors of the modern scientific method,[16] were medieval Arab and Persian scholars. They introduced precise observation and controlled experimentation into the field and discovered numerous Chemical substances.[17] "Chemistry as a science was almost created by the Muslims; for in this field, where the Greeks (so far as we know) were confined to industrial experience and vague hypothesis, the Saracens introduced precise observation, controlled experiment, and careful records. They invented and named the alembic (al-anbiq), chemically analyzed innumerable substances, composed lapidaries, distinguished alkalis and acids, investigated their affinities, studied and manufactured hundreds of drugs. Alchemy, which the Muslims inherited from Egypt, contributed to chemistry by a thousand incidental discoveries, and by its method, which was the most scientific of all medieval operations."
[17]

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The most influential Muslim chemists were Jbir ibn Hayyn (Geber, d. 815), al-Kindi (d. 873), al-Razi (d. 925), al-Biruni (d. 1048) and Alhazen (d. 1039).[18] The works of Jbir became more widely known in Europe through Latin translations by a pseudo-Geber in 14th century Spain, who also wrote some of his own books under the pen name "Geber". The contribution of Indian alchemists and metallurgists in the development of chemistry was also quite significant.[19] The emergence of chemistry in Europe was primarily due to the recurrent incidence of the plague and blights there during the so called Dark Ages. This gave rise to a need for medicines. It was thought that there exists a universal medicine called the Elixir of Life that can cure all diseases, but like the Philosopher's Stone, it was never found. For some practitioners, alchemy was an intellectual pursuit, over time, they got better at it. Paracelsus (14931541), for example, rejected the 4-elemental theory and with only a vague understanding of his chemicals and medicines, formed a hybrid of alchemy and science in what was to be called iatrochemistry. Similarly, the influences of philosophers such as Sir Francis Bacon (15611626) and Ren Descartes (15961650), who demanded more rigor in mathematics and in removing bias from scientific observations, led to a scientific revolution. In chemistry, this began with Robert Boyle (16271691), who came up with an equation known as Boyle's Law about the characteristics of gaseous state.[21] Chemistry indeed came of age when Antoine Lavoisier (17431794), developed the theory of Conservation of mass in 1783; and the development of the Atomic Theory by John Dalton around 1800. The Law of Conservation of Mass resulted in the reformulation of chemistry based on this law and the oxygen theory of combustion, Antoine-Laurent de Lavoisier is considered the which was largely based on the work of Lavoisier. Lavoisier's [20] "Father of Modern Chemistry". fundamental contributions to chemistry were a result of a conscious effort to fit all experiments into the framework of a single theory. He established the consistent use of the chemical balance, used oxygen to overthrow the phlogiston theory, and developed a new system of chemical nomenclature and made contribution to the modern metric system. Lavoisier also worked to translate the archaic and technical language of chemistry into something that could be easily understood by the largely uneducated masses, leading to an increased public interest in chemistry. All these advances in chemistry led to what is usually called the chemical revolution. The contributions of Lavoisier led to what is now called modern chemistrythe chemistry that is studied in educational institutions all over the world. It is because of

Chemistry these and other contributions that Antoine Lavoisier is often celebrated as the "Father of Modern Chemistry".[22] The later discovery of Friedrich Whler that many natural substances, organic compounds, can indeed be synthesized in a chemistry laboratory also helped the modern chemistry to mature from its infancy.[23] The discovery of the chemical elements has a long history from the days of alchemy and culminating in the discovery of the periodic table of the chemical elements by Dmitri Mendeleev (18341907)[24] and later discoveries of some synthetic elements.

23

Etymology
The word chemistry comes from the word alchemy, an earlier set of practices that encompassed elements of chemistry, metallurgy, philosophy, astrology, astronomy, mysticism and medicine; it is commonly thought of as the quest to turn lead or another common starting material into gold.[25] The word alchemy in turn is derived from the Arabic word al-km ( ,)meaning alchemy. The Arabic term is borrowed from the Greek or .[26] [27] This may have Egyptian origins. Many believe that al-km is derived from , which is in turn derived from the word Chemi or Kimi, which is the ancient name of Egypt in Egyptian.[26] Alternately, al-km may be derived from , meaning "cast together".[28] An alchemist was called a 'chemist' in popular speech, and later the suffix "-ry" was added to this to describe the art of the chemist as "chemistry".

Definitions
In retrospect, the definition of chemistry has changed over time, as new discoveries and theories add to the functionality of the science. Shown below are some of the standard definitions used by various noted chemists: Alchemy (330) the study of the composition of waters, movement, growth, embodying, disembodying, drawing the spirits from bodies and bonding the spirits within bodies (Zosimos).[29] Chymistry (1661) the subject of the material principles of mixed bodies (Boyle).[30] Chymistry (1663) a scientific art, by which one learns to dissolve bodies, and draw from them the different substances on their composition, and how to unite them again, and exalt them to a higher perfection (Glaser).[31] Chemistry (1730) the art of resolving mixed, compound, or aggregate bodies into their principles; and of composing such bodies from those principles (Stahl).[32] Chemistry (1837) the science concerned with the laws and effects of molecular forces (Dumas).[33] Chemistry (1947) the science of substances: their structure, their properties, and the reactions that change them into other substances (Pauling).[34] Chemistry (1998) the study of matter and the changes it undergoes (Chang).[35]

Basic concepts
Several concepts are essential for the study of chemistry; some of them are:[36]

Atom
An atom is the basic unit of chemistry. It consists of a positively charged core (the atomic nucleus) which contains protons and neutrons, and which maintains a number of electrons to balance the positive charge in the nucleus. The atom is also the smallest entity that can be envisaged to retain the chemical properties of the element, such as electronegativity, ionization potential, preferred oxidation state(s), coordination number, and preferred types of bonds to form (e.g., metallic, ionic, covalent).

Chemistry

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Element
The concept of chemical element is related to that of chemical substance. A chemical element is specifically a substance which is composed of a single type of atom. A chemical element is characterized by a particular number of protons in the nuclei of its atoms. This number is known as the atomic number of the element. For example, all atoms with 6 protons in their nuclei are atoms of the chemical element carbon, and all atoms with 92 protons in their nuclei are atoms of the element uranium. Ninetyfour different chemical elements or types of atoms based on the number of protons exist naturally. A further 18 have been recognised by IUPAC as existing artificially only. Although all the nuclei of all atoms belonging to one element will have the same number of protons, they may not necessarily have the same number of neutrons; such atoms are termed isotopes. In fact several isotopes of an element may exist. The most convenient presentation of the chemical elements is in the periodic table of the chemical elements, which groups elements by atomic number. Due to its ingenious arrangement, groups, or columns, and periods, or rows, of elements in the table either share several chemical properties, or follow a certain trend in characteristics such as atomic radius, electronegativity, etc. Lists of the elements by name, by symbol, and by atomic number are also available.

Compound
A compound is a substance with a particular ratio of atoms of particular chemical elements which determines its composition, and a particular organization which determines chemical properties. For example, water is a compound containing hydrogen and oxygen in the ratio of two to one, with the oxygen atom between the two hydrogen atoms, and an angle of 104.5 between them. Compounds are formed and interconverted by chemical reactions.

Substance
A chemical substance is a kind of matter with a definite composition and set of properties.[37] Strictly speaking, a mixture of compounds, elements or compounds and elements is not a chemical substance, but it may be called a chemical. Most of the substances we encounter in our daily life are some kind of mixture; for example: air, alloys, biomass, etc. Nomenclature of substances is a critical part of the language of chemistry. Generally it refers to a system for naming chemical compounds. Earlier in the history of chemistry substances were given name by their discoverer, which often led to some confusion and difficulty. However, today the IUPAC system of chemical nomenclature allows chemists to specify by name specific compounds amongst the vast variety of possible chemicals. The standard nomenclature of chemical substances is set by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC). There are well-defined systems in place for naming chemical species. Organic compounds are named according to the organic nomenclature system.[38] Inorganic compounds are named according to the inorganic nomenclature system.[39] In addition the Chemical Abstracts Service has devised a method to index chemical substance. In this scheme each chemical substance is identifiable by a number known as CAS registry number.

Molecule
A molecule is the smallest indivisible portion of a pure chemical substance that has its unique set of chemical properties, that is, its potential to undergo a certain set of chemical reactions with other substances. Molecules can exist as electrically neutral units unlike ions. Molecules are typically a set of atoms bound together by covalent bonds, such that the structure is electrically neutral and all valence electrons are paired with other electrons either in bonds or in lone pairs.

Chemistry

25

Not all substances consist of discrete molecules. Most chemical elements are composed of lone atoms as their smallest discrete unit. Other types of substances, such as ionic compounds and network solids, are organized in such a way as to lack the existence of identifiable molecules per se. Instead, these substances are discussed in terms of formula units or unit cells as the smallest repeating structure within the substance; as they lack identifiable molecules. One of the main characteristic of a A molecular structure depicts the bonds and relative positions of atoms in a molecule such as that in Paclitaxel shown here molecule is its geometry often called its structure. While the structure of diatomic, triatomic or tetra atomic molecules may be trivial, (linear, angular pyramidal etc.) the structure of polyatomic molecules, that are constituted of more than six atoms (of several elements) can be crucial for its chemical nature.

Mole and amount of substance

Mole is a unit to measure amount of substance (also called chemical amount). A mole is the amount of a substance that contains as many elementary entities (atoms, molecules or ions) as there are atoms in 0.012 kilogram (or 12 grams) of carbon-12, where the carbon-12 atoms are unbound, at rest and in their ground state.[40] The number of entities per mole is known as the Avogadro constant, and is determined empirically. The currently accepted value is 6.02214179(30)1023 mol1 (2007 CODATA). One way to understand the meaning of the term "mole" is to compare and contrast it to terms such as dozen. Just as one dozen eggs contains 12 individual eggs, one mole contains 6.02214179(30)1023 atoms, molecules or other particles. The term is used because it is much easier to say, for example, 1 mole of carbon, than it is to say 6.02214179(30)1023 carbon atoms, and because moles of chemicals represent a scale that is easy to experience. The amount of substance of a solute per volume of solution is known as amount of substance concentration, or molarity for short. Molarity is the quantity most commonly used to express the concentration of a solution in the chemical laboratory. The most commonly used units for molarity are mol/L (the official SI units are mol/m3).

Ions and salts

An ion is a charged species, an atom or a molecule, that has lost or gained one or more electrons. Positively charged cations (e.g. sodium cation Na+) and negatively charged anions (e.g. chloride Cl) can form a crystalline lattice of neutral salts (e.g. sodium chloride NaCl). Examples of polyatomic ions that do not split up during acid-base reactions are hydroxide (OH) and phosphate (PO43). Ions in the gaseous phase are often known as plasma.

Chemistry

26

Acidity and basicity

A substance can often be classified as an acid or a base. There are several different theories which explain acid-base behavior. The simplest is Arrhenius theory, which states than an acid is a substance that produces hydronium ions when it is dissolved in water, and a base is one that produces hydroxide ions when dissolved in water. According to BrnstedLowry acid-base theory, acids are substances that donate a positive hydrogen ion to another substance in a chemical reaction; by extension, a base is the substance which receives that hydrogen ion. A third common theory is Lewis acid-base theory, which is based on the formation of new chemical bonds. Lewis theory explains that an acid is a substance which is capable of accepting a pair of electrons from another substance during the process of bond formation, while a base is a substance which can provide a pair of electrons to form a new bond. According to concept as per Lewis, the crucial things being exchanged are charges.[41] There are several other ways in which a substance may be classified as an acid or a base, as is evident in the history of this concept [42] Acid strength is commonly measured by two methods. One measurement, based on the Arrhenius definition of acidity, is pH, which is a measurement of the hydronium ion concentration in a solution, as expressed on a negative logarithmic scale. Thus, solutions that have a low pH have a high hydronium ion concentration, and can be said to be more acidic. The other measurement, based on the BrnstedLowry definition, is the acid dissociation constant (Ka), which measure the relative ability of a substance to act as an acid under the BrnstedLowry definition of an acid. That is, substances with a higher Ka are more likely to donate hydrogen ions in chemical reactions than those with lower Ka values.

Phase
In addition to the specific chemical properties that distinguish different chemical classifications chemicals can exist in several phases. For the most part, the chemical classifications are independent of these bulk phase classifications; however, some more exotic phases are incompatible with certain chemical properties. A phase is a set of states of a chemical system that have similar bulk structural properties, over a range of conditions, such as pressure or temperature. Physical properties, such as density and refractive index tend to fall within values characteristic of the phase. The phase of matter is defined by the phase transition, which is when energy put into or taken out of the system goes into rearranging the structure of the system, instead of changing the bulk conditions. Sometimes the distinction between phases can be continuous instead of having a discrete boundary, in this case the matter is considered to be in a supercritical state. When three states meet based on the conditions, it is known as a triple point and since this is invariant, it is a convenient way to define a set of conditions. The most familiar examples of phases are solids, liquids, and gases. Many substances exhibit multiple solid phases. For example, there are three phases of solid iron (alpha, gamma, and delta) that vary based on temperature and pressure. A principal difference between solid phases is the crystal structure, or arrangement, of the atoms. Another phase commonly encountered in the study of chemistry is the aqueous phase, which is the state of substances dissolved in aqueous solution (that is, in water). Less familiar phases include plasmas, Bose-Einstein condensates and fermionic condensates and the paramagnetic and ferromagnetic phases of magnetic materials. While most familiar phases deal with three-dimensional systems, it is also possible to define analogs in two-dimensional systems, which has received attention for its relevance to systems in biology.

Redox
It is a concept related to the ability of atoms of various substances to lose or gain electrons. Substances that have the ability to oxidize other substances are said to be oxidative and are known as oxidizing agents, oxidants or oxidizers. An oxidant removes electrons from another substance. Similarly, substances that have the ability to reduce other substances are said to be reductive and are known as reducing agents, reductants, or reducers. A reductant transfers electrons to another substance, and is thus oxidized itself. And because it "donates" electrons it is also called an electron donor. Oxidation and reduction properly refer to a change in oxidation numberthe actual transfer of

Chemistry electrons may never occur. Thus, oxidation is better defined as an increase in oxidation number, and reduction as a decrease in oxidation number.

27

Bonding
Atoms sticking together in molecules or crystals are said to be bonded with one another. A chemical bond may be visualized as the multipole balance between the positive charges in the nuclei and the negative charges oscillating about them.[43] More than simple attraction and repulsion, the energies and distributions characterize the availability of an electron to bond to another atom. A chemical bond can be a covalent bond, an ionic bond, a hydrogen bond or just because of Van der Waals force. Each of these kind of Electron atomic and molecular orbitals bond is ascribed to some potential. These potentials create the interactions which hold atoms together in molecules or crystals. In many simple compounds, Valence Bond Theory, the Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion model (VSEPR), and the concept of oxidation number can be used to explain molecular structure and composition. Similarly, theories from classical physics can be used to predict many ionic structures. With more complicated compounds, such as metal complexes, valence bond theory is less applicable and alternative approaches, such as the molecular orbital theory, are generally used. See diagram on electronic orbitals.

Reaction
When a chemical substance is transformed as a result of its interaction with another or energy, a chemical reaction is said to have occurred. Chemical reaction is therefore a concept related to the 'reaction' of a substance when it comes in close contact with another, whether as a mixture or a solution; exposure to some form of energy, or both. It results in some energy exchange between the constituents of the reaction as well with the system environment which may be a designed vessels which are often laboratory glassware. Chemical reactions can result in the formation or dissociation of molecules, that is, molecules breaking apart to form two or more smaller molecules, or rearrangement of atoms within or across molecules. Chemical reactions usually involve the making or breaking of chemical bonds. Oxidation, reduction, dissociation, acid-base neutralization and molecular rearrangement are some of the commonly used kinds of chemical reactions. A chemical reaction can be symbolically depicted through a chemical equation. While in a non-nuclear chemical reaction the number and kind of atoms on both sides of the equation are equal, for a nuclear reaction this holds true only for the nuclear particles viz. protons and neutrons.[44] The sequence of steps in which the reorganization of chemical bonds may be taking place in the course of a chemical reaction is called its mechanism. A chemical reaction can be envisioned to take place in a number of steps, each of which may have a different speed. Many reaction intermediates with variable stability can thus be envisaged during the course of a reaction. Reaction mechanisms are proposed to explain the kinetics and the relative product mix of a reaction. Many physical chemists specialize in exploring and proposing the mechanisms of various chemical reactions. Several empirical rules, like the Woodward-Hoffmann rules often come handy while proposing a mechanism for a chemical reaction. According to the IUPAC gold book a chemical reaction is a process that results in the interconversion of chemical species".[45] Accordingly, a chemical reaction may be an elementary reaction or a stepwise reaction. An additional caveat is made, in that this definition includes cases where the interconversion of conformers is experimentally observable. Such detectable chemical reactions normally involve sets of molecular entities as indicated by this definition, but it is often conceptually convenient to use the term also for changes involving single molecular entities

Chemistry (i.e. 'microscopic chemical events').

28

Equilibrium
Although the concept of equilibrium is widely used across sciences, in the context of chemistry, it arises whenever a number of different states of the chemical composition are possible. For example, in a mixture of several chemical compounds that can react with one another, or when a substance can be present in more than one kind of phase. A system of chemical substances at equilibrium even though having an unchanging composition is most often not static; molecules of the substances continue to react with one another thus giving rise to a dynamic equilibrium. Thus the concept describes the state in which the parameters such as chemical composition remain unchanged over time. Chemicals present in biological systems are invariably not at equilibrium; rather they are far from equilibrium.

Energy
In the context of chemistry, energy is an attribute of a substance as a consequence of its atomic, molecular or aggregate structure. Since a chemical transformation is accompanied by a change in one or more of these kinds of structure, it is invariably accompanied by an increase or decrease of energy of the substances involved. Some energy is transferred between the surroundings and the reactants of the reaction in the form of heat or light; thus the products of a reaction may have more or less energy than the reactants. A reaction is said to be exergonic if the final state is lower on the energy scale than the initial state; in the case of endergonic reactions the situation is the reverse. A reaction is said to be exothermic if the reaction releases heat to the surroundings; in the case of endothermic reactions, the reaction absorbs heat from the surroundings. Chemical reactions are invariably not possible unless the reactants surmount an energy barrier known as the activation energy. The speed of a chemical reaction (at given temperature T) is related to the activation energy E, by the Boltzmann's population factor - that is the probability of molecule to have energy greater than or equal to E at the given temperature T. This exponential dependence of a reaction rate on temperature is known as the Arrhenius equation. The activation energy necessary for a chemical reaction can be in the form of heat, light, electricity or mechanical force in the form of ultrasound.[46] A related concept free energy, which also incorporates entropy considerations, is a very useful means for predicting the feasibility of a reaction and determining the state of equilibrium of a chemical reaction, in chemical thermodynamics. A reaction is feasible only if the total change in the Gibbs free energy is negative, ; if it is equal to zero the chemical reaction is said to be at equilibrium. There exist only limited possible states of energy for electrons, atoms and molecules. These are determined by the rules of quantum mechanics, which require quantization of energy of a bound system. The atoms/molecules in a higher energy state are said to be excited. The molecules/atoms of substance in an excited energy state are often much more reactive; that is, more amenable to chemical reactions. The phase of a substance is invariably determined by its energy and the energy of its surroundings. When the intermolecular forces of a substance are such that the energy of the surroundings is not sufficient to overcome them, it occurs in a more ordered phase like liquid or solid as is the case with water (H2O); a liquid at room temperature because its molecules are bound by hydrogen bonds.[47] Whereas hydrogen sulfide (H2S) is a gas at room temperature and standard pressure, as its molecules are bound by weaker dipole-dipole interactions. The transfer of energy from one chemical substance to another depends on the size of energy quanta emitted from one substance. However, heat energy is often transferred more easily from almost any substance to another because the phonons responsible for vibrational and rotational energy levels in a substance have much less energy than photons invoked for the electronic energy transfer. Thus, because vibrational and rotational energy levels are more closely spaced than electronic energy levels, heat is more easily transferred between substances relative to light or other forms of electronic energy. For example, ultraviolet electromagnetic radiation is not transferred with as much efficacy from one substance to another as thermal or electrical energy.

Chemistry The existence of characteristic energy levels for different chemical substances is useful for their identification by the analysis of spectral lines. Different kinds of spectra are often used in chemical spectroscopy, e.g. IR, microwave, NMR, ESR, etc. Spectroscopy is also used to identify the composition of remote objects - like stars and distant galaxies - by analyzing their radiation spectra.

29

Emission spectrum of iron

The term chemical energy is often used to indicate the potential of a chemical substance to undergo a transformation through a chemical reaction or to transform other chemical substances.

Chemical laws
Chemical reactions are governed by certain laws, which have become fundamental concepts in chemistry. Some of them are: Avogadro's law Beer-Lambert law Boyle's law (1662, relating pressure and volume) Charles's law (1787, relating volume and temperature) Fick's law of diffusion Gay-Lussac's law (1809, relating pressure and temperature) Le Chatelier's Principle Henry's law Hess's Law Law of conservation of energy leads to the important concepts of equilibrium, thermodynamics, and kinetics. Law of conservation of mass, according to the modern physics it is actually energy that is conserved, and that energy and mass are related; a concept which becomes important in nuclear chemistry. Law of definite composition, although in many systems (notably biomacromolecules and minerals) the ratios tend to require large numbers, and are frequently represented as a fraction. Law of multiple proportions Raoult's Law

Subdisciplines
Chemistry is typically divided into several major sub-disciplines. There are also several main cross-disciplinary and more specialized fields of chemistry.[48] Analytical chemistry is the analysis of material samples to gain an understanding of their chemical composition and structure. Analytical chemistry incorporates standardized experimental methods in chemistry. These methods may be used in all subdisciplines of chemistry, excluding purely theoretical chemistry. Biochemistry is the study of the chemicals, chemical reactions and chemical interactions that take place in living organisms. Biochemistry and organic chemistry are closely related, as in medicinal chemistry or neurochemistry. Biochemistry is also associated with molecular biology and genetics. Inorganic chemistry is the study of the properties and reactions of inorganic compounds. The distinction between organic and inorganic disciplines is not absolute and there is much overlap, most importantly in the sub-discipline of organometallic chemistry. Materials chemistry is the preparation, characterization, and understanding of substances with a useful function. The field is a new breadth of study in graduate programs, and it integrates elements from all classical areas of

Chemistry chemistry with a focus on fundamental issues that are unique to materials. Primary systems of study include the chemistry of condensed phases (solids, liquids, polymers) and interfaces between different phases. Neurochemistry is the study of neurochemicals; including transmitters, peptides, proteins, lipids, sugars, and nucleic acids; their interactions, and the roles they play in forming, maintaining, and modifying the nervous system. Nuclear chemistry is the study of how subatomic particles come together and make nuclei. Modern Transmutation is a large component of nuclear chemistry, and the table of nuclides is an important result and tool for this field. Organic chemistry is the study of the structure, properties, composition, mechanisms, and reactions of organic compounds. An organic compound is defined as any compound based on a carbon skeleton. Physical chemistry is the study of the physical and fundamental basis of chemical systems and processes. In particular, the energetics and dynamics of such systems and processes are of interest to physical chemists. Important areas of study include chemical thermodynamics, chemical kinetics, electrochemistry, statistical mechanics, spectroscopy, and more recently, astrochemistry.[49] Physical chemistry has large overlap with molecular physics. Physical chemistry involves the use of infinitesimal calculus in deriving equations. It is usually associated with quantum chemistry and theoretical chemistry. Physical chemistry is a distinct discipline from chemical physics, but again, there is very strong overlap. Theoretical chemistry is the study of chemistry via fundamental theoretical reasoning (usually within mathematics or physics). In particular the application of quantum mechanics to chemistry is called quantum chemistry. Since the end of the Second World War, the development of computers has allowed a systematic development of computational chemistry, which is the art of developing and applying computer programs for solving chemical problems. Theoretical chemistry has large overlap with (theoretical and experimental) condensed matter physics and molecular physics. Other disciplines within chemistry are traditionally grouped by the type of matter being studied or the kind of study. These include inorganic chemistry, the study of inorganic matter; organic chemistry, the study of organic (carbon based) matter; biochemistry, the study of substances found in biological organisms; physical chemistry, the study of chemical processes using physical concepts such as thermodynamics and quantum mechanics; and analytical chemistry, the analysis of material samples to gain an understanding of their chemical composition and structure. Many more specialized disciplines have emerged in recent years, e.g. neurochemistry the chemical study of the nervous system (see subdisciplines). Other fields include agrochemistry, astrochemistry (and cosmochemistry), atmospheric chemistry, chemical engineering, chemical biology, chemo-informatics, electrochemistry, environmental chemistry, femtochemistry, flavor chemistry, flow chemistry, geochemistry, green chemistry, histochemistry, history of chemistry, hydrogenation chemistry, immunochemistry, marine chemistry, materials science, mathematical chemistry, mechanochemistry, medicinal chemistry, molecular biology, molecular mechanics, nanotechnology, natural product chemistry, oenology, organometallic chemistry, petrochemistry, pharmacology, photochemistry, physical organic chemistry, phytochemistry, polymer chemistry, radiochemistry, solid-state chemistry, sonochemistry, supramolecular chemistry, surface chemistry, synthetic chemistry, thermochemistry, and many others.

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Chemistry

31

Chemical industry
The chemical industry represents an important economic activity. The global top 50 chemical producers in 2004 had sales of 587 billion US dollars with a profit margin of 8.1% and research and development spending of 2.1% of total chemical sales.[50]

Professional societies
American Chemical Society American Society for Neurochemistry Chemical Institute of Canada Chemical Society of Peru International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry Royal Australian Chemical Institute Royal Netherlands Chemical Society Royal Society of Chemistry Society of Chemical Industry World Association of Theoretical and Computational Chemists

List of chemistry societies

References
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"Humboldt regards the Muslims as the founders of chemistry."

[19] Will Durant (1935): Our Oriental Heritage: Simon & Schuster:

"Something has been said about the chemical excellence of cast iron in ancient India, and about the high industrial development of the Gupta times, when India was looked to, even by Imperial Rome, as the most skilled of the nations in such chemical industries as dyeing, tanning, soap-making, glass and

Chemistry cement... By the sixth century the Hindus were far ahead of Europe in industrial chemistry; they were masters of calcination, distillation, sublimation, steaming, fixation, the production of light without heat, the mixing of anesthetic and soporific powders, and the preparation of metallic salts, compounds and alloys. The tempering of steel was brought in ancient India to a perfection unknown in Europe till our own times; King Porus is said to have selected, as a specially valuable gift from Alexander, not gold or silver, but thirty pounds of steel. The Moslems took much of this Hindu chemical science and industry to the Near East and Europe; the secret of manufacturing "Damascus" blades, for example, was taken by the Arabs from the Persians, and by the Persians from India.""
[20] Eagle, Cassandra T.; Jennifer Sloan (1998). "Marie Anne Paulze Lavoisier: The Mother of Modern Chemistry" (http:/ / www. springerlink. com/ content/ x14v35m5n8822v42/ fulltext. pdf) (PDF). The Chemical Educator 3 (5): 118. doi:10.1007/s00897980249a. . Retrieved 2007-12-14. [21] "History - Robert Boyle (1627 - 1691)" (http:/ / www. bbc. co. uk/ history/ historic_figures/ boyle_robert. shtml). BBC. . Retrieved 2011-06-12. [22] Mi Gyung Kim (2003). Affinity, that Elusive Dream: A Genealogy of the Chemical Revolution. MIT Press. p.440. ISBN0262112736. [23] Ihde, Aaron John (1984). The Development of Modern Chemistry. Courier Dover Publications. p.164. ISBN0486642356. [24] Timeline of Element Discovery (http:/ / chemistry. about. com/ library/ weekly/ aa030303a. htm) - About.com [25] "History of Alchemy" (http:/ / www. alchemylab. com/ history_of_alchemy. htm). Alchemy Lab. . Retrieved 2011-06-12. [26] "alchemy", entry in The Oxford English Dictionary, J. A. Simpson and E. S. C. Weiner, vol. 1, 2nd ed., 1989, ISBN 0-19-861213-3. [27] p. 854, "Arabic alchemy", Georges C. Anawati, pp. 853-885 in Encyclopedia of the history of Arabic science, eds. Roshdi Rashed and Rgis Morelon, London: Routledge, 1996, vol. 3, ISBN 0415124123. [28] Weekley, Ernest (1967). Etymological Dictionary of Modern English. New York: Dover Publications. ISBN 0486218732 [29] Strathern, P. (2000). Mendeleyevs Dream the Quest for the Elements. New York: Berkley Books. [30] Boyle, Robert (1661). The Sceptical Chymist. New York: Dover Publications, Inc. (reprint). ISBN0486428257. [31] Glaser, Christopher (1663). Traite de la chymie. Paris. as found in: Kim, Mi Gyung (2003). Affinity, That Elusive Dream - A Genealogy of the Chemical Revolution. The MIT Press. ISBN0-262-11273-6. [32] Stahl, George, E. (1730). Philosophical Principles of Universal Chemistry. London. [33] Dumas, J. B. (1837). 'Affinite' (lecture notes), vii, pg 4. Statique chimique, Paris: Academie des Sciences [34] Pauling, Linus (1947). General Chemistry. Dover Publications, Inc.. ISBN0486656225. [35] Chang, Raymond (1998). Chemistry, 6th Ed.. New York: McGraw Hill. ISBN0-07-115221-0. [36] "General Chemistry Online - Companion Notes: Matter" (http:/ / antoine. frostburg. edu/ chem/ senese/ 101/ matter/ ). Antoine.frostburg.edu. . Retrieved 2011-06-12. [37] Hill, J.W.; Petrucci, R.H.; McCreary, T.W.; Perry, S.S. (2005). General Chemistry (4th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall. p.37. [38] "IUPAC Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry" (http:/ / www. acdlabs. com/ iupac/ nomenclature/ ). Acdlabs.com. . Retrieved 2011-06-12. [39] IUPAC Provisional Recommendations for the Nomenclature of Inorganic Chemistry (2004) (http:/ / www. iupac. org/ reports/ provisional/ abstract04/ connelly_310804. html) [40] "Official SI Unit definitions" (http:/ / www. bipm. org/ en/ si/ base_units/ ). Bipm.org. . Retrieved 2011-06-12. [41] "The Lewis Acid-Base Concept" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20080527132328/ http:/ / www. apsidium. com/ theory/ lewis_acid. htm). Apsidium. May 19, 2003. Archived from the original (http:/ / www. apsidium. com/ theory/ lewis_acid. htm) on 2008-05-27. . Retrieved 2010-07-31. [42] "History of Acidity" (http:/ / www. bbc. co. uk/ dna/ h2g2/ A708257). Bbc.co.uk. 2004-05-27. . Retrieved 2011-06-12. [43] Visionlearning. "Chemical Bonding by Anthony Carpi, Ph" (http:/ / www. visionlearning. com/ library/ module_viewer. php?mid=55). visionlearning. . Retrieved 2011-06-12. [44] Chemical Reaction Equation (http:/ / goldbook. iupac. org/ C01034. html)- IUPAC Goldbook [45] Gold Book Chemical Reaction (http:/ / goldbook. iupac. org/ C01033. html) IUPAC Goldbook [46] Reilly, Michael. (2007). Mechanical force induces chemical reaction (http:/ / www. newscientisttech. com/ article/ dn11427), NewScientist.com news service, Reilly [47] Changing States of Matter (http:/ / www. chem4kids. com/ files/ matter_changes. html) - Chemforkids.com [48] W.G. Laidlaw; D.E. Ryan And Gary Horlick; H.C. Clark, Josef Takats, And Martin Cowie; R.U. Lemieux (1986-12-10). "Chemistry Subdisciplines" (http:/ / www. thecanadianencyclopedia. com/ index. cfm?PgNm=TCE& Params=A1ARTA0001555). The Canadian Encyclopedia. . Retrieved 2011-06-12. [49] Herbst, Eric (May 12, 2005). "Chemistry of Star-Forming Regions". Journal of Physical Chemistry A 109 (18): 40174029. doi:10.1021/jp050461c. PMID16833724. [50] "Top 50 Chemical Producers" (http:/ / pubs. acs. org/ cen/ coverstory/ 83/ 8329globaltop50. html). Chemical & Engineering News 83 (29): 2023. July 18, 2005. .

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Further reading
Popular reading Atkins, P.W. Galileo's Finger (Oxford University Press) ISBN 0-19-860941-8 Atkins, P.W. Atkins' Molecules (Cambridge University Press) ISBN 0-521-82397-8 Stwertka, A. A Guide to the Elements (Oxford University Press) ISBN 0-19-515027-9 Introductory undergraduate text books Atkins, P.W., Overton, T., Rourke, J., Weller, M. and Armstrong, F. Shriver and Atkins inorganic chemistry (4th edition) 2006 (Oxford University Press) ISBN 0-19-926463-5 Chang, Raymond. Chemistry 6th ed. Boston: James M. Smith, 1998. ISBN 0-07-115221-0. Clayden, Jonathan; Greeves, Nick; Warren, Stuart; Wothers, Peter (2001). Organic Chemistry (1st ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN978-0-19-850346-0. Voet and Voet Biochemistry (Wiley) ISBN 0-471-58651-X Advanced undergraduate-level or graduate text books Atkins, P.W. Physical Chemistry (Oxford University Press) ISBN 0-19-879285-9 Atkins, P.W. et al. Molecular Quantum Mechanics (Oxford University Press) McWeeny, R. Coulson's Valence (Oxford Science Publications) ISBN 0-19-855144-4 Pauling, L. The Nature of the chemical bond (Cornell University Press) ISBN 0-8014-0333-2 Pauling, L., and Wilson, E. B. Introduction to Quantum Mechanics with Applications to Chemistry (Dover Publications) ISBN 0-486-64871-0 Smart and Moore Solid State Chemistry: An Introduction (Chapman and Hall) ISBN 0-412-40040-5 Stephenson, G. Mathematical Methods for Science Students (Longman) ISBN 0-582-44416-0

History of chemistry
By 1000 BC, ancient civilizations used technologies that would eventually form the basis of the various branches of chemistry. Examples include extracting metals from ores, making pottery and glazes, fermenting beer and wine, making pigments for cosmetics and painting, extracting chemicals from plants for medicine and perfume, making cheese, dying cloth, tanning leather, rendering fat into soap, making glass, and making alloys like bronze. Early attempts to explain the nature of matter and its transformations failed. The protoscience of chemistry, Alchemy, was also unsuccessful in explaining the nature of matter. However, by performing experiments and recording the results the alchemist set the stage for modern chemistry. This distinction begins to emerge when a clear differentiation was made between chemistry and alchemy by Robert Boyle in his work The Sceptical Chymist (1661). Chemistry then becomes a full-fledged science when Antoine Lavoisier develops his law of conservation of mass, which demands careful measurements and quantitative observations of chemical phenomena. So, while both alchemy and chemistry are concerned with the nature of matter and its transformations, it is only the chemists who apply the scientific method. The history of chemistry is intertwined with the history of thermodynamics, especially through the work of Willard Gibbs.[1]

From fire to atomism

Arguably the first chemical reaction used in a controlled manner was fire. However, for millennia fire was simply a mystical force that could transform one substance into another (burning wood, or boiling water) while producing heat and light. Fire affected many aspects of early societies. These ranged from the most simple facets of everyday life, such as cooking and habitat lighting, to more advanced technologies, such as pottery, bricks, and melting of metals to make tools.

History of chemistry Philosophical attempts to rationalize why different substances have different properties (color, density, smell), exist in different states (gaseous, liquid, and solid), and react in a different manner when exposed to environments, for example to water or fire or temperature changes, led ancient philosophers to postulate the first theories on nature and chemistry. The history of such philosophical theories that relate to chemistry, can probably be traced back to every single ancient civilization. The common aspect in all these theories was the attempt to identify a small number of primary elements that make up all the various substances in nature. Substances like air, water, and soil/earth, energy forms, such as fire and light, and more abstract concepts such as ideas, aether, and heaven, were common in ancient civilizations even in absence of any cross-fertilization; for example in Greek, Indian, Mayan, and ancient Chinese philosophies all considered air, water, earth and fire as primary elements. Atomism can be traced back to ancient Greece and ancient India.[2] Greek atomism dates back to 440 BC, as what might be indicated by the book De Rerum Natura (The Nature of Things)[3] written by the Roman Lucretius[4] in 50 BC. In the book was found ideas traced back to Democritus and Leucippus, who declared that atoms were the most indivisible part of matter. This coincided with a similar declaration by Indian philosopher Kanada in his Vaisheshika sutras around the same time period.[2] In much the same fashion he discussed the existence of gases. What Kanada declared by sutra, Democritus declared by philosophical musing. Both suffered from a lack of empirical data. Without scientific proof, the existence of atoms was easy to deny. Aristotle opposed the existence of atoms in 330 BC. Much of the early development of purification methods is described by Pliny the Elder in his Naturalis Historia. He made attempts to explain those methods, as well as making acute observations of the state of many minerals.

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The rise of metallurgy

It was fire that led to the discovery of glass and the purification of metals which in turn gave way to the rise of metallurgy. During the early stages of metallurgy, methods of purification of metals were sought, and gold, known in ancient Egypt as early as 2600 BC, became a precious metal. The discovery of alloys heralded the Bronze Age. After the Bronze Age, the history of metallurgy was marked by which army had better weaponry. Countries in Eurasia had their heyday when they made the superior alloys, which, in turn, made better armour and better weapons. This often determined the outcomes of battles. Significant progress in metallurgy and alchemy was made in ancient India.[5]

History of chemistry

35

The philosopher's stone and the rise of alchemy

Many people were interested in finding a method that could convert cheaper metals into gold. The material that would help them do this was rumored to exist in what was called the philosopher's stone. This led to the protoscience called alchemy. Alchemy was practiced by many cultures throughout history and often contained a mixture of philosophy, mysticism, and protoscience. Alchemy not only sought to turn base metals into gold, but especially in a Europe rocked by bubonic plague, there was hope that alchemy would lead to the development of medicines to improve people's health. The holy grail of this strain of alchemy was in the attempts made at finding the elixir of life, which promised eternal youth. Neither the elixir nor the philosopher's stone were ever found. Also, characteristic of alchemists was the belief that there was in the air an "ether" which breathed life into living things. Practitioners of alchemy included Isaac Newton, who remained one throughout his life.

"Renel the Alchemist", by Sir William Douglas, 1853

Problems encountered with alchemy

There were several problems with alchemy, as seen from today's standpoint. There was no systematic naming system for new compounds, and the language was esoteric and vague to the point that the terminologies meant different things to different people. In fact, according to The Fontana History of Chemistry (Brock, 1992): The language of alchemy soon developed an arcane and secretive technical vocabulary designed to conceal information from the uninitiated. To a large degree, this language is incomprehensible to us today, though it is apparent that readers of Geoffery Chaucer's Canon's Yeoman's Tale or audiences of Ben Jonson's The Alchemist were able to construe it sufficiently to laugh at it.[6] Chaucer's tale exposed the more fraudulent side of alchemy, especially the manufacture of counterfeit gold from cheap substances. Less than a century earlier, Dante Alighieri also demonstrated an awareness of this fraudulence, causing him to consign all alchemists to the Inferno in his writings. Soon after, in 1317, the Avignon Pope John XXII ordered all alchemists to leave France for making counterfeit money. A law was passed in England in 1403 which made the "multiplication of metals" punishable by death. Despite these and other apparently extreme measures, alchemy did not die. Royalty and privileged classes still sought to discover the philosopher's stone and the elixir of life for themselves.[7] There was also no agreed-upon scientific method for making experiments reproducible. Indeed many alchemists included in their methods irrelevant information such as the timing of the tides or the phases of the moon. The esoteric nature and codified vocabulary of alchemy appeared to be more useful in concealing the fact that they could not be sure of very much at all. As early as the 14th century, cracks seemed to grow in the facade of alchemy; and people became sceptical. Clearly, there needed to be a scientific method where experiments can be repeated by other people, and results needed to be reported in a clear language that laid out both what is known and unknown.

History of chemistry

36

From alchemy to chemistry

Ambix, cucurbit and retort of Zosimus, from Marcelin Berthelot, Collection des anciens alchimistes grecs (3 vol., Paris, 1887-1888).

Early chemists
In the Arab World, the Muslims were translating the works of the ancient Greeks and Egyptians into Arabic and were experimenting with scientific ideas.[8] The development of the modern scientific method was slow and arduous, but an early scientific method for chemistry began emerging among early Muslim chemists, beginning with the 9th century chemist Jbir ibn Hayyn (known as "Geber" in Europe), who is "considered as the father of chemistry".[9] [10] [11] [12] He introduced a systematic and experimental approach to scientific research based in the laboratory, in contrast to the ancient Greek and Egyptian alchemists whose works were largely allegorical and often unintelligble.[13] He also invented and named the alembic (al-anbiq), chemically analyzed many chemical substances, composed lapidaries, distinguished between alkalis and acids, and manufactured hundreds of drugs.[14] He also refined the theory of five classical elements into the theory of seven alchemical elements after identifying mercury and sulfur as chemical elements.[15]

Jbir ibn Hayyn (Geber), a Persian alchemist whose experimental research laid the foundations for chemistry.

Among other influential Muslim chemists, Ja'far al-Sadiq,[16] Alkindus,[17] Ab al-Rayhn al-Brn,[18] Avicenna[19] and Ibn Khaldun refuted the theories of alchemy, particularly the theory of the transmutation of metals; and al-Tusi described a version of the conservation of mass, noting that a body of matter is able to change but is not able to disappear.[20] Rhazes refuted Aristotle's theory of four classical elements for the first time and set up the firm foundations of modern chemistry, using the laboratory in the modern sense, designing and describing more than twenty instruments, many parts of which are still in use today, such as a crucible, decensory, cucurbit or retort for distillation, and the head of a still with a delivery tube (ambiq, Latin alembic), and various types of furnace or stove.

History of chemistry

37 For the more honest practitioners in Europe, alchemy became an intellectual pursuit after early Arabic alchemy became available through Latin translation, and over time, they got better at it. Paracelsus (14931541), for example, rejected the 4-elemental theory and with only a vague understanding of his chemicals and medicines, formed a hybrid of alchemy and science in what was to be called iatrochemistry. Paracelsus was not perfect in making his experiments truly scientific. For example, as an extension of his theory that new compounds could be made by combining mercury with sulfur, he once made what he thought was "oil of sulfur". This was actually dimethyl ether, which had neither mercury nor sulfur.

Practical attempts to improve the refining of ores and their extraction to smelt metals was an important source of information for early chemists, among them Georg Agricola (14941555), who published his great work De re Agricola, author of De re metallica metallica in 1556. His approach removed the mysticism associated with the subject, creating the practical base upon which others could build. The work describes the many kinds of furnace used to smelt ore, and stimulated interest in minerals and their composition. It is no coincidence that he gives numerous references to the earlier author, Pliny the Elder and his Naturalis Historia. In 1605, Sir Francis Bacon published The Proficience and Advancement of Learning, which contains a description of what would later be known as the scientific method.[21] In 1615 Jean Beguin publishes the Tyrocinium Chymicum, an early chemistry textbook, and in it draws the first-ever chemical equation.[22] Robert Boyle (16271691) is considered to have refined the modern scientific method for alchemy and to have separated chemistry further from alchemy.[23] Robert Boyle was an atomist, but favoured the word corpuscle over atoms. He comments that the finest division of matter where the properties are retained is at the level of corpuscles. Boyle was credited with the discovery of Boyle's Law. He is also credited for his landmark publication The Sceptical Chymist, where he attempts to develop an atomic theory of matter, with no small degree of success. He laid the foundations for the Chemical Revolution with his mechanical corpuscular philosophy, which in turn relied heavily on the alchemical corpuscular theory and experimental method dating back to the alchemist Jbir ibn Hayyn.[24] Despite all these advances, the person celebrated as the "father of modern chemistry" is Antoine Lavoisier who developed his law of conservation of mass in 1789, also called Lavoisier's Law.[25] With this, chemistry acquired a strict quantitative nature, allowing reliable predictions to be made.

Robert Boyle, one of the co-founders of modern chemistry through his use of proper experimentation, which further separated chemistry from alchemy

In 1754, Joseph Black isolated carbon dioxide, which he called "fixed air".[26] Carl Wilhelm Scheele and Joseph Priestley independently isolated oxygen, called by Priestley "dephlogisticated air" and Scheele "fire air".[27] [28] Joseph Proust proposed the law of definite proportions, which states that elements always combine in small, whole number ratios to form compounds.[29] In 1800, Alessandro Volta devised the first chemical battery, thereby founding the discipline of electrochemistry.[30] In 1803, John Dalton proposed Dalton's Law, which describes relationship between the components in a mixture of gases and the relative pressure each contributes to that of the overall mixture.[31]

History of chemistry

38

Antoine Lavoisier
Although the archives of chemical research draw upon work from ancient Babylonia, Egypt, and especially the Arabs and Persians after Islam, modern chemistry flourished from the time of Antoine Lavoisier, who is regarded as the "father of modern chemistry", particularly for his discovery of the law of conservation of mass, and his refutation of the phlogiston theory of combustion in 1783. (Phlogiston was supposed to be an imponderable substance liberated by flammable materials in burning.) Mikhail Lomonosov independently established a tradition of chemistry in Russia in the 18th century. Lomonosov also rejected the phlogiston theory, and anticipated the kinetic theory of gases. He regarded heat as a form of motion, and stated the idea of conservation of matter.

The vitalism debate and organic chemistry

After the nature of combustion (see oxygen) was settled, another dispute, about vitalism and the essential distinction between organic and inorganic substances, was revolutionized by Friedrich Whler's accidental synthesis of urea from inorganic substances in 1828. Never before had an organic compound been synthesized from inorganic material. This opened a new research field in chemistry, and by the end of the 19th century, scientists were able to synthesize hundreds of organic compounds. The most important among them are mauve, magenta, and other synthetic dyes, as well as the widely used drug aspirin. The discovery of the artificial synthesis of urea contributed greatly to the theory of isomerism, as the empirical chemical formulas for urea and ammonium cyanate are identical (see Whler synthesis).
Portrait of Monsieur Lavoisier and his wife, by Jacques-Louis David

Disputes about atomism after Lavoisier

Throughout the 19th century, chemistry was divided between those who followed the atomic theory of John Dalton and those who did not, such as Wilhelm Ostwald and Ernst Mach.[32] Although such proponents of the atomic theory as Amedeo Avogadro and Ludwig Boltzmann made great advances in explaining the behavior of gases, this dispute was not finally settled until Jean Perrin's experimental investigation of Einstein's atomic explanation of Brownian motion in the first decade of the 20th century.[32] Well before the dispute had been settled, many had already applied the concept of atomism to chemistry. A major example was the ion theory of Svante Arrhenius which anticipated ideas about atomic substructure that did not fully develop until the 20th century. Michael Faraday was another early worker, whose major contribution to chemistry was electrochemistry, in which (among other things) a certain quantity of electricity during electrolysis or electrodeposition of metals was shown to be associated with certain quantities of chemical elements, and fixed quantities of the elements therefore with each other, in specific ratios. These findings, like those of Dalton's combining ratios, were early clues to the atomic nature of matter.

Bust of John Dalton by Chantrey

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39

The periodic table

For many decades, the list of known chemical elements had been steadily increasing. A great breakthrough in making sense of this long list (as well as in understanding the internal structure of atoms as discussed below) was Dmitri Mendeleev and Lothar Meyer's development of the periodic table, and particularly Mendeleev's use of it to predict the existence and the properties of germanium, gallium, and scandium, which Mendeleev called ekasilicon, ekaaluminium, and ekaboron respectively. Mendeleev made his prediction in 1870; gallium was discovered in 1875, and was found to have roughly the same properties that Mendeleev predicted for it.

Dmitri Mendeleev, responsible for the periodic table.

The modern definition of chemistry

Classically, before the 20th century, chemistry was defined as the science of the nature of matter and its transformations. It was therefore clearly distinct from physics which was not concerned with such dramatic transformation of matter. Moreover, in contrast to physics, chemistry was not using much of mathematics. Even some were particularly reluctant to using mathematics within chemistry. For example, Auguste Comte wrote in 1830: Every attempt to employ mathematical methods in the study of chemical questions must be considered profoundly irrational and contrary to the spirit of chemistry.... if mathematical analysis should ever hold a prominent place in chemistry -- an aberration which is happily almost impossible -- it would occasion a rapid and widespread degeneration of that science. However, in the second part of the 19th century, the situation changed and August Kekule wrote in 1867: I rather expect that we shall someday find a mathematico-mechanical explanation for what we now call atoms which will render an account of their properties. After the discovery by Ernest Rutherford and Niels Bohr of the atomic structure in 1912, and by Marie and Pierre Curie of radioactivity, scientists had to change their viewpoint on the nature of matter. The experience acquired by chemists was no longer pertinent to the study of the whole nature of matter but only to aspects related to the electron cloud surrounding the atomic nuclei and the movement of the latter in the electric field induced by the former (see Born-Oppenheimer approximation). The range of chemistry was thus restricted to the nature of matter around us in conditions which are not too far (or exceptionally far) from standard conditions for temperature and pressure and in cases where the exposure to radiation is not too different from the natural microwave, visible or UV radiations on Earth. Chemistry was therefore re-defined as the science of matter that deals with the composition, structure, and properties of substances and with the transformations that they undergo. However the meaning of matter used here relates explicitly to substances made of atoms and molecules, disregarding the matter within the atomic nuclei and its nuclear reaction or matter within highly ionized plasmas. This does not mean that chemistry is never involved with plasma or nuclear sciences or even bosonic fields nowadays, since areas such as Quantum Chemistry and Nuclear Chemistry are currently well developed and formally recognized sub-fields of study under the Chemical sciences (Chemistry), but what is now formally recognized as subject of study under the Chemistry category as a science is always based on the use of concepts that describe or explain phenomena either from matter or to matter in the atomic or molecular scale, including the study of the behavior of many molecules as an aggregate or the study of the effects of a single proton on a single atom, but excluding phenomena that deal with different (more "exotic") types of matter (e.g. Bose-Einstein condensate, Higgs Boson, dark matter, naked singularity, etc.) and excluding principles that refer to intrinsic abstract laws of nature in which their concepts can be formulated completely without a precise formal

History of chemistry molecular or atomic paradigmatic view (e.g. Quantum Chromodynamics, Quantum Electrodynamics, String Theory, parts of Cosmology (see Cosmochemistry), certain areas of Nuclear Physics (see Nuclear Chemistry),etc.). Nevertheless the field of chemistry is still, on our human scale, very broad and the claim that chemistry is everywhere is accurate.

40

Quantum chemistry
Some view the birth of quantum chemistry in the discovery of the Schrdinger equation and its application to the hydrogen atom in 1926. However, the 1927 article of Walter Heitler and Fritz London[33] is often recognised as the first milestone in the history of quantum chemistry.[34] This is the first application of quantum mechanics to the diatomic hydrogen molecule, and thus to the phenomenon of the chemical bond. In the following years much progress was accomplished by Edward Teller, Robert S. Mulliken, Max Born, J. Robert Oppenheimer, Linus Pauling, Erich Hckel, Douglas Hartree, Vladimir Aleksandrovich Fock, to cite a few. Still, skepticism remained as to the general power of quantum mechanics applied to complex chemical systems. The situation around 1930 is described by Paul Dirac:[35] The underlying physical laws necessary for the mathematical theory of a large part of physics and the whole of chemistry are thus completely known, and the difficulty is only that the exact application of these laws leads to equations much too complicated to be soluble. It therefore becomes desirable that approximate practical methods of applying quantum mechanics should be developed, which can lead to an explanation of the main features of complex atomic systems without too much computation. Hence the quantum mechanical methods developed in the 1930s and 1940s are often referred to as theoretical molecular or atomic physics to underline the fact that they were more the application of quantum mechanics to chemistry and spectroscopy than answers to chemically relevant questions. In the 1940s many physicists turned from molecular or atomic physics to nuclear physics (like J. Robert Oppenheimer or Edward Teller). In 1951, a milestone article in quantum chemistry is the seminal paper of Clemens C. J. Roothaan on Roothaan equations.[36] It opened the avenue to the solution of the self-consistent field equations for small molecules like hydrogen or nitrogen. Those computations were performed with the help of tables of integrals which were computed on the most advanced computers of the time.

Molecular biology and biochemistry

By the mid 20th century, in principle, the integration of physics and chemistry was extensive, with chemical properties explained as the result of the electronic structure of the atom; Linus Pauling's book on The Nature of the Chemical Bond used the principles of quantum mechanics to deduce bond angles in ever-more complicated molecules. However, though some principles deduced from quantum mechanics were able to predict qualitatively some chemical features for biologically relevant molecules, they were, till the end of the 20th century, more a collection of rules, observations, and recipes than rigorous ab initio quantitative methods.

History of chemistry

41

This heuristic approach triumphed in 1953 when James Watson and Francis Crick deduced the double helical structure of DNA by constructing models constrained by and informed by the knowledge of the chemistry of the constituent parts and the X-ray diffraction patterns obtained by Rosalind Franklin.[37] This discovery lead to an explosion of research into the biochemistry of life. In the same year, the Miller-Urey experiment demonstrated that basic constituents of protein, simple amino acids, could themselves be built up from simpler molecules in a simulation of primordial processes on Earth. Though many questions remain about the true nature of the origin of life, this was the first attempt by chemists to study hypothetical processes in the laboratory under controlled conditions.
Diagrammatic representation of some key structural In 1983 Kary Mullis devised a method for the in-vitro features of DNA amplification of DNA, known as the polymerase chain reaction (PCR), which revolutionized the chemical processes used in the laboratory to manipulate it. PCR could be used to synthesize specific pieces of DNA and made possible the sequencing of DNA of organisms, which culminated in the huge human genome project.

An important piece in the double helix puzzle was solved by one of Pauling's student Matthew Meselson and Frank Stahl, the result of their collaboration (Meselson-Stahl experiment) has been called as "the most beautiful experiment in biology". They used a centrifugation technique that sorted molecules according to differences in weight. Because nitrogen atoms are a component of DNA, they were labelled and therefore tracked in replication in bacteria.

Chemical industry
The later part of the nineteenth century saw a huge increase in the exploitation of petroleum extracted from the earth for the production of a host of chemicals and largely replaced the use of whale oil, coal tar and naval stores used previously. Large scale production and refinement of petroleum provided feedstocks for liquid fuels such as gasoline and diesel, solvents, lubricants, asphalt, waxes, and for the production of many of the common materials of the modern world, such as synthetic fibers, plastics, paints, detergents, pharmaceuticals, adhesives and ammonia as fertilizer and for other uses. Many of these required new catalysts and the utilization of chemical engineering for their cost-effective production. In the mid-twentieth century, control of the electronic structure of semiconductor materials was made precise by the creation of large ingots of extremely pure single crystals of silicon and germanium. Accurate control of their chemical composition by doping with other elements made the production of the solid state transistor in 1951 and made possible the production of tiny integrated circuits for use in electronic devices, especially computers.

History of chemistry

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Notes
[1] Selected Classic Papers from the History of Chemistry (http:/ / web. lemoyne. edu/ ~giunta/ papers. html) [2] Will Durant (1935), Our Oriental Heritage:

"Two systems of Hindu thought propound physical theories suggestively similar to those of Greece. Kanada, founder of the Vaisheshika philosophy, held that the world was composed of atoms as many in kind as the various elements. The Jains more nearly approximated to Democritus by teaching that all atoms were of the same kind, producing different effects by diverse modes of combinations. Kanada believed light and heat to be varieties of the same substance; Udayana taught that all heat comes from the sun; and Vachaspati, like Newton, interpreted light as composed of minute particles emitted by substances and striking the eye."
[3] Lucretius (50 BCE). "de Rerum Natura (On the Nature of Things)" (http:/ / classics. mit. edu/ Carus/ nature_things. html). The Internet Classics Archive. Massachusetts Institute of Technology. . Retrieved 2007-01-09. [4] Simpson, David (29 June 2005). "Lucretius (c. 99 - c. 55 BCE)" (http:/ / www. iep. utm. edu/ l/ lucretiu. htm). The Internet History of Philosophy. . Retrieved 2007-01-09. [5] Will Durant wrote in The Story of Civilization I: Our Oriental Heritage:

"Something has been said about the chemical excellence of cast iron in ancient India, and about the high industrial development of the Gupta times, when India was looked to, even by Imperial Rome, as the most skilled of the nations in such chemical industries as dyeing, tanning, soap-making, glass and cement... By the sixth century the Hindus were far ahead of Europe in industrial chemistry; they were masters of calcinations, distillation, sublimation, steaming, fixation, the production of light without heat, the mixing of anesthetic and soporific powders, and the preparation of metallic salts, compounds and alloys. The tempering of steel was brought in ancient India to a perfection unknown in Europe till our own times; King Porus is said to have selected, as a specially valuable gift from Alexander, not gold or silver, but thirty pounds of steel. The Moslems took much of this Hindu chemical science and industry to the Near East and Europe; the secret of manufacturing "Damascus" blades, for example, was taken by the Arabs from the Persians, and by the Persians from India."
[6] [7] [8] [9] Brock, William H. (1992). The Fontana History of Chemistry. London, England: Fontana Press. pp.3233. ISBN0006861733. Brock, William H. (1992). The Fontana History of Chemistry. London, England: Fontana Press. ISBN0006861733. The History of Ancient Chemistry (http:/ / realscience. breckschool. org/ upper/ fruen/ files/ Enrichmentarticles/ files/ History. html) Derewenda, ZS (2007). "On wine, chirality and crystallography". Acta Crystallographica Section A: Foundations of Crystallography 64 (Pt 1): 246258 [247]. doi:10.1107/S0108767307054293. PMID18156689. [10] John Warren (2005). "War and the Cultural Heritage of Iraq: a sadly mismanaged affair", Third World Quarterly, Volume 26, Issue 4 & 5, p. 815-830. [11] Dr. A. Zahoor (1997), JABIR IBN HAIYAN (Jabir) (http:/ / www. unhas. ac. id/ ~rhiza/ saintis/ haiyan. html), University of Indonesia [12] Paul Vallely, How Islamic inventors changed the world (http:/ / news. independent. co. uk/ world/ science_technology/ article350594. ece), The Independent [13] Kraus, Paul, Jbir ibn Hayyn, Contribution l'histoire des ides scientifiques dans l'Islam. I. Le corpus des crits jbiriens. II. Jbir et la science grecque,. Cairo (1942-1943). Repr. By Fuat Sezgin, (Natural Sciences in Islam. 67-68), Frankfurt. 2002:

To form an idea of the historical place of Jabirs alchemy and to tackle the problem of its sources, it is advisable to compare it with what remains to us of the alchemical literature in the Greek language. One knows in which miserable state this literature reached us. Collected by Byzantine scientists from the tenth century, the corpus of the Greek alchemists is a cluster of incoherent fragments, going back to all the times since the third century until the end of the Middle Ages. The efforts of Berthelot and Ruelle to put a little order in this mass of literature led only to poor results, and the later researchers, among them in particular Mrs. Hammer-Jensen, Tannery, Lagercrantz , von Lippmann, Reitzenstein, Ruska, Bidez, Festugiere and others, could make clear only few points of detail The study of the Greek alchemists is not very encouraging. An even surface examination of the Greek texts shows that a very small part only was organized according to true experiments of laboratory: even the supposedly technical writings, in the state where we find them today, are unintelligible nonsense

History of chemistry which refuses any interpretation. It is different with Jabirs alchemy. The relatively clear description of the processes and the alchemical apparatuses, the methodical classification of the substances, mark an experimental spirit which is extremely far away from the weird and odd esotericism of the Greek texts. The theory on which Jabir supports his operations is one of clearness and of an impressive unity. More than with the other Arab authors, one notes with him a balance between theoretical teaching and practical teaching, between the `ilm and the `amal. In vain one would seek in the Greek texts a work as systematic as that which is presented for example in the Book of Seventy.
(cf. Ahmad Y Hassan. "A Critical Reassessment of the Geber Problem: Part Three" (http:/ / www. history-science-technology. com/ Geber/ Geber 3. htm). . Retrieved 2008-08-09.) [14] Will Durant (1980). The Age of Faith (The Story of Civilization, Volume 4), p. 162-186. Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0671012002. [15] Strathern, Paul. (2000), Mendeleyevs Dream the Quest for the Elements, New York: Berkley Books [16] Research Committee of Strasburg University, Imam Jafar Ibn Muhammad As-Sadiq A.S. The Great Muslim Scientist and Philosopher, translated by Kaukab Ali Mirza, 2000. Willowdale Ont. ISBN 0969949014. [17] Felix Klein-Frank (2001), "Al-Kindi", in Oliver Leaman & Hossein Nasr, History of Islamic Philosophy, p. 174. London: Routledge. [18] Marmura Michael E., Nasr Seyyed Hossein (1965). "An Introduction to Islamic Cosmological Doctrines. Conceptions of Nature and Methods Used for Its Study by the Ikhwan Al-Safa'an, Al-Biruni, and Ibn Sina by Seyyed [[Hossein Nasr (http:/ / jstor. org/ stable/ 2851429)]"]. Speculum 40 (4): 744746. doi:10.2307/2851429. . [19] Robert Briffault (1938). The Making of Humanity, p. 196-197. [20] Alakbarov Farid (2001). "A 13th-Century Darwin? Tusi's Views on Evolution" (http:/ / azer. com/ aiweb/ categories/ magazine/ 92_folder/ 92_articles/ 92_tusi. html). Azerbaijan International 9: 2. . [21] Asarnow, Herman (2005-08-08). "Sir Francis Bacon: Empiricism" (http:/ / faculty. up. edu/ asarnow/ eliz4. htm). An Image-Oriented Introduction to Backgrounds for English Renaissance Literature. University of Portland. . Retrieved 2007-02-22. [22] Crosland, M.P. (1959). "The use of diagrams as chemical 'equations' in the lectures of William Cullen and Joseph Black." Annals of Science, Vol 15, No. 2, Jun. [23] Robert Boyle (http:/ / understandingscience. ucc. ie/ pages/ sci_robertboyle. htm) [24] Ursula Klein (July 2007). "Styles of Experimentation and Alchemical Matter Theory in the Scientific Revolution". Metascience (Springer) 16 (2): 247256 [247]. doi:10.1007/s11016-007-9095-8. ISSN1467-9981 [25] Lavoisier, Antoine (1743-1794) -- from Eric Weisstein's World of Scientific Biography (http:/ / scienceworld. wolfram. com/ biography/ Lavoisier. html), ScienceWorld [26] Cooper, Alan (1999). "Joseph Black" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20060410074412/ http:/ / www. chem. gla. ac. uk/ dept/ black. htm). History of Glasgow University Chemistry Department. University of Glasgow Department of Chemistry. Archived from the original (http:/ / www. chem. gla. ac. uk/ dept/ black. htm) on 2006-04-10. . Retrieved 2006-02-23. [27] "Joseph Priestley" (http:/ / www. chemheritage. org/ classroom/ chemach/ forerunners/ priestley. html). Chemical Achievers: The Human Face of Chemical Sciences. Chemical Heritage Foundation. 2005. . Retrieved 2007-02-22. [28] "Carl Wilhelm Scheele" (http:/ / mattson. creighton. edu/ History_Gas_Chemistry/ Scheele. html). History of Gas Chemistry. Center for Microscale Gas Chemistry, Creighton University. 2005-09-11. . Retrieved 2007-02-23. [29] "Proust, Joseph Louis (1754-1826)" (http:/ / www. euchems. org/ Distinguished/ 19thCentury/ proustlouis. asp). 100 Distinguished Chemists. European Association for Chemical and Molecular Science. 2005. . Retrieved 2007-02-23. [30] "Inventor Alessandro Volta Biography" (http:/ / www. ideafinder. com/ history/ inventors/ volta. htm). The Great Idea Finder. The Great Idea Finder. 2005. . Retrieved 2007-02-23. [31] "John Dalton" (http:/ / www. chemheritage. org/ classroom/ chemach/ periodic/ dalton. html). Chemical Achievers: The Human Face of Chemical Sciences. Chemical Heritage Foundation. 2005. . Retrieved 2007-02-22. [32] Pullman, Bernard (2004). The Atom in the History of Human Thought. Reisinger, Axel. USA: Oxford University Press Inc. ISBN0195114477. [33] W. Heitler and F. London, Wechselwirkung neutraler Atome und Homopolare Bindung nach der Quantenmechanik, Z. Physik, 44, 455 (1927). [34] Quantum chemistry (http:/ / www. fact-archive. com/ encyclopedia/ Quantum_chemistry) [35] P.A.M. Dirac, Quantum Mechanics of Many-Electron Systems, Proc. R. Soc. London, A 123, 714 (1929). [36] C.C.J. Roothaan, A Study of Two-Center Integrals Useful in Calculations on Molecular Structure, J. Chem. Phys., 19, 1445 (1951). [37] Watson, J. and Crick, F., "Molecular Structure of Nucleic Acids" (http:/ / www. nature. com/ nature/ dna50/ watsoncrick. pdf) Nature, April 25, 1953, p 7378

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History of chemistry

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References
Selected classic papers from the history of chemistry (http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/papers.html) Biographies of chemists (http://www.liv.ac.uk/Chemistry/Links/refbiog.html) Eric R. Scerri, The Periodic Table: Its Story and Its Significance, Oxford University Press, 2006.

Further reading
Servos, John W., Physical chemistry from Ostwald to Pauling : the making of a science in America (http://books. google.com/books?id=1UZjU2WfLAoC&printsec=frontcover), Princeton, N.J. : Princeton University Press, 1990. ISBN 0691085668 Documentaries BBC (2010). Chemistry: A Volatile History.

External links
ChemisLab (http://www.chemislab.com/chemists-of-the-past/) - Chemists of the Past SHAC: Society for the History of Alchemy and Chemistry (http://www.ambix.org/)

Alchemy and chemistry in medieval Islam

Alchemy and chemistry in Islam refers to the study of both traditional alchemy and early practical chemistry (the early chemical investigation of nature in general) by scholars in the medieval Islamic world. The word alchemy was derived from the Arabic word al-km. or [1] [2] and may ultimately derive from the ancient Egyptian word kemi, meaning black.[2] After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the focus of alchemical development moved to the Arab Empire and the Islamic civilization. Much more is known about Islamic alchemy as it was better documented; indeed, most of the earlier writings that have come down through the years were preserved as Arabic translations.[3]

Origins
Medieval Islamic alchemy was based on previous alchemical writers, firstly those writing in Greek, but also using Indian, Jewish, and Christian sources. According to Anawati, the alchemy practiced in Egypt around the second century BCE was a mixture of Hermetic or gnostic elements and Greek philosophy. Later, with Zosimos of Panopolis, alchemy acquired mystical and religious elements.[4] The sources of Islamic alchemy were transmitted to the Muslim world mainly in Egypt, especially in Alexandria, but also in the cities of Harran, Nisibin, and Edessa in western Mesopotamia.[5]

Alchemists and works

Khlid ibn Yazd
According to the biographer Ibn al-Nadm, the first Muslim alchemist was Khlid ibn Yazd, who is said to have studied alchemy under the Christian Marianos of Alexandria. The historicity of this story is not clear; according to M. Ullmann, it is a legend.[6] [7] According to Ibn al-Nadm and ajji Khalfa, he is the author of the alchemical works Kitb al-kharazt (The Book of Pearls), Kitb al-afa al-kabr (The Big Book of the Roll), Kitb al-afa al-saghr (The Small Book of the Roll), Kitb Waiyyatihi il bnihi f-l-ana (The Book of his Testament to his Son about Alchemy), and Firdaws al-ikma (The Paradise of Wisdom), but again, these works may be

Alchemy and chemistry in medieval Islam pseudepigraphical.[8] [7] [6]

45

Jafar al-diq
Jafar al-diq, the son of Muammad al-Bqir, lived in Medina. He is said to have been the teacher of Jbir ibn ayyn. A number of pseudepigraphical works have been attributed to him.[8]

Jbir ibn ayyn

Jbir ibn ayyn ( , Latin Geberus; usually rendered in English as Geber) may have been born in 721 or 722, in Tus, and have been the son of ayyan, a druggist from the tribe of al-Azd who originally lived in Kufa. When young Jbir studied in Arabia under Harbi al-Himyari. Later, he lived in Kufa, and eventually became a court alchemist for Hrn al-Rashd, in Baghdad. Jbir was friendly with the Barmecides and became caught up in their disgrace in 803. As a result, he returned to Kufa. According to some sources, he died in Tus in 815. A large corpus of works is ascribed to Jbir, so large that it's difficult to believe he wrote them all himself. According to the theory of Kraus, many of these works should be ascribed to later Ismaili authors. It includes the following groups of works: The Hundred and Twelve Books; The Seventy Books; The Ten Books of Rectifications; and The Books of the Balances. This article will not distinguish between Jbir and the authors of works attributed to him.[9]

15th century European impression of "Geber"

Ab Bakr al-Rz
Ab Bakr al-Rz (Latin: Rhazes), born around 864 in Rey, was mainly known as a doctor. He wrote a number of alchemical works, including Sirr al-asrr (Latin: Secretum secretorum.)[10] [11]

Ibn Umayl
Muammad ibn Umayl al-Tamm was an 11th-century alchemist. One of his surviving works is Kitb al-m al-waraq wa-l-ar al-najmiyya (The Book on Silvered Water and Starry Earth.) This work is a commentary on his poem Rislat al-shams wa-t-hill (The Epistle on the Sun and the Crescent) and contains numerous quotations from ancient authors.[12]

Alchemical and chemical theory

Alchemy and chemistry in medieval Islam

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Elemental scheme used by Jbir[13]

Hot Cold Dry Fire Earth Water

Moist Air

Jbir analyzed each Aristotelian element in terms of four basic qualities of hotness, coldness, dryness, and moistness. For example, fire is a substance that is hot and dry, as shown in the table.[13] (This scheme was also used by Aristotle.)[14] [15] According to Jbir, in each metal two of these qualities were interior and two were exterior. For example, lead was externally cold and dry but internally hot and moist; gold, on the other hand, was externally hot and moist but internally cold and dry. He believed that metals were formed in the Earth by fusion of sulfur (giving the hot and dry qualities) with mercury (giving the cold and moist.) These elements, mercury and sulfur, should be thought of as not the ordinary elements but ideal, hypothetical substances. Which metal is formed depends on the purity of the mercury and sulfur and the proportion in which they come together.[13] The later alchemist al-Rz followed Jbir's mercury-sulfur theory, but added a third, salty, component.[16] Thus, Jbir theorized, by rearranging the qualities of one metal, a different metal would result.[17] By this reasoning, the search for the philosopher's stone was introduced to Western alchemy.[18] [19] Jbir developed an elaborate numerology whereby the root letters of a substance's name in Arabic, when treated with various transformations, held correspondences to the element's physical properties.[13]

Processes and equipment

Al-Rz mentions the following chemical processes: distillation, calcination, solution, evaporation, crystallization, sublimation, filtration, amalgamation, and ceration (a process for making solids pasty or fusible.)[20]

Some of these operations (calcination, solution, filtration, crystallization, sublimation and distillation) are also known to have been practiced by pre-Islamic Alexandrian alchemists.[21] In his Secretum secretorum, Al-Rz mentions the following equipment:[22] Tools for melting substances (li-tadhwb): hearth (kr), bellows (minfkh aw ziqq), crucible (bawtaqa), the bt bar bt (in Arabic) or botus barbatus (in Latin), ladle (mighrafa aw milaqa), tongs (msik aw kalbatn), scissors (miqa), hammer (mukassir), file (mibrad). Tools for the preparation of drugs (li-tadbr al-aqqr): cucurbit and still with evacuation tube (qar aw anbq dh-khatm), receiving matras (qbila), blind still (without evacuation tube) (al-anbq al-am), aludel (al-uthl), goblets (qada), flasks (qrra, plural quwrr), rosewater flasks (m wariyya), cauldron (marjal aw tanjr), earthenware pots varnished on the inside with their lids (qudr wa makabbt), water bath or sand bath (qadr), oven (al-tannr in Arabic, athanor in Latin), small cylindirical oven for heating aludel (mustawqid), funnels, sieves, filters, etc.

Alchemy and chemistry in medieval Islam

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References
[1] "alchemy", entry in The Oxford English Dictionary, J. A. Simpson and E. S. C. Weiner, vol. 1, 2nd ed., 1989, ISBN 0-19-861213-3. [2] p. 854, "Arabic alchemy", Georges C. Anawati, pp. 853-885 in Encyclopedia of the history of Arabic science, eds. Roshdi Rashed and Rgis Morelon, London: Routledge, 1996, vol. 3, ISBN 0415124123. [3] Burckhardt, Titus (1967). Alchemy: science of the cosmos, science of the soul. Stuart & Watkins. p. 46 [4] Anawati 1996, pp. 854-863. [5] pp. 67-68, Holmyard 1990. [6] pp. 63-66, Alchemy, E. J. Holmyard, New York: Dover Publications, Inc., 1990 (reprint of 1957 Penguin Books edition), ISBN 0-486-26298-7. [7] M. Ullmann, "hlid b. Yazd b. Muwiya, ab hshim.", in Encyclopaedia of Islam, second edition, edited by P. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C. E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel, and W.P. Heinrichs, Brill, 2011. Brill Online. Accessed 20 January 2011. <http://www.brillonline.nl/subscriber/entry?entry=islam_SIM-4151> [8] Anawati 1996, p. 864. [9] pp. 68-82, Holmyard 1990. [10] pp. 867-879, Anawati 1996. [11] pp. 86-92, Holmyard 1990. [12] pp. 870-872, Anawati 1996. [13] pp. 74-82, Holmyard 1990. [14] Holmyard 1990, pp. 21-22. [15] Aristotle, On Generation and Corruption, II.3, 330a-330b. [16] Holmyard 1990, p. 88. [17] Burckhardt, Titus (1967). Alchemy: science of the cosmos, science of the soul. Stuart & Watkins. p. 29 [18] Ragai, Jehane (1992). "The Philosopher's Stone: Alchemy and Chemistry". Journal of Comparative Poetics 12 (Metaphor and Allegory in the Middle Ages): 5877 [19] Holmyard, E. J. (1924). "Maslama al-Majriti and the Rutbatu'l-Hakim". Isis 6 (3): 293305 [20] p. 89, Holmyard 1990. [21] p. 23, A short history of chemistry, James Riddick Partington, 3rd ed., Courier Dover Publications, 1989, ISBN 0486659771. [22] Anawati 1996, p. 868

External links
"How Greek Science Passed to the Arabs" (http://www.aina.org/books/hgsptta.htm) by De Lacy O'Leary

Timeline of chemistry

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Timeline of chemistry
Timeline of chemistry lists important works, discoveries, ideas, inventions, and experiments that significantly changed humanity's understanding of the modern science known as chemistry, defined as the scientific study of the composition of matter and of its interactions. The history of chemistry in its modern form arguably began with the English scientist Robert Boyle, though its roots can be traced back to the earliest recorded history. Early ideas that later became incorporated into the modern science of chemistry come from two main sources. Natural philosophers (such as Aristotle and Democritus) used deductive reasoning in an attempt to explain the behavior of the world around them. Alchemists (such as Geber and Rhazes) were people who used experimental techniques in an attempt to extend the life or perform material conversions, such as turning base metals into gold. In the 17th century, a synthesis of the ideas of these two disciplines, that is the deductive and the experimental, leads to the development of a process of thinking known as the scientific method. With the introduction of the scientific method, the modern science of chemistry was born. Known as "the central science", the study of chemistry is strongly Chemical Philosophy, the first modern influenced by, and exerts a strong influence on, many other scientific explanation of atomic theory. and technological fields. Many events considered central to our modern understanding of chemistry are also considered key discoveries in such fields as physics, biology, astronomy, geology, and materials science to name a few.[1]
An image from John Dalton's A New System of

Pre-17th century

Timeline of chemistry

49

Prior to the acceptance of the scientific method and its application to the field of chemistry, it is somewhat controversial to consider many of the people listed below as "chemists" in the modern sense of the word. However, the ideas of certain great thinkers, either for their prescience, or for their wide and long-term acceptance, bear listing here. c. 3000 BCE Egyptians formulate the theory of the Ogdoad, or the primordial forces, from which all was formed. These were the elements of chaos, numbered in eight, that existed before the creation of the sun.[2] c. 1900 BCE Hermes Trismegistus, semi-mythical ancient Egyptian adept king, is thought to have founded the art of alchemy.[3] c. 1200 BCE Tapputi-Belatikallim, a perfume-maker and early chemist, was mentioned in a cuneiform tablet in Mesopotamia.[4] c. 450 BCE Empedocles asserts that all things are composed of four primal elements: earth, air, fire, and water, whereby two active and opposing forces, love and hate, or affinity and antipathy, act upon these elements, combining and separating them into infinitely varied forms.[5] c. 440 BCE Leucippus and Democritus propose the idea of the atom, an indivisible particle that all matter is made of. This idea is largely rejected by natural philosophers in favor of the Aristotlean view.[6] [7] c. 360 BCE
Aristotle (384322 BCE)

Ambix, cucurbit and retort, the alchemical implements of Zosimus c. 300, from Marcelin Berthelot, Collection des anciens alchimistes grecs (3 vol., Paris, 18871888).

Plato coins term elements (stoicheia) and in his dialogue Timaeus, which includes a discussion of the composition of inorganic and organic bodies and is a rudimentary treatise on chemistry, assumes that the minute particle of each element had a special geometric shape: tetrahedron (fire), octahedron (air), icosahedron (water), and cube (earth).[8] c. 350 BCE Aristotle, expanding on Empedocles, proposes idea of a substance as a combination of matter and form. Describes theory of the Five Elements, fire, water, earth, air, and aether. This theory is largely accepted throughout the western world for over 1000 years.[9] c. 50 BCE Lucretius publishes De Rerum Natura, a poetic description of the ideas of Atomism.[10]

Timeline of chemistry

50

c. 300 Zosimos of Panopolis writes some of the oldest known books on alchemy, which he defines as the study of the composition of waters, movement, growth, embodying and disembodying, drawing the spirits from bodies and bonding the spirits within bodies.[11] c. 770 Abu Musa Jabir ibn Hayyan (aka Geber), an Arab/Persian alchemist who is "considered by many to be the father of chemistry",[12] [13] [14] develops an early experimental method for chemistry, and isolates numerous acids, including hydrochloric acid, nitric acid, citric acid, acetic acid, tartaric acid, and aqua regia.[15]
Geber (d. 815) is considered by some to be the "father of chemistry".

c. 1000 Ab al-Rayhn al-Brn[16] and Avicenna,[17] both Persian chemists, refute the practice of alchemy and the theory of the transmutation of metals. c. 1167 Alchemists in the School of Salerno make the first references to the distillation of wine.[18] c. 1220 Robert Grosseteste publishes several Aristotelian commentaries where he lays out an early framework for the scientific method.[19] c 1250 Tadeo Alderotti develops Fractional distillation, which is much more effective than its predecessors.[20] c 1260 St Albertus Magnus discovers Arsenic[21] and Silver nitrate.[22] He also made one of the first references to sulfuric acid.[23] c. 1267 Roger Bacon publishes Opus Maius, which among other things, proposes an early form of the scientific method, and contains results of his experiments with gunpowder.[24] c. 1310 Pseudo-Geber, an anonymous Spanish alchemist who wrote under the name of Geber, publishes several books that establish the long-held theory that all metals were composed of various proportions of sulfur and mercury.[25] He is one of the first to describe nitric acid, aqua regia, and aqua fortis.[26] c. 1530 Paracelsus develops the study of iatrochemistry, a subdiscipline of alchemy dedicated to extending the life, thus being the roots of the modern pharmaceutical industry. It is also claimed that he is the first to use the word "chemistry".[11] 1597 Andreas Libavius publishes Alchemia, a prototype chemistry textbook.[27]

Timeline of chemistry

51

17th and 18th centuries

1605 Sir Francis Bacon publishes The Proficience and Advancement of Learning, which contains a description of what would later be known as the scientific method.[28] 1605 Michal Sedziwj publishes the alchemical treatise A New Light of Alchemy which proposed the existence of the "food of life" within air, much later recognized as oxygen.[29] 1615 Jean Beguin publishes the Tyrocinium Chymicum, an early chemistry textbook, and in it draws the first-ever chemical equation.[30] 1637 Ren Descartes publishes Discours de la mthode, which contains an outline of the scientific method.[31] 1648 Posthumous publication of the book Ortus medicinae by Jan Baptist van Helmont, which is cited by some as a major transitional work between alchemy and chemistry, and as an important influence on Robert Boyle. The book contains the results of numerous experiments and establishes an early version of the Law of conservation of mass.[32] 1661 Robert Boyle publishes The Sceptical Chymist, a treatise on the distinction between chemistry and alchemy. It contains some of the earliest modern ideas of atoms, molecules, and chemical reaction, and marks the beginning of the history of modern chemistry.[33] 1662 Robert Boyle proposes Boyle's Law, an experimentally based description of the behavior of gases, specifically the relationship between pressure and volume.[33] 1735 Swedish chemist Georg Brandt analyzes a dark blue pigment found in copper ore. Brandt demonstrated that the pigment contained a new element, later named cobalt. 1754 Joseph Black isolates carbon dioxide, which he called "fixed air".[34] 1757 Louis Claude Cadet de Gassicourt, while investigating arsenic compounds, creates Cadet's fuming liquid, later discovered to be Cacodyl oxide, considered to be the first synthetic organometallic compound.[35] 1758 Joseph Black formulates the concept of latent heat to explain the thermochemistry of phase changes.[36] 1766
A typical chemical laboratory of the 18th century Title page of The Sceptical Chymist by Robert Boyle (16271691)

Timeline of chemistry Henry Cavendish discovers hydrogen as a colorless, odourless gas that burns and can form an explosive mixture with air. 17731774 Carl Wilhelm Scheele and Joseph Priestly independently isolate oxygen, called by Priestly "dephlogisticated air" and Scheele "fire air".[37] [38] 1778 Antoine Lavoisier, considered "The father of modern chemistry",[39] recognizes and names oxygen, and recognizes its importance and role in combustion.[40] 1787 Antoine Lavoisier publishes Mthode de nomenclature chimique, the first modern system of chemical nomenclature.[40] 1787 Jacques Charles proposes Charles's Law, a corollary of Boyle's Law, describes relationship between temperature and volume of a gas.[41] 1789 Antoine Lavoisier publishes Trait lmentaire de Chimie, the first modern chemistry textbook. It is a complete survey of (at that time) modern chemistry, including the first concise definition of the law of conservation of mass, and thus also represents the founding of the discipline of stoichiometry or quantitative chemical analysis.[40] [42] 1797 Joseph Proust proposes the law of definite proportions, which states that elements always combine in small, whole number ratios to form compounds.[43] 1800 Alessandro Volta devises the first chemical battery, thereby founding the discipline of electrochemistry.[44]
Antoine-Laurent de Lavoisier (17431794) is considered the "Father of Modern Chemistry".

52

Timeline of chemistry

53

19th century
1803 John Dalton proposes Dalton's Law, which describes relationship between the components in a mixture of gases and the relative pressure each contributes to that of the overall mixture.[45] 1805 Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac discovers that water is composed of two parts hydrogen and one part oxygen by volume.[46] 1808 Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac collects and discovers several chemical and physical properties of air and of other gases, including experimental proofs of Boyle's and Charles's laws, and of relationships between density and composition of gases.[47] 1808 John Dalton publishes New System of Chemical Philosophy, which contains first modern scientific description of the atomic theory, and clear description of the law of multiple proportions.[45] 1808 Jns Jakob Berzelius publishes Lrbok i Kemien in which he proposes modern chemical symbols and notation, and of the concept of relative atomic weight.[48] 1811 Amedeo Avogadro proposes Avogadro's law, that equal volumes of gases under constant temperature and pressure contain equal number of molecules.[49] 1825 Friedrich Whler and Justus von Liebig perform the first confirmed discovery and explanation of isomers, earlier named by Berzelius. Working with cyanic acid and fulminic acid, they correctly deduce that isomerism was caused by differing arrangements of atoms within a molecular structure.[50] 1827 William Prout classifies biomolecules into their modern groupings: carbohydrates, proteins and lipids.[51] 1828 Friedrich Whler synthesizes urea, thereby establishing that organic compounds could be produced from inorganic starting materials, disproving the theory of vitalism.[50] 1832 Friedrich Whler and Justus von Liebig discover and explain functional groups and radicals in relation to organic chemistry.[50] 1840 Germain Hess proposes Hess's Law, an early statement of the Law of conservation of energy, which establishes that energy changes in a chemical process depend only on the states of the starting and product materials and not on the specific pathway taken between the two states.[52]
structural formula of urea John Dalton (17661844)

Timeline of chemistry 1847 Hermann Kolbe obtains acetic acid from completely inorganic sources, further disproving vitalism.[53] 1848 Lord Kelvin establishes concept of absolute zero, the temperature at which all molecular motion ceases.[54] 1849 Louis Pasteur discovers that the racemic form of tartaric acid is a mixture of the levorotatory and dextrotatory forms, thus clarifying the nature of optical rotation and advancing the field of stereochemistry.[55] 1852 August Beer proposes Beer's law, which explains the relationship between the composition of a mixture and the amount of light it will absorb. Based partly on earlier work by Pierre Bouguer and Johann Heinrich Lambert, it establishes the analytical technique known as spectrophotometry.[56] 1855 Benjamin Silliman, Jr. pioneers methods of petroleum cracking, which makes the entire modern petrochemical industry possible.[57] 1856 William Henry Perkin synthesizes Perkin's mauve, the first synthetic dye. Created as an accidental byproduct of an attempt to create quinine from coal tar. This discovery is the foundation of the dye synthesis industry, one of the earliest successful chemical industries.[58] 1857 Friedrich August Kekul von Stradonitz proposes that carbon is tetravalent, or forms exactly four chemical bonds.[59] 18591860 Gustav Kirchhoff and Robert Bunsen lay the foundations of spectroscopy as a means of chemical analysis, which lead them to the discovery of caesium and rubidium. Other workers soon used the same technique to discover indium, thalium, and helium.[60] 1860 Stanislao Cannizzaro, resurrecting Avogadro's ideas regarding diatomic molecules, compiles a table of atomic weights and presents it at the 1860 Karlsruhe Congress, ending decades of conflicting atomic weights and molecular formulas, and leading to Mendeleev's discovery of the periodic law.[61] 1862 Alexander Parkes exhibits Parkesine, one of the earliest synthetic polymers, at the International Exhibition in London. This discovery formed the foundation of the modern plastics industry.[62] 1862 Alexandre-Emile Bguyer de Chancourtois publishes the telluric helix, an early, three-dimensional version of the Periodic Table of the Elements.[63] 1864 John Newlands proposes the law of octaves, a precursor to the Periodic Law.[63] 1864 Lothar Meyer develops an early version of the periodic table, with 28 elements organized by valence.[64] 1864 Cato Maximilian Guldberg and Peter Waage, building on Claude Louis Berthollets ideas, proposed the Law of Mass Action.[65] [66] [67]

54

Timeline of chemistry 1865 Johann Josef Loschmidt determines exact number of molecules in a mole, later named Avogadro's Number.[68] 1865 Friedrich August Kekul von Stradonitz, based partially on the work of Loschmidt and others, establishes structure of benzene as a six carbon ring with alternating single and double bonds.[59] 1865 Adolf von Baeyer begins work on indigo dye, a milestone in modern industrial organic chemistry which revolutionizes the dye industry.[69] 1869 Dmitri Mendeleev publishes the first modern periodic table, with the 66 known elements organized by atomic weights. The strength of his table was its ability to accurately predict the properties of as-yet unknown elements.[63] [64] 1873 Jacobus Henricus van 't Hoff and Joseph Achille Le Bel, working independently, develop a model of chemical bonding that explains the chirality experiments of Pasteur and provides a physical cause for optical activity in chiral compounds.[70] 1876 Josiah Willard Gibbs publishes On the Equilibrium of Heterogeneous Substances, a compilation of his work on thermodynamics and physical chemistry which lays out the concept of free energy to explain the physical basis of chemical equilibria.[71] 1877 Ludwig Boltzmann establishes statistical derivations of many important physical and chemical concepts, including entropy, and distributions of molecular velocities in the gas phase.[72] 1883 Svante Arrhenius develops ion theory to explain conductivity in electrolytes.[73] 1884 Jacobus Henricus van 't Hoff publishes tudes de Dynamique chimique, a seminal study on chemical kinetics.[74] 1884 Hermann Emil Fischer proposes structure of purine, a key structure in many biomolecules, which he later synthesized in 1898. Also begins work on the chemistry of glucose and related sugars.[75] 1884 Henry Louis Le Chatelier develops Le Chatelier's principle, which explains the response of dynamic chemical equilibria to external stresses.[76] 1885 Eugene Goldstein names the cathode ray, later discovered to be composed of electrons, and the canal ray, later discovered to be positive hydrogen ions that had been stripped of their electrons in a cathode ray tube. These would later be named protons.[77]

55

Mendeleev's 1869 Periodic Table.

Timeline of chemistry 1893 Alfred Werner discovers the octahedral structure of cobalt complexes, thus establishing the field of coordination chemistry.[78] 18941898 William Ramsay discovers the noble gases, which fill a large and unexpected gap in the periodic table and led to models of chemical bonding.[79] 1897 J. J. Thomson discovers the electron using the cathode ray tube.[80] 1898 Wilhelm Wien demonstrates that canal rays (streams of positive ions) can be deflected by magnetic fields, and that the amount of deflection is proportional to the mass-to-charge ratio. This discovery would lead to the analytical technique known as mass spectrometry.[81] 1898 Maria Sklodowska-Curie and Pierre Curie isolate radium and polonium from pitchblende.[82] c. 1900 Ernest Rutherford discovers the source of radioactivity as decaying atoms; coins terms for various types of radiation.[83]

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20th century
1903 Mikhail Semyonovich Tsvet invents chromatography, an important analytic technique.[84] 1904 Hantaro Nagaoka proposes an early nuclear model of the atom, where electrons orbit a dense massive nucleus.[85] 1905 Fritz Haber and Carl Bosch develop the Haber process for making ammonia from its elements, a milestone in industrial chemistry with deep consequences in agriculture.[86] 1905 Albert Einstein explains Brownian motion in a way that definitively proves atomic theory.[87] 1907 Leo Hendrik Baekeland invents bakelite, one of the first commercially successful plastics.[88]

Timeline of chemistry

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1909 Robert Millikan measures the charge of individual electrons with unprecedented accuracy through the oil drop experiment, confirming that all electrons have the same charge and mass.[89] 1909 S. P. L. Srensen invents the pH concept and develops methods for measuring acidity.[90] 1911 Antonius Van den Broek proposes the idea that the elements on the periodic table are more properly organized by positive nuclear charge rather than atomic weight.[91] 1911 The first Solvay Conference is held in Brussels, bringing together most of the most prominent scientists of the day. Conferences in physics and chemistry continue to be held periodically to this day.[92] 1911 Ernest Rutherford, Hans Geiger, and Ernest Marsden perform the Gold foil experiment, which proves the nuclear model of the atom, with a small, dense, positive nucleus surrounded by a diffuse electron cloud.[83] 1912 William Henry Bragg and William Lawrence Bragg propose Bragg's law and establish the field of X-ray crystallography, an important tool for elucidating the crystal structure of substances.[93] 1912 Peter Debye develops the concept of molecular dipole to describe asymmetric charge distribution in some molecules.[94] 1913 Niels Bohr introduces concepts of quantum mechanics to atomic structure by proposing what is now known as the Bohr model of the atom, where electrons exist only in strictly defined orbitals.[95] 1913 Henry Moseley, working from Van den Broek's earlier idea, introduces concept of atomic number to fix inadequacies of Mendeleev's periodic table, which had been based on atomic weight,[96] 1913 Frederick Soddy proposes the concept of isotopes, that elements with the same chemical properties may have differing atomic weights.[97] 1913 J. J. Thomson expanding on the work of Wien, shows that charged subatomic particles can be separated by their mass-to-charge ratio, a technique known as mass spectrometry.[98] 1916

Robert A. Millikan, performer of the Oil drop experiment

The Bohr model of the atom

Timeline of chemistry Gilbert N. Lewis publishes "The Atom and the Molecule", the foundation of valence bond theory.[99] 1921 Otto Stern and Walther Gerlach establish concept of quantum mechanical spin in subatomic particles.[100] 1923 Gilbert N. Lewis and Merle Randall publish Thermodynamics and the Free Energy of Chemical Substances, first modern treatise on chemical thermodynamics.[101] 1923 Gilbert N. Lewis develops the electron pair theory of acid/base reactions.[99] 1924 Louis de Broglie introduces the wave-model of atomic structure, based on the ideas of wave-particle duality.[102] 1925 Wolfgang Pauli develops the exclusion principle, which states that no two electrons around a single nucleus may have the same quantum state, as described by four quantum numbers.[103] 1926 Erwin Schrdinger proposes the Schrdinger equation, which provides a mathematical basis for the wave model of atomic structure.[104] 1927
The Schrdinger Equation

58

Werner Heisenberg develops the uncertainty principle which, among other things, explains the mechanics of electron motion around the nucleus.[105] 1927 Fritz London and Walter Heitler apply quantum mechanics to explain covalent bonding in the hydrogen molecule,[106] which marked the birth of quantum chemistry.[107] c. 1930 Linus Pauling proposes Pauling's rules, which are key principles for the use of X-ray crystallography to deduce molecular structure.[108] 1930 Wallace Carothers leads a team of chemists at DuPont who invent nylon, one of the most commercially successful synthetic polymers in history.[109] 1931 Erich Hckel proposes Hckel's rule, which explains when a planar ring molecule will have aromatic properties.[110] 1931
Model of two common forms of nylon

Harold Urey discovers deuterium by fractionally distilling liquid hydrogen.[111] 1932 James Chadwick discovers the neutron.[112] 19321934

Timeline of chemistry Linus Pauling and Robert Mulliken quantify electronegativity, devising the scales that now bear their names.[113] 1937 Carlo Perrier and Emilio Segr perform the first confirmed synthesis of technetium-97, the first artificially produced element, filling a gap in the periodic table. Though disputed, the element may have been synthesized as early as 1925 by Walter Noddack and others.[114] 1937 Eugene Houdry develops a method of industrial scale catalytic cracking of petroleum, leading to the development of the first modern oil refinery.[115] 1937 Pyotr Kapitsa, John Allen and Don Misener produce supercooled helium-4, the first zero-viscosity superfluid, a substance that displays quantum mechanical properties on a macroscopic scale.[116] 1938 Otto Hahn discovers the process of nuclear fission in uranium and thorium.[117] 1939 Linus Pauling publishes The Nature of the Chemical Bond, a compilation of a decades worth of work on chemical bonding. It is one of the most important modern chemical texts. It explains hybridization theory, covalent bonding and ionic bonding as explained through electronegativity, and resonance as a means to explain, among other things, the structure of benzene.[108] 1940 Edwin McMillan and Philip H. Abelson identify neptunium, the lightest and first synthesized transuranium element, found in the products of uranium fission. McMillan would found a lab at Berkley that would be involved in the discovery of many new elements and isotopes.[118] 1941 Glenn T. Seaborg takes over McMillan's work creating new atomic nuclei. Pioneers method of neutron capture and later through other nuclear reactions. Would become the principal or co-discoverer of nine new chemical elements, and dozens of new isotopes of existing elements.[118] 1945 Jacob A. Marinsky, Lawrence E. Glendenin, and Charles D. Coryell perform the first confirmed synthesis of Promethium, filling in the last "gap" in the periodic table.[119] 19451946 Felix Bloch and Edward Mills Purcell develop the process of Nuclear Magnetic Resonance, an analytical technique important in elucidating structures of molecules, especially in organic chemistry.[120] 1951 Linus Pauling uses X-ray crystallography to deduce the secondary structure of proteins.[108] 1952 Alan Walsh pioneers the field of atomic absorption spectroscopy, an important quantitative spectroscopy method that allows one to measure specific concentrations of a material in a mixture.[121] 1952 Robert Burns Woodward, Geoffrey Wilkinson, and Ernst Otto Fischer discover the structure of ferrocene, one of the founding discoveries of the field of organometallic chemistry.[122] 1953

59

Timeline of chemistry James D. Watson and Francis Crick propose the structure of DNA, opening the door to the field of molecular biology.[123] 1957 Jens Skou discovers Na/K-ATPase, the first ion-transporting enzyme.[124] 1958 Max Perutz and John Kendrew use X-ray crystallography to elucidate a protein structure, specifically Sperm Whale myoglobin.[125] 1962 Neil Bartlett synthesizes xenon hexafluoroplatinate, showing for the first time that the noble gases can form chemical compounds.[126] 1962 George Olah observes carbocations via superacid reactions.[127] 1964 Richard R. Ernst performs experiments that will lead to the development of the technique of Fourier Transform NMR. This would greatly increase the sensitivity of the technique, and open the door for magnetic resonance imaging or MRI.[128] 1965 Robert Burns Woodward and Roald Hoffmann propose the Woodward-Hoffmann rules, which use the symmetry of molecular orbitals to explain the stereochemistry of chemical reactions.[122] 1966 Hotosi Nozaki and Ryji Noyori discovered the first example of asymmetric catalysis (hydrogenation) using a structurally well-defined chiral transition metal complex.[129] [130] 1970 John Pople develops the GAUSSIAN program greatly easing computational chemistry calculations.[131] 1971 Yves Chauvin offered an explanation of the reaction mechanism of olefin metathesis reactions.[132] 1975 Karl Barry Sharpless and group discover a stereoselective oxidation reactions including Sharpless epoxidation,[133] [134] Sharpless asymmetric dihydroxylation,[135] [136] [137] and Sharpless oxyamination.[138]
[139] [140]

60

1985 Harold Kroto, Robert Curl and Richard Smalley discover fullerenes, a class of large carbon molecules superficially resembling the geodesic dome designed by architect R. Buckminster Fuller.[141] 1991 Sumio Iijima uses electron microscopy to discover a type of cylindrical fullerene known as a carbon nanotube, though earlier work had been done in the field as early as 1951. This material is an important component in the field of nanotechnology.[142] 1994
Buckminsterfullerene, C60

Timeline of chemistry First total synthesis of Taxol by Robert A. Holton and his group.[143] [144] [145] 1995 Eric Cornell and Carl Wieman produce the first BoseEinstein condensate, a substance that displays quantum mechanical properties on the macroscopic scale.[146]

61

References
[1] "Chemistry The Central Science" (http:/ / www. chem. yorku. ca/ hall_of_fame/ whychem. htm). The Chemistry Hall of Fame. York University. . Retrieved 2006-09-12. [2] J. Gwyn Griffiths (1955). "The Orders of Gods in Greece and Egypt (According to Herodotus)". The Journal of Hellenic Studies (The Society for the Promotion of Hellenic Studies) 75: 2123. doi:10.2307/629164. JSTOR629164. [3] Hoeller, Stephan A. (1996). "On the Trail of the Winged God: Hermes and Hermeticism Throughout the Ages" (http:/ / www. gnosis. org/ hermes. htm). Gnosis: A Journal of Western Inner Traditions (Vol. 40, Summer 1996) (The Gnosis Archive). . Retrieved 2007-03-11. [4] Giese, Patsy Ann. "Women in Science: 5000 Years of Obstacles and Achievements" (http:/ / www1. umn. edu/ ships/ gender/ giese. htm). SHiPS Resource Center for Sociology, History and Philosophy in Science Teaching. . Retrieved 2007-03-11. [5] Parry, Richard (2005-03-04). "Empedocles" (http:/ / plato. stanford. edu/ entries/ empedocles/ ). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, CSLI, Stanford University. . Retrieved 2007-03-11. [6] Berryman, Sylvia (2004-08-14). "Leucippus" (http:/ / plato. stanford. edu/ entries/ leucippus/ ). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, CSLI, Stanford University. . Retrieved 2007-03-11. [7] Berryman, Sylvia (2004-08-15). "Democritus" (http:/ / plato. stanford. edu/ entries/ democritus/ ). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, CSLI, Stanford University. . Retrieved 2007-03-11. [8] Hillar, Marian (2004). "The Problem of the Soul in Aristotle's De anima" (http:/ / www. socinian. org/ aristotles_de_anima. html). NASA WMAP. . Retrieved 2006-08-10. [9] "HISTORY/CHRONOLOGY OF THE ELEMENTS" (http:/ / hilltop. bradley. edu/ ~rbg/ el. html). . Retrieved 2007-03-12. [10] Sedley, David (2004-08-04). "Lucretius" (http:/ / plato. stanford. edu/ entries/ lucretius/ ). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. 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J. Hehre, W. A. Lathan, R. Ditchfield, M. D. Newton, and J. A. Pople, Gaussian 70 (Quantum Chemistry Program Exchange, Program No. 237, 1970). [132] Catalyse de transformation des olfines par les complexes du tungstne. II. Tlomrisation des olfines cycliques en prsence d'olfines acycliques Die Makromolekulare Chemie Volume 141, Issue 1, Date: 9 February 1971, Pages: 161176 Par Jean-Louis Hrisson, Yves Chauvin doi:10.1002/macp.1971.021410112 [133] Katsuki, T.; Sharpless, K. B. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1980, 102, 5974. (doi:10.1021/ja00538a077) [134] Hill, J. G.; Sharpless, K. B.; Exon, C. M.; Regenye, R. Org. Syn., Coll. Vol. 7, p.461 (1990); Vol. 63, p.66 (1985). ( Article (http:/ / www. orgsyn. org/ orgsyn/ prep. asp?prep=cv7p0461)) [135] Jacobsen, E. N.; Marko, I.; Mungall, W. S.; Schroeder, G.; Sharpless, K. B. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1988, 110, 1968. (doi:10.1021/ja00214a053) [136] Kolb, H. C.; Van Nieuwenhze, M. S.; Sharpless, K. B. Chem. Rev. 1994, 94, 24832547. (Review) (doi:10.1021/cr00032a009) [137] Gonzalez, J.; Aurigemma, C.; Truesdale, L. Org. Syn., Coll. Vol. 10, p.603 (2004); Vol. 79, p.93 (2002). ( Article (http:/ / www. orgsyn. org/ orgsyn/ prep. asp?prep=v79p0093)) [138] Sharpless, K. B.; Patrick, D. W.; Truesdale, L. K.; Biller, S. A. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1975, 97, 2305. (doi:10.1021/ja00841a071) [139] Herranz, E.; Biller, S. A.; Sharpless, K. B. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1978, 100, 35963598. (doi:10.1021/ja00479a051) [140] Herranz, E.; Sharpless, K. B. Org. Syn., Coll. Vol. 7, p.375 (1990); Vol. 61, p.85 (1983). ( Article (http:/ / www. orgsyn. org/ orgsyn/ prep. asp?prep=cv7p0375)) [141] "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1996" (http:/ / nobelprize. org/ nobel_prizes/ chemistry/ laureates/ 1996/ ). Nobelprize.org. The Nobel Foundation. . Retrieved 2007-02-28. [142] "Benjamin Franklin Medal awarded to Dr. Sumio Iijima, Director of the Research Center for Advanced Carbon Materials, AIST" (http:/ / www. aist. go. jp/ aist_e/ topics/ 20020129/ 20020129. html). National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology. 2002. . Retrieved 2007-03-27. [143] First total synthesis of taxol 1. Functionalization of the B ring Robert A. Holton, Carmen Somoza, Hyeong Baik Kim, Feng Liang, Ronald J. Biediger, P. Douglas Boatman, Mitsuru Shindo, Chase C. Smith, Soekchan Kim, et al.; J. Am. Chem. Soc.; 1994; 116(4); 15971598. DOI Abstract (http:/ / pubs3. acs. org/ acs/ journals/ doilookup?in_doi=10. 1021/ ja00083a066) [144] First total synthesis of taxol. 2. Completion of the C and D rings Robert A. Holton, Hyeong Baik Kim, Carmen Somoza, Feng Liang, Ronald J. Biediger, P. Douglas Boatman, Mitsuru Shindo, Chase C. Smith, Soekchan Kim, and et al. J. Am. Chem. Soc.; 1994; 116(4) pp 15991600 DOI Abstract (http:/ / pubs3. acs. org/ acs/ journals/ doilookup?in_doi=10. 1021/ ja00083a067) [145] A synthesis of taxusin Robert A. Holton, R. R. Juo, Hyeong B. Kim, Andrew D. Williams, Shinya Harusawa, Richard E. Lowenthal, Sadamu Yogai J. Am. Chem. Soc.; 1988; 110(19); 65586560. Abstract (http:/ / pubs. acs. org/ cgi-bin/ abstract. cgi/ jacsat/ 1988/ 110/ i19/ f_ja00227a043. pdf) [146] "Cornell and Wieman Share 2001 Nobel Prize in Physics" (http:/ / www. nist. gov/ public_affairs/ releases/ n01-04. htm). NIST News Release. National Institute of Standards and Technology. 2001. . Retrieved 2007-03-27.

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Timeline of chemistry

66

Further reading
Servos, John W., Physical chemistry from Ostwald to Pauling : the making of a science in America (http://books. google.com/books?id=1UZjU2WfLAoC&printsec=frontcover), Princeton, N.J. : Princeton University Press, 1990. ISBN 0691085668

External links
Chemical Achievers: The Human Face of the Chemical Sciences (http://www.chemheritage.org/classroom/ chemach/index.html) Eric Weisstein's World of Scientific Biography (http://scienceworld.wolfram.com/biography/) History of Gas Chemistry (http://mattson.creighton.edu/HistoryGasChemistry.html) list of all Nobel Prize laureates (http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/lists/all/) History of Elements of the Periodic Table (http://www.ausetute.com.au/elemhist.html) Chemsoc timeline (http://www.chemsoc.org/timeline/pages/timeline.html)

67

Atoms and molecules

Atom
Helium atom

An illustration of the helium atom, depicting the nucleus (pink) and the electron cloud distribution (black). The nucleus (upper right) in helium-4 is in reality spherically symmetric and closely resembles the electron cloud, although for more complicated nuclei this is not always the case. The black bar is one angstrom (1010m or 100pm). Classification

Smallest recognized division of a chemical element

Properties

Mass range:

1.671027 to 4.521025kg

Electric charge: zero (neutral), or ion charge Diameter range: 62pm (He) to 520pm (Cs) (datapage) Components: Electrons and a compact nucleus of protons and neutrons

The atom is a basic unit of matter that consists of a dense, central nucleus surrounded by a cloud of negatively charged electrons. The atomic nucleus contains a mix of positively charged protons and electrically neutral neutrons (except in the case of hydrogen-1, which is the only stable nuclide with no neutrons). The electrons of an atom are bound to the nucleus by the electromagnetic force. Likewise, a group of atoms can remain bound to each other, forming a molecule. An atom containing an equal number of protons and electrons is electrically neutral, otherwise it has a positive charge if there are less electrons (electron deficiency) or negative charge if there are more electrons (electron excess). A positively or negatively charged atom is known as an ion. An atom is classified according to the number of protons and neutrons in its nucleus: the number of protons determines the chemical element, and the number of neutrons determines the isotope of the element.[1]

Atom The name atom comes from the Greek ""tomos (from -, "un-" + temno, "to cut"[2] ), which means uncuttable, or indivisible, something that cannot be divided further.[3] The concept of an atom as an indivisible component of matter was first proposed by early Indian and Greek philosophers. In the 17th and 18th centuries, chemists provided a physical basis for this idea by showing that certain substances could not be further broken down by chemical methods. During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, physicists discovered subatomic components and structure inside the atom, thereby demonstrating that the 'atom' was divisible. The principles of quantum mechanics were used to successfully model the atom.[4] [5] Atoms are minuscule objects with proportionately tiny masses. Atoms can only be observed individually using special instruments such as the scanning tunneling microscope. Over 99.9% of an atom's mass is concentrated in the nucleus,[6] with protons and neutrons having roughly equal mass. Each element has at least one isotope with unstable nuclei that can undergo radioactive decay. This can result in a transmutation that changes the number of protons or neutrons in a nucleus.[7] Electrons that are bound to atoms possess a set of stable energy levels, or orbitals, and can undergo transitions between them by absorbing or emitting photons that match the energy differences between the levels. The electrons determine the chemical properties of an element, and strongly influence an atom's magnetic properties.

68

History
Atomism
The concept that matter is composed of discrete units and cannot be divided into arbitrarily tiny quantities has been around for millennia, but these ideas were founded in abstract, philosophical reasoning rather than experimentation and empirical observation. The nature of atoms in philosophy varied considerably over time and between cultures and schools, and often had spiritual elements. Nevertheless, the basic idea of the atom was adopted by scientists thousands of years later because it elegantly explained new discoveries in the field of chemistry.[8] References to the concept of atoms date back to ancient Greece and India. In India, the jvika, Jain, and Crvka schools of atomism may date back to the 6th century BCE.[9] The Nyaya and Vaisheshika schools later developed theories on how atoms combined into more complex objects.[10] In the West, the references to atoms emerged in the 5th century BCE with Leucippus, whose student, Democritus, systematized his views. In approximately 450BCE, Democritus coined the term tomos (Greek: ), which means "uncuttable" or "the smallest indivisible particle of matter". Although the Indian and Greek concepts of the atom were based purely on philosophy, modern science has retained the name coined by Democritus.[8] Corpuscularianism is the postulate, expounded in the 13th-century by the alchemist Pseudo-Geber (Geber),[11] sometimes identified with Paul of Taranto, that all physical bodies possess an inner and outer layer of minute particles or corpuscles.[12] Corpuscularianism is similar (this is the electrical pulses ) to the theory atomism, except that where atoms were supposed to be indivisible, corpuscles could in principle be divided. In this manner, for example, it was theorized that mercury could penetrate into metals and modify their inner structure.[13] Corpuscularianism stayed a dominant theory over the next several hundred years. In 1661, natural philosopher Robert Boyle published The Sceptical Chymist in which he argued that matter was composed of various combinations of different "corpuscules" or atoms, rather than the classical elements of air, earth, fire and water.[14] During the 1670s corpuscularianism was used by Isaac Newton in his development of the corpuscular theory of light.[12] [15]

Atom

69

Origin of scientific theory

Further progress in the understanding of atoms did not occur until the science of chemistry began to develop. In 1789, French nobleman and scientific researcher Antoine Lavoisier discovered the law of conservation of mass and defined an element as a basic substance that could not be further broken down by the methods of chemistry.[16] In 1805, English instructor and natural philosopher John Dalton used the concept of atoms to explain why elements always react in ratios of small whole numbers (the law of multiple proportions) and why certain gases dissolve better in water than others. He proposed that each element consists of atoms of a single, unique type, and that these atoms can join together to form chemical compounds.[17] [18] Dalton is considered the originator of modern atomic theory.[19]

Dalton's atomic hypothesis did not specify the size of atoms. Common sense indicated they must be very small, but nobody knew how small. Therefore it was a major landmark when in 1865 Johann Josef Loschmidt measured the size of the molecules that make up air. An additional line of reasoning in support of particle theory (and by extension atomic theory) began in 1827 when botanist Robert Brown used a microscope to look at dust grains floating in water and discovered that they moved about erraticallya phenomenon that became known as "Brownian motion". J. Desaulx suggested in 1877 that the phenomenon was caused by the thermal motion of water molecules, and in 1905 Albert Einstein produced the first mathematical analysis of the motion.[20] [21] [22] French physicist Jean Perrin used Einstein's work to experimentally determine the mass and dimensions of atoms, thereby conclusively verifying Dalton's atomic theory.[23] In 1869, building upon earlier discoveries by such scientists as Lavoisier, Dmitri Mendeleev published the first functional periodic table.[24] The table itself is a visual representation of the periodic law, which states that certain chemical properties of elements repeat periodically when arranged by atomic number.[25]

Various atoms and molecules as depicted in John Dalton's A New System of Chemical Philosophy (1808), one of the earliest scientific works on atomic theory.

Subcomponents and quantum theory

The physicist J. J. Thomson, through his work on cathode rays in 1897, discovered the electron, and concluded that they were a component of every atom. Thus he overturned the belief that atoms are the indivisible, ultimate particles of matter.[26] Thomson postulated that the low mass, negatively charged electrons were distributed throughout the atom, possibly rotating in rings, with their charge balanced by the presence of a uniform sea of positive charge. This later became known as the plum pudding model.

Mendeleev's first periodic table (1869).

In 1909, Hans Geiger and Ernest Marsden, under the direction of physicist Ernest Rutherford, bombarded a sheet of gold foil with alpha raysby then known to be positively charged helium atomsand discovered that a small percentage of these particles were deflected through much larger angles than was predicted using Thomson's proposal. Rutherford interpreted the gold foil experiment as suggesting that the positive charge of a heavy gold atom and most of its mass was concentrated in a nucleus at the center of the atomthe Rutherford model.[27]

Atom While experimenting with the products of radioactive decay, in 1913 radiochemist Frederick Soddy discovered that there appeared to be more than one type of atom at each position on the periodic table.[28] The term isotope was coined by Margaret Todd as a suitable name for different atoms that belong to the same element. J.J. Thomson created a technique for separating atom types through his work on ionized gases, which subsequently led to the discovery of stable isotopes.[29] Meanwhile, in 1913, physicist Niels Bohr suggested that the electrons were confined into clearly defined, quantized orbits, and could jump between these, but could not freely spiral inward or outward in intermediate states.[30] An electron must absorb or emit specific amounts of energy to transition between these fixed orbits. When the light from a heated material was passed through a prism, it produced a multi-colored spectrum. The appearance of fixed lines in this spectrum was successfully explained by these orbital transitions.[31] Later in the same year Henry Moseley provided additional experimental evidence in favor of Niels Bohr's theory. These results A Bohr model of the hydrogen atom, showing an refined Ernest Rutherford's and Antonius Van den Broek's model, electron jumping between fixed orbits and emitting a photon of energy with a specific which proposed that the atom contains in its nucleus a number of frequency. positive nuclear charges that is equal to its (atomic) number in the periodic table. Until these experiments, atomic number was not known to be a physical and experimental quantity. That it is equal to the atomic nuclear charge remains the accepted atomic model today.[32] Chemical bonds between atoms were now explained, by Gilbert Newton Lewis in 1916, as the interactions between their constituent electrons.[33] As the chemical properties of the elements were known to largely repeat themselves according to the periodic law,[34] in 1919 the American chemist Irving Langmuir suggested that this could be explained if the electrons in an atom were connected or clustered in some manner. Groups of electrons were thought to occupy a set of electron shells about the nucleus.[35] The SternGerlach experiment of 1922 provided further evidence of the quantum nature of the atom. When a beam of silver atoms was passed through a specially shaped magnetic field, the beam was split based on the direction of an atom's angular momentum, or spin. As this direction is random, the beam could be expected to spread into a line. Instead, the beam was split into two parts, depending on whether the atomic spin was oriented up or down.[36] In 1924, Louis de Broglie proposed that all particles behave to an extent like waves. In 1926, Erwin Schrdinger used this idea to develop a mathematical model of the atom that described the electrons as three-dimensional waveforms rather than point particles. A consequence of using waveforms to describe particles is that it is mathematically impossible to obtain precise values for both the position and momentum of a particle at the same time; this became known as the uncertainty principle, formulated by Werner Heisenberg in 1926. In this concept, for a given accuracy in measuring a position one could only obtain a range of probable values for momentum, and vice versa. This model was able to explain observations of atomic behavior that previous models could not, such as certain structural and spectral patterns of atoms larger than hydrogen. Thus, the planetary model of the atom was discarded in favor of one that described atomic orbital zones around the nucleus where a given electron is most likely to be observed.[37] [38]

70

Atom

71 The development of the mass spectrometer allowed the exact mass of atoms to be measured. The device uses a magnet to bend the trajectory of a beam of ions, and the amount of deflection is determined by the ratio of an atom's mass to its charge. The chemist Francis William Aston used this instrument to show that isotopes had different masses. The atomic mass of these isotopes varied by integer amounts, called the whole number rule.[39] The explanation for these different isotopes awaited the discovery of the neutron, a neutral-charged particle with a mass similar to the proton, by the physicist James Chadwick in 1932. Isotopes were then explained as elements with the same number of protons, but different numbers of neutrons within the nucleus.[40]
Schematic diagram of a simple mass spectrometer.

Fission, high energy physics and condensed matter

In 1938, the German chemist Otto Hahn, a student of Rutherford, directed neutrons onto uranium atoms expecting to get transuranium elements. Instead, his chemical experiments showed barium as a product.[41] A year later, Lise Meitner and her nephew Otto Frisch verified that Hahn's result were the first experimental nuclear fission.[42] [43] In 1944, Hahn received the Nobel prize in chemistry. Despite Hahn's efforts, the contributions of Meitner and Frisch were not recognized.[44] In the 1950s, the development of improved particle accelerators and particle detectors allowed scientists to study the impacts of atoms moving at high energies.[45] Neutrons and protons were found to be hadrons, or composites of smaller particles called quarks. Standard models of nuclear physics were developed that successfully explained the properties of the nucleus in terms of these sub-atomic particles and the forces that govern their interactions.[46]

Components
Subatomic particles
Though the word atom originally denoted a particle that cannot be cut into smaller particles, in modern scientific usage the atom is composed of various subatomic particles. The constituent particles of an atom are the electron, the proton and the neutron. However, the hydrogen-1 atom has no neutrons and a positive hydrogen ion has no electrons. The electron is by far the least massive of these particles at 9.111031kg, with a negative electrical charge and a size that is too small to be measured using available techniques.[47] Protons have a positive charge and a mass 1,836 times that of the electron, at 1.67261027kg, although this can be reduced by changes to the energy binding the proton into an atom. Neutrons have no electrical charge and have a free mass of 1,839 times the mass of electrons,[48] or 1.69291027kg. Neutrons and protons have comparable dimensionson the order of 2.51015malthough the 'surface' of these particles is not sharply defined.[49] In the Standard Model of physics, both protons and neutrons are composed of elementary particles called quarks. The quark belongs to the fermion group of particles, and is one of the two basic constituents of matterthe other being the lepton, of which the electron is an example. There are six types of quarks, each having a fractional electric charge of either +23 or 13. Protons are composed of two up quarks and one down quark, while a neutron consists of one up quark and two down quarks. This distinction accounts for the difference in mass and charge between the two particles. The quarks are held together by the strong nuclear force, which is mediated by gluons. The gluon is a member of the family of gauge bosons, which are elementary particles that mediate physical forces.[50] [51]

Atom

72

Nucleus

The binding energy needed for a nucleon to escape the nucleus, for various isotopes.

All the bound protons and neutrons in an atom make up a tiny atomic nucleus, and are collectively called nucleons. The radius of a nucleus is approximately equal to , where A is the total number of nucleons.[52] This is much smaller than the radius of the atom, which is on the order of 105fm. The nucleons are bound together by a short-ranged attractive potential called the residual strong force. At distances smaller than 2.5 fm this force is much more powerful than the electrostatic force that causes positively charged protons to repel each other.[53] Atoms of the same element have the same number of protons, called the atomic number. Within a single element, the number of neutrons may vary, determining the isotope of that element. The total number of protons and neutrons determine the nuclide. The number of neutrons relative to the protons determines the stability of the nucleus, with certain isotopes undergoing radioactive decay.[54] The neutron and the proton are different types of fermions. The Pauli exclusion principle is a quantum mechanical effect that prohibits identical fermions, such as multiple protons, from occupying the same quantum physical state at the same time. Thus every proton in the nucleus must occupy a different state, with its own energy level, and the same rule applies to all of the neutrons. This prohibition does not apply to a proton and neutron occupying the same quantum state.[55] For atoms with low atomic numbers, a nucleus that has a different number of protons than neutrons can potentially drop to a lower energy state through a radioactive decay that causes the number of protons and neutrons to more closely match. As a result, atoms with roughly matching numbers of protons and neutrons are more stable against decay. However, with increasing atomic number, the mutual repulsion of the protons requires an increasing proportion of neutrons to maintain the stability of the nucleus, which modifies this trend. Thus, there are no stable nuclei with equal proton and neutron numbers above atomic number Z = 20 (calcium); and as Z increases toward the heaviest nuclei, the ratio of neutrons per proton required for stability increases to about 1.5.[55]

Atom

73

The number of protons and neutrons in the atomic nucleus can be modified, although this can require very high energies because of the strong force. Nuclear fusion occurs when multiple atomic particles join to form a heavier nucleus, such as through the energetic collision of two nuclei. For example, at the core of the Sun protons require energies of 310 keV to overcome their mutual repulsionthe coulomb barrierand fuse together into a single nucleus.[56] Nuclear fission is the opposite process, causing a nucleus to split into two smaller nucleiusually through radioactive decay. The nucleus can also be modified through bombardment by high energy subatomic particles or photons. If this modifies the number of protons in a nucleus, the atom changes to a different chemical element.[57] [58] If the mass of the nucleus following a fusion reaction is less than the Illustration of a nuclear fusion process that forms sum of the masses of the separate particles, then the difference between a deuterium nucleus, consisting of a proton and a these two values can be emitted as a type of usable energy (such as a neutron, from two protons. A positron (e+)an antimatter electronis emitted along with an gamma ray, or the kinetic energy of a beta particle), as described by 2 electron neutrino. Albert Einstein's massenergy equivalence formula, E=mc , where m is the mass loss and c is the speed of light. This deficit is part of the binding energy of the new nucleus, and it is the non-recoverable loss of the energy that causes the fused particles to remain together in a state that requires this energy to separate.[59] The fusion of two nuclei that create larger nuclei with lower atomic numbers than iron and nickela total nucleon number of about 60is usually an exothermic process that releases more energy than is required to bring them together.[60] It is this energy-releasing process that makes nuclear fusion in stars a self-sustaining reaction. For heavier nuclei, the binding energy per nucleon in the nucleus begins to decrease. That means fusion processes producing nuclei that have atomic numbers higher than about 26, and atomic masses higher than about 60, is an endothermic process. These more massive nuclei can not undergo an energy-producing fusion reaction that can sustain the hydrostatic equilibrium of a star.[55]

Electron cloud
The electrons in an atom are attracted to the protons in the nucleus by the electromagnetic force. This force binds the electrons inside an electrostatic potential well surrounding the smaller nucleus, which means that an external source of energy is needed for the electron to escape. The closer an electron is to the nucleus, the greater the attractive force. Hence electrons bound near the center of the potential well require more energy to escape than those at greater separations. Electrons, like other particles, have properties of both a particle and a A potential well, showing, according to classical wave. The electron cloud is a region inside the potential well where mechanics, the minimum energy V(x) needed to reach each position x. Classically, a particle with each electron forms a type of three-dimensional standing wavea energy E is constrained to a range of positions wave form that does not move relative to the nucleus. This behavior is between x1 and x2. defined by an atomic orbital, a mathematical function that characterises the probability that an electron appears to be at a particular location when its position is measured.[61] Only a discrete (or quantized) set of these orbitals exist around the nucleus, as other possible wave patterns rapidly decay into a more stable form.[62] Orbitals can have one or more ring or node structures, and they differ from each other in size, shape and orientation.[63]

Atom

74 Each atomic orbital corresponds to a particular energy level of the electron. The electron can change its state to a higher energy level by absorbing a photon with sufficient energy to boost it into the new quantum state. Likewise, through spontaneous emission, an electron in a higher energy state can drop to a lower energy state while radiating the excess energy as a photon. These characteristic energy values, defined by the differences in the energies of the quantum states, are responsible for atomic spectral lines.[62]

Wave functions of the first five atomic orbitals. The three 2p orbitals each display a single angular node that has an orientation and a minimum at the center.

The amount of energy needed to remove or add an electronthe electron binding energyis far less than the binding energy of nucleons. For example, it requires only 13.6eV to strip a ground-state electron from a hydrogen atom,[64] compared to 2.23million eV for splitting a deuterium nucleus.[65] Atoms are electrically neutral if they have an equal number of protons and electrons. Atoms that have either a deficit or a surplus of electrons are called ions. Electrons that are farthest from the nucleus may be transferred to other nearby atoms or shared between atoms. By this mechanism, atoms are able to bond into molecules and other types of chemical compounds like ionic and covalent network crystals.[66]

Properties
Nuclear properties
By definition, any two atoms with an identical number of protons in their nuclei belong to the same chemical element. Atoms with equal numbers of protons but a different number of neutrons are different isotopes of the same element. For example, all hydrogen atoms admit exactly one proton, but isotopes exist with no neutrons hydrogen-1, one neutron (deuterium), two neutrons (tritium) and more than two neutrons. The hydrogen-1 is by far the most common form, and is sometimes called protium.[67] The known elements form a set of atomic numbers from hydrogen with a single proton up to the 118-proton element ununoctium.[68] All known isotopes of elements with atomic numbers greater than 82 are radioactive.[69] [70] About 339 nuclides occur naturally on Earth,[71] of which 255 (about 75%) have not been observed to decay, and are referred to as "stable isotopes". However, only 90 of these nuclides are stable to all decay, even in theory. Another 165 (bringing the total to 255) have not been observed to decay, even though in theory it is energetically possible. These are also formally classified as "stable". An additional 33 radioactive nuclides have half-lives longer than 80 million years, and are long-lived enough to be present from the birth of the solar system. This collection of 288 nuclides are known as primordial nuclides. Finally, an additional 51 short-lived nuclides are known to occur naturally, as daughter products of primordial nuclide decay (such as radium from uranium), or else as products of natural energetic processes on Earth, such as cosmic ray bombardment (for example, carbon-14).[72] [73] For 80 of the chemical elements, at least one stable isotope exists. Elements 43, 61, and all elements numbered 83 or higher have no stable isotopes. As a rule, there is, for each element, only a handful of stable isotopes, the average being 3.2 stable isotopes per element among those that have stable isotopes. Twenty-six elements have only a single stable isotope, while the largest number of stable isotopes observed for any element is ten, for the element tin.[74] Stability of isotopes is affected by the ratio of protons to neutrons, and also by the presence of certain "magic numbers" of neutrons or protons that represent closed and filled quantum shells. These quantum shells correspond to a set of energy levels within the shell model of the nucleus; filled shells, such as the filled shell of 50 protons for tin, confers unusual stability on the nuclide. Of the 255 known stable nuclides, only four have both an odd number of protons and odd number of neutrons: hydrogen-2 (deuterium), lithium-6, boron-10 and nitrogen-14. Also, only four naturally occurring, radioactive odd-odd nuclides have a half-life over a billion years: potassium-40, vanadium-50, lanthanum-138 and tantalum-180m. Most odd-odd nuclei are highly unstable with respect to beta decay, because the

Atom decay products are even-even, and are therefore more strongly bound, due to nuclear pairing effects.[74]

75

Mass
The large majority of an atom's mass comes from the protons and neutrons, the total number of these particles in an atom is called the mass number. The mass of an atom at rest is often expressed using the unified atomic mass unit (u), which is also called a Dalton (Da). This unit is defined as a twelfth of the mass of a free neutral atom of carbon-12, which is approximately 1.661027kg.[75] Hydrogen-1, the lightest isotope of hydrogen and the atom with the lowest mass, has an atomic weight of 1.007825u.[76] An atom has a mass approximately equal to the mass number times the atomic mass unit.[77] The heaviest stable atom is lead-208,[69] with a mass of 207.9766521u.[78] As even the most massive atoms are far too light to work with directly, chemists instead use the unit of moles. The mole is defined such that one mole of any element always has the same number of atoms (about 6.0221023). This number was chosen so that if an element has an atomic mass of 1u, a mole of atoms of that element has a mass close to one gram. Because of the definition of the unified atomic mass unit, carbon has an atomic mass of exactly 12u, and so a mole of carbon atoms weighs exactly 0.012kg.[75]

Shape and size

Atoms lack a well-defined outer boundary, so their dimensions are usually described in terms of an atomic radius. This is a measure of the distance out to which the electron cloud extends from the nucleus. However, this assumes the atom to exhibit a spherical shape, which is only obeyed for atoms in vacuum or free space. Atomic radii may be derived from the distances between two nuclei when the two atoms are joined in a chemical bond. The radius varies with the location of an atom on the atomic chart, the type of chemical bond, the number of neighboring atoms (coordination number) and a quantum mechanical property known as spin.[79] On the periodic table of the elements, atom size tends to increase when moving down columns, but decrease when moving across rows (left to right).[80] Consequently, the smallest atom is helium with a radius of 32pm, while one of the largest is caesium at 225pm.[81] When subjected to external fields, like an electrical field, the shape of an atom may deviate from that of a sphere. The deformation depends on the field magnitude and the orbital type of outer shell electrons, as shown by group-theoretical considerations. Aspherical deviations might be elicited for instance in crystals, where large crystal-electrical fields may occur at low-symmetry lattice sites.[82] Significant ellipsoidal deformations have recently been shown to occur for sulfur ions in pyrite-type compounds.[83] Atomic dimensions are thousands of times smaller than the wavelengths of light (400700nm) so they can not be viewed using an optical microscope. However, individual atoms can be observed using a scanning tunneling microscope. To visualize the minuteness of the atom, consider that a typical human hair is about 1million carbon atoms in width.[84] A single drop of water contains about 2sextillion (21021) atoms of oxygen, and twice the number of hydrogen atoms.[85] A single carat diamond with a mass of 2104kg contains about 10sextillion (1022) atoms of carbon.[86] If an apple were magnified to the size of the Earth, then the atoms in the apple would be approximately the size of the original apple.[87]

Atom

76

Radioactive decay
Every element has one or more isotopes that have unstable nuclei that are subject to radioactive decay, causing the nucleus to emit particles or electromagnetic radiation. Radioactivity can occur when the radius of a nucleus is large compared with the radius of the strong force, which only acts over distances on the order of 1fm.[88] The most common forms of radioactive decay are:[89] [90] Alpha decay is caused when the nucleus emits an alpha particle, which is a helium nucleus consisting of two protons and two neutrons. The result of the emission is a new element with a lower atomic number. Beta decay is regulated by the weak force, and results from a transformation of a neutron into a proton, or a proton into a neutron. The first is accompanied by the emission of an electron and an antineutrino, while the second causes the This diagram shows the half-life (T) of various isotopes with Z protons and N emission of a positron and a neutrino. neutrons. The electron or positron emissions are called beta particles. Beta decay either increases or decreases the atomic number of the nucleus by one. Gamma decay results from a change in the energy level of the nucleus to a lower state, resulting in the emission of electromagnetic radiation. This can occur following the emission of an alpha or a beta particle from radioactive decay. Other more rare types of radioactive decay include ejection of neutrons or protons or clusters of nucleons from a nucleus, or more than one beta particle, or result (through internal conversion) in production of high-speed electrons that are not beta rays, and high-energy photons that are not gamma rays. Each radioactive isotope has a characteristic decay time periodthe half-lifethat is determined by the amount of time needed for half of a sample to decay. This is an exponential decay process that steadily decreases the proportion of the remaining isotope by 50% every half-life. Hence after two half-lives have passed only 25% of the isotope is present, and so forth.[88]

Magnetic moment
Elementary particles possess an intrinsic quantum mechanical property known as spin. This is analogous to the angular momentum of an object that is spinning around its center of mass, although strictly speaking these particles are believed to be point-like and cannot be said to be rotating. Spin is measured in units of the reduced Planck constant (), with electrons, protons and neutrons all having spin , or "spin-". In an atom, electrons in motion around the nucleus possess orbital angular momentum in addition to their spin, while the nucleus itself possesses angular momentum due to its nuclear spin.[91]

Atom The magnetic field produced by an atomits magnetic momentis determined by these various forms of angular momentum, just as a rotating charged object classically produces a magnetic field. However, the most dominant contribution comes from spin. Due to the nature of electrons to obey the Pauli exclusion principle, in which no two electrons may be found in the same quantum state, bound electrons pair up with each other, with one member of each pair in a spin up state and the other in the opposite, spin down state. Thus these spins cancel each other out, reducing the total magnetic dipole moment to zero in some atoms with even number of electrons.[92] In ferromagnetic elements such as iron, an odd number of electrons leads to an unpaired electron and a net overall magnetic moment. The orbitals of neighboring atoms overlap and a lower energy state is achieved when the spins of unpaired electrons are aligned with each other, a process known as an exchange interaction. When the magnetic moments of ferromagnetic atoms are lined up, the material can produce a measurable macroscopic field. Paramagnetic materials have atoms with magnetic moments that line up in random directions when no magnetic field is present, but the magnetic moments of the individual atoms line up in the presence of a field.[92] [93] The nucleus of an atom can also have a net spin. Normally these nuclei are aligned in random directions because of thermal equilibrium. However, for certain elements (such as xenon-129) it is possible to polarize a significant proportion of the nuclear spin states so that they are aligned in the same directiona condition called hyperpolarization. This has important applications in magnetic resonance imaging.[94] [95]

77

Energy levels
When an electron is bound to an atom, it has a potential energy that is inversely proportional to its distance from the nucleus. This is measured by the amount of energy needed to unbind the electron from the atom, and is usually given in units of electronvolts (eV). In the quantum mechanical model, a bound electron can only occupy a set of states centered on the nucleus, and each state corresponds to a specific energy level. The lowest energy state of a bound electron is called the ground state, while an electron at a higher energy level is in an excited state.[96] For an electron to transition between two different states, it must absorb or emit a photon at an energy matching the difference in the potential energy of those levels. The energy of an emitted photon is proportional to its frequency, so these specific energy levels appear as distinct bands in the electromagnetic spectrum.[97] Each element has a characteristic spectrum that can depend on the nuclear charge, subshells filled by electrons, the electromagnetic interactions between the electrons and other factors.[98] When a continuous spectrum of energy is passed through a gas or plasma, some of the photons are absorbed by atoms, causing electrons to change their energy level. Those excited electrons that remain bound to their atom spontaneously emit this energy as a An example of absorption lines in a spectrum. photon, traveling in a random direction, and so drop back to lower energy levels. Thus the atoms behave like a filter that forms a series of dark absorption bands in the energy output. (An observer viewing the atoms from a view that does not include the continuous spectrum in the background, instead sees a series of emission lines from the photons emitted by the atoms.) Spectroscopic measurements of the strength and width of spectral lines allow the composition and physical properties of a substance to be determined.[99] Close examination of the spectral lines reveals that some display a fine structure splitting. This occurs because of spin-orbit coupling, which is an interaction between the spin and motion of the outermost electron.[100] When an atom is in an external magnetic field, spectral lines become split into three or more components; a phenomenon called the Zeeman effect. This is caused by the interaction of the magnetic field with the magnetic moment of the atom and its electrons. Some atoms can have multiple electron configurations with the same energy level, which thus appear as a single spectral line. The interaction of the magnetic field with the atom shifts these electron

Atom configurations to slightly different energy levels, resulting in multiple spectral lines.[101] The presence of an external electric field can cause a comparable splitting and shifting of spectral lines by modifying the electron energy levels, a phenomenon called the Stark effect.[102] If a bound electron is in an excited state, an interacting photon with the proper energy can cause stimulated emission of a photon with a matching energy level. For this to occur, the electron must drop to a lower energy state that has an energy difference matching the energy of the interacting photon. The emitted photon and the interacting photon then move off in parallel and with matching phases. That is, the wave patterns of the two photons are synchronized. This physical property is used to make lasers, which can emit a coherent beam of light energy in a narrow frequency band.[103]

78

Valence and bonding behavior

The outermost electron shell of an atom in its uncombined state is known as the valence shell, and the electrons in that shell are called valence electrons. The number of valence electrons determines the bonding behavior with other atoms. Atoms tend to chemically react with each other in a manner that fills (or empties) their outer valence shells.[104] For example, a transfer of a single electron between atoms is a useful approximation for bonds that form between atoms with one-electron more than a filled shell, and others that are one-electron short of a full shell, such as occurs in the compound sodium chloride and other chemical ionic salts. However, many elements display multiple valences, or tendencies to share differing numbers of electrons in different compounds. Thus, chemical bonding between these elements takes many forms of electron-sharing that are more than simple electron transfers. Examples include the element carbon and the organic compounds.[105] The chemical elements are often displayed in a periodic table that is laid out to display recurring chemical properties, and elements with the same number of valence electrons form a group that is aligned in the same column of the table. (The horizontal rows correspond to the filling of a quantum shell of electrons.) The elements at the far right of the table have their outer shell completely filled with electrons, which results in chemically inert elements known as the noble gases.[106] [107]

States
Quantities of atoms are found in different states of matter that depend on the physical conditions, such as temperature and pressure. By varying the conditions, materials can transition between solids, liquids, gases and plasmas. [108] Within a state, a material can also exist in different phases. An example of this is solid carbon, which can exist as graphite or diamond.[109] At temperatures close to absolute zero, atoms can form a BoseEinstein condensate, at which point quantum mechanical effects, Snapshots illustrating the formation of a which are normally only observed at the atomic scale, become apparent BoseEinstein condensate. on a macroscopic scale.[110] [111] This super-cooled collection of atoms then behaves as a single super atom, which may allow fundamental checks of quantum mechanical behavior.[112]

Atom

79

Identification
The scanning tunneling microscope is a device for viewing surfaces at the atomic level. It uses the quantum tunneling phenomenon, which allows particles to pass through a barrier that would normally be insurmountable. Electrons tunnel through the vacuum between two planar metal electrodes, on each of which is an adsorbed atom, providing a tunneling-current density that can be measured. Scanning one atom (taken as the tip) as it moves past the other (the sample) permits plotting of tip displacement versus lateral separation for a constant current. The calculation shows the extent to which scanning-tunneling-microscope images of an individual atom are visible. It confirms that for low bias, the microscope images the space-averaged dimensions of the electron orbitals across closely packed energy levelsthe Fermi level local density of states.[113] [114]

An atom can be ionized by removing one of its electrons. The electric charge causes the trajectory of an atom to bend when it passes through a magnetic field. The radius by which the trajectory of a moving ion is turned by the magnetic field is determined by the mass of the atom. The mass spectrometer uses this principle to measure the mass-to-charge ratio of ions. If a sample contains multiple isotopes, the mass spectrometer can determine the proportion of each isotope in the sample by measuring the intensity of the different beams of ions. Techniques to vaporize atoms include inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectroscopy and inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry, both of which use a plasma to vaporize samples for analysis.[115] A more area-selective method is electron energy loss spectroscopy, which measures the energy loss of an electron beam within a transmission electron microscope when it interacts with a portion of a sample. The atom-probe tomograph has sub-nanometer resolution in 3-D and can chemically identify individual atoms using time-of-flight mass spectrometry.[116] Spectra of excited states can be used to analyze the atomic composition of distant stars. Specific light wavelengths contained in the observed light from stars can be separated out and related to the quantized transitions in free gas atoms. These colors can be replicated using a gas-discharge lamp containing the same element.[117] Helium was discovered in this way in the spectrum of the Sun 23years before it was found on Earth.[118]

Scanning tunneling microscope image showing the individual atoms making up this gold (100) surface. Reconstruction causes the surface atoms to deviate from the bulk crystal structure and arrange in columns several atoms wide with pits between them.

Origin and current state

Atoms form about 4% of the total energy density of the observable universe, with an average density of about 0.25atoms/m3.[119] Within a galaxy such as the Milky Way, atoms have a much higher concentration, with the density of matter in the interstellar medium (ISM) ranging from 105 to 109 atoms/m3.[120] The Sun is believed to be inside the Local Bubble, a region of highly ionized gas, so the density in the solar neighborhood is only about 103 atoms/m3.[121] Stars form from dense clouds in the ISM, and the evolutionary processes of stars result in the steady enrichment of the ISM with elements more massive than hydrogen and helium. Up to 95% of the Milky Way's atoms are concentrated inside stars and the total mass of atoms forms about 10% of the mass of the galaxy.[122] (The remainder of the mass is an unknown dark matter.)[123]

Atom

80

Nucleosynthesis
Stable protons and electrons appeared one second after the Big Bang. During the following three minutes, Big Bang nucleosynthesis produced most of the helium, lithium, and deuterium in the universe, and perhaps some of the beryllium and boron.[124] [125] [126] The first atoms (complete with bound electrons) were theoretically created 380,000years after the Big Bangan epoch called recombination, when the expanding universe cooled enough to allow electrons to become attached to nuclei.[127] Since then, atomic nuclei have been combined in stars through the process of nuclear fusion to produce elements up to iron.[128] Isotopes such as lithium-6 are generated in space through cosmic ray spallation.[129] This occurs when a high-energy proton strikes an atomic nucleus, causing large numbers of nucleons to be ejected. Elements heavier than iron were produced in supernovae through the r-process and in AGB stars through the s-process, both of which involve the capture of neutrons by atomic nuclei.[130] Elements such as lead formed largely through the radioactive decay of heavier elements.[131]

Earth
Most of the atoms that make up the Earth and its inhabitants were present in their current form in the nebula that collapsed out of a molecular cloud to form the Solar System. The rest are the result of radioactive decay, and their relative proportion can be used to determine the age of the Earth through radiometric dating.[132] [133] Most of the helium in the crust of the Earth (about 99% of the helium from gas wells, as shown by its lower abundance of helium-3) is a product of alpha decay.[134] There are a few trace atoms on Earth that were not present at the beginning (i.e., not "primordial"), nor are results of radioactive decay. Carbon-14 is continuously generated by cosmic rays in the atmosphere.[135] Some atoms on Earth have been artificially generated either deliberately or as by-products of nuclear reactors or explosions.[136] [137] Of the transuranic elementsthose with atomic numbers greater than 92only plutonium and neptunium occur naturally on Earth.[138] [139] Transuranic elements have radioactive lifetimes shorter than the current age of the Earth[140] and thus identifiable quantities of these elements have long since decayed, with the exception of traces of plutonium-244 possibly deposited by cosmic dust.[132] Natural deposits of plutonium and neptunium are produced by neutron capture in uranium ore.[141] The Earth contains approximately 1.331050 atoms.[142] In the planet's atmosphere, small numbers of independent atoms of noble gases exist, such as argon and neon. The remaining 99% of the atmosphere is bound in the form of molecules, including carbon dioxide and diatomic oxygen and nitrogen. At the surface of the Earth, atoms combine to form various compounds, including water, salt, silicates and oxides. Atoms can also combine to create materials that do not consist of discrete molecules, including crystals and liquid or solid metals.[143] [144] This atomic matter forms networked arrangements that lack the particular type of small-scale interrupted order associated with molecular matter.[145]

Rare and theoretical forms

While isotopes with atomic numbers higher than lead (82) are known to be radioactive, an "island of stability" has been proposed for some elements with atomic numbers above 103. These superheavy elements may have a nucleus that is relatively stable against radioactive decay.[146] The most likely candidate for a stable superheavy atom, unbihexium, has 126protons and 184neutrons.[147] Each particle of matter has a corresponding antimatter particle with the opposite electrical charge. Thus, the positron is a positively charged antielectron and the antiproton is a negatively charged equivalent of a proton. When a matter and corresponding antimatter particle meet, they annihilate each other. Because of this, along with an imbalance between the number of matter and antimatter particles, the latter are rare in the universe. (The first causes of this imbalance are not yet fully understood, although the baryogenesis theories may offer an explanation.) As a result, no antimatter atoms have been discovered in nature.[148] [149] However, in 1996, antihydrogen, the antimatter

Atom counterpart of hydrogen, was synthesized at the CERN laboratory in Geneva.[150] [151] Other exotic atoms have been created by replacing one of the protons, neutrons or electrons with other particles that have the same charge. For example, an electron can be replaced by a more massive muon, forming a muonic atom. These types of atoms can be used to test the fundamental predictions of physics.[152] [153] [154]

81

Notes
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External links
Francis, Eden (2002). "Atomic Size" (http://dl.clackamas.cc.or.us/ch104-07/atomic_size.htm). Clackamas Community College. Retrieved 2007-01-09. Freudenrich, Craig C.. "How Atoms Work" (http://www.howstuffworks.com/atom.htm). How Stuff Works. Retrieved 2007-01-09. "The Atom" (http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/FHSST_Physics/Atom). Free High School Science Texts: Physics. Wikibooks. Retrieved 2010-07-10. Anonymous (2007). "The atom" (http://www.scienceaid.co.uk/chemistry/fundamental/atom.html). Science aid+. Retrieved 2010-07-10.a guide to the atom for teens. Anonymous (2006-01-03). "Atoms and Atomic Structure" (http://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/A6672963). BBC. Retrieved 2007-01-11. Various (2006-01-03). "Physics 2000, Table of Contents" (http://www.colorado.edu/physics/2000/index. pl?Type=TOC). University of Colorado. Retrieved 2008-01-11.

Atom Various (2006-02-03). "What does an atom look like?" (http://www.hydrogenlab.de/elektronium/HTML/ einleitung_hauptseite_uk.html). University of Karlsruhe. Retrieved 2008-05-12.

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Atomic nucleus
The nucleus is the very dense region consisting of nucleons (protons and neutrons) at the center of an atom. Almost all of the mass in an atom is made up from the protons and neutrons in the nucleus, with a very small contribution from the orbiting electrons. It was discovered in 1911, as a result of Ernest Rutherford's interpretation of the famous 1909 Rutherford experiment performed by Hans Geiger and Ernest Marsden, under the direction of Rutherford. The protonneutron model of nucleus was proposed by Dmitry Ivanenko in 1932. The diameter of the nucleus is in the range of 1.75fm (femtometre) (1.751015m) for hydrogen (the diameter of a single proton)[1] to about 15fm for the heaviest atoms, such as uranium. These dimensions are much smaller than the diameter of the atom itself (nucleus + electronic cloud), by a factor of about 23,000 (uranium) to about 145,000 (hydrogen).

The branch of physics concerned with studying and understanding the atomic nucleus, including its composition and the forces which bind it together, is called nuclear physics.

A figurative depiction of the helium-4 atom. In the nucleus, the two protons are shown in red and neutrons blue. This depiction shows the particles as separate, whereas in an actual helium atom, the protons are superimposed in space and most likely found at the very center of the nucleus, and the same is true of the two neutrons. Thus all four particles are most likely found in exactly the same space. Classical images of separate particles thus fail to model known charge distributions in very small nuclei

Introduction
Etymology
The term nucleus is from the Latin word nucleus ("nut"). In 1844, Michael Faraday used the term to refer to the "central point of an atom". The modern atomic meaning was proposed by Ernest Rutherford in 1912.[2] The adoption of the term "nucleus" to atomic theory, however, was not immediate. In 1916, for example, Gilbert N. Lewis stated, in his famous article The Atom and the Molecule, that "the atom is composed of the kernel and an outer atom or shell"[3]

Atomic nucleus

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Nuclear makeup
The nucleus of an atom consists of protons and neutrons (two types of baryons) bound by the nuclear force (also known as the residual strong force). These baryons are further composed of subatomic fundamental particles known as quarks bound by the strong interaction. Which chemical element an atom represents is determined by the number of protons in the nucleus. Each proton carries a single positive charge, and the total electrical charge of the nucleus is spread fairly uniformly throughout its body, with a fall-off at the edge. Major exceptions to this rule are the light elements hydrogen and helium, where the charge is concentrated most highly at the single central point (without a volume of uniform charge), as would be expected for fermions (in this case, protons) in 1s states without orbital angular momentum.[4] As each proton carries a unit of charge, the charge distribution is indicative of the proton distribution. The neutron distribution probably is similar.[4]

Protons and neutrons

Protons and neutrons are fermions, with different values of the isospin quantum number, so two protons and two neutrons can share the same space wave function since they are not identical quantum entities. They sometimes are viewed as two different quantum states of the same particle, the nucleon.[5] [6] Two fermions, such as two protons, or two neutrons, or a proton + neutron (the deuteron) can exhibit bosonic behavior when they become loosely bound in pairs. In the rare case of a hypernucleus, a third baryon called a hyperon, with a different value of the strangeness quantum number can also share the wave function. However, the latter type of nuclei are extremely unstable and are not found on Earth except in high energy physics experiments. The neutron has a positively charged core of radius 0.3 fm surrounded by a compensating negative charge of radius between 0.3 fm and 2 fm. The proton has an approximately exponentially decaying positive charge distribution with a mean square radius of about 0.8 fm.[7]

Forces
Nuclei are bound together by the residual strong force (nuclear force). The residual strong force is minor residuum of the strong interaction which binds quarks together to form protons and neutrons. This force is much weaker between neutrons and protons because it is mostly neutralized within them, in the same way that electromagnetic forces between neutral atoms (such as van der Waals forces that act between two inert gas atoms) are much weaker than the electromagnetic forces that hold the parts of the atoms internally together (for example, the forces that hold the electrons in an inert gas atom bound to its nucleus). The nuclear force is highly attractive at the distance of typical nucleon separation, and this overwhelms the repulsion between protons which is due to the electromagnetic force, thus allowing nuclei to exist. However, because the residual strong force has a limited range because it decays quickly with distance (see Yukawa potential), only nuclei smaller than a certain size can be completely stable. The largest known completely stable (e.g., stable to alpha, beta, and gamma decay) nucleus is lead-208 which contains a total of 208 nucleons (126 neutrons and 82 protons). Nuclei larger than this maximal size of 208 particles are unstable and (as a trend) become increasingly short-lived with larger size, as the number of neutrons and protons which compose them increases beyond this number. However, bismuth-209 is also stable to beta decay and has the longest half-life to alpha decay of any known isotope, estimated at a billion times longer than the age of the universe. The residual strong force is effective over a very short range (usually only a few fermis; roughly one or two nucleon diameters) and causes an attraction between any pair of nucleons. For example, between protons and neutrons to form [NP] deuteron, and also between protons and protons, and neutrons and neutrons. It also is effective for the stability of one 3-body nucleon system [PNP], helium-3, while the triton [NPN] is unstable and decays to helium-3.

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Halo nuclei and strong force range limits

The effective absolute limit of the range of the strong force is represented by halo nuclei such as lithium-11 or boron-14, in which dineutrons, or other collections of neutrons, orbit at distances of about ten fermis (roughly similar to the 8 fermi radius of the nucleus of uranium-238). These nuclei are not maximally dense. Halo nuclei form at the extreme edges of the chart of the nuclidesthe neutron drip line and proton drip lineand are all unstable with short half-lives, measured in milliseconds; for example, lithium-11 has a half-life of less than 8.6 milliseconds. Halos in effect represent an excited state with nucleons in an outer quantum shell which has unfilled energy levels "below" it (both in terms of radius and energy). The halo may be made of either neutrons [NN, NNN] or protons [PP, PPP]. Nuclei which have a single neutron halo include 11Be and 19C. A two-neutron halo is exhibited by 6He, 11Li, 17 19 B, B and 22C. Two-neutron halo nuclei break into three fragments, never two, and are called Borromean because of this behavior (referring to a system of three interlocked rings in which breaking any ring frees both of the others). 8 He and 14Be both exhibit a four-neutron halo. Nuclei which have a proton halo include 8B and 26P. A two-proton halo is exhibited by 17Ne and 27S. Proton halos are expected to be more rare and unstable than the neutron examples, because of the repulsive electromagnetic forces of the excess proton(s).

Nuclear models
There are many different historical models of the atomic nucleus, none of which to this day completely explains experimental data on nuclear structure. A useful review of 37 known models of the atomic nucleus is provided by Cook.[8] The nuclear radius (R) is considered to be one of the basic things that any model must predict. For stable nuclei (not halo nuclei or other unstable distorted nuclei) the nuclear radius is roughly proportional to the cube root of the mass number (A) of the nucleus, and particularly in nuclei containing many nucleons, as they arrange in more spherical configurations: The stable nucleus has approximately a constant density and therefore the nuclear radius R can be approximated by the following formula,

where A = Atomic mass number (the number of protons, Z, plus the number of neutrons, N) and r0=1.25fm=1.251015m. In this equation, the constant r0 varies by 0.2fm, depending on the nucleus in question, but this is less than 20% change from a constant.[9] In other words, packing protons and neutrons in the nucleus gives approximately the same total size result as packing hard spheres of a constant size (like marbles) into a tight spherical or semi-spherical bag (some stable nuclei are not quite spherical, but are known to be prolate).

Liquid drop models

Early models of the nucleus viewed the nucleus as a rotating liquid drop. In this model, the trade-off of long-range electromagnetic forces and relatively short-range nuclear forces, together cause behavior which resembled surface tension forces in liquid drops of different sizes. This formula is successful at explaining many important phenomena of nuclei, such as their changing amounts of binding energy as their size and composition changes (see semi-empirical mass formula), but it does not explain the special stability which occurs when nuclei have special "magic numbers" of protons or neutrons.

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Shell models and other quantum models

A number of models for the nucleus have also been proposed in which nucleons occupy orbitals, much like the atomic orbitals in atomic physics theory. These wave models imagine nucleons to be either sizeless point particles in potential wells, or else probability waves as in the "optical model", frictionlessly orbiting at high speed in potential wells. In these models, the nucleons may occupy orbitals in pairs, due to being fermions, but the exact nature and capacity of nuclear shells differs from those of electrons in atomic orbitals, primarily because the potential well in which the nucleons move (especially in larger nuclei) is quite different from the central electromagnetic potential well which binds electrons in atoms. Some resemblance to atomic orbital models may be seen in a small atomic nucleus like that of helium-4, in which the two protons and two neutrons separately occupy 1s orbitals analogous to the 1s orbital for the two electrons in the helium atom, and achieve unusual stability for the same reason. Nuclei with 5 nucleons are all extremely unstable and short-lived, yet, helium-3, with 3 nucleons, is very stable even with lack of a closed 1s orbital shell. Another nucleus with 3 nucleons, the triton hydrogen-3 is unstable and will decay into helium-3 when isolated. Weak nuclear stability with 2 nucleons {NP} in the 1s orbital is found in the deuteron hydrogen-2, with only one nucleon in each of the proton and neutron potential wells. While each nucleon is a fermion, the {NP} deuteron is a boson and thus does not follow Pauli Exclusion for close packing within shells. Lithium-6 with 6 nucleons is highly stable without a closed second 1p shell orbital. For light nuclei with total nucleon numbers 1 to 6 only those with 5 do not show some evidence of stability. Observations of beta-stability of light nuclei outside closed shells indicate that nuclear stability is much more complex than simple closure of shell orbitals with magic numbers of protons and neutrons. For larger nuclei, the shells occupied by nucleons begin to differ significantly from electron shells, but nevertheless, present nuclear theory does predict the magic numbers of filled nuclear shells for both protons and neutrons. The closure of the stable shells predicts unusually stable configurations, analogous to the noble group of nearly-inert gases in chemistry. An example is the stability of the closed shell of 50 protons, which allows tin to have 10 stable isotopes, more than any other element. Similarly, the distance from shell-closure explains the unusual instability of isotopes which have far from stable numbers of these particles, such as the radioactive elements 43 (technetium) and 61 (promethium), each of which is preceded and followed by 17 or more stable elements. There are however problems with the shell model when an attempt is made to account for nuclear properties well away from closed shells. This has led to complex post hoc distortions of the shape of the potential well to fit experimental data, but the question remains whether these mathematical manipulations actually correspond to the spatial deformations in real nuclei. Problems with the shell model have led some to propose realistic two-body and three-body nuclear force effects involving nucleon clusters and then build the nucleus on this basis. Two such cluster models are the Close-Packed Spheron Model of Linus Pauling and the 2D Ising Model of MacGregor.[8]

Consistency between models

As with the case of superfluid liquid helium, atomic nuclei are an example of a state in which both (1) "ordinary" particle physical rules for volume and (2) non-intuitive quantum mechanical rules for a wave-like nature apply. In superfluid helium, the helium atoms have volume, and essentially "touch" each other, yet at the same time exhibit strange bulk properties, consistent with a Bose-Einstein condensation. The latter reveals that they also have a wave-like nature and do not exhibit standard fluid properties, such as friction. For nuclei made of hadrons which are fermions, the same type of condensation does not occur, yet nevertheless, many nuclear properties can only be explained similarly by a combination of properties of particles with volume, in addition to the frictionless motion characteristic of the wave-like behavior of objects trapped in Schrdinger quantum orbitals.

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Notes
[1] Geoff Brumfiel (July 7, 2010). "The proton shrinks in size". Nature. doi:10.1038/news.2010.337. [2] D. Harper. "Nucleus" (http:/ / www. etymonline. com/ index. php?search=Nucleus& searchmode=none). Online Etymology Dictionary. . Retrieved 2010-03-06. [3] G.N. Lewis (1916). "The Atom and the Molecule" (http:/ / osulibrary. oregonstate. edu/ specialcollections/ coll/ pauling/ bond/ papers/ corr216. 3-lewispub-19160400. html). Journal of the American Chemical Society 38: 4. doi:/10.1021/ja02261a002. . [4] J.-L. Basdevant, J. Rich, M. Spiro (2005). Fundamentals in Nuclear Physics (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=OFx7P9mgC9oC& pg=PA375& dq=helium+ "nuclear+ structure"). Springer. p.13, Fig. 1.1. ISBN0387016724. . [5] A.G. Sitenko, V.K. Tartakovski (1997). Theory of Nucleus: Nuclear Structure and Nuclear Interaction (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=swb9QpqOqtAC& pg=PA464& dq=isbn=0792344235#PPA3,M1). Kluwer Academic. p.3. ISBN0792344235. . [6] M.A. Srednicki (2007). Quantum Field Theory. Cambridge University Press. pp.522523. ISBN9780521864497. [7] J.-L. Basdevant, J. Rich, M. Spiro (2005). Fundamentals in Nuclear Physics (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=OFx7P9mgC9oC& pg=PA375& dq=helium+ "nuclear+ structure"). Springer. p.155. ISBN0387016724. . [8] N.D. Cook (2010). Models of the Atomic Nucleus (2nd ed.). Springer. p.57 ff.. ISBN978-3-642-14736-4. [9] K.S. Krane (1987). Introductory Nuclear Physics. Wiley-VCH. ISBN0-471-80553-X.

References
N.D. Cook (2010). Models of the Atomic Nucleus (2nd ed.). Springer. ISBN978-3-642-14736-4.

External links
The Nucleus - a chapter from an online textbook (http://www.lightandmatter.com/html_books/4em/ch02/ ch02.html) The LIVEChart of Nuclides - IAEA (http://www-nds.iaea.org/livechart) in Java (http://www-nds.iaea.org/ livechart) or HTML (http://www-nds.iaea.org/relnsd/vcharthtml/VChartHTML.html) Article on the "nuclear shell model," giving nuclear shell filling for the various elements (http://www. halexandria.org/dward472.htm). Accessed Sept. 16, 2009.

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Proton
Proton

The quark structure of the proton. (The color assignment of individual quarks is not important, only that all three colors are present.) Classification Composition Statistics Group Interaction Symbol(s) Antiparticle Theorized Discovered Mass Baryon 2 up quarks, 1 down quark Fermionic Hadron Gravity, Electromagnetic, Weak, Strong p, p+, N+ Antiproton William Prout (1815) Ernest Rutherford (1919) 1.672621777(74)1027kg [1] 938.272046(21)MeV/c2 [1] 1.007276466812(90)u >2.110 yr (stable) 1e [1] 1.602176565(35)1019C 0.8775(51)fm
[1]
29

[1]

Mean lifetime Electric charge

Charge radius Electric dipole moment Electric polarizability Magnetic moment

<5.41024ecm 1.20(6)103fm3 1.410606743(33)1026JT1 [1] 1.521032210(12)103B [1] 2.792847356(23)N 1.9(5)104fm3

1 1

[1]

Magnetic polarizability Spin Isospin Parity Condensed

2 2

+1 I(JP) = 12(12+)

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The proton is a subatomic hadron particle which has the symbol p or p+ and a positive electric charge of 1 elementary charge. One or more protons are present in the nucleus of each atom, along with neutrons. The proton is also stable by itself. Free protons are emitted directly in some rare types of radioactive decay, and result from the decay of free neutrons from other radioactivity. They soon pick up an electron and become neutral hydrogen, which may then react chemically. Free protons may exist in plasmas or in cosmic rays in vacuum. The proton particle is composed of three fundamental particles: two up quarks and one down quark. It is about 1.61.7fm in diameter.[2]

Description
Protons are spin- fermions and are composed of three quarks,[3] making them baryons (a sub-type of hadrons). The two up quarks and one down quark of the proton are held together by the strong force, mediated by gluons.[2] The proton has an approximately exponentially decaying positive charge distribution with a mean square radius of about 0.8 fm.[4] Protons and neutrons are both nucleons, which may be bound by the nuclear force into atomic nuclei. The nucleus of the most common isotope of the hydrogen atom is a lone proton. The nuclei of the heavy hydrogen isotopes deuterium and tritium contain one proton bound to one and two neutrons, respectively. All other types of atoms are composed of two or more protons and various numbers of neutrons. The number of protons in the nucleus determines the chemical properties of the atom and thus which chemical element is represented; it is the number of both neutrons and protons in a nuclide which determine the particular isotope of an element.

Stability
The spontaneous decay of free protons has never been observed, and the proton is therefore considered a stable particle. However, some grand unified theories of particle physics predict that proton decay should take place with lifetimes of the order of 1036yr, and experimental searches have established lower bounds on the mean lifetime of the proton for various assumed decay products. Experiments at the Super-Kamiokande detector in Japan gave lower limits for proton mean lifetime of 6.61033yr for decay to an antimuon and a neutral pion, and 8.21033yr for decay to a positron and a neutral pion.[5] Another experiment at the Sudbury Neutrino Observatory in Canada searched for gamma rays resulting from residual nuclei resulting from the decay of a proton from oxygen-16. This experiment was designed to detect decay to any product whatever, and established a lower limit to the proton lifetime of 2.11029yr.[6] However, protons are known to transform into neutrons through the process of electron capture (also called inverse beta decay). For free protons this process does not occur spontaneously but only when energy is supplied. The equation is: p+ + e n + e The process is reversible; neutrons can convert back to protons through beta decay, a common form of radioactive decay. In fact, a free neutron decays this way with a mean lifetime of about 15 minutes.

Quarks and the mass of the proton

In quantum chromodynamics, the modern theory of the nuclear force, most of the mass of the proton and the neutron is explained by special relativity. The mass of the proton is about eighty times greater than the sum of the rest masses of the quarks that make it up, while the gluons have zero rest mass. The extra energy of the quarks and gluons in a region within a proton, as compared to the energy of the quarks and gluons in the QCD vacuum, accounts for over 98% of the mass.

Proton The internal dynamics of the proton are complicated, because they are determined by the quarks exchanging gluons, and interacting with various vacuum condensates. Lattice QCD provides a way of calculating the mass of the proton directly from the theory to any accuracy, in principle. The most recent calculations[7] [8] claim that the mass is determined to better than 4% accuracy, arguably accurate to 1% (see Figure S5 in Drr et al.[8] ). These claims are still controversial, because the calculations cannot yet be done with quarks as light as they are in the real world. This means that the predictions are found by a process of extrapolation, which can introduce systematic errors.[9] It is hard to tell whether these errors are controlled properly, because the quantities that are compared to experiment are the masses of the hadrons, which are known in advance. These recent calculations are performed by massive supercomputers, and, as noted by Boffi and Pasquini: a detailed description of the nucleon structure is still missing because ... long-distance behavior requires a nonperturbative and/or numerical treatment..."[10] More conceptual approaches to the structure of the proton are: the topological soliton approach originally due to Tony Skyrme and the more accurate AdS/QCD approach which extends it to include a string theory of gluons, various QCD inspired models like the bag model and the constituent quark model, which were popular in the 1980s, and the SVZ sum rules which allow for rough approximate mass calculations. These methods don't have the same accuracy as the more brute force lattice QCD methods, at least not yet.

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Charge Radius
The internationally-accepted value of the proton's charge radius is 0.8768fm (see orders of magnitude for comparison to other sizes). This value is based on measurements involving a proton and an electron. However since July 5, 2010 an international research team has been able to make measurements involving a proton and a negatively-charged muon. After a long and careful analysis of those measurements the team concluded that the root-mean-square charge radius of a proton is "0.84184(67)fm, which differs by 5.0 standard deviations from the CODATA value of 0.8768(69)fm."[11] The international research team that obtained this result at the Paul-Scherrer-Institut (PSI) in Villigen (Switzerland) includes scientists from the Max Planck Institute of Quantum Optics (MPQ) in Garching, the Ludwig-Maximilians-Universitt (LMU) Munich and the Institut fr Strahlwerkzeuge (IFWS) of the Universitt Stuttgart (both from Germany), and the University of Coimbra, Portugal.[12] [13] They are now attempting to explain the discrepancy, and re-examining the results of both previous high-precision measurements and complicated calculations. If no errors are found in the measurements or calculations, it could be necessary to re-examine the worlds most precise and best-tested fundamental theory: quantum electrodynamics.[14]

Proton in chemistry
Atomic number
In chemistry the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom is known as the atomic number, which determines the chemical element to which the atom belongs. For example, the atomic number of chlorine is 17; this means that each chlorine atom has 17 protons and that all atoms with 17 protons are chlorine atoms. The chemical properties of each atom are determined by the number of (negatively charged) electrons, which for neutral atoms is equal to the number of (positive) protons so that the total charge is zero. For example, a neutral chlorine atom has 17 protons and 17 electrons, while a negative Cl ion has 17 protons and 18 electrons for a total charge of 1. All atoms of a given element are not necessarily identical, however, as the number of neutrons may vary to form different isotopes, and energy levels may differ forming different nuclear isomers. For example, there are two stable isotopes of chlorine: Cl with 35 - 17 = 18 neutrons and Cl with 37 - 17 = 20 neutrons.

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Hydrogen ion
In chemistry the term proton refers to the hydrogen ion, H+. Since the atomic number of hydrogen is 1, a hydrogen ion has no electrons and corresponds to a bare nucleus, consisting of a proton (and 0 neutrons for the most abundant isotope protium H). The proton itself is some 1800 times smaller than a hydrogen atom and so is extremely reactive. The free proton has an extremely short lifetime in chemical systems. It reacts rapidly with any available molecule. In aqueous solution it forms the hydronium ion, which in turn is further solvated by water molecules in clusters such as [H5O2]+ and [H9O4]+.[15]

The transfer of H+ in an acidbase reaction is usually referred to as "proton transfer". The acid is referred to as a proton donor and the base as a proton acceptor. Similarly, biochemical terms such as proton pump and proton channel refer to the movement of hydrated H+ ions. The ion produced by removing the electron from a deuterium atom is known as a deuteron. The negatively charged ion H is known as the hydride ion. D is known as the deuteride ion. tritium is used for isotopic labelling of organic compounds. Tritium ions are rarely studied in chemistry.

Proton nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR)

Also in chemistry, the term "proton NMR" refers to the observation of hydrogen-1 nuclei in (mostly organic) molecules by nuclear magnetic resonance. This method uses the spin of the proton, which has the value one-half. The name refers to examination of protons as they occur in protium (hydrogen-1 atoms) in compounds, and does not imply that free protons exist in the compound being studied.

History
The concept of a hydrogen-like particle as a constituent of other atoms was developed over a long period. As early as 1815, William Prout proposed that all atoms are composed of hydrogen atoms, based on a simplistic interpretation of early values of atomic weights (see Prout's hypothesis), which was disproved when more accurate values were measured. In 1886 Eugen Goldstein discovered canal rays (also known as anode rays) and showed that they were positively charged particles (ions) produced from gases. However, since particles from different gases had different values of charge-to-mass ratio (e/m), they could not be identified with a single particle, unlike the negative electrons discovered by J. J. Thomson. Following the discovery of the atomic nucleus by Ernest Rutherford in 1911, Antonius van den Broek proposed that the place of each element in the periodic table (its atomic number) is equal to its nuclear charge. This was confirmed experimentally by Henry Moseley in 1913 using X-ray spectra. In 1917 (in experiments reported in 1919) Rutherford proved that the hydrogen nucleus is present in other nuclei, a result usually described as the discovery of the proton.[16] He noticed that when alpha particles were shot into air, and (after experimentation) to a higher degree into pure nitrogen gas, his scintillation detectors showed the signatures of hydrogen nuclei. Rutherford determined that this hydrogen could only have come from the nitrogen, and therefore nitrogen must contain hydrogen nuclei. One hydrogen nucleus was being knocked off by the impact of the alpha particle, producing oxygen-17 in the process. This was the first reported nuclear reaction, 14N + 17O + p. The hydrogen nucleus is therefore present in other nuclei as an elementary particle, which Rutherford named the proton, after the neuter singular of the Greek word for "first", .

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Exposure
The Apollo Lunar Surface Experiments Packages (ALSEP) determined that more than 95% of the particles in the solar wind are electrons and protons, in approximately equal numbers.[17] [18] Because the Solar Wind Spectrometer made continuous measurements, it was possible to measure how the Earth's magnetic field affects arriving solar wind particles. For about two-thirds of each orbit, the Moon is outside of the Earth's magnetic field. At these times, a typical proton density was 10 to 20 per cubic centimeter, with most protons having velocities between 400 and 650 kilometers per second. For about five days of each month, the Moon is inside the Earth's geomagnetic tail, and typically no solar wind particles were detectable. For the remainder of each lunar orbit, the Moon is in a transitional region known as the magnetosheath, where the Earth's magnetic field affects the solar wind but does not completely exclude it. In this region, the particle flux is reduced, with typical proton velocities of 250 to 450 kilometers per second. During the lunar night, the spectrometer was shielded from the solar wind by the Moon and no solar wind particles were measured.[17] Research has been performed on the dose-rate effects of protons, as typically found in space travel, on human health.[18] [19] More specifically, there are hopes to identify what specific chromosomes are damaged, and to define the damage, during cancer development from proton exposure.[18] Another study looks into determining "the effects of exposure to proton irradiation on neurochemical and behavioral endpoints, including dopaminergic functioning, amphetamine-induced conditioned taste aversion learning, and spatial learning and memory as measured by the Morris water maze."[19] Electrical charging of a spacecraft due to interplanetary proton bombardment has also been proposed for study.[20] There are many more studies which pertain to space travel, including galactic cosmic rays and their possible health effects, and solar proton event exposure. The American Biostack and Soviet Biorack space travel experiments have demonstrated the severity of molecular damage induced by heavy ions on micro organisms including Artemia cysts.[21]

Antiproton
CPT-symmetry puts strong constraints on the relative properties of particles and antiparticles and, therefore, is open to stringent tests. For example, the charges of the proton and antiproton must sum to exactly zero. This equality has been tested to one part in 108. The equality of their masses has also been tested to better than one part in 108. By holding antiprotons in a Penning trap, the equality of the charge to mass ratio of the proton and the antiproton has been tested to one part in 6109.[22] The magnetic moment of the antiproton has been measured with error of 8103 nuclear Bohr magnetons, and is found to be equal and opposite to that of the proton.

References
[1] P.J. Mohr, B.N. Taylor, and D.B. Newell (2011), "The 2010 CODATA Recommended Values of the Fundamental Physical Constants" (Web Version 6.0). This database was developed by J. Baker, M. Douma, and S. Kotochigova. Available: http:/ / physics. nist. gov/ constants [Thursday, 02-Jun-2011 21:00:12 EDT]. National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD 20899. [2] W.N. Cottingham, D.A. Greenwood (1986). An Introduction to Nuclear Physics. Cambridge University Press. p.19. [3] R.K. Adair (1989). The Great Design: Particles, Fields, and Creation. Oxford University Press. p.214. [4] J.-L. Basdevant, J. Rich, M. Spiro (2005). Fundamentals in Nuclear Physics (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=OFx7P9mgC9oC& pg=PA375& dq=helium+ "nuclear+ structure"). Springer. p.155. ISBN0-387-01672-4. . [5] H. Nishino et al. (Kamiokande collaboration) (2009). "Search for Proton Decay via p e+ 0 and p + 0 in a Large Water Cherenkov Detector". Physical Review Letters 102: 141801. Bibcode2009PhRvL.102n1801N. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.102.141801. [6] S.N. Ahmed et al. (SNO Collaboration) (2004). "Constraints on nucleon decay via invisible modes from the Sudbury Neutrino Observatory". Physical Review Letters 92: 102004. arXiv:hep-ex/0310030. Bibcode2004PhRvL..92j2004A. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.92.102004. PMID15089201. [7] See this news report (http:/ / www. sciencenews. org/ view/ generic/ id/ 38788/ title/ Standard_model_gets_right_answer_for_proton,_neutron_masses) and links

Proton
[8] S. Drr, Z. Fodor, J. Frison, C. Hoelbling, R. Hoffmann, S. D. Katz, S. Krieg, T. Kurth, L. Lellouch, T. Lippert, K. K. Szabo, and G. Vulvert (21 November 2008). "Ab Initio Determination of Light Hadron Masses" (http:/ / www. sciencemag. org/ cgi/ data/ 322/ 5905/ 1224/ DC1/ 1). Science 322 (5905): 1224. Bibcode2008Sci...322.1224D. doi:10.1126/science.1163233. PMID19023076. . [9] C. F. Perdrisat, V. Punjabi, M. Vanderhaeghen (2007). "Nucleon Electromagnetic Form Factors". Prog Part Nucl Phys 59: 694764. arXiv:hep-ph/0612014. Bibcode2007PrPNP..59..694P. doi:10.1016/j.ppnp.2007.05.001. [10] Sigfrido Boffi & Barbara Pasquini (2007). "Generalized parton distributions and the structure of the nucleon". Riv Nuovo Cim 30. arXiv:0711.2625. Bibcode2007NCimR..30..387B. doi:10.1393/ncr/i2007-10025-7. [11] Randolf Pohl, Aldo Antognini, Franois Nez, Fernando D. Amaro, Franois Biraben, Joo M. R. Cardoso, Daniel S. Covita, Andreas Dax, Satish Dhawan, Luis M. P. Fernandes, Adolf Giesen, Thomas Graf, Theodor W. Hnsch, Paul Indelicato, Lucile Julien, Cheng-Yang Kao, Paul Knowles, Eric-Olivier Le Bigot, Yi-Wei Liu, Jos A. M. Lopes, Livia Ludhova, Cristina M. B. Monteiro, Franoise Mulhauser, Tobias Nebel, Paul Rabinowitz, et al. (8 July 2010). "The size of the proton" (http:/ / www. nature. com/ nature/ journal/ v466/ n7303/ abs/ nature09250. html). Nature 466 (7303): 213216. Bibcode2010Natur.466..213P. doi:10.1038/nature09250. PMID20613837. . Retrieved 2010-07-09. [12] New proton measurements may throw physics a curve (http:/ / www. azonano. com/ news. asp?newsID=18428) [13] "The Proton Just Got Smaller" (http:/ / www. photonics. com/ Article. aspx?AID=42905). Photonics.Com. July 12, 2010. . Retrieved 2010-07-19. [14] Researchers Observes Unexpectedly Small Proton Radius in a Precision Experiment (http:/ / www. azonano. com/ news. asp?newsID=18428) [15] Headrick, J.M.; Diken, E.G.; Walters, R. S.; Hammer, N. I.; Christie, R.A. ; Cui, J.; Myshakin, E.M.; Duncan, M.A.; Johnson, M.A.; Jordan, K.D. (2005). "Spectral Signatures of Hydrated Proton Vibrations in Water Clusters". Science 308 (5729): 176569. Bibcode2005Sci...308.1765H. doi:10.1126/science.1113094. PMID15961665. [16] R.H. Petrucci, W.S. Harwood, and F.G. Herring (2002). General Chemistry (8th ed.). p.41. [17] "Apollo 11 Mission" (http:/ / www. lpi. usra. edu/ lunar/ missions/ apollo/ apollo_11/ experiments/ swc/ ). Lunar and Planetary Institute. 2009. . Retrieved 2009-06-12. [18] "Space Travel and Cancer Linked? Stony Brook Researcher Secures NASA Grant to Study Effects of Space Radiation" (http:/ / www. bnl. gov/ bnlweb/ pubaf/ pr/ PR_display. asp?prID=07-X17). Brookhaven National Laboratory. 12 December 2007. . Retrieved 2009-06-12. [19] B. Shukitt-Hale, A. Szprengiel, J. Pluhar, B.M. Rabin, and J.A. Joseph. "The effects of proton exposure on neurochemistry and behavior" (http:/ / biblioteca. universia. net/ ficha. do?id=43176300). Elsevier/COSPAR. . Retrieved 2009-06-12. [20] N.W. Green and A.R. Frederickson. "A Study of Spacecraft Charging due to Exposure to Interplanetary Protons" (http:/ / trs-new. jpl. nasa. gov/ dspace/ bitstream/ 2014/ 39501/ 1/ 05-0657. pdf). Jet Propulsion Laboratory. . Retrieved 2009-06-12. [21] H. Planel (2004). Space and life: an introduction to space biology and medicine (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=rnUFZ24RUdYC& pg=PA132& lpg=PA132& dq=space+ colonization+ proton+ exposure& q=). CRC Press. pp.135138. ISBN0415317592. . [22] G. Gabrielse (2006). "Antiproton mass measurements". International Journal of Mass Spectrometry 251 (23): 273280. Bibcode2006IJMSp.251..273G. doi:10.1016/j.ijms.2006.02.013.

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External links
Particle Data Group (http://pdg.lbl.gov) Large Hadron Collider (http://www.cern.ch/lhc/)

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Neutron
Neutron

The quark structure of the neutron. (The color assignment of individual quarks is not important, only that all three colors are present.) Classification Composition Statistics Group Interaction Symbol(s) Antiparticle Theorized Discovered Mass Baryon 1 up quark, 2 down quarks Fermionic Hadron Gravity, Weak, Strong n, n0, N0 Antineutron Ernest Rutherford James Chadwick
[1] [2]

(1920)

[1]

(1932)
[3]

1.674927351(74)1027kg [3] 939.565378(21)MeV/c2 [3] 1.00866491600(43)u 885.7(8)s (free) 0e 0C <2.91026ecm 1.16(15)103fm3

Mean lifetime Electric charge Electric dipole moment Electric polarizability Magnetic moment

0.96623647(23)1026JT1 [3] 1.04187563(25)103B [3] 1.91304272(45)N 3.7(20)104fm3

1 1

[3]

Magnetic polarizability Spin Isospin Parity Condensed

2 2

+1 I(JP)=12(12+)

Neutron The neutron is a subatomic hadron particle which has the symbol n or n0, no net electric charge and a mass slightly larger than that of a proton. With the exception of hydrogen, nuclei of atoms consist of protons and neutrons, which are therefore collectively referred to as nucleons. The number of protons in a nucleus is the atomic number and defines the type of element the atom forms. The number of neutrons is the neutron number and determines the isotope of an element. For example, the abundant carbon-12 isotope has 6 protons and 6 neutrons, while the very rare radioactive carbon-14 isotope has 6 protons and 8 neutrons. While bound neutrons in stable nuclei are stable, free neutrons are unstable; they undergo beta decay with a mean lifetime of just under 15 minutes (885.70.8s).[4] Free neutrons are produced in nuclear fission and fusion. Dedicated neutron sources like research reactors and spallation sources produce free neutrons for use in irradiation and in neutron scattering experiments. Even though it is not a chemical element, the free neutron is sometimes included in tables of nuclides.[5] It is then considered to have an atomic number of zero and a mass number of one, and is sometimes referred to as neutronium. The neutron has been the key to nuclear power production. After the neutron was discovered in 1932, it was realized in 1933 that it might mediate a nuclear chain reaction. In the 1930s, neutrons were used to produce many different types of nuclear transmutations. When nuclear fission was discovered in 1938, it was soon realized that this might be the mechanism to produce the neutrons for the chain reaction, if the process also produced neutrons, and this was proven in 1939, making the path to nuclear power production evident. These events and findings led directly to the first man-made nuclear chain reaction which was self-sustaining (Chicago Pile-1, 1942) and to the first nuclear weapons (1945).

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Discovery
In 1920, Ernest Rutherford conceptualised the possible existence of the neutron.[2] In particular, Rutherford considered that the disparity found between the atomic number of an atom and its atomic mass could be explained by the existence of a neutrally charged particle within the atomic nucleus. In 1930 Viktor Ambartsumian and Dmitri Ivanenko in USSR found that, contrary to the prevailing opinion of the time, the nucleus cannot consist of protons and electrons. They proved that some neutral particles must be present besides the protons.[6] In 1931, Walther Bothe and Herbert Becker in Germany found that if the very energetic alpha particles emitted from polonium fell on certain light elements, specifically beryllium, boron, or lithium, an unusually penetrating radiation was produced. At first this radiation was thought to be gamma radiation, although it was more penetrating than any gamma rays known, and the details of experimental results were very difficult to interpret on this basis. The next important contribution was reported in 1932 by Irne Joliot-Curie and Frdric Joliot in Paris. They showed that if this unknown radiation fell on paraffin, or any other hydrogen-containing compound, it ejected protons of very high energy. This was not in itself inconsistent with the assumed gamma ray nature of the new radiation, but detailed quantitative analysis of the data became increasingly difficult to reconcile with such a hypothesis. In 1932, James Chadwick performed a series of experiments at the University of Cambridge, showing that the gamma ray hypothesis was untenable. He suggested that the new radiation consisted of uncharged particles of approximately the mass of the proton, and he performed a series of experiments verifying his suggestion.[7] These uncharged particles were called neutrons, apparently from the Latin root for neutral and the Greek ending -on (by imitation of electron and proton). The discovery of the neutron explained a puzzle involving the spin of the nitrogen-14 nucleus, which had been experimentally measured to be 1. It was known that atomic nuclei usually had about half as many positive charges as if they were composed completely of protons, and in existing models this was often explained by proposing that nuclei also contained some "nuclear electrons" to neutralize the excess charge. Thus, nitrogen-14 would be composed of 14 protons and 7 electrons to give it a charge of +7 but a mass of 14 atomic mass units. However, it was also known that both protons and electrons carried an intrinsic spin of 12, and there was no way to arrange an

Neutron odd number (21) of spins 12 to give a spin of 1. Instead, when nitrogen-14 was proposed to consist of 3 pairs of protons and neutrons, with an additional unpaired neutron and proton each contributing a spin of 12 in the same direction for a total spin of 1, the model became viable. Soon, nuclear neutrons were used to naturally explain spin differences in many different nuclides in the same way, and the neutron as a basic structural unit of atomic nuclei was accepted.

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Intrinsic properties
Stability and beta decay
Under the Standard Model of particle physics, because the neutron consists of three quarks, the only possible decay mode without a change of baryon number is for one of the quarks to change flavour via the weak interaction. The neutron consists of two down quarks with charge 13e and one up quark with charge +23e, and the decay of one of the down quarks into a lighter up quark can be achieved by the emission of a W boson. By this means the neutron decays into a proton (which contains one down and two up quarks), an electron, and an electron antineutrino. Outside the nucleus, free neutrons are unstable and have a mean lifetime of 885.70.8s (about 14 minutes, 46 seconds); therefore the half-life for this process (which differs from the mean lifetime by a factor of ln(2) = 0.693) is 613.90.8s (about 10 minutes, 14 seconds).[4] Free neutrons decay by emission of an electron and an electron antineutrino to become a proton, a process known as beta decay:[8] n0 p+ + e + e Neutrons in unstable nuclei can also decay in this manner. However, inside a nucleus, protons can also transform into a neutron via inverse beta decay. This transformation occurs by emission of a antielectron (also called positron) and a neutrino: p+ n0 + e+ + e The transformation of a proton to a neutron inside of a nucleus is also possible through electron capture: p+ + e n0 + e Positron capture by neutrons in nuclei that contain an excess of neutrons is also possible, but is hindered because positrons are repelled by the nucleus, and quickly annihilate when they encounter electrons. When bound inside of a nucleus, the instability of a single neutron to beta decay is balanced against the instability that would be acquired by the nucleus as a whole if an additional proton were to participate in repulsive interactions with the other protons that are already present in the nucleus. As such, although free neutrons are unstable, bound neutrons are not necessarily so. The same reasoning explains why protons, which are stable in empty space, may transform into neutrons when bound inside of a nucleus.

The Feynman diagram for beta decay of a neutron into a proton, electron, and electron antineutrino via an intermediate heavy W boson

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Electric dipole moment

The Standard Model of particle physics predicts a tiny separation of positive and negative charge within the neutron leading to a permanent electric dipole moment.[9] The predicted value is, however, well below the current sensitivity of experiments. From several unsolved puzzles in particle physics, it is clear that the Standard Model is not the final and full description of all particles and their interactions. New theories going beyond the Standard Model generally lead to much larger predictions for the electric dipole moment of the neutron. Currently, there are at least four experiments trying to measure for the first time a finite neutron electric dipole moment, including: Cryogenic neutron EDM experiment being set up at the Institut Laue-Langevin[10] nEDM experiment under construction at the new UCN source at the Paul Scherrer Institute[11] nEDM experiment being envisaged at the Spallation Neutron Source[12] nEDM experiment being built at the Institut Laue-Langevin[13]

Magnetic moment
The magnetic moment of a neutron is nonzero, unexpected from an electrically neutral particle. This indicates that the neutron is a composite particle.

Anti-neutron
The antineutron is the antiparticle of the neutron. It was discovered by Bruce Cork in the year 1956, a year after the antiproton was discovered. CPT-symmetry puts strong constraints on the relative properties of particles and antiparticles, so studying antineutrons yields provide stringent tests on CPT-symmetry. The fractional difference in the masses of the neutron and antineutron is 95105. Since the difference is only about two standard deviations away from zero, this does not give any convincing evidence of CPT-violation.[4]

Structure and geometry of charge distribution within the neutron

An article published in 2007 featuring a model-independent analysis concluded that the neutron has a negatively charged exterior, a positively charged middle, and a negative core.[14] In a simplified classical view, the negative "skin" of the neutron assists it to be attracted to the protons with which it interacts in the nucleus. However, the main attraction between neutrons and protons is via the nuclear force, which does not involve charge.

Neutron compounds
Dineutrons and tetraneutrons
The existence of stable clusters of 4 neutrons, or tetraneutrons, has been hypothesised by a team led by Francisco-Miguel Marqus at the CNRS Laboratory for Nuclear Physics based on observations of the disintegration of beryllium-14 nuclei. This is particularly interesting because current theory suggests that these clusters should not be stable. The dineutron is another hypothetical particle.

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Neutronium and neutron stars

At extremely high pressures and temperatures, nucleons and electrons are believed to collapse into bulk neutronic matter, called neutronium. This is presumed to happen in neutron stars.

Detection
The common means of detecting a charged particle by looking for a track of ionization (such as in a cloud chamber) does not work for neutrons directly. Neutrons that elastically scatter off atoms can create an ionization track that is detectable, but the experiments are not as simple to carry out; other means for detecting neutrons, consisting of allowing them to interact with atomic nuclei, are more commonly used. The commonly used methods to detect neutrons can therefore be categorized according to the nuclear processes relied upon, mainly neutron capture or elastic scattering. A good discussion on neutron detection is found in chapter 14 of the book Radiation Detection and Measurement by Glenn F. Knoll (John Wiley & Sons, 1979).

Neutron detection by neutron capture

A common method for detecting neutrons involves converting the energy released from neutron capture reactions into electrical signals. Certain nuclides have a high probability to absorb a neutron. Upon neutron capture, the compound nucleus emits more easily detectable radiation, for example an alpha particle, which is then detected. The nuclides 3He, 6Li, 10B, 233U, 235U, 237Np and 239Pu are useful for this purpose.

Neutron detection by elastic scattering

Neutrons can elastically scatter off nuclei, causing the struck nucleus to recoil. Kinematically, a neutron can transfer more energy to light nuclei such as hydrogen or helium than to heavier nuclei. Detectors relying on elastic scattering are called fast neutron detectors. Recoiling nuclei can ionize and excite further atoms through collisions. Charge and/or scintillation light produced in this way can be collected to produce a detected signal. A major challenge in fast neutron detection is discerning such signals from erroneous signals produced by gamma radiation in the same detector. Fast neutron detectors have the advantage of not requiring a moderator, and therefore being capable of measuring the neutron's energy, time of arrival, and in certain cases direction of incidence.

Uses
The neutron plays an important role in many nuclear reactions. For example, neutron capture often results in neutron activation, inducing radioactivity. In particular, knowledge of neutrons and their behavior has been important in the development of nuclear reactors and nuclear weapons. The fissioning of elements like uranium-235 and plutonium-239 is caused by their absorption of neutrons. Cold, thermal and hot neutron radiation is commonly employed in neutron scattering facilities, where the radiation is used in a similar way one uses X-rays for the analysis of condensed matter. Neutrons are complementary to the latter in terms of atomic contrasts by different scattering cross sections; sensitivity to magnetism; energy range for inelastic neutron spectroscopy; and deep penetration into matter. The development of "neutron lenses" based on total internal reflection within hollow glass capillary tubes or by reflection from dimpled aluminum plates has driven ongoing research into neutron microscopy and neutron/gamma ray tomography.[15] [16] [17] A major use of neutrons is to excite delayed and prompt gamma rays from elements in materials. This forms the basis of neutron activation analysis (NAA) and prompt gamma neutron activation analysis (PGNAA). NAA is most often used to analyze small samples of materials in a nuclear reactor whilst PGNAA is most often used to analyze subterranean rocks around bore holes and industrial bulk materials on conveyor belts.

Neutron Another use of neutron emitters is the detection of light nuclei, particularly the hydrogen found in water molecules. When a fast neutron collides with a light nucleus, it loses a large fraction of its energy. By measuring the rate at which slow neutrons return to the probe after reflecting off of hydrogen nuclei, a neutron probe may determine the water content in soil.

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Sources
Because free neutrons are unstable, they can be obtained only from nuclear disintegrations, nuclear reactions, and high-energy reactions (such as in cosmic radiation showers or accelerator collisions). Free neutron beams are obtained from neutron sources by neutron transport. For access to intense neutron sources, researchers must go to a specialist neutron facility that operates a research reactor or a spallation source. The neutron's lack of total electric charge makes it difficult to steer or accelerate them. Charged particles can be accelerated, decelerated, or deflected by electric or magnetic fields. These methods have little effect on neutrons beyond a small effect of an inhomogeneous magnetic field because of the neutron's magnetic moment. Neutrons can be controlled by methods that include moderation, reflection and velocity selection.

Protection
Exposure to free neutrons can be hazardous, since the interaction of neutrons with molecules in the body can cause disruption to molecules and atoms, and can also cause reactions which give rise to other forms of radiation (such as protons). The normal precautions of radiation protection apply: avoid exposure, stay as far from the source as possible, and keep exposure time to a minimum. Some particular thought must be given to how to protect from neutron exposure, however. For other types of radiation, e.g. alpha particles, beta particles, or gamma rays, material of a high atomic number and with high density make for good shielding; frequently lead is used. However, this approach will not work with neutrons, since the absorption of neutrons does not increase straightforwardly with atomic number, as it does with alpha, beta, and gamma radiation. Instead one needs to look at the particular interactions neutrons have with matter (see the section on detection above). For example, hydrogen rich materials are often used to shield against neutrons, since ordinary hydrogen both scatters and slows neutrons. This often means that simple concrete blocks or even paraffin-loaded plastic blocks afford better protection from neutrons than do far more dense materials. After slowing, neutrons may then be absorbed with an isotope which has high affinity for slow neutrons without causing secondary capture-radiation, such as lithium-6. Hydrogen-rich ordinary water affects neutron absorption in nuclear fission reactors: usually neutrons are so strongly absorbed by normal water that fuel-enrichment with fissionable isotope is required. The deuterium in heavy water has a very much lower absorption affinity for neutrons than does protium (normal light hydrogen). Deuterium is therefore used in CANDU-type reactors, in order to slow (moderate) neutron velocity, to increase the probability of nuclear fission compared to neutron capture.

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105

Production
Various nuclides become more stable by expelling neutrons as a decay mode; this is known as neutron emission, and happens commonly during spontaneous fission. Cosmic radiation interacting with the Earth's atmosphere continuously generates neutrons that can be detected at the surface. Even stronger neutron radiation is produced at the surface of Mars where the atmosphere is thick enough to generate neutrons from cosmic ray spallation, but not thick enough to provide significant protection from Institut LaueLangevin (ILL) in Grenoble, the neutrons produced. These neutrons not only produce a Martian France one of the most important neutron surface neutron radiation hazard from direct downward-going neutron research facilities worldwide radiation, but also a significant hazard from reflection of neutrons from the Martian surface, which will produce reflected neutron radiation penetrating upward into a Martian craft or habitat from the floor.[18] Nuclear fission reactors naturally produce free neutrons; their role is to sustain the energy-producing chain reaction. The intense neutron radiation can also be used to produce various radioisotopes through the process of neutron activation, which is a type of neutron capture. Experimental nuclear fusion reactors produce free neutrons as a waste product. However, it is these neutrons that possess most of the energy, and converting that energy to a useful form has proved a difficult engineering challenge. Fusion reactors which generate neutrons are likely to create around twice the amount of radioactive waste of a fission reactor, but the waste is composed of neutron-activated lighter isotopes, which have relatively short (50100 years) decay periods as compared to typical half lives of 10,000 years for fission waste, which is long primarily due to the long half life of alpha-emitting transuranic actinides.[19] Nuclear power#Solid waste

Neutron temperature
Thermal neutrons
A thermal neutron is a free neutron that is Boltzmann distributed with kT = 0.0253 eV (4.01021 J) at room temperature. This gives characteristic (not average, or median) speed of 2.2km/s. The name 'thermal' comes from their energy being that of the room temperature gas or material they are permeating. (see kinetic theory for energies and speeds of molecules). After a number of collisions (often in the range of 1020) with nuclei, neutrons arrive at this energy level, provided that they are not absorbed. In many substances, thermal neutrons have a much larger effective cross-section than faster neutrons, and can therefore be absorbed more easily by any atomic nuclei that they collide with, creating a heavier and often unstable isotope of the chemical element as a result. Most fission reactors use a neutron moderator to slow down, or thermalize the neutrons that are emitted by nuclear fission so that they are more easily captured, causing further fission. Others, called fast breeder reactors, use fission energy neutrons directly.

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106

Cold neutrons
Cold neutrons are thermal neutrons that have been equilibrated in a very cold substance such as liquid deuterium. Such a cold source is placed in the moderator of a research reactor or spallation source. Cold neutrons are particularly valuable for neutron scattering experiments.

Ultracold neutrons
Ultracold neutrons are produced by inelastically scattering cold neutrons in substances with a temperature of a few kelvins, such as solid deuterium or superfluid helium. An alternative production method is the mechanical deceleration of cold neutrons.

Fission energy neutrons

A fast neutron is a free neutron with a kinetic energy level close to 2MeV (20TJ), hence a speed of ~20000km/s (~ 6% of the speed of light). They are named fission energy or fast neutrons to distinguish them from lower-energy thermal neutrons, and high-energy neutrons produced in cosmic showers or accelerators. Fast neutrons are produced by nuclear processes such as nuclear fission. Fast neutrons can be made into thermal neutrons via a process called moderation. This is done with a neutron moderator. In reactors, typically heavy water, light water, or graphite are used to moderate neutrons.

Fusion neutrons
D-T (deuterium-tritium) fusion is the fusion reaction that produces the most energetic neutrons, with 14.1 MeV of kinetic energy and traveling at 17% of the speed of light. D-T fusion is also the easiest fusion reaction to ignite, reaching near-peak rates even when the deuterium and tritium nuclei have only a thousandth as much kinetic energy as the 14.1 MeV that will be produced. 14.1 MeV neutrons have about 10 times as much energy as fission neutrons, and are very effective at fissioning even non-fissile heavy nuclei, and these high-energy fissions produce more neutrons on average than The fusion reaction rate increases rapidly with temperature until it maximizes and fissions by lower-energy neutrons. This then gradually drops off. The DT rate peaks at a lower temperature (about 70keV, makes D-T fusion neutron sources such as or 800 million kelvins) and at a higher value than other reactions commonly proposed tokamak power reactors useful for considered for fusion energy. transmutation of transuranic waste. 14.1 MeV neutrons can also produce neutrons by knocking them loose from nuclei. On the other hand, these very high energy neutrons are less likely to simply be captured without causing fission or spallation. For these reasons, nuclear weapon design extensively utilizes D-T fusion 14.1 MeV neutrons to cause more fission. Fusion neutrons are able to cause fission in ordinarily non-fissile materials, such as depleted uranium (uranium-238), and these materials have been used in the jackets of thermonuclear weapons. Fusion neutrons also can cause fission in substances that are unsuitable or difficult to make into primary fission bombs, such as reactor grade plutonium. This physical fact thus causes ordinary non-weapons grade materials to become of concern in certain nuclear proliferation discussions and treaties.

Neutron Other fusion reactions produce much less energetic neutrons. D-D fusion produces a 2.45 MeV neutron and helium-3 half of the time, and produces tritium and a proton but no neutron the other half of the time. D-3He fusion produces no neutron.

107

Intermediate-energy neutrons
A fission energy neutron that has slowed down but not yet reached thermal energies is called an epithermal neutron. Cross sections for both capture and fission reactions often have multiple resonance peaks at specific energies in the epithermal energy range. These are of less significance in a fast neutron reactor where most neutrons are absorbed before slowing down to this range, or in a well-moderated thermal reactor where epithermal neutrons mostly interact with moderator nuclei, not with either fissile or fertile actinide nuclides. However, in a partially moderated reactor with more interactions of epithermal neutrons with heavy metal nuclei, there are greater possibilities for transient changes in reactivity which might make reactor control more difficult.

Transmutation flow in LWR which is a thermal-spectrum reactor

Ratios of capture reactions to fission reactions are also worse (more captures without fission) in most nuclear fuels such as plutonium-239, making epithermal-spectrum reactors using these fuels less desirable, as captures not only waste the one neutron captured but also usually result in a nuclide which is not fissile with thermal or epithermal neutrons, though still fissionable with fast neutrons. The exception is uranium-233 of the thorium cycle which has good capture-fission ratios at all neutron energies.

High-energy neutrons
These neutrons have more energy than fission energy neutrons and are generated as secondary particles by particle accelerators or in the atmosphere from cosmic rays. They can have energies as high as tens of joules per neutron. These neutrons are extremely efficient at ionization and far more likely to cause cell death than X-rays or protons.[20]
[21]

References
[1] 1935 Nobel Prize in Physics (http:/ / nobelprize. org/ nobel_prizes/ physics/ laureates/ 1935/ ) [2] http:/ / chemed. chem. purdue. edu/ genchem/ history/ rutherford. html [3] P.J. Mohr, B.N. Taylor, and D.B. Newell (2011), "The 2010 CODATA Recommended Values of the Fundamental Physical Constants" (Web Version 6.0). This database was developed by J. Baker, M. Douma, and S. Kotochigova. Available: http:/ / physics. nist. gov/ constants [Thursday, 02-Jun-2011 21:00:12 EDT]. National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD 20899. [4] Particle Data Group's Review of Particle Physics 2006 (http:/ / pdg. lbl. gov/ 2006/ tables/ bxxx. pdf) [5] Nudat 2 (http:/ / www. nndc. bnl. gov/ nudat2). Nndc.bnl.gov. Retrieved on 2010-12-04. [6] "V. A. Ambartsumian a life in science" (http:/ / www. springerlink. com/ content/ ek2q156624661848/ fulltext. pdf). Astrophysics 51: 280. 2008. Bibcode2008Ap.....51..280T. doi:10.1007/s10511-008-9016-6. .

Neutron
[7] Chadwick, James (1932). "Possible Existence of a Neutron". Nature 129 (3252): 312. Bibcode1932Natur.129Q.312C. doi:10.1038/129312a0. [8] Particle Data Group Summary Data Table on Baryons (http:/ / pdg. lbl. gov/ 2007/ tables/ bxxx. pdf) [9] University of Sussex (20 February 2006). "Pear-shaped particles probe big-bang mystery" (http:/ / www. sussex. ac. uk/ press_office/ media/ media537. shtml). Press release. . Retrieved 2009-12-14. [10] A cryogenic experiment to search for the EDM of the neutron (http:/ / hepwww. rl. ac. uk/ EDM/ index_files/ CryoEDM. htm) [11] Search for the neutron electric dipole moment: nEDM (http:/ / nedm. web. psi. ch/ ) [12] SNS Neutron EDM Experiment (http:/ / p25ext. lanl. gov/ edm/ edm. html) [13] Measurement of the Neutron Electric Dipole Moment (http:/ / nrd. pnpi. spb. ru/ LabSereb/ neutronedm. htm) [14] G.A. Miller (2007). "Charge Densities of the Neutron and Proton". Physical Review Letters 99: 112001. Bibcode2007PhRvL..99k2001M. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.99.112001. [15] Kumakhov, M. A.; Sharov, V. A. (1992). "A neutron lens". Nature 357 (6377): 390391. Bibcode1992Natur.357..390K. doi:10.1038/357390a0. [16] Physorg.com, "New Way of 'Seeing': A 'Neutron Microscope'" (http:/ / www. physorg. com/ news599. html) [17] NASA.gov: "NASA Develops a Nugget to Search for Life in Space" (http:/ / www. nasa. gov/ vision/ earth/ technologies/ nuggets. html) [18] Clowdsley, MS; Wilson, JW; Kim, MH; Singleterry, RC; Tripathi, RK; Heinbockel, JH; Badavi, FF; Shinn, JL (2001). "Neutron Environments on the Martian Surface" (http:/ / www. physicamedica. com/ VOLXVII_S1/ 20-CLOWDSLEY et alii. pdf). Physica medica : PM : an international journal devoted to the applications of physics to medicine and biology : official journal of the Italian Association of Biomedical Physics (AIFB) 17 Suppl 1: 946. PMID11770546. . [19] Science/Nature | Q&A: Nuclear fusion reactor (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 1/ hi/ sci/ tech/ 4627237. stm). BBC News (2006-02-06). Retrieved on 2010-12-04. [20] "Facing up to secondary neutrons" (http:/ / medicalphysicsweb. org/ cws/ article/ research/ 34364). Medical Physics Web. May 23, 2008. . Retrieved 2011-02-08. [21] "Expand+Overview of secondary neutron production relevant to shielding in space" (http:/ / rpd. oxfordjournals. org/ content/ 116/ 1-4/ 140. full). Radiation Protection Dosimetry 116 (1-4): 140143. 20 December 2005. doi:10.1093/rpd/nci033. . Retrieved 2011-02-08.

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Further reading
Annotated bibliography for neutrons from the Alsos Digital Library for Nuclear Issues (http://alsos.wlu.edu/ qsearch.aspx?browse=science/Neutrons) Knoll, G. F. (2000) Radiation Detection and Measurement Krane, K. S. (1998) Introductory Nuclear Physics Squires, G. L. (1997) Introduction to the Theory of Thermal Neutron Scattering Dewey, M. S., Gilliam, D. M., Nico, J. S., Snow, M. S., Wietfeldt, F. E. NIST Neutron Lifetime Experiment

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109

Electron
Electron

Experiments with a Crookes tube first demonstrated the particle nature of electrons. In this illustration, the profile of the [1] cross-shaped target is projected against the tube face at right by a beam of electrons. Composition Statistics Group Generation Interaction Symbol(s) Antiparticle Theorized Elementary particle Fermionic Lepton First Gravity, Electromagnetic, Weak e, Positron (also called antielectron) Richard Laming (18381851), [4] [5] G. Johnstone Stoney (1874) and others. J. J. Thomson (1897)
[6] [7] [3] [2]

Discovered Mass

9.10938291(40)1031kg [7] 5.4857990946(22)104u 1 [8] [1822.8884845(14)] u [7] 0.510998928(11)MeV/c2 1 [7] 1.602176565(35)1019C 10 4.80320451(10)10 esu 1.00115965218076(27) B
1

Electric charge

[9]

Magnetic moment Spin

[7]

The electron is a subatomic particle which has the symbol e and a negative electric charge of 1 elementary charge. It has no known components or substructure. Therefore, the electron is generally thought to be an elementary particle.[2] An electron has a mass that is approximately 1/1836 that of the proton.[10] The intrinsic angular momentum (spin) of the electron is a half-integer value in units of , which means that it is a fermion. The antiparticle of the electron is called the positron. The positron is identical to the electron except that it carries electrical and other charges of the opposite sign. When an electron collides with a positron, both particles may either

Electron scatter off each other or be totally annihilated, producing a pair (or more) of gamma ray photons. Electrons, which belong to the first generation of the lepton particle family,[11] participate in gravitational, electromagnetic and weak interactions.[12] Electrons, like all matter, have quantum mechanical properties of both particles and waves, so they can collide with other particles and be diffracted like light. However, this duality is best demonstrated in experiments with electrons, due to their tiny mass. Since an electron is a fermion, no two electrons can occupy the same quantum state, in accordance with the Pauli exclusion principle.[11] The concept of an indivisible quantity of electric charge was theorized to explain the chemical properties of atoms, beginning in 1838 by British natural philosopher Richard Laming;[4] the name electron was introduced for this charge in 1894 by Irish physicist George Johnstone Stoney. The electron was identified as a particle in 1897 by J. J. Thomson and his team of British physicists.[6] [13] [14] In many physical phenomena, such as electricity, magnetism, and thermal conductivity, electrons play an essential role. An electron in motion relative to an observer generates a magnetic field, and will be deflected by external magnetic fields. When an electron is accelerated, it can absorb or radiate energy in the form of photons. Electrons, together with atomic nuclei made of protons and neutrons, make up atoms. However, electrons contribute less than 0.06% to an atom's total mass. The attractive Coulomb force between an electron and a proton causes electrons to be bound into atoms. The exchange or sharing of the electrons between two or more atoms is the main cause of chemical bonding.[15] According to theory, most electrons in the universe were created in the big bang, but they may also be created through beta decay of radioactive isotopes and in high-energy collisions, for instance when cosmic rays enter the atmosphere. Electrons may be destroyed through annihilation with positrons, and may be absorbed during nucleosynthesis in stars. Laboratory instruments are capable of containing and observing individual electrons as well as electron plasma, whereas dedicated telescopes can detect electron plasma in outer space. Electrons have many applications, including welding, cathode ray tubes, electron microscopes, radiation therapy, lasers and particle accelerators.

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History
The ancient Greeks noticed that amber attracted small objects when rubbed with fur. Apart from lightning, this phenomenon is humanity's earliest recorded experience with electricity.[16] In his 1600 treatise De Magnete, the English scientist William Gilbert coined the New Latin term electricus, to refer to this property of attracting small objects after being rubbed.[17] Both electric and electricity are derived from the Latin lectrum (also the root of the alloy of the same name), which came from the Greek word (lektron) for amber. In 1737 C. F. du Fay and Hawksbee independently discovered what they believed to be two kinds of frictional electricity; one generated from rubbing glass, the other from rubbing resin. From this, Du Fay theorized that electricity consists of two electrical fluids, "vitreous" and "resinous", that are separated by friction and that neutralize each other when combined.[18] A decade later Benjamin Franklin proposed that electricity was not from different types of electrical fluid, but the same electrical fluid under different pressures. He gave them the modern charge nomenclature of positive and negative respectively.[19] Franklin thought that the charge carrier was positive.[20] Between 1838 and 1851, British natural philosopher Richard Laming developed the idea that an atom is composed of a core of matter surrounded by subatomic particles that had unit electric charges.[3] Beginning in 1846, German physicist William Weber theorized that electricity was composed of positively and negatively charged fluids, and their interaction was governed by the inverse square law. After studying the phenomenon of electrolysis in 1874, Irish physicist George Johnstone Stoney suggested that there existed a "single definite quantity of electricity", the charge of a monovalent ion. He was able to estimate the value of this elementary charge e by means of Faraday's laws of electrolysis.[21] However, Stoney believed these charges were permanently attached to atoms and could not be removed. In 1881, German physicist Hermann von Helmholtz argued that both positive and negative charges were divided into elementary parts, each of which "behaves like atoms of electricity".[4]

Electron In 1894, Stoney coined the term electron to describe these elementary charges, saying, "... an estimate was made of the actual amount of this most remarkable fundamental unit of electricity, for which I have since ventured to suggest the name electron".[22] The word electron is a combination of the word electric and the suffix -on, with the latter now used to designate a subatomic particle, such as a proton or neutron.[23] [24]

111

Discovery
The German physicist Johann Wilhelm Hittorf undertook the study of electrical conductivity in rarefied gases. In 1869, he discovered a glow emitted from the cathode that increased in size with decrease in gas pressure. In 1876, the German physicist Eugen Goldstein showed that the rays from this glow cast a shadow, and he dubbed the rays cathode rays.[26] During the 1870s, the English chemist and physicist Sir William Crookes developed the first cathode ray tube to have a high vacuum inside.[27] He then showed that the luminescence rays A beam of electrons deflected in a circle by a [25] appearing within the tube carried energy and moved from the cathode magnetic field to the anode. Furthermore, by applying a magnetic field, he was able to deflect the rays, thereby demonstrating that the beam behaved as though it were negatively charged.[28] [29] In 1879, he proposed that these properties could be explained by what he termed 'radiant matter'. He suggested that this was a fourth state of matter, consisting of negatively charged molecules that were being projected with high velocity from the cathode.[30] The German-born British physicist Arthur Schuster expanded upon Crookes' experiments by placing metal plates parallel to the cathode rays and applying an electric potential between the plates. The field deflected the rays toward the positively charged plate, providing further evidence that the rays carried negative charge. By measuring the amount of deflection for a given level of current, in 1890 Schuster was able to estimate the charge-to-mass ratio of the ray components. However, this produced a value that was more than a thousand times greater than what was expected, so little credence was given to his calculations at the time.[28] [31] In 1896, the British physicist J. J. Thomson, with his colleagues John S. Townsend and H. A. Wilson,[13] performed experiments indicating that cathode rays really were unique particles, rather than waves, atoms or molecules as was believed earlier.[6] Thomson made good estimates of both the charge e and the mass m, finding that cathode ray particles, which he called "corpuscles," had perhaps one thousandth of the mass of the least massive ion known: hydrogen.[6] [14] He showed that their charge to mass ratio, e/m, was independent of cathode material. He further showed that the negatively charged particles produced by radioactive materials, by heated materials and by illuminated materials were universal.[6] [32] The name electron was again proposed for these particles by the Irish physicist George F. Fitzgerald, and the name has since gained universal acceptance.[28] While studying naturally fluorescing minerals in 1896, the French physicist Henri Becquerel discovered that they emitted radiation without any exposure to an external energy source. These radioactive materials became the subject of much interest by scientists, including the New Zealand physicist Ernest Rutherford who discovered they emitted particles. He designated these particles alpha and beta, on the basis of their ability to penetrate matter.[33] In 1900, Becquerel showed that the beta rays emitted by radium could be deflected by an electric field, and that their mass-to-charge ratio was the same as for cathode rays.[34] This evidence strengthened the view that electrons existed as components of atoms.[35] [36] The electron's charge was more carefully measured by the American physicist Robert Millikan in his oil-drop experiment of 1909, the results of which he published in 1911. This experiment used an electric field to prevent a charged droplet of oil from falling as a result of gravity. This device could measure the electric charge from as few as 1150 ions with an error margin of less than 0.3%. Comparable experiments had been done earlier by Thomson's team,[6] using clouds of charged water droplets generated by electrolysis,[13] and in 1911 by Abram Ioffe, who

Electron independently obtained the same result as Millikan using charged microparticles of metals, then published his results in 1913.[37] However, oil drops were more stable than water drops because of their slower evaporation rate, and thus more suited to precise experimentation over longer periods of time.[38] Around the beginning of the twentieth century, it was found that under certain conditions a fast moving charged particle caused a condensation of supersaturated water vapor along its path. In 1911, Charles Wilson used this principle to devise his cloud chamber, allowing the tracks of charged particles, such as fast-moving electrons, to be photographed.[39]

112

Atomic theory
By 1914, experiments by physicists Ernest Rutherford, Henry Moseley, James Franck and Gustav Hertz had largely established the structure of an atom as a dense nucleus of positive charge surrounded by lower-mass electrons.[40] In 1913, Danish physicist Niels Bohr postulated that electrons resided in quantized energy states, with the energy determined by the angular momentum of the electron's orbits about the nucleus. The electrons could move between these states, or orbits, by the emission or absorption of photons at specific frequencies. By means of these quantized orbits, he accurately explained the spectral lines of the hydrogen atom.[41] However, Bohr's model failed to account for the relative intensities of the spectral lines and it was unsuccessful in explaining the spectra of more complex atoms.[40]

Chemical bonds between atoms were explained by Gilbert Newton Lewis, who in 1916 proposed that a covalent bond between two atoms is maintained by a pair of electrons shared between them.[42] Later, in 1923, Walter Heitler and Fritz London gave the full explanation of the electron-pair formation and chemical bonding in terms of quantum mechanics.[43] In 1919, the American chemist Irving Langmuir elaborated on the Lewis' static model of the atom and suggested that all electrons were distributed in successive "concentric (nearly) spherical shells, all of equal thickness".[44] The shells were, in turn, divided by him in a number of cells each containing one pair of electrons. With this model Langmuir was able to qualitatively explain the chemical properties of all elements in the periodic table,[43] which were known to largely repeat themselves according to the periodic law.[45] In 1924, Austrian physicist Wolfgang Pauli observed that the shell-like structure of the atom could be explained by a set of four parameters that defined every quantum energy state, as long as each state was inhabited by no more than a single electron. (This prohibition against more than one electron occupying the same quantum energy state became known as the Pauli exclusion principle.)[46] The physical mechanism to explain the fourth parameter, which had two distinct possible values, was provided by the Dutch physicists Abraham Goudsmith and George Uhlenbeck when they suggested that an electron, in addition to the angular momentum of its orbit, could possess an intrinsic angular momentum.[40] [47] This property became known as spin, and explained the previously mysterious splitting of spectral lines observed with a high-resolution spectrograph; this phenomenon is known as fine structure splitting.[48]

The Bohr model of the atom, showing states of electron with energy quantized by the number n. An electron dropping to a lower orbit emits a photon equal to the energy difference between the orbits.

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Quantum mechanics
In his 1924 dissertation Recherches sur la thorie des quanta (Research on Quantum Theory), French physicist Louis de Broglie hypothesized that all matter possesses a De Broglie wave similar to light.[49] That is, under the appropriate conditions, electrons and other matter would show properties of either particles or waves. The corpuscular properties of a particle are demonstrated when it is shown to have a localized position in space along its trajectory at any given moment.[50] Wave-like nature is observed, for example, when a beam of light is passed through parallel slits and creates interference patterns. In 1927, the interference effect was demonstrated with a beam of electrons by English physicist George Paget Thomson with a thin metal film and by American physicists Clinton Davisson and Lester Germer using a crystal of nickel.[51] The success of de Broglie's prediction led to the publication, by Erwin Schrdinger in 1926, of the Schrdinger equation that successfully describes how electron waves propagated.[52] Rather than yielding a solution that determines the location of an electron over time, this wave equation can be used to predict the probability of finding an electron near a position. This approach was later called quantum mechanics, which provided an extremely close derivation to the energy states of an electron in a hydrogen atom.[53] Once spin and the interaction between multiple electrons were considered, quantum mechanics allowed the configuration of electrons in atoms with higher atomic numbers than hydrogen to be successfully predicted.[54] In 1928, building on Wolfgang Pauli's work, Paul Dirac produced a model of the electron - the Dirac equation, consistent with relativity theory, by applying relativistic and symmetry considerations to the In quantum mechanics, the behavior of an hamiltonian formulation of the quantum mechanics of the electron in an atom is described by an orbital, which is a probability distribution rather than an electro-magnetic field.[55] In order to resolve some problems within his orbit. In the figure, the shading indicates the relativistic equation, in 1930 Dirac developed a model of the vacuum relative probability to "find" the electron, having as an infinite sea of particles having negative energy, which was the energy corresponding to the given quantum dubbed the Dirac sea. This led him to predict the existence of a numbers, at that point. positron, the antimatter counterpart of the electron.[56] This particle was discovered in 1932 by Carl D. Anderson, who proposed calling standard electrons negatrons, and using electron as a generic term to describe both the positively and negatively charged variants. This usage of the term 'negatron' is still occasionally encountered today, and it may be shortened to 'negaton'.[57] [58] In 1947 Willis Lamb, working in collaboration with graduate student Robert Rutherford, found that certain quantum states of hydrogen atom, which should have the same energy, were shifted in relation to each other, the difference being the Lamb shift. About the same time, Polykarp Kusch, working with Henry M. Foley, discovered the magnetic moment of the electron is slightly larger than predicted by Dirac's theory. This small difference was later called anomalous magnetic dipole moment of the electron. To resolve these issues, a refined theory called quantum electrodynamics was developed by Sin-Itiro Tomonaga, Julian Schwinger and Richard P. Feynman in the late 1940s.[59]

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Particle accelerators
With the development of the particle accelerator during the first half of the twentieth century, physicists began to delve deeper into the properties of subatomic particles.[60] The first successful attempt to accelerate electrons using electromagnetic induction was made in 1942 by Donald Kerst. His initial betatron reached energies of 2.3MeV, while subsequent betatrons achieved 300MeV. In 1947, synchrotron radiation was discovered with a 70MeV electron synchrotron at General Electric. This radiation was caused by the acceleration of electrons, moving near the speed of light, through a magnetic field.[61] With a beam energy of 1.5GeV, the first high-energy particle collider was ADONE, which began operations in 1968.[62] This device accelerated electrons and positrons in opposite directions, effectively doubling the energy of their collision when compared to striking a static target with an electron.[63] The Large Electron-Positron Collider (LEP) at CERN, which was operational from 1989 to 2000, achieved collision energies of 209GeV and made important measurements for the Standard Model of particle physics.[64] [65]

Characteristics
Classification
In the Standard Model of particle physics, electrons belong to the group of subatomic particles called leptons, which are believed to be fundamental or elementary particles. Electrons have the lowest mass of any charged lepton (or electrically charged particle of any type) and belong to the first-generation of fundamental particles.[66] The second and third generation contain charged leptons, the muon and the tau, which are identical to the electron in charge, spin and interactions, but are more massive. Leptons differ from the other basic constituent of matter, the quarks, by their lack of strong interaction. All members of the lepton group are fermions, because they all have half-odd integer spin; the electron has spin 12.[67]

Fundamental properties
Standard Model of elementary particles. The electron is at lower left.

The invariant mass of an electron is approximately 9.1091031 kilogram,[68] or 5.489104 atomic mass unit. On the basis of Einstein's principle of massenergy equivalence, this mass corresponds to a rest energy of 0.511MeV. The ratio between the mass of a proton and that of an electron is about 1836.[10] [69] Astronomical measurements show that the proton-to-electron mass ratio has held the same value for at least half the age of the universe, as is predicted by the Standard Model.[70] Electrons have an electric charge of 1.6021019 coulomb,[68] which is used as a standard unit of charge for subatomic particles. Within the limits of experimental accuracy, the electron charge is identical to the charge of a proton, but with the opposite sign.[71] As the symbol e is used for the elementary charge, the electron is commonly

Electron symbolized by e, where the minus sign indicates the negative charge. The positron is symbolized by e+ because it has the same properties as the electron but with a positive rather than negative charge.[67] [68] The electron has an intrinsic angular momentum or spin of 12.[68] This property is usually stated by referring to the electron as a spin-12 particle.[67] For such particles the spin magnitude is 32.[72] while the result of the measurement of a projection of the spin on any axis can only be 2. In addition to spin, the electron has an intrinsic magnetic moment along its spin axis.[68] It is approximately equal to one Bohr magneton,[73] [74] which is a physical constant equal to 9.27400915(23)1024joules per tesla.[68] The orientation of the spin with respect to the momentum of the electron defines the property of elementary particles known as helicity.[75] The electron has no known substructure.[2] [76] Hence, it is defined or assumed to be a point particle with a point charge and no spatial extent.[11] Observation of a single electron in a Penning trap shows the upper limit of the particle's radius is 1022 meters.[77] There is a physical constant called the "classical electron radius", with the much larger value of 2.81791015m. However, the terminology comes from a simplistic calculation that ignores the effects of quantum mechanics; in reality, the so-called classical electron radius has little to do with the true fundamental structure of the electron.[78] [79] There are elementary particles that spontaneously decay into less massive particles. An example is the muon, which decays into an electron, a neutrino and an antineutrino, with a mean lifetime of 2.2106 seconds. However, the electron is thought to be stable on theoretical grounds: the electron is the least massive particle with non-zero electric charge, so its decay would violate charge conservation.[80] The experimental lower bound for the electron's mean lifetime is 4.61026 years, at a 90% confidence level.[81]

115

Quantum properties
As with all particles, electrons can act as waves. This is called the waveparticle duality and can be demonstrated using the double-slit experiment. The wave-like nature of the electron allows it to pass through two parallel slits simultaneously, rather than just one slit as would be the case for a classical particle. In quantum mechanics, the wave-like property of one particle can be described mathematically as a complex-valued function, the wave function, commonly denoted by the Greek letter psi (). When the absolute value of this function is squared, it gives the probability that a particle will be observed near a locationa probability density.[82] Electrons are identical particles because they cannot be distinguished from each other by their intrinsic physical properties. In quantum mechanics, this means that a pair of interacting electrons must be able to swap positions without an observable change to the state of the system. The wave function of fermions, including electrons, is antisymmetric, meaning that it changes sign when two electrons are swapped; that is, (r1, r2) = (r2, r1), where the variables r1 and r2 correspond to the first and second electrons, respectively. Since the absolute value is not changed by a sign swap, this corresponds to equal probabilities. Bosons, such as the photon, have symmetric wave functions instead.[82]

In the case of antisymmetry, solutions of the wave equation for interacting electrons result in a zero probability that each pair will occupy the same location or state. This is responsible for the Pauli exclusion principle, which precludes any two electrons from occupying the same quantum state. This principle explains many of the properties of electrons. For example, it causes groups of bound electrons to occupy different orbitals in an atom, rather than all overlapping each other in the same orbit.[82]

Example of an antisymmetric wave function for a quantum state of two identical fermions in a 1-dimensional box. If the particles swap position, the wave function inverts its sign.

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116

Virtual particles
Physicists believe that empty space may be continually creating pairs of virtual particles, such as a positron and electron, which rapidly annihilate each other shortly thereafter.[83] The combination of the energy variation needed to create these particles, and the time during which they exist, fall under the threshold of detectability expressed by the Heisenberg uncertainty relation, Et. In effect, the energy needed to create these virtual particles, E, can be "borrowed" from the vacuum for a period of time, t, so that their product is no more than the reduced Planck constant, 6.61016eVs. Thus, for a virtual electron, t is at most 1.31021s.[84] While an electronpositron virtual pair is in existence, the coulomb force from the ambient electric field surrounding an electron causes a created positron to be attracted to the original electron, while a created electron experiences a repulsion. This causes what is called vacuum polarization. In effect, the vacuum behaves like a medium having a dielectric permittivity more than unity. Thus the effective charge of an electron is actually smaller than its true value, and the charge decreases with increasing distance from the electron.[85] [86] This polarization was confirmed experimentally in 1997 using the Japanese TRISTAN particle accelerator.[87] Virtual particles cause a comparable shielding effect for the mass of the electron.[88]

A schematic depiction of virtual electronpositron pairs appearing at random near an electron (at lower left)

The interaction with virtual particles also explains the small (about 0.1%) deviation of the intrinsic magnetic moment of the electron from the Bohr magneton (the anomalous magnetic moment).[73] [89] The extraordinarily precise agreement of this predicted difference with the experimentally determined value is viewed as one of the great achievements of quantum electrodynamics.[90] In classical physics, the angular momentum and magnetic moment of an object depend upon its physical dimensions. Hence, the concept of a dimensionless electron possessing these properties might seem inconsistent. The apparent paradox can be explained by the formation of virtual photons in the electric field generated by the electron. These photons cause the electron to shift about in a jittery fashion (known as zitterbewegung),[91] which results in a net circular motion with precession. This motion produces both the spin and the magnetic moment of the electron.[11] [92] In atoms, this creation of virtual photons explains the Lamb shift observed in spectral lines.[85]

Interaction
An electron generates an electric field that exerts an attractive force on a particle with a positive charge, such as the proton, and a repulsive force on a particle with a negative charge. The strength of this force is determined by Coulomb's inverse square law.[93] When an electron is in motion, it generates a magnetic field.[94] The Ampre-Maxwell law relates the magnetic field to the mass motion of electrons (the current) with respect to an observer. It is this property of induction which supplies the magnetic field that drives an electric motor.[95] The electromagnetic field of an arbitrary moving charged particle is expressed by the LinardWiechert potentials, which are valid even when the particle's speed is close to that of light (relativistic).

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117

When an electron is moving through a magnetic field, it is subject to the Lorentz force that exerts an influence in a direction perpendicular to the plane defined by the magnetic field and the electron velocity. This centripetal force causes the electron to follow a helical trajectory through the field at a radius called the gyroradius. The acceleration from this curving motion induces the electron to radiate energy in the form of synchrotron radiation.[96] [97] [98] The energy emission in turn causes a recoil of the electron, known as the Abraham-Lorentz-Dirac force, which creates a friction that slows the electron. This force is caused by a back-reaction of the electron's own field upon itself.[99]

In quantum electrodynamics the electromagnetic interaction between particles is mediated by photons. An isolated electron that is not undergoing acceleration is unable to emit or absorb a real photon; doing so would violate conservation of energy and momentum. Instead, virtual photons can transfer momentum between two charged particles. It is this exchange of virtual photons that, for example, generates the Coulomb force.[100] Energy emission can occur when a moving electron is deflected by a charged particle, such as a proton. The acceleration of the electron results in the emission of Bremsstrahlung radiation.[101]

A particle with charge q (at left) is moving with velocity v through a magnetic field B that is oriented toward the viewer. For an electron, q is negative so it follows a curved trajectory toward the top.

Here, Bremsstrahlung is produced by an electron e deflected by the electric field of an atomic nucleus. The energy change E2E1 determines the frequency f of the emitted photon.

An inelastic collision between a photon (light) and a solitary (free) electron is called Compton scattering. This collision results in a transfer of momentum and energy between the particles, which modifies the wavelength of the photon by an amount called the Compton shift.[102] The maximum magnitude of this wavelength shift is h/mec, which is known as the Compton wavelength.[103] For an electron, it has a value of 2.431012m.[68] When the wavelength of the light is long (for instance, the wavelength of the visible light is 0.40.7m) the wavelength shift becomes negligible. Such interaction between the light and free electrons is called Thomson scattering or Linear Thomson scattering.[104] The relative strength of the electromagnetic interaction between two charged particles, such as an electron and a proton, is given by the fine-structure constant. This value is a dimensionless quantity formed by the ratio of two energies: the electrostatic energy of attraction (or repulsion) at a separation of one Compton wavelength, and the rest

Electron energy of the charge. It is given by 7.297353103, which is approximately equal to 1137.[68] When electrons and positrons collide, they annihilate each other, giving rise to two or more gamma ray photons. If the electron and positron have negligible momentum, a positronium atom can form before annihilation results in two or three gamma ray photons totalling 1.022MeV.[105] [106] On the other hand, high-energy photons may transform into an electron and a positron by a process called pair production, but only in the presence of a nearby charged particle, such as a nucleus.[107] [108] In the theory of electroweak interaction, the left-handed component of electron's wavefunction forms a weak isospin doublet with the electron neutrino. This means that during weak interactions, electron neutrinos behave like electrons. Either member of this doublet can undergo a charged current interaction by emitting or absorbing a W and be converted into the other member. Charge is conserved during this reaction because the W boson also carries a charge, canceling out any net change during the transmutation. Charged current interactions are responsible for the phenomenon of beta decay in a radioactive atom. Both the electron and electron neutrino can undergo a neutral current interaction via a Z0 exchange, and this is responsible for neutrino-electron elastic scattering.[109]

118

Atoms and molecules

An electron can be bound to the nucleus of an atom by the attractive Coulomb force. A system of several electrons bound to a nucleus is called an atom. If the number of electrons is different from the nucleus' electrical charge, such an atom is called an ion. The wave-like behavior of a bound electron is described by a function called an atomic orbital. Each orbital has its own set of quantum numbers such as energy, angular momentum and projection of angular momentum, and only a discrete set of these orbitals exist around the nucleus. According to the Pauli exclusion principal each orbital can be occupied by up to two electrons, which must differ in their spin quantum number. Electrons can transfer between different orbitals Probability densities for the first few hydrogen atom orbitals, seen in cross-section. The energy level of a bound electron determines the orbital it by the emission or absorption of photons with an occupies, and the color reflects the probability to find the electron at a given energy that matches the difference in position. [110] potential. Other methods of orbital transfer include collisions with particles, such as electrons, and the Auger effect.[111] In order to escape the atom, the energy of the electron must be increased above its binding energy to the atom. This occurs, for example, with the photoelectric effect, where an incident photon exceeding the atom's ionization energy is absorbed by the electron.[112] The orbital angular momentum of electrons is quantized. Because the electron is charged, it produces an orbital magnetic moment that is proportional to the angular momentum. The net magnetic moment of an atom is equal to the vector sum of orbital and spin magnetic moments of all electrons and the nucleus. The magnetic moment of the nucleus is negligible compared with that of the electrons. The magnetic moments of the electrons that occupy the same orbital (so called, paired electrons) cancel each other out.[113] The chemical bond between atoms occurs as a result of electromagnetic interactions, as described by the laws of quantum mechanics.[114] The strongest bonds are formed by the sharing or transfer of electrons between atoms,

Electron allowing the formation of molecules.[15] Within a molecule, electrons move under the influence of several nuclei, and occupy molecular orbitals; much as they can occupy atomic orbitals in isolated atoms.[115] A fundamental factor in these molecular structures is the existence of electron pairs. These are electrons with opposed spins, allowing them to occupy the same molecular orbital without violating the Pauli exclusion principle (much like in atoms). Different molecular orbitals have different spatial distribution of the electron density. For instance, in bonded pairs (i.e. in the pairs that actually bind atoms together) electrons can be found with the maximal probability in a relatively small volume between the nuclei. On the contrary, in non-bonded pairs electrons are distributed in a large volume around nuclei.[116]

119

Conductivity
If a body has more or fewer electrons than are required to balance the positive charge of the nuclei, then that object has a net electric charge. When there is an excess of electrons, the object is said to be negatively charged. When there are fewer electrons than the number of protons in nuclei, the object is said to be positively charged. When the number of electrons and the number of protons are equal, their charges cancel each other and the object is said to be electrically neutral. A macroscopic body can develop an electric charge through rubbing, by the triboelectric effect.[120] Independent electrons moving in vacuum are termed free electrons. Electrons in metals also behave as if they were free. In reality the particles that are commonly termed electrons in metals and other solids A lightning discharge consists primarily of a flow [117] are quasi-electronsquasi-particles, which have the same electrical of electrons. The electric potential needed charge, spin and magnetic moment as real electrons but may have a for lightning may be generated by a triboelectric [118] [119] effect. different mass.[121] When free electronsboth in vacuum and metalsmove, they produce a net flow of charge called an electric current, which generates a magnetic field. Likewise a current can be created by a changing magnetic field. These interactions are described mathematically by Maxwell's equations.[122] At a given temperature, each material has an electrical conductivity that determines the value of electric current when an electric potential is applied. Examples of good conductors include metals such as copper and gold, whereas glass and Teflon are poor conductors. In any dielectric material, the electrons remain bound to their respective atoms and the material behaves as an insulator. Most semiconductors have a variable level of conductivity that lies between the extremes of conduction and insulation.[123] On the other hand, metals have an electronic band structure containing partially filled electronic bands. The presence of such bands allows electrons in metals to behave as if they were free or delocalized electrons. These electrons are not associated with specific atoms, so when an electric field is applied, they are free to move like a gas (called Fermi gas)[124] through the material much like free electrons. Because of collisions between electrons and atoms, the drift velocity of electrons in a conductor is on the order of millimeters per second. However, the speed at which a change of current at one point in the material causes changes in currents in other parts of the material, the velocity of propagation, is typically about 75% of light speed.[125] This occurs because electrical signals propagate as a wave, with the velocity dependent on the dielectric constant of the material.[126] Metals make relatively good conductors of heat, primarily because the delocalized electrons are free to transport thermal energy between atoms. However, unlike electrical conductivity, the thermal conductivity of a metal is nearly independent of temperature. This is expressed mathematically by the Wiedemann-Franz law,[124] which states that the ratio of thermal conductivity to the electrical conductivity is proportional to the temperature. The thermal

Electron disorder in the metallic lattice increases the electrical resistivity of the material, producing a temperature dependence for electrical current.[127] When cooled below a point called the critical temperature, materials can undergo a phase transition in which they lose all resistivity to electrical current, in a process known as superconductivity. In BCS theory, this behavior is modeled by pairs of electrons entering a quantum state known as a BoseEinstein condensate. These Cooper pairs have their motion coupled to nearby matter via lattice vibrations called phonons, thereby avoiding the collisions with atoms that normally create electrical resistance.[128] (Cooper pairs have a radius of roughly 100nm, so they can overlap each other.)[129] However, the mechanism by which higher temperature superconductors operate remains uncertain. Electrons inside conducting solids, which are quasi-particles themselves, when tightly confined at temperatures close to absolute zero, behave as though they had split into two other quasiparticles: spinons and holons.[130] [131] The former carries spin and magnetic moment, while the latter electrical charge.

120

Motion and energy

According to Einstein's theory of special relativity, as an electron's speed approaches the speed of light, from an observer's point of view its relativistic mass increases, thereby making it more and more difficult to accelerate it from within the observer's frame of reference. The speed of an electron can approach, but never reach, the speed of light in a vacuum, c. However, when relativistic electronsthat is, electrons moving at a speed close to care injected into a dielectric medium such as water, where the local speed of light is significantly less than c, the electrons temporarily travel faster than light in the medium. As they interact with the medium, they generate a faint light called Cherenkov radiation.[132]

Lorentz factor as a function of velocity. It starts at value 1 and goes to infinity as v approaches c.

The effects of special relativity are based on a quantity known as the Lorentz factor, defined as where v is the speed of the particle. The kinetic energy Ke of an electron moving with velocity v is: where me is the mass of electron. For example, the Stanford linear accelerator can accelerate an electron to roughly 51GeV.[133] Since an electron behaves as a wave, at a given velocity it has a characteristic de Broglie wavelength. This is given by e=h/p where h is the Planck constant and p is the momentum.[49] For the 51GeV electron above, the wavelength is about 2.41017m, small enough to explore structures well below the size of an atomic nucleus.[134]

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121

Formation
The Big Bang theory is the most widely accepted scientific theory to explain the early stages in the evolution of the Universe.[135] For the first millisecond of the Big Bang, the temperatures were over 10billionkelvins and photons had mean energies over a million electronvolts. These photons were sufficiently energetic that they could react with each other to form pairs of electrons and positrons. Likewise, positron-electron pairs annihilated each other and emitted energetic photons: + e+ + e
Pair production caused by the collision of a photon with an atomic nucleus

An equilibrium between electrons, positrons and photons was maintained during this phase of the evolution of the Universe. After 15 seconds had passed, however, the temperature of the universe dropped below the threshold where electron-positron formation could occur. Most of the surviving electrons and positrons annihilated each other, releasing gamma radiation that briefly reheated the universe.[136] For reasons that remain uncertain, during the process of leptogenesis there was an excess in the number of electrons over positrons.[137] Hence, about one electron in every billion survived the annihilation process. This excess matched the excess of protons over anti-protons, in a condition known as baryon asymmetry, resulting in a net charge of zero for the universe.[138] [139] The surviving protons and neutrons began to participate in reactions with each otherin the process known as nucleosynthesis, forming isotopes of hydrogen and helium, with trace amounts of lithium. This process peaked after about five minutes.[140] Any leftover neutrons underwent negative beta decay with a half-life of about a thousand seconds, releasing a proton and electron in the process, For about the next 300000400000yr, the excess electrons remained too energetic to bind with atomic nuclei.[141] What followed is a period known as recombination, when neutral atoms were formed and the expanding universe became transparent to radiation.[142] Roughly one million years after the big bang, the first generation of stars began to form.[142] Within a star, stellar nucleosynthesis results in the production of positrons from the fusion of atomic nuclei. These antimatter particles immediately annihilate with electrons, releasing gamma rays. The net result is a steady reduction in the number of electrons, and a matching increase in the number of neutrons. However, the process of stellar evolution can result in the synthesis of radioactive isotopes. Selected isotopes can subsequently undergo negative beta decay, emitting an electron and antineutrino from the nucleus.[143] An example is the cobalt-60 (60Co) isotope, which decays to form nickel-60 (60Ni).[144] n p + e + e

Electron

122 At the end of its lifetime, a star with more than about 20 solar masses can undergo gravitational collapse to form a black hole.[145] According to classical physics, these massive stellar objects exert a gravitational attraction that is strong enough to prevent anything, even electromagnetic radiation, from escaping past the Schwarzschild radius. However, it is believed that quantum mechanical effects may allow Hawking radiation to be emitted at this distance. Electrons (and positrons) are thought to be created at the event horizon of these stellar remnants.

When pairs of virtual particles (such as an electron and positron) are created in the vicinity of the event horizon, the random spatial distribution of these particles may permit one of them to appear on the exterior; this process is called quantum tunneling. The gravitational potential of the black hole can then supply the energy that transforms this virtual particle into a real particle, allowing it to radiate away into space.[146] In exchange, the other member of the pair is given negative energy, which results in a net loss of mass-energy by the black hole. The rate of Hawking radiation increases with decreasing mass, eventually causing the black hole to evaporate away until, finally, it explodes.[147]
An extended air shower generated by an energetic cosmic ray striking the Earth's atmosphere

Cosmic rays are particles traveling through space with high energies. Energy events as high as 3.01020eV have been recorded.[148] When these particles collide with nucleons in the Earth's atmosphere, a shower of particles is generated, including pions.[149] More than half of the cosmic radiation observed from the Earth's surface consists of muons. The particle called a muon is a lepton which is produced in the upper atmosphere by the decay of a pion. A muon, in turn, can decay to form an electron or positron.[150] e + e + +

Observation
Remote observation of electrons requires detection of their radiated energy. For example, in high-energy environments such as the corona of a star, free electrons form a plasma that radiates energy due to Bremsstrahlung. Electron gas can undergo plasma oscillation, which is waves caused by synchronized variations in electron density, and these produce energy emissions that can be detected by using radio telescopes.[152] The frequency of a photon is proportional to its energy. As a bound Aurorae are mostly caused by energetic electrons [151] electron transitions between different energy levels of an atom, it will precipitating into the atmosphere. absorb or emit photons at characteristic frequencies. For instance, when atoms are irradiated by a source with a broad spectrum, distinct absorption lines will appear in the spectrum of transmitted radiation. Each element or molecule displays a characteristic set of spectral lines, such as the hydrogen spectral series. Spectroscopic measurements of the strength and width of these lines allow the composition and physical properties of a substance to be determined.[153] [154]

Electron In laboratory conditions, the interactions of individual electrons can be observed by means of particle detectors, which allow measurement of specific properties such as energy, spin and charge.[112] The development of the Paul trap and Penning trap allows charged particles to be contained within a small region for long durations. This enables precise measurements of the particle properties. For example, in one instance a Penning trap was used to contain a single electron for a period of 10 months.[155] The magnetic moment of the electron was measured to a precision of eleven digits, which, in 1980, was a greater accuracy than for any other physical constant.[156] The first video images of an electron's energy distribution were captured by a team at Lund University in Sweden, February 2008. The scientists used extremely short flashes of light, called attosecond pulses, which allowed an electron's motion to be observed for the first time.[157] [158] The distribution of the electrons in solid materials can be visualized by angle resolved photoemission spectroscopy (ARPES). This technique employs the photoelectric effect to measure the reciprocal spacea mathematical representation of periodic structures that is used to infer the original structure. ARPES can be used to determine the direction, speed and scattering of electrons within the material.[159]

123

Plasma applications
Particle beams
Electron beams are used in welding,[161] which allows energy densities up to 107Wcm2 across a narrow focus diameter of 0.11.3 mm and usually does not require a filler material. This welding technique must be performed in a vacuum, so that the electron beam does not interact with the gas prior to reaching the target, and it can be used to join conductive materials that would otherwise be considered unsuitable for welding.[162] [163] Electron beam lithography (EBL) is a method of etching semiconductors at resolutions smaller than a micron.[164] This technique is limited by high costs, slow performance, the need to operate the beam in the vacuum and the tendency of the electrons to scatter in solids. The last problem limits the resolution to about 10nm. For this reason, EBL is primarily used for the production of small numbers of specialized integrated circuits.[165]

During a NASA wind tunnel test, a model of the Space Shuttle is targeted by a beam of electrons, simulating the effect of ionizing gases during [160] re-entry.

Electron beam processing is used to irradiate materials in order to change their physical properties or sterilize medical and food products.[166] In radiation therapy, electron beams are generated by linear accelerators for treatment of superficial tumors. Because an electron beam only penetrates to a limited depth before being absorbed, typically up to 5cm for electron energies in the range 520MeV, electron therapy is useful for treating skin lesions such as basal cell carcinomas. An electron beam can be used to supplement the treatment of areas that have been irradiated by X-rays.[167] [168] Particle accelerators use electric fields to propel electrons and their antiparticles to high energies. As these particles pass through magnetic fields, they emit synchrotron radiation. The intensity of this radiation is spin dependent, which causes polarization of the electron beama process known as the SokolovTernov effect.[169] The polarized electron beams can be useful for various experiments. Synchrotron radiation can also be used for cooling the electron beams, which reduces the momentum spread of the particles. Once the particles have accelerated to the required energies, separate electron and positron beams are brought into collision. The resulting energy emissions are observed with particle detectors and are studied in particle physics.[170]

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124

Imaging
Low-energy electron diffraction (LEED) is a method of bombarding a crystalline material with a collimated beam of electrons, then observing the resulting diffraction patterns to determine the structure of the material. The required energy of the electrons is typically in the range 20200eV.[171] The reflection high energy electron diffraction (RHEED) technique uses the reflection of a beam of electrons fired at various low angles to characterize the surface of crystalline materials. The beam energy is typically in the range 820keV and the angle of incidence is 14.[172]
[173]

The electron microscope directs a focused beam of electrons at a specimen. As the beam interacts with the material, some electrons change their properties, such as movement direction, angle, relative phase and energy. By recording these changes in the electron beam, microscopists can produce atomically resolved image of the material.[174] In blue light, conventional optical microscopes have a diffraction-limited resolution of about 200nm.[175] By comparison, electron microscopes are limited by the de Broglie wavelength of the electron. This wavelength, for example, is equal to 0.0037nm for electrons accelerated across a 100,000-volt potential.[176] The Transmission Electron Aberration-corrected Microscope is capable of sub-0.05nm resolution, which is more than enough to resolve individual atoms.[177] This capability makes the electron microscope a useful laboratory instrument for high resolution imaging. However, electron microscopes are expensive instruments that are costly to maintain. There are two main types of electron microscopes: transmission and scanning. Transmission electron microscopes function in a manner similar to overhead projector, with a beam of electrons passing through a slice of material then being projected by lenses on a photographic slide or a charge-coupled device. In scanning electron microscopes, the image is produced by rastering a finely focused electron beam, as in a TV set, across the studied sample. The magnifications range from 100 to 1,000,000 or higher for both microscope types. The scanning tunneling microscope uses quantum tunneling of electrons from a sharp metal tip into the studied material and can produce atomically resolved images of its surface.[178] [179] [180]

Other
In the free electron laser (FEL), a relativistic electron beam is passed through a pair of undulators containing arrays of dipole magnets, whose fields are oriented in alternating directions. The electrons emit synchrotron radiation, which, in turn, coherently interacts with the same electrons. This leads to the strong amplification of the radiation field at the resonance frequency. FEL can emit a coherent high-brilliance electromagnetic radiation with a wide range of frequencies, from microwaves to soft X-rays. These devices can be used in the future for manufacturing, communication and various medical applications, such as soft tissue surgery.[181] Electrons are at the heart of cathode ray tubes, which are used extensively as display devices in laboratory instruments, computer monitors and television sets.[182] In a photomultiplier tube, every photon striking the photocathode initiates an avalanche of electrons that produces a detectable current pulse.[183] Vacuum tubes use the flow of electrons to manipulate electrical signals, and they played a critical role in the development of electronics technology. However, they have been largely supplanted by solid-state devices such as the transistor.[184]

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125

Notes
[1] Dahl, P.F. (1997). Flash of the Cathode Rays: A History of J J Thomson's Electron (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=xUzaWGocMdMC& printsec=frontcover). CRC Press. p.72. ISBN0-7503-0453-7. . [2] Eichten, E.J.; Peskin, M.E.; Peskin, M. (1983). "New Tests for Quark and Lepton Substructure". Physical Review Letters 50 (11): 811814. Bibcode1983PhRvL..50..811E. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.50.811. [3] Farrar, W.V. (1969). "Richard Laming and the Coal-Gas Industry, with His Views on the Structure of Matter". Annals of Science 25: 243254. doi:10.1080/00033796900200141. [4] Arabatzis, T. (2006). Representing Electrons: A Biographical Approach to Theoretical Entities (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=rZHT-chpLmAC& pg=PA70). University of Chicago Press. pp.7074. ISBN0-226-02421-0. . [5] Buchwald, J.Z.; Warwick, A. (2001). Histories of the Electron: The Birth of Microphysics (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=1yqqhlIdCOoC& pg=PA195). MIT Press. pp.195203. ISBN0-262-52424-4. . [6] Thomson, J.J. (1897). "Cathode Rays" (http:/ / web. lemoyne. edu/ ~GIUNTA/ thomson1897. html). Philosophical Magazine 44: 293. . [7] P.J. Mohr, B.N. Taylor, and D.B. Newell (2011), "The 2010 CODATA Recommended Values of the Fundamental Physical Constants" (Web Version 6.0). This database was developed by J. Baker, M. Douma, and S. Kotochigova. Available: http:/ / physics. nist. gov/ constants [Thursday, 02-Jun-2011 21:00:12 EDT]. National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD 20899. [8] The fractional versions denominator is the inverse of the decimal value (along with its relative standard uncertainty of 4.21013u). [9] The electrons charge is the negative of elementary charge, which has a positive value for the proton. [10] "CODATA value: proton-electron mass ratio" (http:/ / physics. nist. gov/ cgi-bin/ cuu/ Value?mpsme). National Institute of Standards and Technology. . Retrieved 2009-07-18. [11] Curtis, L.J. (2003). Atomic Structure and Lifetimes: A Conceptual Approach (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=KmwCsuvxClAC& pg=PA74). Cambridge University Press. p.74. ISBN0-521-53635-9. . [12] Anastopoulos, C. (2008). Particle Or Wave: The Evolution of the Concept of Matter in Modern Physics (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=rDEvQZhpltEC& pg=PA236). Princeton University Press. pp.236237. ISBN0-691-13512-6. . [13] Dahl (1997:122185). [14] Wilson, R. (1997). Astronomy Through the Ages: The Story of the Human Attempt to Understand the Universe (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=AoiJ3hA8bQ8C& pg=PA138). CRC Press. p.138. ISBN0-7484-0748-0. . [15] Pauling, L.C. (1960). The Nature of the Chemical Bond and the Structure of Molecules and Crystals: an introduction to modern structural chemistry (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=L-1K9HmKmUUC) (3rd ed.). Cornell University Press. pp.410. ISBN0-8014-0333-2. . [16] Shipley, J.T. (1945). Dictionary of Word Origins. The Philosophical Library. p.133. ISBN0-88029-751-4. [17] Baigrie, B. (2006). Electricity and Magnetism: A Historical Perspective (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=3XEc5xkWxi4C& pg=PA7). Greenwood Press. pp.78. ISBN0-313-33358-0. . [18] Keithley, J.F. (1999). The Story of Electrical and Magnetic Measurements: From 500 B.C. to the 1940s (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=uwgNAtqSHuQC& pg=PA207). IEEE Press. ISBN0-7803-1193-0. . [19] "Benjamin Franklin (17061790)" (http:/ / scienceworld. wolfram. com/ biography/ FranklinBenjamin. html). Eric Weisstein's World of Biography. Wolfram Research. . Retrieved 2010-12-16. [20] Myers, R.L. (2006). The Basics of Physics (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=KnynjL44pI4C& pg=PA242). Greenwood Publishing Group. p.242. ISBN0-313-32857-9. . [21] Barrow, J.D. (1983). "Natural Units Before Planck". Quarterly Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society 24: 2426. Bibcode1983QJRAS..24...24B. [22] Stoney, G.J. (1894). "Of the "Electron," or Atom of Electricity". Philosophical Magazine 38 (5): 418420. [23] Soukhanov, A.H. ed. (1986). Word Mysteries & Histories. Houghton Mifflin Company. p.73. ISBN0-395-40265-4. [24] Guralnik, D.B. ed. (1970). Webster's New World Dictionary. Prentice-Hall. p.450. [25] Born, M.; Blin-Stoyle, R.J.; Radcliffe, J.M. (1989). Atomic Physics (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=NmM-KujxMtoC& pg=PA26). Courier Dover. p.26. ISBN0-486-65984-4. . [26] Dahl (1997:5558). [27] DeKosky, R.K. (1983). "William Crookes and the quest for absolute vacuum in the 1870s". Annals of Science 40 (1): 118. doi:10.1080/00033798300200101. [28] Leicester, H.M. (1971). The Historical Background of Chemistry (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=aJZVQnqcwv4C& pg=PA221). Courier Dover Publications. pp.221222. ISBN0-486-61053-5. . [29] Dahl (1997:6478). [30] Zeeman, P. (1907). "Sir William Crookes, F.R.S." (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=UtYRAAAAYAAJ). Nature 77 (1984): 13. Bibcode1907Natur..77....1C. doi:10.1038/077001a0. . [31] Dahl (1997:99). [32] Thomson, J.J. (1906). "Nobel Lecture: Carriers of Negative Electricity" (http:/ / nobelprize. org/ nobel_prizes/ physics/ laureates/ 1906/ thomson-lecture. pdf). The Nobel Foundation. . Retrieved 2008-08-25. [33] Trenn, T.J. (1976). "Rutherford on the Alpha-Beta-Gamma Classification of Radioactive Rays". Isis 67 (1): 6175. doi:10.1086/351545. JSTOR231134.

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[34] Becquerel, H. (1900). "Dviation du Rayonnement du Radium dans un Champ lectrique". Comptes Rendus de l'Acadmie des Sciences 130: 809815. (French) [35] Buchwald and Warwick (2001:9091). [36] Myers, W.G. (1976). "Becquerel's Discovery of Radioactivity in 1896" (http:/ / jnm. snmjournals. org/ cgi/ content/ abstract/ 17/ 7/ 579). Journal of Nuclear Medicine 17 (7): 579582. PMID775027. . [37] Kikoin, I.K.; Sominski, I.S. (1961). "Abram Fedorovich Ioffe (on his eightieth birthday)". Soviet Physics Uspekhi 3: 798809. Bibcode1961SvPhU...3..798K. doi:10.1070/PU1961v003n05ABEH005812. Original publication in Russian: , ..; , .. (1960). " .. " (http:/ / ufn. ru/ ufn60/ ufn60_10/ Russian/ r6010e. pdf). 72 (10): 303321. . [38] Millikan, R.A. (1911). "The Isolation of an Ion, a Precision Measurement of its Charge, and the Correction of Stokes' Law". Physical Review 32 (2): 349397. Bibcode1911PhRvI..32..349M. doi:10.1103/PhysRevSeriesI.32.349. [39] Das Gupta, N.N.; Ghosh, S.K. (1999). "A Report on the Wilson Cloud Chamber and Its Applications in Physics". Reviews of Modern Physics 18: 225290. Bibcode1946RvMP...18..225G. doi:10.1103/RevModPhys.18.225. [40] Smirnov, B.M. (2003). Physics of Atoms and Ions (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=I1O8WYOcUscC& pg=PA14). Springer. pp.1421. ISBN0-387-95550-X. . [41] Bohr, N. (1922). "Nobel Lecture: The Structure of the Atom" (http:/ / nobelprize. org/ nobel_prizes/ physics/ laureates/ 1922/ bohr-lecture. pdf). The Nobel Foundation. . Retrieved 2008-12-03. [42] Lewis, G.N. (1916). "The Atom and the Molecule". Journal of the American Chemical Society 38 (4): 762786. doi:10.1021/ja02261a002. [43] Arabatzis, T.; Gavroglu, K. (1997). "The chemists' electron". European Journal of Physics 18: 150163. Bibcode1997EJPh...18..150A. doi:10.1088/0143-0807/18/3/005. [44] Langmuir, I. (1919). "The Arrangement of Electrons in Atoms and Molecules". Journal of the American Chemical Society 41 (6): 868934. doi:10.1021/ja02227a002. [45] Scerri, E.R. (2007). The Periodic Table (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=SNRdGWCGt1UC& pg=PA205). Oxford University Press. pp.205226. ISBN0-19-530573-6. . [46] Massimi, M. (2005). Pauli's Exclusion Principle, The Origin and Validation of a Scientific Principle (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=YS91Gsbd13cC& pg=PA7). Cambridge University Press. pp.78. ISBN0-521-83911-4. . [47] Uhlenbeck, G.E.; Goudsmith, S. (1925). "Ersetzung der Hypothese vom unmechanischen Zwang durch eine Forderung bezglich des inneren Verhaltens jedes einzelnen Elektrons". Die Naturwissenschaften 13 (47). Bibcode1925NW.....13..953E. doi:10.1007/BF01558878.

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(German)
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Bibcode2004PhST..109...61D. doi:10.1238/Physica.Topical.109a00061. [160] Staff (April 4, 1975). "Image # L-1975-02972" (http:/ / grin. hq. nasa. gov/ ABSTRACTS/ GPN-2000-003012. html). Langley Research Center, NASA. . Retrieved 2008-09-20. [161] Elmer, J. (March 3, 2008). "Standardizing the Art of Electron-Beam Welding" (https:/ / www. llnl. gov/ str/ MarApr08/ elmer. html). Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory. . Retrieved 2008-10-16. [162] Schultz, H. (1993). Electron Beam Welding (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=I0xMo28DwcIC& pg=PA2). Woodhead Publishing. pp.23. ISBN1-85573-050-2. . [163] Benedict, G.F. (1987). Nontraditional Manufacturing Processes (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=xdmNVSio8jUC& pg=PA273). Manufacturing engineering and materials processing. 19. CRC Press. p.273. ISBN0-8247-7352-7. . [164] Ozdemir, F.S. (June 2527, 1979). "Electron beam lithography" (http:/ / portal. acm. org/ citation. cfm?id=800292. 811744). Proceedings of the 16th Conference on Design automation. San Diego, CA, USA: IEEE Press. pp.383391. . Retrieved 2008-10-16. [165] Madou, M.J. (2002). Fundamentals of Microfabrication: the Science of Miniaturization (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=9bk3gJeQKBYC& pg=PA53) (2nd ed.). CRC Press. pp.5354. ISBN0-8493-0826-7. . [166] Jongen, Y.; Herer, A. (May 25, 1996). "Electron Beam Scanning in Industrial Applications". APS/AAPT Joint Meeting. American Physical Society. Bibcode1996APS..MAY.H9902J. [167] Beddar, A.S. (2001). "Mobile linear accelerators for intraoperative radiation therapy" (http:/ / findarticles. com/ p/ articles/ mi_m0FSL/ is_/ ai_81161386). AORN Journal 74: 700. doi:10.1016/S0001-2092(06)61769-9. . Retrieved 2008-10-26. [168] Gazda, M.J.; Coia, L.R. (June 1, 2007). "Principles of Radiation Therapy" (http:/ / www. cancernetwork. com/ cancer-management/ chapter02/ article/ 10165/ 1165822). Cancer Network. . Retrieved 2008-10-26. [169] The polarization of an electron beam means that the spins of all electrons point into one direction. In other words, the projections of the spins of all electrons onto their momentum vector have the same sign.

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[170] Chao, A.W.; Tigner, M. (1999). Handbook of Accelerator Physics and Engineering (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=Z3J4SjftF1YC& pg=PA155). World Scientific. pp.155, 188. ISBN981-02-3500-3. . [171] Oura, K.; et al. (2003). Surface Science: An Introduction. Springer-Verlag. pp.145. ISBN3-540-00545-5. [172] Ichimiya, A.; Cohen, P.I. (2004). Reflection High-energy Electron Diffraction (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=AUVbPerNxTcC& pg=PA1). Cambridge University Press. p.1. ISBN0-521-45373-9. . [173] Heppell, T.A. (1967). "A combined low energy and reflection high energy electron diffraction apparatus". Journal of Scientific Instruments 44: 686688. Bibcode1967JScI...44..686H. doi:10.1088/0950-7671/44/9/311. [174] McMullan, D. (1993). "Scanning Electron Microscopy: 19281965" (http:/ / www-g. eng. cam. ac. uk/ 125/ achievements/ mcmullan/ mcm. htm). University of Cambridge. . Retrieved 2009-03-23. [175] Slayter, H.S. (1992). Light and electron microscopy (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=LlePVS9oq7MC& pg=PA1). Cambridge University Press. p.1. ISBN0-521-33948-0. . [176] Cember, H. (1996). Introduction to Health Physics (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=obcmBZe9es4C& pg=PA42). McGraw-Hill Professional. pp.4243. ISBN0-07-105461-8. . [177] Erni, R.; et al. (2009). "Atomic-Resolution Imaging with a Sub-50-pm Electron Probe". Physical Review Letters 102 (9): 096101. Bibcode2009PhRvL.102i6101E. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.102.096101. PMID19392535. [178] Bozzola, J.J.; Russell, L.D. (1999). Electron Microscopy: Principles and Techniques for Biologists (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=RqSMzR-IXk0C& pg=PA12). Jones & Bartlett Publishers. pp.12, 197199. ISBN0-7637-0192-0. . [179] Flegler, S.L.; Heckman Jr., J.W.; Klomparens, K.L. (1995). Scanning and Transmission Electron Microscopy: An Introduction (Reprint ed.). Oxford University Press. pp.4345. ISBN0-19-510751-9. [180] Bozzola, J.J.; Russell, L.D. (1999). Electron Microscopy: Principles and Techniques for Biologists (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=RqSMzR-IXk0C& pg=PA9) (2nd ed.). Jones & Bartlett Publishers. p.9. ISBN0-7637-0192-0. . [181] Freund, H.P.; Antonsen, T. (1996). Principles of Free-Electron Lasers (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=73w9tqTgbiIC& pg=PA1). Springer. pp.130. ISBN0-412-72540-1. . [182] Kitzmiller, J.W. (1995). Television Picture Tubes and Other Cathode-Ray Tubes: Industry and Trade Summary. DIANE Publishing. pp.35. ISBN0-7881-2100-6. [183] Sclater, N. (1999). Electronic Technology Handbook. McGraw-Hill Professional. pp.227228. ISBN0-07-058048-0. [184] Staff (2008). "The History of the Integrated Circuit" (http:/ / nobelprize. org/ educational_games/ physics/ integrated_circuit/ history/ ). The Nobel Foundation. . Retrieved 2008-10-18.

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References External links

"The Discovery of the Electron" (http://www.aip.org/history/electron/). American Institute of Physics, Center for History of Physics. "Particle Data Group" (http://pdg.lbl.gov/). University of California. Bock, R.K.; Vasilescu, A. (1998). The Particle Detector BriefBook (http://physics.web.cern.ch/Physics/ ParticleDetector/BriefBook/) (14th ed.). Springer. ISBN3-540-64120-3.

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Chemical element
A chemical element is a pure chemical substance consisting of one type of atom distinguished by its atomic number, which is the number of protons in its nucleus.[1] Familiar examples of elements include gold, iron, copper, carbon, silicon, mercury, sodium, calcium, hydrogen, nitrogen, chlorine, and neon. As of May 2011, 118 elements have been identified, the latest being ununoctium in 2002.[2] Of the 118 The periodic table of the chemical elements known elements, only the first 94 are believed to occur naturally on Earth. Of these naturally occurring elements, 80 are stable or essentially so, while the others are radioactive, decaying into other, lighter elements over various timescales from hours to billions of years. Additional elements, of higher atomic numbers than those naturally occurring, have been produced technologically in recent decades as the products of nuclear reactions. The properties of the chemical elements are often summarized using the periodic table that organizes the elements by increasing atomic number into rows ("periods") in which the columns ("groups") share recurring ("periodic") physical and chemical properties. Its invention is generally credited to Russian chemist Dmitri Mendeleev in 1869. The universe's naturally occurring chemical elements are thought to have been produced by various cosmic processes, including hydrogen and helium creation during the Big Bang, production of elements as heavy as iron by stellar nucleosynthesis and cosmic-ray spallation, and formation of many heavier elements in supernovae and other cataclysmic cosmic events. While most elements are generally viewed as stable, transformation of one element to another occurs through decay of radioactive elements as well as other nuclear processes such as cosmic ray bombardment and natural nuclear fission of the nuclei of various heavy elements. When two distinct elements are chemically combined, with the atoms held together by chemical bonds, the result is termed a chemical compound. Chemical compounds may be composed of elements combined in exact whole-number ratios of atoms, as in water, table salt, and such minerals as quartz, calcite, and some metal ores. However, chemical bonding of many types of elements may result in the formation of crystalline solids and metallic alloys for which exact chemical formulas do not exist. Most of the solid substance of the Earth is of this latter type: the atoms that are present in the substance of the Earth's crust, mantle, and inner core are combined into chemical compounds of many compositions, but these do not have precise empirical formulas. While all of the 94 naturally occurring elements have been identified in mineral samples from the Earth's crust, only a few elements are found occasionally on Earth as recognizable, relative pure minerals. Among the more common of such "native elements" are copper, silver, gold, carbon (as coal, graphite, or diamonds), sulfur, and mercury. Air is primarily a mixture of gaseous elements, with nitrogen, oxygen, and argon being most abundant. Most of the various elements on Earth are present instead in various mixtures, alloys, and chemical compounds in which the physical and chemical properties of the individual elements are not apparent. Hydrogen and helium are by far the most abundant elements in the universe. However, oxygen is the most abundant element in the Earth's crust, making up almost half of its mass.[3] Although all known chemical matter is composed of these various elements, chemical matter itself constitutes only about 15% of the total matter in the universe. The remainder is dark matter, which is not believed to consist of chemical elements as we know them since it does not

Chemical element contain protons, neutrons or electrons. The history of discovery of the chemical elements began with the numerous primitive human societies that found such native elements as copper and gold, and extracted (smelted) iron and a few other metallic elements from their ores. Alchemists and chemists subsequently identified and characterized many more, with nearly all of the naturally occurring elements known by 1900. Many of the elements, alone or in various combined forms, are essential to various kinds of biological life, with carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, potassium, sodium, and sulfur among the most important. Certain kinds of organisms require particular additional elements, for example the magnesium in chlorophyll in green plants, the calcium in mollusc shells, or the iron in the hemoglobin in vertebrate animals' red blood cells. Humans require recurrent consumption of small or trace amounts of dozens of elements, often included in vitamin and mineral supplements. In human society, almost every element has at least one unique household, commercial, industrial, scientific, or medical use, either in its pure forms or in various chemical compounds, mixtures, alloys, and other substances. Nearly all of the elements through uranium, and also americium, are now available industrially, most to high degrees of purity, except for a few radioactive ones that exist only transiently.

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Description
The lightest of the chemical elements are hydrogen and helium, both created by Big Bang nucleosynthesis during the first 20 minutes of the universe[4] in a ratio of around 3:1 by mass (approximately 12:1 by number of atoms). Almost all other elements found in nature, including some further hydrogen and helium created since then, were made by various natural or (at times) artificial methods of nucleosynthesis. On Earth, small amounts of new atoms are naturally produced in nucleogenic reactions, or in cosmogenic processes, such as cosmic ray spallation. New atoms are also naturally produced on Earth as radiogenic daughter isotopes of ongoing radioactive decay processes such as alpha decay, beta decay, spontaneous fission, cluster decay, and other rarer modes of decay. Of the 94 naturally occurring elements, those with atomic numbers 1 through 40 are all considered to be stable isotopes. Elements with atomic numbers 41 through 82 are apparently stable (except technetium and promethium) but theoretically unstable, or radioactive. The half-lives of elements 41 through 82 are so long however that their radioactive decay has yet to be detected by experiment. These "theoretical radionuclides" have half-lives at least 100 million times longer than the estimated age of the universe. Elements with atomic numbers 83 through 94 are unstable to the point that their radioactive decay can be detected. Some of these elements, notably thorium (atomic number 90) and uranium (atomic number 92), have one or more isotopes with half-lives long enough to survive as remnants of the explosive stellar nucleosynthesis that produced the heavy elements before the formation of our solar system. For example, at over 1.91019 years, over a billion times longer than the current estimated age of the universe, bismuth-209 (atomic number 83) has the longest known alpha decay half-life of any naturally occurring element.[5] [6] The very heaviest elements (those beyond plutonium, atomic number 94) undergo radioactive decay with half-lives so short that they have only been observed as the result of experimental observation. As of 2010, there are 118 known elements (in this context, "known" means observed well enough, even from just a few decay products, to have been differentiated from any other element).[7] [8] Of these 118 elements, 94 occur naturally on Earth. Six of these occur in extreme trace quantities: technetium, atomic number 43; promethium, number 61; astatine, number 85; francium, number 87; neptunium, number 93; and plutonium, number 94. These 94 elements, and also possibly element 98 californium, have been detected in the universe at large, in the spectra of stars and also supernovae, where short-lived radioactive elements are newly being made. The first 94 elements have been detected directly on Earth as naturally-occurring fission or transmutation products of uranium and thorium. Some californium may be present on Earth, but at present, natural californium is only known from supernovae spectra and even there its presence is uncertain (see californium for detail).

Chemical element The remaining 24 heavier elements, not found today either on Earth or in astronomical spectra, have been derived artificially. All of the heavy elements that are derived solely through artificial means are radioactive, with very short half-lives; if any atoms of these elements were present at the formation of Earth, they are extremely likely to have already decayed, and if present in novae, have been in quantities too small to have been noted. Technetium was the first purportedly non-naturally occurring element to be synthesized, in 1937, although trace amounts of technetium have since been found in nature (and also the element may have been discovered naturally in 1925). This pattern of artificial production and later natural discovery has been repeated with several other radioactive, naturally-occurring rare elements. Lists of the elements are available by name, by symbol, by atomic number, by density, by melting point, and by boiling point as well as Ionization energies of the elements. The nuclides of stable and radioactive elements are also available as a list of nuclides, sorted by length of half-life for those that are unstable. One of the most convenient, and certainly the most traditional presentation of the elements, is in form of periodic table, which groups elements with similar chemical properties (and usually also similar electronic structures) together.

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Atomic number
The atomic number of an element, Z, is equal to the number of protons that defines the element. For example, all carbon atoms contain 6 protons in their nucleus; so the atomic number "Z" of carbon is 6. Carbon atoms may have different numbers of neutrons; atoms of the same element having different numbers of neutrons are known as isotopes of the element. The number of protons in the atomic nucleus also determines its electric charge, which in turn determines the number of electrons of the atom in its non-ionized state. The electrons are placed into atomic orbitals which determine the atom's various chemical properties. The number of neutrons in a nucleus usually has very little effect on an elements' chemical properties (except in the case of hydrogen and deuterium). Thus, all carbon isotopes have nearly identical chemical properties because they all have six protons and six electrons, even though carbon atoms may differ in number of neutrons. It is for this reason that atomic number rather than mass number (or atomic weight) is considered the identifying characteristic of a chemical element.

Atomic mass
The mass number of an element, A, is the number of nucleons (protons and neutrons) in the atomic nucleus. Different isotopes of a given element are distinguished by their mass numbers, which are conventionally written as a super-index on the left hand side of the atomic symbol (e.g., 238U). The relative atomic mass of an element is the average of the atomic masses of all the chemical element's isotopes as found in a particular environment, weighted by isotopic abundance, relative to the atomic mass unit (u). This number may be a fraction that is not close to a whole number, due to the averaging process. On the other hand, the atomic mass of a pure isotope is quite close to its mass number. Whereas the mass number is a natural (or whole) number, the atomic mass of a single isotope is a real number that is close to a natural number. In general, it differs slightly from the mass number as the mass of the protons and neutrons is not exactly 1 u, the electrons also contribute slightly to the atomic mass, and because of the nuclear binding energy. For example, the mass of 19F is 18.9984032 u. The only exception to the atomic mass of an isotope not being a natural number is 12C, which has a mass of exactly 12, because u is defined as 1/12 of the mass of a free neutral carbon-12 atom in the ground state.

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Isotopes
Isotopes are atoms of the same element (that is, with the same number of protons in their atomic nucleus), but having different numbers of neutrons. Most (66 of 94) naturally occurring elements have more than one stable isotope. Thus, for example, there are three main isotopes of carbon. All carbon atoms have 6 protons in the nucleus, but they can have either 6, 7, or 8 neutrons. Since the mass numbers of these are 12, 13 and 14 respectively, the three isotopes of carbon are known as carbon-12, carbon-13, and carbon-14, often abbreviated to 12C, 13C, and 14C. Carbon in everyday life and in chemistry is a mixture of 12C, 13C, and 14C atoms. Except in the case of the isotopes of hydrogen (which differ greatly from each other in relative massenough to cause chemical effects), the isotopes of the various elements are typically chemically nearly indistinguishable from each other. For example, the three naturally occurring isotopes of carbon have essentially the same chemical properties, but different nuclear properties. In this example, carbon-12 and carbon-13 are stable atoms, but carbon-14 is unstable; it is radioactive, undergoing beta decay into nitrogen-14. As illustrated by carbon, all of the elements have some isotopes that are radioactive (radioisotopes), which decay into other elements upon radiating an alpha or beta particle. Certain elements only have radioactive isotopes: specifically the elements without any stable isotopes are technetium (atomic number 43), promethium (atomic number 61), and all observed elements with atomic numbers greater than 82. Of the 80 elements with at least one stable isotope, 26 have only one stable isotope, and the mean number of stable isotopes for the 80 stable elements is 3.1 stable isotopes per element. The largest number of stable isotopes that occur for an element is 10 (for tin, element 50).

Allotropes
Atoms of pure elements may bond to each other chemically in more than one way, allowing the pure element to exist in multiple structures (spacial arrangements of atoms), known as allotropes, which differ in their properties. For example, carbon can be found as diamond, which has a tetrahedral structure around each carbon atom; graphite, which has layers of carbon atoms with a hexagonal structure stacked on top of each other; graphene, which is a single layer of graphite that is incredibly strong; fullerenes, which have nearly spherical shapes; and carbon nanotubes, which are tubes with a hexagonal structure (even these may differ from each other in electrical properties). The ability for an element to exist in one of many structural forms is known as 'allotropy'. The standard state, or reference state, of an element is defined as its thermodynamically most stable state at 1 bar at a given temperature (typically at 298.15 K). In thermochemistry, an element is defined to have an enthalpy of formation of zero in its standard state. For example, the reference state for carbon is graphite, because it is more stable than the other allotropes.

Properties
Several kinds of descriptive categorizations can be applied broadly to the elements, including consideration of their general physical and chemical properties, their states of matter under familiar conditions, their melting and boiling points, their densities, their crystal structures as solids, and their origins. General properties Several terms are commonly used to characterize the general physical and chemical properties of the chemical elements. A first distinction is between the metals, which readily conduct electricity, and the nonmetals, which do not, with a small group (the metalloids) having intermediate properties, often behaving as semiconductors. A more refined classification is often shown in colored presentations of the periodic table; this system restricts the terms "metal" and "nonmetal" to only certain of the more broadly defined metals and nonmetals, adding additional terms for certain sets of the more broadly viewed metals and nonmetals. The version of this classification used in the

Chemical element periodic tables presented here includes: actinides, alkali metals, alkaline earth metals, halogens, lanthanides, metals (or "other metals"), metalloids, noble gases, nonmetals (or "other nonmetals"), and transition metals. In this system, the alkali metals, alkaline earth metals, and transition metals, as well as the lanthanides and the actinides, are special groups of the metals viewed in a broader sense. Similarly, the halogens and the noble gases are nonmetals, viewed in the broader sense. In some presentations, the halogens are not distinguished, with astatine identified as a metalloid and the others identified as nonmetals. States of matter Another commonly used basic distinction among the elements is their state of matter (phase), solid, liquid, or gas, at a selected standard temperature and pressure (STP). Most of the elements are solids at conventional temperatures and atmospheric pressure, while several are gases. Only bromine and mercury are liquids at 0 degrees Celsius (32 degrees Fahrenheit) and normal atmospheric pressure; caesium and gallium are solids at that temperature, but melt at 28.4C (83.2F) and 29.8C (85.6F) respectively. Melting and boiling points Melting and boiling points, typically expressed in degrees Celsius at a pressure of one atmosphere, are commonly used in characterizing the various elements. While known for most elements, either or both of these measurements is still undetermined for some of the radioactive elements available in only tiny quantities. Since helium remains a liquid even at absolute zero at atmospheric pressure, it has only a boiling point, and not a melting point, in conventional presentations. Densities The density at a selected standard temperature and pressure (STP) is frequently used in characterizing the elements. Density is often expressed in grams per cubic centimeter (g/cm3). Since several elements are gases at commonly encountered temperatures, their densities are usually stated for their gaseous forms; when liquefied or solidified, the gaseous elements have densities similar to those of the other elements. When an element has allotropes with different densities, one representative allotrope is typically selected in summary presentations, while densities for each allotrope can be stated where more detail is provided. For example, the three familiar allotropes of carbon (amorphous carbon, graphite, and diamond) have densities of 1.8-2.1, 2.267, and 3.515 g/cm3 respectively. Crystal structures The elements studied to date as solid samples have eight kinds of crystal structures: cubic, body-centered cubic, face-centered cubic, hexagonal, monoclinic, orthorhombic, rhombohedral, and tetragonal. For some of the synthetically produced transuranic elements, available samples have been too small to determine crystal structures. Origins The elements may also be categorized by their origins, with the first 94 considered naturally occurring, and those with atomic numbers beyond 94 being synthetic (produced technologically, but not known to occur naturally). Of the naturally occurring elements, 84 are considered primordial, either stable or long-persisting, and the remaining 10 transient, produced either recurrently or incidentally as decay products or through other nuclear processes, but not themselves long-persisting. The 91 regularly occurring natural elements include the 80 stable or essentially stable, primordial elements (from hydrogen through lead, omitting technetium and promethium); bismuth, thorium, uranium, and plutonium (radioactive but still remaining from primordial times); and the 7 transiently existing but recurrently produced decay products of thorium, uranium, and plutonium (polonium, astatine, radon, francium, radium, actinium, and protactinium). Three additional naturally occurring elements, technetium, promethium, and neptunium, are only incidentally occurring, present in natural materials only as transiently existing atoms produced

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Chemical element from uranium or other heavy elements by rare nuclear processes. Note that helium is recurrently produced naturally from radioactive decay, but little if any primordial helium still exists at the Earth's surface, since this light gas readily escapes from the atmosphere into outer space.

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The periodic table

The properties of the chemical elements are often summarized using the periodic table, which powerfully and elegantly organizes the elements by increasing atomic number into rows ("periods") in which the columns ("groups") share recurring ("periodic") physical and chemical properties. The current standard table contains 118 confirmed elements as of April 10, 2010. Although earlier precursors to this presentation exist, its invention is generally credited to Russian chemist Dmitri Mendeleev in 1869, who intended the table to illustrate recurring trends in the properties of the elements. The layout of the table has been refined and extended over time, as new elements have been discovered, and new theoretical models have been developed to explain chemical behavior. Use of the periodic table is now ubiquitous within the academic discipline of chemistry, providing an extremely useful framework to classify, systematize and compare all the many different forms of chemical behavior. The table has also found wide application in physics, geology, biology, materials science, engineering, agriculture, medicine, nutrition, environmental health, and astronomy. Its principles are especially important in chemical engineering.

Nomenclature and symbols

The various chemical elements are formally identified by their unique atomic numbers, by their accepted names, and by their symbols.

Atomic numbers
The known elements have atomic numbers from 1 through 118, conventionally presented as Arabic numerals. Since the elements can be uniquely sequenced by atomic number, conventionally from lowest to hightest (as in a periodic table), sets of elements are sometimes specified by such notation as "through", "beyond", or "from ... through", as in "through iron", "beyond uranium", or "from lanthanum through lutetium". The terms "light" and "heavy" are sometimes also used informally to indicate relative atomic numbers (not densities!), as in "lighter than carbon" or "heavier than lead", although technically the weight or mass of atoms of an element (their atomic weights or atomic masses) do not always increase monotonically with their atomic numbers.

Element names
The naming of various substances now known as elements precedes the atomic theory of matter, as names were given locally by various cultures to various minerals, metals, compounds, alloys, mixtures, and other materials, although at the time it was not known which chemicals were elements and which compounds. As they were identified as elements, the existing names for anciently-known elements (e.g., gold, mercury, iron) were kept in most countries. National differences emerged over the names of elements either for convenience, linguistic niceties, or nationalism. For a few illustrative examples: German speakers use "Wasserstoff" (water substance) for "hydrogen", "Sauerstoff" (acid substance) for "oxygen" and "Stickstoff" (smothering substance) for "nitrogen", while English and some romance languages use "sodium" for "natrium" and "potassium" for "kalium", and the French, Italians, Greeks, Portuguese and Poles prefer "azote/azot/azoto" (from roots meaning "no life") for "nitrogen". For purposes of international communication and trade, the official names of the chemical elements both ancient and more recently recognized are decided by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC), which has decided on a sort of international English language, drawing on traditional English names even when an element's chemical symbol is based on a Latin or other traditional word, for example adopting "gold" rather than

Chemical element "aurum" as the name for the 79th element (Au). IUPAC prefers the British spellings "aluminium" and "caesium" over the U.S. spellings "aluminum" and "cesium", and the U.S. "sulfur" over the British "sulphur". However, elements that are practical to sell in bulk in many countries often still have locally used national names, and countries whose national language does not use the Latin alphabet are likely to use the IUPAC element names. According to IUPAC, chemical elements are not proper nouns in English; consequently, the full name of an element is not routinely capitalized in English, even if derived from a proper noun, as in californium and einsteinium. Isotope names of chemical elements are also uncapitalized if written out, e.g., carbon-12 or uranium-235. In the second half of the twentieth century, physics laboratories became able to produce nuclei of chemical elements with half-lives too short for an appreciable amount of them to exist at any time. These are also named by IUPAC, which generally adopts the name chosen by the discoverer. This practice can lead to the controversial question of which research group actually discovered an element, a question that has delayed naming of elements with atomic number of 104 and higher for a considerable time. (See element naming controversy). Precursors of such controversies involved the nationalistic namings of elements in the late 19th century. For example, lutetium was named in reference to Paris, France. The Germans were reluctant to relinquish naming rights to the French, often calling it cassiopeium. Similarly, the British discoverer of niobium originally named it columbium, in reference to the New World. It was used extensively as such by American publications prior to international standardization.

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Chemical symbols
Specific chemical elements Before chemistry became a science, alchemists had designed arcane symbols for both metals and common compounds. These were however used as abbreviations in diagrams or procedures; there was no concept of atoms combining to form molecules. With his advances in the atomic theory of matter, John Dalton devised his own simpler symbols, based on circles, which were to be used to depict molecules. The current system of chemical notation was invented by Berzelius. In this typographical system chemical symbols are not used as mere abbreviations though each consists of letters of the Latin alphabet they are symbols intended to be used by peoples of all languages and alphabets. The first of these symbols were intended to be fully universal; since Latin was the common language of science at that time, they were abbreviations based on the Latin names of metals Cu comes from Cuprum, Fe comes from Ferrum, Ag from Argentum. The symbols were not followed by a period (full stop) as abbreviations were. Later chemical elements were also assigned unique chemical symbols, based on the name of the element, but not necessarily in English. For example, sodium has the chemical symbol 'Na' after the Latin natrium. The same applies to "W" (wolfram) for tungsten, "Fe" (ferrum) for Iron, "Hg" (hydrargyrum) for mercury, "Sn" (stannum) for tin, "K" (kalium) for potassium, "Au" (aurum) for gold, "Ag" (argentum) for silver, "Pb" (plumbum) for lead, and "Sb" (stibium) for antimony. Chemical symbols are understood internationally when element names might need to be translated. There are sometimes differences; for example, the Germans have used "J" instead of "I" for iodine, so the character would not be confused with a roman numeral. The first letter of a chemical symbol is always capitalized, as in the preceding examples, and the subsequent letters, if any, are always lower case (small letters). Thus, the symbols for californium or einsteinium are Cf and Es.

Chemical element General chemical symbols There are also symbols for series of chemical elements, for comparative formulas. These are one capital letter in length, and the letters are reserved so they are not permitted to be given for the names of specific elements. For example, an "X" is used to indicate a variable group amongst a class of compounds (though usually a halogen), while "R" is used for a radical, meaning a compound structure such as a hydrocarbon chain. The letter "Q" is reserved for "heat" in a chemical reaction. "Y" is also often used as a general chemical symbol, although it is also the symbol of yttrium. "Z" is also frequently used as a general variable group. "L" is used to represent a general ligand in inorganic and organometallic chemistry. "M" is also often used in place of a general metal. At least one additional, two-letter generic chemical symbol is also in informal usage, "Ln" for any lanthanide element. Isotope symbols Isotopes are distinguished by the atomic mass number (total protons and neutrons) for a particular isotope of an element, with this number combined with the pertinent element's symbol. IUPAC prefers that isotope symbols be written in superscript notation when practical, for example 12C and 235U. However, other notations, such as carbon-12 and uranium-235, or C-12 and U-235, are also used. As a special case, the three naturally occurring isotopes of the element hydrogen are often specified as H for 1H (protium), D for 2H (deuterium), and T for 3H (tritium). This convention is easier to use in chemical equations, replacing the need to write out the mass number for each atom. For example, the formula for heavy water may be written D2O instead of 2H2O.

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Chemical element

140

Origin of the elements

Only about 4% of the total mass of the universe is made of atoms or ions, and thus represented by chemical elements. This fraction is about 15% of the total matter, with the remainder of the matter (85%) being dark matter. The nature of dark matter is unknown, but it is not composed of atoms of chemical elements because it contains no protons, neutrons, or electrons. (The remaining non-matter part of the mass of the universe is composed of the even more mysterious dark energy). The universe's 94 naturally occurring chemical elements are thought to have been produced by at least four cosmic processes. Most of the hydrogen and helium in the universe was produced primordially in the first few minutes of the Big Bang. Three recurrently occurring later processes are thought to have produced the remaining elements. Stellar nucleosynthesis, an ongoing process, produces all elements from carbon through iron in atomic number, but little lithium, beryllium, or boron. Elements heavier in atomic number than iron, as heavy as uranium and plutonium, are produced by explosive nucleosynthesis in supernovas and other cataclysmic cosmic events. Cosmic ray spallation (fragmentation) of carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen is important to the production of lithium, beryllium and boron.

Estimated distribution of dark matter and dark energy in the universe. Only the fraction of the mass and energy in the universe labeled "atoms" is composed of chemical elements.

During the early phases of the Big Bang, nucleosynthesis of hydrogen nuclei resulted in the production of hydrogen-1 (protonium, 1H) and helium-4 (4He), as well as a smaller amount of deuterium (2H) and very minuscule amounts (on the order of 1010) of lithium and beryllium. Even smaller amounts of boron may have been produced in the Big Bang, since it has been observed in some very old stars, while carbon has not.[9] It is generally agreed that no heavier elements than boron were produced in the Big Bang. As a result, the primordial abundance of atoms (or ions) consisted of roughly 75% 1H, 25% 4He, and 0.01% deuterium, with only tiny traces of lithium, beryllium, and perhaps boron.[10] Subsequent enrichment of galactic halos occurred due to stellar nucleosynthesis and supernova nucleosynthesis.[11] However, the element abundance in intergalactic space can still closely resemble primordial conditions, unless it has been enriched by some means. On Earth (and elsewhere), trace amounts of various elements continue to be produced from other elements as products of natural transmutation processes. These include some produced by cosmic rays or other nuclear reactions (see cosmogenic and nucleogenic nuclides), and others produced as decay products of long-lived primordial nuclides.[12] For example, trace (but detectable) amounts of carbon-14 (14C) are continually produced in the atmosphere by cosmic rays impacting nitrogen atoms, and argon-40 (40Ar) is continually produced by the decay of primordially occurring but unstable potassium-40 (40K). Also, three primordially occurring but radioactive actinides, thorium, uranium, and plutonium, decay through a series of recurrently produced but unstable radioactive elements such as radium and radon, which are transiently present in any sample of these metals or their ores or compounds. Three other radioactive elements, technetium, promethium, and neptunium, occur only incidentally in natural

Chemical element materials, produced as individual atoms by natural fission of the nuclei of various heavy elements or in other rare nuclear processses. Human technology has produced various additional elements beyond these first 94, with those through atomic number 118 now known.

141

Abundance
The following graph (note log scale) shows abundance of elements in our solar system. The table shows the twelve most common elements in our galaxy (estimated spectroscopically), as measured in parts per million, by mass.[13] Nearby galaxies that have evolved along similar lines have a corresponding enrichment of elements heavier than hydrogen and helium. The more distant galaxies are being viewed as they appeared in the past, so their abundances of elements appear closer to the primordial mixture. As physical laws and processes appear common throughout the visible universe, however, it is expected that these galaxies will likewise have evolved similar abundances of elements.

Abundances of the chemical elements in the Solar system. Hydrogen and helium are most common, from the Big Bang. The next three elements (Li, Be, B) are rare because they are poorly synthesized in the Big Bang and also in stars. The two general trends in the remaining stellar-produced elements are: (1) an alternation of abundance in elements as they have even or odd atomic numbers, and (2) a general decrease in abundance, as elements become heavier.

Element

Parts per million by mass 739,000 240,000 10,400 4,600 1,340 1,090 960 650

Hydrogen Helium Oxygen Carbon Neon Iron Nitrogen Silicon

Magnesium 580 Sulfur Potassium Nickel 440 210 100

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History
Evolving definitions
The concept of an "element" as an undivisible substance has developed through three major historical phases: Classical definitions (such as those of the ancient Greeks), chemical definitions, and atomic definitions. Classical definitions Ancient philosophy posited a set of classical elements to explain observed patterns in nature. These elements originally referred to earth, water, air and fire rather than the chemical elements of modern science. The term 'elements' (stoicheia) was first used by the Greek philosopher Plato in about 360 BCE, in his dialogue Timaeus, which includes a discussion of the composition of inorganic and organic bodies and is a speculative treatise on chemistry. Plato believed the elements introduced a century earlier by Empedocles were composed of small polyhedral forms: tetrahedron (fire), octahedron (air), icosahedron (water), and cube (earth).[14] [15]

Mendeleev's 1869 periodic table

Aristotle, c. 350 BCE, also used the term stoicheia and added a fifth element called aether, which formed the heavens. Aristotle defined an element as: Element one of those bodies into which other bodies can decompose, and that itself is not capable of being divided into other.[16] Chemical definitions In 1661, chemist Robert Boyle showed that there were more than just the four classical elements that the ancients had assumed.[17] The first modern list of chemical elements was given in Antoine Lavoisier's 1789 Elements of Chemistry, which contained thirty-three elements, including light and caloric.[18] By 1818, Jns Jakob Berzelius had determined atomic weights for forty-five of the forty-nine then-accepted accepted elements. Dmitri Mendeleev had sixty-six elements in his periodic table of 1869. From Boyle until the early 20th century, an element was defined as a pure substance that could not be decomposed into any simpler substance.[17] Put another way, a chemical element cannot be transformed into other chemical elements by chemical processes. Elements during this time were generally distinguished by their atomic weights, a property measurable with fair accuracy by available analytical techniques.

Chemical element Atomic definitions The 1913 discovery by Henry Moseley that the nuclear charge is the physical basis for an atom's atomic number, further refined when the nature of protons and neutrons became appreciated, eventually led to the current definition of an element, based on atomic number (number of protons per atomic nucleus). The use of atomic numbers, rather than atomic weights, to distinguish elements has greater predictive value (since these numbers are integers), and also resolves some ambiguities in the chemistry-based view due to varying properties of isotopes and allotropes within the same element. Currently IUPAC defines an element to exist if it has isotopes with a lifetime longer than the 1014 seconds which takes the nucleus to form an electronic cloud.[19] By 1914, seventy-two elements were known, all naturally occurring.[20] The remaining naturally occurring elements were discovered or isolated is subsequent decades, and various additional elements have also been produced synthetically, with much of that work pioneered by Glenn T. Seaborg. In 1955, element 101 was discovered and named mendelevium in honor of D.I. Mendeleev, the first to arrange the elements in a periodic manner. Most recently, the synthesis of element 118 was reported in October 2006, and the synthesis of element 117 was reported in April 2010.[21]

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Discovery and recognition of various elements

Ten materials familiar to various prehistoric cultures are now known to be chemical elements: Carbon, copper, gold, iron, lead, mercury, silver, sulfur, tin, and zinc. Three additional materials now accepted as elements, arsenic, antimony, and bismuth, were recognized as distinct substances prior to 1500 AD. Phosphorus, cobalt, and platinum were isolated before 1750. Most of the remaining naturally occurring chemical elements were identified and characterized by 1900, including: Such now-familiar industrial materials as aluminum, silicon, nickel, chromium, magnesium, and tungsten Reactive metals such as lithium, sodium, potassium, and calcium The halogens fluorine, chlorine, bromine, and iodine Gases such as hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, helium, argon, and neon Most of the rare-earth elements, including cerium, lanthanum, gadolinium, and neodymium, and The more common radioactive elements, including uranium, thorium, radium, and radon

Elements isolated or produced since 1900 include: The three remaining undiscovered regularly occurring stable natural elements: hafnium, lutetium, and rhenium Plutonium, first produced synthetically but now also known from a few long-persisting natural occurrences The three incidentally occurring natural elements (neptunium, promethium, and technetium), all first produced synthetically but later discovered in trace amounts in certain geological samples Three scarcer decay products of uranium or thorium (astatine, francium, and protactinium), Various synthetic transuranic elements, beginning with americium, curium, berkelium, and californium

Recently discovered elements

The first transuranium element (element with atomic number greater than 92) discovered was neptunium in 1940. As of February 2010, only the elements up to 112, copernicium, have been confirmed as discovered by IUPAC, while claims have been made for synthesis of elements 113, 114, 115, 116, 117[22] and 118. The discovery of element 112 was acknowledged in 2009, and the name 'copernicium' and the atomic symbol 'Cn' were suggested for it.[23] The name and symbol were officially endorsed by IUPAC on February 19, 2010.[24] The heaviest element that is believed to have been synthesized to date is element 118, ununoctium, on October 9, 2006, by the Flerov Laboratory of Nuclear Reactions in Dubna, Russia.[8] [25] Element 117 was the latest element claimed to be discovered, in 2009.[22] IUPAC officially recognized ununquadium and ununhexium, elements 114 and 116, in June 2011.[26]

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List of the 118 known chemical elements

The following sortable table includes the 118 known chemical elements, with the names linking to the Wikipedia articles on each. Atomic number, name, and symbol all serve independently as unique identifiers. Names are those accepted by IUPAC; provisional names for recently produced elements not yet formally named are in parentheses. Group, period, and block refer to an element's position in the periodic table. State of matter (solid, liquid, or gas) applies at standard temperature and pressure conditions (STP). Occurrence distinguishes naturally occurring elements, categorized as either primordial or transient (from decay), and additional synthetic elements that have been produced technologically, but are not known to occur naturally. Description summarizes an element's properties using the broad categories commonly presented in periodic tables: Actinide, alkali metal, alkaline earth metal, halogen, lanthanide, metal, metalloid, noble gas, non-metal, and transition metal.

List of elements
Atomic no. Name Symbol Group Period Block State at STP Gas Gas Solid Solid Solid Solid Gas Gas Gas Gas Solid Solid Solid Solid Solid Solid Gas Gas Solid Solid Solid Solid Solid Occurrence Description

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23

Hydrogen Helium Lithium Beryllium Boron Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen Fluorine Neon Sodium Magnesium Aluminium Silicon Phosphorus Sulfur Chlorine Argon Potassium Calcium Scandium Titanium Vanadium

H He Li Be B C N O F Ne Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar K Ca Sc Ti V

1 18 1 2 13 14 15 16 17 18 1 2 13 14 15 16 17 18 1 2 3 4 5

1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 4 4

s s s s p p p p p p s s p p p p p p s s d d d

Primordial Primordial Primordial Primordial Primordial Primordial Primordial Primordial Primordial Primordial Primordial Primordial Primordial Primordial Primordial Primordial Primordial Primordial Primordial Primordial Primordial Primordial Primordial

Non-metal Noble gas Alkali metal Alkaline earth metal Metalloid Non-metal Non-metal Non-metal Halogen Noble gas Alkali metal Alkaline earth metal Metal Metalloid Non-metal Non-metal Halogen Noble gas Alkali metal Alkaline earth metal Transition metal Transition metal Transition metal

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145
24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 Chromium Manganese Iron Cobalt Nickel Copper Zinc Gallium Germanium Arsenic Selenium Bromine Krypton Rubidium Strontium Yttrium Zirconium Niobium Molybdenum Technetium Ruthenium Rhodium Palladium Silver Cadmium Indium Tin Antimony Tellurium Iodine Xenon Caesium Barium Lanthanum Cerium Praseodymium Neodymium Promethium Samarium Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe Cs Ba La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 1 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 d d d d d d d p p p p p p s s d d d d d d d d d d p p p p p p s s f f f f f f Solid Solid Solid Solid Solid Solid Solid Solid Solid Solid Solid Liquid Gas Solid Solid Solid Solid Solid Solid Solid Solid Solid Solid Solid Solid Solid Solid Solid Solid Solid Gas Solid Solid Solid Solid Solid Solid Solid Solid Primordial Primordial Primordial Primordial Primordial Primordial Primordial Primordial Primordial Primordial Primordial Primordial Primordial Primordial Primordial Primordial Primordial Primordial Primordial Transient Primordial Primordial Primordial Primordial Primordial Primordial Primordial Primordial Primordial Primordial Primordial Primordial Primordial Primordial Primordial Primordial Primordial Transient Primordial Transition metal Transition metal Transition metal Transition metal Transition metal Transition metal Transition metal Metal Metalloid Metalloid Non-metal Halogen Noble gas Alkali metal Alkaline earth metal Transition metal Transition metal Transition metal Transition metal Transition metal Transition metal Transition metal Transition metal Transition metal Transition metal Metal Metal Metalloid Metalloid Halogen Noble gas Alkali metal Alkaline earth metal Lanthanide Lanthanide Lanthanide Lanthanide Lanthanide Lanthanide

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146
63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 Europium Gadolinium Terbium Dysprosium Holmium Erbium Thulium Ytterbium Lutetium Hafnium Tantalum Tungsten Rhenium Osmium Iridium Platinum Gold Mercury Thallium Lead Bismuth Polonium Astatine Radon Francium Radium Actinium Thorium Protactinium Uranium Neptunium Plutonium Americium Curium Berkelium Californium Einsteinium Fermium Mendelevium Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn Fr Ra Ac Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 1 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 f f f f f f f f d d d d d d d d d d p p p p p p s s f f f f f f f f f f f f f Solid Solid Solid Solid Solid Solid Solid Solid Solid Solid Solid Solid Solid Solid Solid Solid Solid Liquid Solid Solid Solid Solid Solid Gas Solid Solid Solid Solid Solid Solid Solid Solid Solid Solid Solid Solid Solid Solid Solid Primordial Primordial Primordial Primordial Primordial Primordial Primordial Primordial Primordial Primordial Primordial Primordial Primordial Primordial Primordial Primordial Primordial Primordial Primordial Primordial Primordial Transient Transient Transient Transient Transient Transient Primordial Transient Primordial Transient Primordial Synthetic Synthetic Synthetic Synthetic Synthetic Synthetic Synthetic Lanthanide Lanthanide Lanthanide Lanthanide Lanthanide Lanthanide Lanthanide Lanthanide Lanthanide Transition metal Transition metal Transition metal Transition metal Transition metal Transition metal Transition metal Transition metal Transition metal Metal Metal Metal Metalloid Halogen Noble gas Alkali metal Alkaline earth metal Actinide Actinide Actinide Actinide Actinide Actinide Actinide Actinide Actinide Actinide Actinide Actinide Actinide

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147
102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118 Nobelium Lawrencium Rutherfordium Dubnium Seaborgium Bohrium Hassium Meitnerium Darmstadtium Roentgenium Copernicium (Ununtrium) No Lr Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cn Uut 3 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 f d d d d d d d d d d p p p p p p Solid Solid Synthetic Synthetic Synthetic Synthetic Synthetic Synthetic Synthetic Synthetic Synthetic Synthetic Synthetic Synthetic Synthetic Synthetic Synthetic Synthetic Synthetic Transition metal Actinide Actinide Transition metal Transition metal Transition metal Transition metal Transition metal

(Ununquadium) Uuq (Ununpentium) Uup (Ununhexium) (Ununseptium) (Ununoctium) Uuh Uus Uuo

References
[1] IUPAC, Compendium of Chemical Terminology, 2nd ed. (the "Gold Book") (1997). Online corrected version: (2006) " chemical element (http:/ / goldbook. iupac. org/ C01022. html)". [2] Oganessian, YT (2007). "Heaviest nuclei from 48Ca-induced reactions" (http:/ / www. icpress. co. uk/ etextbook/ p573/ p573_chap01. pdf). Journal of Physics G: Nuclear and Particle Physics 34 (4): R165R242. Bibcode2007JPhG...34..165O. doi:10.1088/0954-3899/34/4/R01. . Retrieved 2011-05-07. [3] Los Alamos National Laboratory (2011). "Periodic Table of Elements: Oxygen" (http:/ / periodic. lanl. gov/ 8. shtml). Los Alamos, New Mexico: Los Alamos National Security, LLC. . Retrieved 2011-05-07. [4] See the timeline on p.10 of Gaitskell, R.; et al. (2006). "Evidence for Dark Matter" (http:/ / gaitskell. brown. edu/ physics/ talks/ 0408_SLAC_SummerSchool/ Gaitskell_DMEvidence_v16. pdf). Physical Review C 74 (4): 044602. Bibcode2006PhRvC..74d4602O. doi:10.1103/PhysRevC.74.044602. . [5] Dum, Belle (2003-04-23). "Bismuth breaks half-life record for alpha decay" (http:/ / physicsweb. org/ articles/ news/ 7/ 4/ 16). Physicsworld.com (Bristol, England: Institute of Physics). . Retrieved 2011-05-07. [6] Marcillac, Pierre de; Nol Coron, Grard Dambier, Jacques Leblanc, and Jean-Pierre Moalic (2003). "Experimental detection of alpha-particles from the radioactive decay of natural bismuth". Nature 422 (6934): 8768. Bibcode2003Natur.422..876D. doi:10.1038/nature01541. PMID12712201. [7] Sanderson, K. (17 October 2006). "Heaviest element made again" (http:/ / www. nature. com/ news/ 2006/ 061016/ full/ 061016-4. html). Nature News. doi:10.1038/news061016-4. . [8] Schewe, P.; Stein, B. (17 October 2006). "Elements 116 and 118 Are Discovered" (http:/ / www. aip. org/ pnu/ 2006/ 797. html). Physics News Update. American Institute of Physics. . Retrieved 2006-10-19. [9] Wilford, J.N. (14 January 1992). "Hubble Observations Bring Some Surprises" (http:/ / query. nytimes. com/ gst/ fullpage. html?res=9E0CE5D91F3AF937A25752C0A964958260). New York Times. . [10] Wright, E.L. (12 September 2004). "Big Bang Nucleosynthesis" (http:/ / www. astro. ucla. edu/ ~wright/ BBNS. html). UCLA, Division of Astronomy. . Retrieved 2007-02-22. [11] Wallerstein, G.; et al. (1999). "Synthesis of the elements in stars: forty years of progress" (http:/ / www. cococubed. com/ papers/ wallerstein97. pdf). Reviews of Modern Physics 69 (4): 9951084. Bibcode1997RvMP...69..995W. doi:10.1103/RevModPhys.69.995. . [12] Earnshaw, A; Greenwood, N (1997). Chemistry of the Elements (2nd ed.). Butterworth-Heinemann. [13] Croswell, K. (1996). Alchemy of the Heavens (http:/ / kencroswell. com/ alchemy. html). Anchor. ISBN0-385-47214-5. . [14] Plato (2008) [c. 360 BC]. Timaeus (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=xSjvowNydN8C& lpg=PP1& dq=Plato timaeus& pg=PA45#v=onepage& q=cube& f=false). Forgotten Books. p.45. ISBN978-1606200186. .

Chemical element
[15] Hillar, M. (2004). "The Problem of the Soul in Aristotle's De anima" (http:/ / www. socinian. org/ aristotles_de_anima. html). NASA/WMAP. . Retrieved 2006-08-10. [16] Partington, J.R. (1937). A Short History of Chemistry. New York: Dover Publications. ISBN0486659771. [17] Boyle, R. (1661). The Sceptical Chymist. London. ISBN0922802904. [18] Lavoisier, A.L. (1790). Elements of chemistry translated by Robert Kerr (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=4BzAjCpEK4gC& pg=PA175). Edinburgh. pp.175176. ISBN9780415179140. . [19] http:/ / www. kernchemie. de/ Transactinides/ Transactinide-2/ transactinide-2. html [20] Carey, G.W. (1914). The Chemistry of Human Life. Los Angeles. ISBN0766128407. [21] Glanz, J. (6 April 2010). "Scientists Discover Heavy New Element" (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2010/ 04/ 07/ science/ 07element. html?hp). New York Times. . [22] W., Greiner. "Recommendations" (http:/ / www. jinr. ru/ img_sections/ PAC/ NP/ 31/ PAK_NP_31_recom_eng. pdf). 31st meeting, PAC for Nuclear Physics. Joint Institute for Nuclear Research. . [23] "IUPAC Announces Start of the Name Approval Process for the Element of Atomic Number 112" (http:/ / media. iupac. org/ news/ 112_Naming_Process_20090720. pdf). IUPAC. 20 July 2009. . Retrieved 2009-08-27. [24] "IUPAC (International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry): Element 112 is Named Copernicium" (http:/ / www. iupac. org/ web/ nt/ 2010-02-20_112_Copernicium). IUPAC. 20 February 2010. . [25] Oganessian, Yu. Ts.; et al. (2006). "Synthesis of the isotopes of elements 118 and 116 in the 249Cf and 245Cm+48Ca fusion reactions". Physical Review C 74 (4): 044602. Bibcode2006PhRvC..74d4602O. doi:10.1103/PhysRevC.74.044602. [26] "Two ultra-heavy elements added to the periodic table" (http:/ / www. wired. co. uk/ news/ archive/ 2011-06/ 06/ new-elements-added). 6 June 2011. .

148

Further reading
Ball, Philip (2004). The Elements: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press. ISBN0192840991. Emsley, John (2003). Nature's Building Blocks: An A-Z Guide to the Elements. Oxford University Press. ISBN0198503407. Gray, Theodore (2009). The Elements: A Visual Exploration of Every Known Atom in the Universe. Black Dog & Leventhal Publishers Inc. ISBN1579128149. Scerri, E.R. (2007). The Periodic Table, Its Story and Its Significance. Oxford University Press. Strathern, Paul (2000). Mendeleyev's Dream: The Quest for the Elements. Hamish Hamilton Ltd. ISBN024114065X.

External links
Videos for each element (http://periodicvideos.com/) by the University of Nottingham

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149

Isotope
Isotopes are variants of atoms of a particular chemical element, which have differing numbers of neutrons. Atoms of a particular element by definition must contain the same number of protons but may have a distinct number of neutrons which differs from atom to atom, without changing the designation of the atom as a particular element. The number of nucleons (protons and neutrons) in the nucleus, known as the mass number, is not the same for two isotopes of any element. For example, carbon-12, carbon-13 and carbon-14 are three isotopes of the element carbon with mass numbers 12, 13 and 14 respectively. The atomic number of carbon is 6 (every carbon atom has 6 protons); therefore the neutron numbers in these isotopes are 6, 7 and 8 respectively. A nuclide is an atom with a specific number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus, for example carbon-13 with 6 protons and 7 neutrons. The nuclide concept (referring to individual nuclear species) emphasizes nuclear properties over chemical properties, while the isotope concept (grouping all atoms of each element) emphasizes chemical over nuclear. The neutron number has drastic effects on nuclear properties, but its effect on chemical properties is negligible in most elements, and still quite small in the case of the very lightest elements, although it does matter in some circumstances (for hydrogen, the lightest of all elements, the isotope effect is large enough to strongly affect biology). Since isotope is the older term, it is better known than nuclide, and is still sometimes used in contexts where nuclide might be more appropriate, such as nuclear technology and nuclear medicine. An isotope and/or nuclide is specified by the name of the particular element (this indicates the atomic number implicitly) followed by a hyphen and the mass number (e.g. helium-3, helium-4, carbon-12, carbon-14, uranium-235 and uranium-239). When a chemical symbol is used, e.g., "C" for carbon, standard notation is to indicate the number of nucleons with a superscript at the upper left of the chemical symbol and to indicate the atomic number with a subscript at the lower left (e.g. He, He, C, C, U, and U, respectively). Since the atomic number is implied by the element symbol, it is common to state only the mass number in the superscript and leave out the atomic number subscript (e.g. 3He, 4He, 12C, 14C, 235U, and 239U, respectively). The letter m is sometimes appended after the mass number to indicate a metastable or energetically-excited nuclear state (rather than the lowest-energy ground state), for example Ta (tantalum-180m). Some isotopes are radioactive and are therefore described as radioisotopes or radionuclides, while others have never been observed to undergo radioactive decay and are described as stable isotopes. For example, 14C is a radioactive form of carbon while 12C and 13C are stable isotopes. There are about 339 naturally occurring nuclides on Earth,[1] of which 288 are primordial nuclides, meaning that they have existed since the solar system's formation. These include 33 nuclides with very long half-lives (over 80 million years) and 255 which are formally considered as "stable isotopes",[1] since they have not been observed to decay. Many apparently "stable" isotopes are predicted by theory to be radioactive, with extremely long half-lives (this does not count the possibility of proton decay, which would make all nuclides ultimately unstable). Of the 255 nuclides never observed to decay, only 90 of these (all from the first 40 elements) are stable in theory to all known forms of decay. Element 41 (niobium) is theoretically unstable via spontaneous fission, but this has never been detected. Many other stable nuclides are in theory energetically susceptible to other known forms of decay, such as alpha decay or double beta decay, but no decay has yet been observed. The half-lives for these processes often exceed a million times the estimated age of the universe, and in fact there are 27 known radionuclides (see primordial nuclide) with half-lives longer than the age of the universe. Adding in the radioactive nuclides that have been created artificially, there are more than 3100 currently known nuclides.[2] These include 905 nuclides which are either stable, or have half-lives longer than 60 minutes. See list of nuclides for details.

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History
The existence of isotopes was first suggested in 1913 by the radiochemist Frederick Soddy, based on studies of radioactive decay chains which indicated about 40 different species between uranium and lead. Since the periodic table only allowed for 11 elements from uranium to lead, Soddy proposed that several types of atoms (differing in radioactive properties) could occupy the same place in the table.[3] The term isotope, Greek for at the same place, was suggested to Soddy in 1914 by Margaret Todd, a Scottish physician to whom he was distantly related by marriage, during a conversation in which he explained his ideas to her.[4] Confirmation was provided by the observation of isotopes differing in mass for a stable (non-radioactive) element by J. J. Thomson in 1913. As part of his exploration into the composition of canal rays (positive ions), Thomson channeled streams of neon ions through a magnetic and an electric field and measured their deflection by placing a photographic plate in their path. Each stream created a glowing patch In the bottom right corner of JJ Thomson's on the plate at the point it struck. Thomson observed two separate photographic plate are the separate impact marks for the two isotopes of neon: neon-20 and patches of light on the photographic plate (see image), which suggested neon-22. two different parabolas of deflection. Thomson eventually concluded that some of the atoms in the neon gas were of higher mass than the rest. F.W. Aston subsequently discovered different stable isotopes for numerous elements using a mass spectrograph.

Variation in properties between isotopes

Chemical and molecular properties
A neutral atom has the same number of electrons as protons. Thus, different isotopes of a given element all have the same number of protons and electrons and share a similar electronic structure. Because the chemical behavior of an atom is largely determined by its electronic structure, different isotopes exhibit nearly identical chemical behavior. The main exception to this is the kinetic isotope effect: due to their larger masses, heavier isotopes tend to react somewhat more slowly than lighter isotopes of the same element. This is most pronounced for protium (1H) and deuterium (2H), because deuterium has twice the mass of protium. The mass effect between deuterium and the relatively light protium also affects the behavior of their respective chemical bonds, by means of changing the center of gravity (reduced mass) of the atomic systems. However, for heavier elements, which have more neutrons than lighter elements, the ratio of the nuclear mass to the collective electronic mass is far greater, and the relative mass difference between isotopes is much less. For these two reasons, the mass-difference effects on chemistry are usually negligible.

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In similar manner, two molecules that differ only in the isotopic nature of their atoms (isotopologues) will have identical electronic structure and therefore almost indistinguishable physical and chemical properties (again with deuterium providing the primary exception to this rule). The vibrational modes of a molecule are determined by its shape and by the masses of its constituent atoms. As a consequence, isotopologues will have different sets of vibrational modes. Since vibrational modes allow a molecule to absorb photons of corresponding energies, isotopologues have different optical properties in the infrared range.

Isotope half-lives. Note that the plot for stable isotopes diverges from the line, protons Z = neutrons N as the element number Z becomes larger

Nuclear properties and stability

Atomic nuclei consist of protons and neutrons bound together by the residual strong force. Because protons are positively charged, they repel each other. Neutrons, which are electrically neutral, stabilize the nucleus in two ways. Their copresence pushes protons slightly apart, reducing the electrostatic repulsion between the protons, and they exert the attractive nuclear force on each other and on protons. For this reason, one or more neutrons are necessary for two or more protons to be bound into a nucleus. As the number of protons increases, so does the ratio of neutrons to protons necessary to ensure a stable nucleus (see graph at right). For example, although the neutron:proton ratio of He is 1:2, the neutron:proton ratio of U is greater than 3:2. A number of lighter elements have stable nuclides with the ratio 1:1 (Z = N). The nuclide Ca (calcium-40) is the heaviest stable nuclide with the same number of

neutrons and protons; all heavier stable nuclides contain more neutrons than protons.

Numbers of isotopes per element

Of the 80 elements with a stable isotope, the largest number of stable isotopes observed for any element is ten (for the element tin). Xenon is the only element that has nine stable isotopes. No element has eight stable isotopes. Four elements have seven stable isotopes, nine have six stable isotopes, nine have five stable isotopes, nine have four stable isotopes, five have three stable isotopes, 16 have two stable isotopes (counting Ta as stable), and 26 elements have only a single stable isotope (of these, 19 are so-called mononuclidic elements, having a single primordial stable isotope that dominates and fixes the atomic weight of the natural element to high precision; 3 radioactive mononuclidic elements occur as well).[5] In total, there are 255 nuclides that have not been observed to decay. For the 80 elements that have one or more stable isotopes, the average number of stable isotopes is 255/80 =

Isotope 3.2 isotopes per element.

152

Even and odd nucleon numbers Even/odd N

Mass number Even Odd All Stable primordial Radioactive primordial Total primordial 154 25 179 101 255 8 33

109 288

The proton:neutron ratio is not the only factor affecting nuclear stability. Adding neutrons to isotopes can vary their nuclear spins and nuclear shapes, causing differences in neutron capture cross-sections and gamma spectroscopy and nuclear magnetic resonance properties. Even mass number Even-mass-number nuclides have integer spin and are bosons. Even mass number nuclides make up about = 154/255 = ~ 60% of all stable nuclides. This is due to the high prevalence of even-proton, even-neutron (EE) nuclides, which out-number the others (composed about equally of odd-proton, even-neutron (OE) and even-proton, odd-neutron (EO) nuclides), put together. The odd-odd nuclides, which also have an even mass number, are too rare (5 in total) to influence these numbers much. Even proton-even neutron

Even/odd Z, N (omitting protium)

p,n EE OO EO OE Stable primordial 148 Radioactive primordial 21 5 4 9 53 3 56 48 5 53

Total primordial 169

Beta decay of an even-even nucleus produces an odd-odd nucleus, and vice versa. An even number of protons or of neutrons are more stable (lower binding energy) because of pairing effects, so even-even nuclei are much more stable than odd-odd. One effect is that there are few stable odd-odd nuclei, but another effect is to prevent beta decay of many even-even nuclei into another even-even nucleus of the same mass number but lower energy, because decay proceeding one step at a time would have to pass through an odd-odd nucleus of higher energy. Double beta decay directly from even-even to even-even skipping over an odd-odd nuclide is only occasionally possible, and even then with a half-life greater than a billion times the age of the universe. For example, the double beta emitter 116Cd has a half-life of 2.91019 years. This makes for a larger number of stable even-even nuclei, up to three for some mass numbers, and up to seven for some atomic (proton) numbers. For example, the extreme stability of helium-4 due to a double pairing of 2 protons and 2 neutrons prevents any nuclides containing five or eight nucleons from existing for long enough to serve as platforms for the buildup of heavier elements during fusion formation in stars (see triple alpha process). There are 148 stable even-even isotopes, forming 58% of the 255 stable isotopes. There are also 21 primordial long-lived even-even isotopes. As a result, many of the 41 even-numbered elements from 2 to 82 have many primordial isotopes. Half of these even-numbered elements have six or more stable isotopes. All even-even nuclides have spin 0 in their ground state.

Isotope Odd proton-odd neutron Only five stable nuclides contain both an odd number of protons and an odd number of neutrons: the first four odd-odd nuclides H, Li, B, and N (where changing a proton to a neutron or vice versa would lead to a very lopsided proton-neutron ratio) and
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Ta, which has not yet been observed to decay despite experimental

attempts. Also, four long-lived radioactive odd-odd nuclides ( K, V, La, Lu,) occur naturally. Of these 9 primordial odd-odd nuclides, only N is the most common isotope of a common element, because it is a part of the CNO cycle; Li and B are minority isotopes of elements that are rare compared to other light

elements, while the other six isotopes make up only a tiny percentage of their elements. Few odd-odd nuclides (and none of the primordial ones) have spin 0 in the ground state. Odd mass number There is only one beta-stable nuclide per odd mass number because there is no difference in binding energy between even-odd and odd-even comparable to that between even-even and odd-odd, and other nuclides of the same mass are free to beta decay towards the lowest-energy one. For mass numbers 5, 147, 151, and 209 and up, the one beta-stable isobar is able to alpha decay, so that there are no stable isotopes with these mass numbers. This gives a total of 101 stable isotopes with odd mass numbers. Odd-mass-number nuclides have half-integer spin and are fermions. Odd proton-even neutron These 48 stable nuclides form most of the stable isotopes of the odd-numbered elements, but there is only one stable odd-even isotope for each of the 41 odd-numbered elements from 1 to 81, except for technetium (43Tc) and promethium (61Pm) that have no stable isotopes, and chlorine (17Cl), potassium (19K), copper (29Cu), gallium (31Ga), bromine (35Br), silver (47Ag), antimony (51Sb), iridium (Ir|BL=77), and thallium (81Tl), each of which has two, making a total of 48 stable odd-even isotopes. There are also five primordial long-lived radioactive odd-even isotopes, Rb, In, Eu, Re, and (recently discovered) Bi. Even proton-odd neutron There are 53 stable nuclides that have an even number of protons and an odd number of neutrons. There are also three primordial long lived even-odd isotopes, Cd (beta decay, half-life is 7.7 1015 years); Sm (1.061011a); and the fissile U. Pt and Be. Beryllium-9 is the The only even-odd isotopes that are the most common one for their element are therefore decays to them. Odd neutron number

only stable beryllium isotope because the expected beryllium-8 has higher energy than two alpha particles and

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Even or odd neutron number (omitting protium with no N)

n (neutrons) Even Odd Stable primordial Radioactive primordial Total primordial 196 24 220 58 9 67

The only odd-neutron-number isotopes that are the most common isotope of their element are

Pt, Be and

N.

Actinides with odd neutron number are generally fissile, while those with even neutron number are generally not, though they are split when bombarded with fast neutrons.

Occurrence in nature
Elements are composed of one or more naturally occurring isotopes. The unstable (radioactive) isotopes are either primordial or postprimordial. Primordial isotopes were a product of stellar nucleosynthesis or another type of nucleosynthesis such as cosmic ray spallation, and have persisted down to the present because their rate of decay is so slow (e.g., uranium-238 and potassium-40). Postprimordial isotopes were created by cosmic ray bombardment as cosmogenic nuclides (e.g., tritium, carbon-14), or by the decay of a radioactive primordial isotope to a radioactive radiogenic nuclide daughter (e.g., uranium to radium). A few isotopes also continue to be naturally synthesized as nucleogenic nuclides, by some other natural nuclear reaction, such as when neutrons from from natural nuclear fission are absorbed by another atom. As discussed above, only 80 elements have any stable isotopes, and 26 of these have only one stable isotope. Thus, about two thirds of stable elements occur naturally on Earth in multiple stable isotopes, with the largest number of stable isotopes for an element being ten, for tin (50Sn). There are about 94 elements found naturally on Earth (up to plutonium inclusive), though some are detected only in very tiny amounts, such as plutonium-244. Scientists estimate that the elements that occur naturally on Earth (some only as radioisotopes) occur as 339 isotopes (nuclides) in total.[7] Only 255 of these naturally occurring isotopes are stable in the sense of never having been observed to decay as of the present time An additional 33 primordial nuclides (to a total of 288 primordial nuclides), are radioactive with known half-lives, but have half-lives longer than 80 million years, allowing them to exist from the beginning of the solar system. See list of nuclides for details. All the known stable isotopes occur naturally on Earth; the other naturally occurring-isotopes are radioactive but occur on Earth due to their relatively long half-lives, or else due to other means of ongoing natural production. These include the afore-mentioned cosmogenic nuclides, the nucleogenic nuclides, and any radiogenic radioisotopes formed by ongoing decay of a primordial radioactive isotope, such as radon and radium from uranium. An additional ~3000 radioactive isotopes not found in nature have been created in nuclear reactors and in particle accelerators. Many short-lived isotopes not found naturally on Earth have also been observed by spectroscopic analysis, being naturally created in stars or supernovae. An example is aluminum-26, which is not naturally found on Earth, but which is found in abundance on an astronomical scale. The tabulated atomic masses of elements are averages that account for the presence of multiple isotopes with different masses. Before the discovery of isotopes, empirically determined noninteger values of atomic mass confounded scientists. For example, a sample of chlorine contains 75.8% chlorine-35 and 24.2% chlorine-37, giving an average atomic mass of 35.5 atomic mass units. According to generally accepted cosmology theory, only isotopes of hydrogen and helium, traces of some isotopes of lithium and beryllium, and perhaps some boron, were created at the Big Bang, while all other isotopes were synthesized later, in stars and supernovae, and in interactions between energetic particles such as cosmic rays, and previously produced isotopes. (See nucleosynthesis for details of the various processes thought to be responsible for isotope production.) The respective abundances of isotopes on Earth result from the quantities formed by these

Isotope processes, their spread through the galaxy, and the rates of decay for isotopes that are unstable. After the initial coalescence of the solar system, isotopes were redistributed according to mass, and the isotopic composition of elements varies slightly from planet to planet. This sometimes makes it possible to trace the origin of meteorites.

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Atomic mass of isotopes

The atomic mass (mr) of an isotope is determined mainly by its mass number (i.e. number of nucleons in its nucleus). Small corrections are due to the binding energy of the nucleus (see mass defect), the slight difference in mass between proton and neutron, and the mass of the electrons associated with the atom, the latter because the electron:nucleon ratio differs among isotopes. The mass number is a dimensionless quantity. The atomic mass, on the other hand, is measured using the atomic mass unit based on the mass of the carbon-12 atom. It is denoted with symbols "u" (for unit) or "Da" (for Dalton). The atomic masses of naturally occurring isotopes of an element determine the atomic mass of the element. When the element contains N isotopes, the equation below is applied for the atomic mass M:

where m1, m2, ..., mN are the atomic masses of each individual isotope, and x1, ..., xN are the relative abundances of these isotopes.

Applications of isotopes
Several applications exist that capitalize on properties of the various isotopes of a given element. Isotope separation is a significant technological challenge, particularly with heavy elements such as uranium or plutonium. Lighter elements such as lithium, carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen are commonly separated by gas diffusion of their compounds such as CO and NO. The separation of hydrogen and deuterium is unusual since it is based on chemical rather than physical properties, for example in the Girdler sulfide process. Uranium isotopes have been separated in bulk by gas diffusion, gas centrifugation, laser ionization separation, and (in the Manhattan Project) by a type of production mass spectrometry.

Use of chemical and biological properties

Isotope analysis is the determination of isotopic signature, the relative abundances of isotopes of a given element in a particular sample. For biogenic substances in particular, significant variations of isotopes of C, N and O can occur. Analysis of such variations has a wide range of applications, such as the detection of adulteration of food products.[8] The identification of certain meteorites as having originated on Mars is based in part upon the isotopic signature of trace gases contained in them.[9] Another common application is isotopic labeling, the use of unusual isotopes as tracers or markers in chemical reactions. Normally, atoms of a given element are indistinguishable from each other. However, by using isotopes of different masses, they can be distinguished by mass spectrometry or infrared spectroscopy. For example, in 'stable isotope labeling with amino acids in cell culture (SILAC)' stable isotopes are used to quantify proteins. If radioactive isotopes are used, they can be detected by the radiation they emit (this is called radioisotopic labeling). A technique similar to radioisotopic labeling is radiometric dating: using the known half-life of an unstable element, one can calculate the amount of time that has elapsed since a known level of isotope existed. The most widely known example is radiocarbon dating used to determine the age of carbonaceous materials. Isotopic substitution can be used to determine the mechanism of a reaction via the kinetic isotope effect.

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Use of nuclear properties

Several forms of spectroscopy rely on the unique nuclear properties of specific isotopes. For example, nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy can be used only for isotopes with a nonzero nuclear spin. The most common isotopes used with NMR spectroscopy are 1H, 2D,15N, 13C, and 31P. Mssbauer spectroscopy also relies on the nuclear transitions of specific isotopes, such as 57Fe. Radionuclides also have important uses. Nuclear power and nuclear weapons development require relatively large quantities of specific isotopes.

Notes
Isotopes are nuclides having the same number of protons; compare: Isotones are nuclides having the same number of neutrons. Isobars are nuclides having the same mass number, i.e. sum of protons plus neutrons. Nuclear isomers are different excited states of the same type of nucleus. A transition from one isomer to another is accompanied by emission or absorption of a gamma ray, or the process of internal conversion. (Not to be confused with chemical isomers.) Bainbridge mass spectrometer

References
[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] "Radioactives Missing From The Earth" (http:/ / www. don-lindsay-archive. org/ creation/ isotope_list. html). . "NuDat 2 Description" (http:/ / www. nndc. bnl. gov/ nudat2/ help/ index. jsp). . G.Choppin, J.O.Liljenzin and J.Rydberg Radiochemistry and Nuclear Chemistry (2d edn, Butterworth-Heinemann 1995), p.3-5 Budzikiewicz H and Grigsby RD (2006). "Mass spectrometry and isotopes: a century of research and discussion". Mass spectrometry reviews 25 (1): 14657. doi:10.1002/mas.20061. PMID16134128. Sonzogni, Alejandro. "Interactive Chart of Nuclides" (http:/ / www. nndc. bnl. gov/ chart/ ). National Nuclear Data Center: Brook haven National Laboratory. . http:/ / bryza. if. uj. edu. pl/ zdfk/ wp-includes/ publications/ misiaszek_180mTa_2009. pdf Search for the radioactivity of 180mTa using an underground HPGe sandwich spectrometer, 2009 (http:/ / www. don-lindsay-archive. org/ creation/ isotope_list. html) E. Jamin et al. (2003). "Improved Detection of Added Water in Orange Juice by Simultaneous Determination of the Oxygen-18/Oxygen-16 Isotope Ratios of Water and Ethanol Derived from Sugars" (http:/ / pubs. acs. org/ cgi-bin/ article. cgi/ jafcau/ 2003/ 51/ i18/ pdf/ jf030167& nbsp;m. pdf). J. Agric. Food Chem. 51: 5202. doi:10.1021/jf030167m. . A. H. Treiman, J. D. Gleason and D. D. Bogard (2000). "The SNC meteorites are from Mars" (http:/ / www. sciencedirect. com/ science?_ob=ArticleURL& _udi=B6V6T-41WBDHD-8& _user=2400262& _coverDate=10/ 31/ 2000& _alid=678948366& _rdoc=3& _fmt=summary& _orig=search& _cdi=5823& _sort=r& _docanchor=& view=c& _ct=89& _acct=C000057185& _version=1& _urlVersion=0& _userid=2400262& md5=c5ae2aa8ea60dbd76c2870048730a299). Planet. Space. Sci. 48: 1213. Bibcode2000P&SS...48.1213T. doi:10.1016/S0032-0633(00)00105-7. .

[9]

External links
National Nuclear Data Center (http://www.nndc.bnl.gov/) Portal to large repository of free data and analysis programs from NNDC National Isotope Development Center (http://isotopes.gov/) Coordination and management of the production, availability, and distribution of isotopes, and reference information for the isotope community Isotope Development & Production for Research and Applications (IDPRA) (http://science.energy.gov/np/ research/idpra/) U.S. Department of Energy program for isotope production and production research and development Nucleonica Nuclear Science Portal (http://www.nucleonica.net) (free, registration required) Nucleonica Nuclear Science Wiki (http://www.nucleonica.net/wiki/index.php/Special:Allpages/Help:) International Atomic Energy Agency (http://www.IAEA.org) Homepage of International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), an Agency of the United Nations (UN)

Isotope Atomic Weights and Isotopic Compositions for All Elements (http://physics.nist.gov/cgi-bin/Compositions/ stand_alone.pl?ele=&ascii=html&isotype=some) Static table, from NIST (National Institute of Standards and Technology) Atomgewichte, Zerfallsenergien und Halbwertszeiten aller Isotope (http://atom.kaeri.re.kr/) Chart of the Nuclides (http://www.nuclidechart.com/) produced by the Knolls Atomic Power Laboratory $25 Exploring the Table of the Isotopes (http://ie.lbl.gov/education/isotopes.htm) at the LBNL Current isotope research and information (http://www.isotope.info/) isotope.info Emergency Preparedness and Response: Radioactive Isotopes (http://www.bt.cdc.gov/radiation/isotopes/) by the CDC (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention) Chart of Nuclides (http://www.nndc.bnl.gov/chart/) Interactive Chart of Nuclides (National Nuclear Data Center) Interactive Chart of the nuclides, isotopes and Periodic Table (http://www.yoix.org/elements.html) The LIVEChart of Nuclides - IAEA (http://www-nds.iaea.org/livechart) with isotope data, in Java (http://www-nds.iaea.org/livechart) or HTML (http://www-nds.iaea.org/relnsd/vcharthtml/VChartHTML. html) (http://alsos.wlu.edu/adv_rst.aspx?keyword=isotope&creator=&title=&media=all&genre=all&disc=all& level=all&sortby=relevance&results=10&period=15) Annotated bibliography for isotopes from the Alsos Digital Library for Nuclear Issues

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Ion
An ion is an atom or molecule in which the total number of electrons is not equal to the total number of protons, giving it a net positive or negative electrical charge. The name was given by physicist Michael Faraday for the substances that allow a current to pass ("go") between electrodes in a solution, when an electric field is applied. It is from Greek , meaning "going." An ion consisting of a single atom is an atomic or monatomic ion; if it consists of two or more atoms, it is a molecular or polyatomic ion.
Hydrogen atom (center) contains a single proton and a single electron. Removal of the electron gives a cation (left), whereas addition of an electron gives an anion (right). The hydrogen anion, with its loosely held two-electron cloud, has a larger radius than the neutral atom, which in turn is much larger than the bare proton of the cation. Hydrogen forms the only cation that has no electrons, but even cations that (unlike hydrogen) still retain one or more electrons, are still smaller than the neutral atoms or molecules from which they are derived.

Anions and Cations

An anion (-) (pronounced /n.a.n/ an-eye-n), from the Greek word (n), meaning "up", is an ion with more electrons than protons, giving it a net negative charge (since electrons are negatively charged and protons are positively charged). Conversely, a cation (+) (pronounced /kt.a.n/ kat-eye-n), from the Greek word (kat), meaning "down", is an ion with fewer electrons than protons, giving it a positive charge. Since the charge on a proton is equal in magnitude to the charge on an electron, the net charge on an ion is equal to the number of protons in the ion minus the number of electrons.

Ion

158

General
History and discovery
Etymologically the word ion is the Greek (going), the present participle of , ienai, "to go." This term was introduced by English physicist and chemist Michael Faraday in 1834 for the (then unknown) species that goes from one electrode to the other through an aqueous medium.[1] [2] Faraday did not know the nature of these species, but he knew that since metals dissolved into and entered solution at one electrode, and new metal came forth from solution at the other electrode, that some kind of substance moved through the solution in a current, conveying matter from one place to the other. Faraday also introduced the words anion for a negatively charged ion, and cation a for positively charged one. In Faraday's nomenclature, cations were named because they were attracted to the cathode in a galvanic device and anions were named due to their attraction to the anode.

Characteristics
Ions in their gas-like state are highly reactive, and do not occur in large amounts on Earth, except in flames, lightning, electrical sparks, and other plasmas. These gas-like ions rapidly interact with ions of opposite charge to give neutral molecules or ionic salts. Ions are also produced in the liquid or solid state when salts interact with solvents (for example, water) to produce "solvated ions," which are more stable, for reasons involving a combination of energy and entropy changes as the ions move away from each other to interact with the liquid. These stabilized species are more commonly found in the environment at low temperatures. A common example is the ions present in seawater, which are derived from the dissolved salts there. All ions are charged, which means that like all charged objects they are: attracted to opposite electric charges (positive to negative, and vice versa), repelled by like charges, and when moving, travel in trajectories that are deflected by a magnetic field. Electrons, due to their smaller mass and thus larger space-filling properties as matter waves, determine the size of atoms and molecules that possess any electrons at all. Thus, anions (negatively charged ions) are larger than the parent molecule or atom, as the excess electron(s) repel each other, and add to the physical size of the ion, because its size is determined by its electron cloud. Conversely, cations are generally smaller than the corresponding parent atom or molecule, for the same reason. One particular cation (that of hydrogen) contains no electrons, and thus is very much smaller than the parent hydrogen atom.

Natural Occurrences
Ions are ubiquitous in nature and are responsible for diverse phenomena from the luminescence of the Sun, and the existence of ionosphere on Earth. Atoms in their ionic state may have a different color from neutral atoms, and thus light absorption by metal ions gives the color of gemstones. In both inorganic and organic chemistry (including biochemistry), the interaction of water and ions is extremely important (an example is the energy that drives breakdown of ATP. The following sections describe contexts in which ions feature prominently and are arranged in decreasing physical length-scale, from the astronomical to the microscopic.

Ion Astronomical A collection of non-aqueous gas-like ions, or even a gas containing a proportion of charged particles, is called a plasma. >99.9% of visible matter in the Universe may be in the form of plasmas.[3] These include our Sun and other stars, the space between planets, as well as the space in between stars. Plasmas are often called the fourth state of matter because its properties are substantially different from solids, liquids, and gases. Astrophysical plasmas predominantly contain a mixture of electrons and protons (ionized hydrogen).

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Related technology
Ions can be non-chemically prepared using various ion sources, usually involving high voltage or temperature. These are used in a multitude of devices such as mass spectrometers, optical emission spectrometers, particle accelerators, ion implanters and ion engines.
The remnant of "Tycho's Supernova", a huge ball of expanding plasma. The outer shell shown in blue is X-ray emission by high-speed electrons.

As reactive charged particles, they are also used in air purification by disrupting microbes, and in household items such as smoke detectors. As signaling and metabolism in organisms are controlled by a precise ionic gradient across membranes, the disruption of this gradient contributes to cell death. This is a common mechanism exploited by natural and artificial biocides, including the ion channels gramicidin and amphotericin (a fungicide). Inorganic dissolved ions are a component of total dissolved solids, an indicator of water quality in the world.

Chemistry
Notation
Denoting the charged state When writing the chemical formula for an ion, its net charge is written in superscript immediately after the chemical structure for the molecule/atom. The net charge is written with the magnitude before the sign; that is, a doubly charged cation is indicated as 2+ instead of +2. Conventionally the magnitude of the charge is omitted for singly charged molecules/atoms; for example, the sodium cation is indicated as Na+ and not Na1+.

Equivalent notations for an iron atom (Fe) that lost two electrons.

An alternative (and acceptable) way of showing a molecule/atom with multiple charges is by drawing out the signs multiple times; this is often seen with transition metals. Chemists sometimes circle the sign; this is merely ornamental and does not alter the chemical meaning. All three representations of Fe2+ shown in the figure are thus equivalent.

Ion

160 Monatomic ions are sometimes also denoted with Roman numerals; for example, the Fe2+ example seen above is occasionally referred to as Fe(II) or FeII. The Roman numeral designates the formal oxidation state of an element, whereas the superscripted numerals denotes the net charge. The two notations are therefore exchangeable for monatomic ions, but the Roman numerals cannot be applied to polyatomic ions. It is however possible to mix the notations for the individual metal center with a polyatomic complex, as shown by the uranyl ion example. Sub-classes

If an ion contains unpaired electrons, it is called a radical ion. Just like uncharged radicals, radical ions are very reactive. Polyatomic ions containing oxygen, such as carbonate and sulfate, are called oxyanions. Molecular ions that contain at least one carbon to hydrogen bond are called organic ions. If the charge in an organic ion is formally centered on a carbon, it is termed a carbocation (if positively charged) or carboanion (if negatively charged).

Mixed Roman numerals and charge notations for the uranyl ion. The oxidation state of the metal is shown as superscripted Roman numerals, whereas the charge of the entire complex is shown by the angle symbol together with the magnitude and sign of the net charge.

Formation
Formation of monatomic ions Monatomic ions are formed by the addition of electrons to the valence shell of the atom, which is the outer-most electron shell in an atom, or the losing of electrons from this shell. The inner shells of an atom are filled with electrons that are tightly bound to the positively charged atomic nucleus, and so do not participate in this kind of chemical interaction. The process of gaining or losing electrons from a neutral atom or molecule is called ionization. Atoms can be ionized by bombardment with radiation, but the more usual process of ionization encountered in chemistry is the transfer of electrons between atoms or molecules. This transfer is usually driven by the attaining of stable ("closed shell") electronic configurations. Atoms will gain or lose electrons depending on which action takes the least energy. For example, a sodium atom, Na, has a single electron in its valence shell, surrounding 2 stable, filled inner shells of 2 and 8 electrons. Since these filled shells are very stable, a sodium atom tends to lose its extra electron and attain this stable configuration, becoming a sodium cation in the process Na Na+ + e On the other hand, a chlorine atom, Cl, has 7 electrons in its valence shell, which is one short of the stable, filled shell with 8 electrons. Thus, a chlorine atom tends to gain an extra electron and attain a stable 8-electron configuration, becoming a chloride anion in the process: Cl + e Cl This driving force is what causes sodium and chlorine to undergo a chemical reaction, where the "extra" electron is transferred from sodium to chlorine, forming sodium cations and chloride anions. Being oppositely charged, these cations and anions form ionic bonds and combine together to form sodium chloride, NaCl, more commonly known as rock salt. Na+ + Cl NaCl

Ion Formation of polyatomic and molecular ions Polyatomic and molecular ions are often formed by the gaining or losing of elemental ions such as H+ in neutral molecules. For example, when ammonia, NH3, accepts a proton, H+, it forms the ammonium ion, NH . Ammonia and ammonium have the same number of electrons in essentially the same electronic configuration, but ammonium has an extra proton that gives it a net positive charge. Ammonia can also lose an electron to gain a positive charge, forming the ion NH . However, this ion is unstable, because it has an incomplete valence shell around the nitrogen atom, making it a very reactive radical ion. Due to the instability of radical ions, polyatomic and molecular ions are usually formed by gaining or losing elemental ions such as H+, rather than gaining or losing electrons. This allows the molecule to preserve its stable electronic configuration while acquiring an electrical charge. Ionization potential The energy required to detach an electron in its lowest energy state from an atom or molecule of a gas with less net electric charge is called the ionization potential, or ionization energy. The nth ionization energy of an atom is the energy required to detach its nth electron after the first n 1 electrons have already been detached. Each successive ionization energy is markedly greater than the last. Particularly great increases occur after any given block of atomic orbitals is exhausted of electrons. For this reason, ions tend to form in ways that leave them with full orbital blocks. For example, sodium has one valence electron in its outermost shell, so in ionized form it is commonly found with one lost electron, as Na+. On the other side of the periodic table, chlorine has seven valence electrons, so in ionized form it is commonly found with one gained electron, as Cl. Caesium has the lowest measured ionization energy of all the elements and helium has the greatest.[4] The ionization energy of metals is generally much lower than the ionization energy of nonmetals, which is why metals will generally lose electrons to form positively charged ions while nonmetals will generally gain electrons to form negatively charged ions.
An electrostatic potential map of the nitrate ion (NO). The 3-dimensional shell represents a single arbitrary isopotential.

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Ionic bonding
Ionic bonding is a kind of chemical bonding that arises from the mutual attraction of oppositely charged ions. Since ions of like charge repel each other, they do not usually exist on their own. Instead, many of them may form a crystal lattice, in which ions of opposite charge are bound to each other. The resulting compound is called an ionic compound, and is said to be held together by ionic bonding. In ionic compounds there arise characteristic distances between ion neighbors from which the spatial extension and the ionic radius of individual ions may be derived. The most common type of ionic bonding is seen in compounds of metals and nonmetals (except noble gases, which rarely form chemical compounds). Metals are characterized by having a small number of electrons in excess of a stable, closed-shell electronic configuration. As such, they have the tendency to lose these extra electrons in order to attain a stable configuration. This property is known as electropositivity. Non-metals, on the other hand, are characterized by having an electron configuration just a few electrons short of a stable configuration. As such, they have the tendency to gain more electrons in order to achieve a stable configuration. This tendency is known as electronegativity. When a highly electropositive metal is combined with a highly electronegative nonmetal, the extra electrons from the metal atoms are transferred to the electron-deficient nonmetal atoms. This reaction produces metal

Ion cations and nonmetal anions, which are attracted to each other to form a salt.

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Chemical Applications
Gas-like ions and solvated ions both have tremendous impact on chemical analysis and synthesis. Catalysis

Common ions Common Cations

Common Name Formula Historic Name

Simple Cations Aluminium Calcium Copper(II) Hydrogen Iron(II) Iron(III) Magnesium Mercury(II) Potassium Silver Sodium Al3+ Ca2+ Cu2+ H+ Fe2+ Fe3+ Mg2+ Hg2+ K+ Ag+ Na+ natric mercuric kalic ferrous ferric cupric

Polyatomic Cations Ammonium Oxonium Mercury(I) NH H3O+ Hg hydronium mercurous

Common Anions
Formal Name Formula Simple Anions Chloride Fluoride Oxide Cl F O2 Oxoanions Carbonate CO bicarbonate Alt. Name

Hydrogen carbonate HCO

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Hydroxide Nitrate Phosphate Sulfate

OH NO PO SO

Anions from Organic Acids Acetate Formate Oxalate Cyanide CH3COO ethanoate HCOO C2O CN methanoate ethandioate

References
[1] BBC - Michael Faraday (http:/ / www. bbc. co. uk/ history/ historic_figures/ faraday_michael. shtml). UK: BBC. . [2] "Online etymology dictionary" (http:/ / www. etymonline. com/ index. php?term=ion). . Retrieved 2011-01-07. [3] Plasma, Plasma, Everywhere (http:/ / science. nasa. gov/ newhome/ headlines/ ast07sep99_1. htm) Science@NASA Headline news, Space Science n 158, September 7, 1999. [4] Chemical elements listed by ionization energy (http:/ / www. lenntech. com/ Periodic-chart-elements/ ionization-energy. htm)

Molecule
A molecule (pronounced/mlkjul/) is an electrically neutral group of at least two atoms held together by covalent chemical bonds.[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] Molecules are distinguished from ions by their electrical charge. However, in quantum physics, organic chemistry, 3D (left and center) and 2D (right) representations of the terpenoid molecule atisane and biochemistry, the term molecule is often used less strictly and applied to polyatomic ions. In the kinetic theory of gases, the term molecule is often used for any gaseous particle regardless of its composition. According to this definition noble gas atoms are considered molecules despite the fact that they are composed of a single non-bonded atom.[7] A molecule may consist of atoms of a single chemical element, as with oxygen (O2), or of different elements, as with water (H2O). Atoms and complexes connected by non-covalent bonds such as hydrogen bonds or ionic bonds are generally not considered single molecules.[8] Molecules as components of matter are common in organic substances (and therefore biochemistry). They also make up most of the oceans and atmosphere. A large number of familiar solid substances, however, including most of the minerals that make up the crust, mantle, and core of the Earth itself, contain many chemical bonds, but are not made of identifiable molecules. No typical molecule can be defined for ionic crystals (salts) and covalent crystals (network solids), although these are often composed of repeating unit cells that extend either in a plane (such as in graphene) or three-dimensionally (such as in diamond or sodium chloride). The theme of repeated unit-cellular-structure also holds for most condensed phases with metallic bonding. In glasses (solids that exist in a vitreous disordered state), atoms may also be held together by chemical bonds without any definable molecule, but also without any of the

Molecule regularity of repeating units that characterises crystals.

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Molecular science
The science of molecules is called molecular chemistry or molecular physics, depending on the focus. Molecular chemistry deals with the laws governing the interaction between molecules that results in the formation and breakage of chemical bonds, while molecular physics deals with the laws governing their structure and properties. In practice, however, this distinction is vague. In molecular sciences, a molecule consists of a stable system (bound state) comprising two or more atoms. Polyatomic ions may sometimes be usefully thought of as electrically charged molecules. The term unstable molecule is used for very reactive species, i.e., short-lived assemblies (resonances) of electrons and nuclei, such as radicals, molecular ions, Rydberg molecules, transition states, van der Waals complexes, or systems of colliding atoms as in Bose-Einstein condensate

History and etymology

According to Merriam-Webster and the Online Etymology Dictionary, the word "molecule" derives from the Latin "moles" or small unit of mass. Molecule (1794) "extremely minute particle," from Fr. molcule (1678), from Mod.L. molecula, dim. of L. moles "mass, barrier". A vague meaning at first; the vogue for the word (used until late 18th century only in Latin form) can be traced to the philosophy of Descartes. Although the existence of molecules has been accepted by many chemists since the early 19th century as a result of Dalton's laws of Definite and Multiple Proportions (18031808) and Avogadro's law (1811), there was some resistance among positivists and physicists such as Mach, Boltzmann, Maxwell, and Gibbs, who saw molecules merely as convenient mathematical constructs. The work of Perrin on Brownian motion (1911) is considered to be the final proof of the existence of molecules. The definition of the molecule has evolved as knowledge of the structure of molecules has increased. Earlier definitions were less precise, defining molecules as the smallest particles of pure chemical substances that still retain their composition and chemical properties.[9] This definition often breaks down since many substances in ordinary experience, such as rocks, salts, and metals, are composed of large networks of chemically bonded atoms or ions, but are not made of discrete molecules.

Molecular size
Most molecules are far too small to be seen with the naked eye, but there are exceptions. DNA, a macromolecule, can reach macroscopic sizes, as can molecules of many polymers. The smallest molecule is the diatomic hydrogen (H2), with a length of 0.74 .[10] Molecules commonly used as building blocks for organic synthesis have a dimension of a few to several dozen . Single molecules cannot usually be observed by light (as noted above), but small molecules and even the outlines of individual atoms may be traced in some circumstances by use of an atomic force microscope. Some of the largest molecules are macromolecules or supermolecules.

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Radius
Effective molecular radius is the size a molecule displays in solution.[11] different substances contains examples.
[12]

The table of permselectivity for

Molecular formula
A compound's empirical formula is the simplest integer ratio of the chemical elements that constitute it. For example, water is always composed of a 2:1 ratio of hydrogen to oxygen atoms, and ethyl alcohol or ethanol is always composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in a 2:6:1 ratio. However, this does not determine the kind of molecule uniquely dimethyl ether has the same ratios as ethanol, for instance. Molecules with the same atoms in different arrangements are called isomers. Also carbohydrates, for example, have the same ratio (carbon:hydrogen:oxygen = 1:2:1) (and thus the same empirical formula) but different total numbers of atoms in the molecule. The molecular formula reflects the exact number of atoms that compose the molecule and so characterizes different molecules. However different isomers can have the same atomic composition while being different molecules. The empirical formula is often the same as the molecular formula but not always. For example the molecule acetylene has molecular formula C2H2, but the simplest integer ratio of elements is CH. The molecular mass can be calculated from the chemical formula and is expressed in conventional atomic mass units equal to 1/12 of the mass of a neutral carbon-12 (12C isotope) atom. For network solids, the term formula unit is used in stoichiometric calculations.

Molecular geometry
Molecules have fixed equilibrium geometriesbond lengths and angles about which they continuously oscillate through vibrational and rotational motions. A pure substance is composed of molecules with the same average geometrical structure. The chemical formula and the structure of a molecule are the two important factors that determine its properties, particularly its reactivity. Isomers share a chemical formula but normally have very different properties because of their different structures. Stereoisomers, a particular type of isomers, may have very similar physico-chemical properties and at the same time different biochemical activities.

Molecular spectroscopy
Molecular spectroscopy deals with the response (spectrum) of molecules interacting with probing signals of known energy (or frequency, according to Planck's formula). Molecules have quantized energy levels that can be analyzed by detecting the molecule's energy exchange through absorbance or emission.[13] Spectroscopy does not generally refer to diffraction studies where particles such as neutrons, electrons, or high energy X-rays interact with a regular arrangement of molecules (as in a crystal).

Theoretical aspects
The study of molecules by molecular physics and theoretical chemistry is largely based on quantum mechanics and is essential for the understanding of the chemical bond. The simplest of molecules is the hydrogen molecule-ion, H2+, and the simplest of all the chemical bonds is the one-electron bond. H2+ is composed of two positively charged protons and one negatively charged electron, which means that the Schrdinger equation for the system can be solved more easily due to the lack of electronelectron repulsion. With the development of fast digital computers, approximate solutions for more complicated molecules became possible and are one of the main aspects of computational chemistry. When trying to define rigorously whether an arrangement of atoms is "sufficiently stable" to be considered a molecule, IUPAC suggests that it "must correspond to a depression on the potential energy surface that is deep

Molecule enough to confine at least one vibrational state".[1] This definition does not depend on the nature of the interaction between the atoms, but only on the strength of the interaction. In fact, it includes weakly bound species that would not traditionally be considered molecules, such as the helium dimer, He2, which has one vibrational bound state[14] and is so loosely bound that it is only likely to be observed at very low temperatures.

166

References
[1] IUPAC, Compendium of Chemical Terminology, 2nd ed. (the "Gold Book") (1997). Online corrected version: (1994) " molecule (http:/ / goldbook. iupac. org/ M04002. html)". [2] Pauling, Linus (1970). General Chemistry. New York: Dover Publications, Inc.. ISBN0-486-65622-5. [3] Ebbin, Darrell, D. (1990). General Chemistry, 3rd Ed.. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co.. ISBN0-395-43302-9. [4] Brown, T.L. (2003). Chemistry the Central Science, 9th Ed.. New Jersey: Prentice Hall. ISBN0-13-066997-0. [5] Chang, Raymond (1998). Chemistry, 6th Ed.. New York: McGraw Hill. ISBN0-07-115221-0. [6] Zumdahl, Steven S. (1997). Chemistry, 4th ed.. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. ISBN0-669-41794-7. [7] Chandra, Sulekh. Comprehensive Inorganic Chemistry. New Age Publishers. ISBN8122415121. [8] Molecule (http:/ / www. britannica. com/ EBchecked/ topic/ 388236/ molecule), Encyclopaedia Britannica on-line [9] Molecule Definition (http:/ / antoine. frostburg. edu/ chem/ senese/ 101/ glossary/ m. shtml#molecule) (Frostburg State University) [10] Roger L. DeKock, Harry B. Gray (1989). Chemical structure and bonding (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=q77rPHP5fWMC& pg=PA199). University Science Books. p.199. ISBN093570261X. . [11] Chang RL, Deen WM, Robertson CR, Brenner BM. (1975). "Permselectivity of the glomerular capillary wall: III. Restricted transport of polyanions". Kidney Int. 8 (4): 212218. doi:10.1038/ki.1975.104. PMID1202253. [12] Chang RL, Ueki IF, Troy JL, Deen WM, Robertson CR, Brenner BM. (1975). "Permselectivity of the glomerular capillary wall to macromolecules. II. Experimental studies in rats using neutral dextran". Biophys J. 15 (9): 887906. Bibcode1975BpJ....15..887C. doi:10.1016/S0006-3495(75)85863-2. PMC1334749. PMID1182263. [13] IUPAC, Compendium of Chemical Terminology, 2nd ed. (the "Gold Book") (1997). Online corrected version: (1997,2006) " spectroscopy (http:/ / goldbook. iupac. org/ {{{file}}}. html)". [14] Anderson JB (May 2004). "Comment on "An exact quantum Monte Carlo calculation of the helium-helium intermolecular potential" [J. Chem. Phys. 115, 4546 (2001)]". J Chem Phys 120 (20): 98867. Bibcode2004JChPh.120.9886A. doi:10.1063/1.1704638. PMID15268005.

External links
Molecule of the Month (http://www.chm.bris.ac.uk/motm/motm.htm) School of Chemistry, University of Bristol

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Chemical compound
A chemical compound is a pure chemical substance consisting of two or more different chemical elements[1] [2] [3] that can be separated into simpler substances by chemical reactions.[4] Chemical compounds have a unique and defined chemical structure; they consist of a fixed ratio of atoms[3] that are held together in a defined spatial arrangement by chemical bonds. Chemical compounds can be molecular compounds held together by covalent bonds, salts held together by ionic bonds, intermetallic compounds held together by metallic bonds, or complexes held together by coordinate covalent bonds. Pure chemical elements are not considered chemical compounds, even if they consist of molecules which contain only multiple atoms of a single element (such as H2, S8, etc.),[5] which are called diatomic molecules or polyatomic molecules.

Wider definitions
There are exceptions to the definition above, and large amounts of the solid chemical matter familiar on Earth do not have simple formulas. Certain crystalline compounds are called "non-stoichiometric" because they vary in composition due to either the presence of foreign elements trapped within the crystal structure or a deficit or excess of the constituent elements. Such non-stoichiometric compounds form most of the crust and mantle of the Earth. Other compounds regarded as chemically identical may have varying amounts of heavy or light isotopes of the constituent elements, which will make the ratio of elements by mass vary slightly.

Elementary concepts
Characteristic properties of compounds: 1. Elements in a compound are present in a definite proportion Example- 2 atoms of hydrogen + 1 atom of oxygen becomes 1 molecule of compound-water. 2. Compounds have a definite set of properties Elements of the compound do not retain their original properties. Example: hydrogen (element, which is combustible and non-supporter of combustion) + oxygen (element, which is non-combustible and supporter of combustion) becomes water (compound, which is non-combustible and non-supporter of combustion) Valency is the number of hydrogen atoms which can combine with one atom of the element forming a compound.

Compounds compared to mixtures

The physical and chemical properties of compounds are different from those of their constituent elements. This is one of the main criteria for distinguishing a compound from a mixture of elements or other substances because a mixture's properties are generally closely related to and dependent on the properties of its constituents. Another criterion for distinguishing a compound from a mixture is that the constituents of a mixture can usually be separated by simple, mechanical means such as filtering, evaporation, or use of a magnetic force, but the components of a compound can only be separated by a chemical reaction. Conversely, mixtures can be created by mechanical means alone, but a compound can only be created (either from elements or from other compounds, or a combination of the two) by a chemical reaction. Some mixtures are so intimately combined that they have some properties similar to compounds and may easily be mistaken for compounds. One example is alloys. Alloys are made mechanically, most commonly by heating the constituent metals to a liquid state, mixing them thoroughly, and then cooling the mixture quickly so that the constituents are trapped in the base metal. Other examples of compound-like mixtures include intermetallic compounds and solutions of alkali metals in a liquid form of ammonia.

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Formula
Chemists describe compounds using formulas in various formats. For compounds that exist as molecules, the formula for the molecular unit is shown. For polymeric materials, such as minerals and many metal oxides, the empirical formula is normally given, e.g. NaCl for table salt. The elements in a chemical formula are normally listed in a specific order, called the Hill system. In this system, the carbon atoms (if there are any) are usually listed first, any hydrogen atoms are listed next, and all other elements follow in alphabetical order. If the formula contains no carbon, then all of the elements, including hydrogen, are listed alphabetically. There are, however, several important exceptions to the normal rules. For ionic compounds, the positive ion is almost always listed first and the negative ion is listed second. For oxides, oxygen is usually listed last. Organic acids generally follow the normal rules with C and H coming first in the formula. For example, the formula for trifluoroacetic acid is usually written as C2HF3O2. More descriptive formulas can convey structural information, such as writing the formula for trifluoroacetic acid as CF3CO2H. On the other hand, the chemical formulas for most inorganic acids and bases are exceptions to the normal rules. They are written according to the rules for ionic compounds (positive first, negative second), but they also follow rules that emphasize their Arrhenius definitions. Specifically, the formula for most inorganic acids begins with hydrogen and the formula for most bases ends with the hydroxide ion (OH-). Formulas for inorganic compounds do not often convey structural information, as illustrated by the common use of the formula H2SO4 for a molecule (sulfuric acid) that contains no H-S bonds. A more descriptive presentation would be O2S(OH)2, but it is almost never written this way.

Phases and thermal properties

Compounds may have several possible phases. All compounds can exist as solids, at least at low enough temperatures. Molecular compounds may also exist as liquids, gases, and, in some cases, even plasmas. All compounds decompose upon applying heat. The temperature at which such fragmentation occurs is often called the decomposition temperature. Decomposition temperatures are not sharp and depend on the rate of heating.

CAS number
Every chemical substance, including chemical compounds, that has been described in the literature carries a unique numerical identifier, its CAS number.

References
[1] Brown, Theodore L.; LeMay, H. Eugene; Bursten, Bruce E.; Murphy, Catherine J.; Woodward, Patrick (2009), Chemistry: The Central Science, AP Edition (http:/ / www. pearsonschool. com/ index. cfm?locator=PSZ16f& PMDBSUBCATEGORYID=& PMDBSITEID=2781& PMDBSUBSOLUTIONID=& PMDBSOLUTIONID=6724& PMDBSUBJECTAREAID=& PMDBCATEGORYID=814& PMDbProgramId=52962) (11th ed.), Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson/Prentice Hall, pp.56, ISBN0132364891, [2] Hill, John W.; Petrucci, Ralph H.; McCreary, Terry W.; Perry, Scott S. (2005), General Chemistry (http:/ / www. pearsonhighered. com/ educator/ academic/ product/ 0,3110,0131402838,00. html) (4th ed.), Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson/Prentice Hall, p.6, ISBN9780131402836, [3] Whitten, Kenneth W.; Davis, Raymond E.; Peck, M. Larry (2000), General Chemistry (6th ed.), Fort Worth, TX: Saunders College Publishing/Harcourt College Publishers, p.15, ISBN9780030723735 [4] Wilbraham, Antony; Matta, Michael; Staley, Dennis; Waterman, Edward (2002), Chemistry (1st ed.), Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson/Prentice Hall, p.36, ISBN0132512106 [5] Halal, John (2008), "Chapter 8: General Chemistry" (http:/ / www. wadsworthmedia. com/ marketing/ sample_chapters/ 156253629X_ch08. pdf), Milady's Hair Structure and Chemistry Simplified (5 ed.), Milady Publishing, pp.9698, ISBN1428335587,

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Chemical substance
In chemistry, a chemical substance is a form of matter that has constant chemical composition and characteristic properties.[1] It cannot be separated into components by physical separation methods, i.e. without breaking chemical bonds. They can be solids, liquids or gases. Chemical substances are often called 'pure' to set them apart from mixtures. A common example of a chemical substance is pure water; it has the same properties and the same ratio of hydrogen to oxygen whether it is isolated from a river or made in a laboratory. Other chemical substances commonly encountered in pure form are diamond (carbon), gold, table salt (sodium chloride) and refined sugar (sucrose). However, simple or seemingly pure substances found in nature can in fact be mixtures of chemical substances. For example, tap water may contain small amounts of dissolved sodium chloride and compounds containing iron, calcium and many other chemical substances.

Steam and liquid water are two different forms of the same chemical substance, water.

Chemical substances exist as solids, liquids, gasses, or plasma and may change between these phases of matter with changes in temperature or pressure. Chemical reactions convert one chemical substance into another. Forms of energy, such as light and heat, are not considered to be matter, and thus they are not "substances" in this regard.

Definition
Chemical substances (also called pure substances) are often defined as "any material with a definite chemical composition" in most introductory general chemistry textbooks.[2] According to this definition a chemical substance can either be a pure chemical element or a pure chemical compound. But, there are exceptions to this definition; a pure substance can also be defined as a form of matter that has both definite composition and distinct properties.[3] The chemical substance index published by CAS also includes several alloys of uncertain composition.[4] Non-stoichiometric compounds are a special A colorful group of chemicals case (in inorganic chemistry) that violates the law of constant composition, and for them, it is sometimes difficult to draw the line between a mixture and a compound, as in the case of palladium hydride. Broader definitions of chemicals or chemical substances can be found, for example: "the term 'chemical substance' means any organic or inorganic substance of a particular molecular identity, including (i) any combination of such substances occurring in whole or in part as a result of a chemical reaction or occurring in nature"[5]

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History
The concept of a "chemical substance" became firmly established in the late eighteenth century after work by the chemist Joseph Proust on the composition of some pure chemical compounds such as basic copper carbonate.[6] He deduced that, "All samples of a compound have the same composition; that is, all samples have the same proportions, by mass, of the elements present in the compound." This is now known as the law of constant composition.[7] Later with the advancement of methods for chemical synthesis particularly in the realm of organic chemistry; the discovery of many more chemical elements and new techniques in the realm of analytical chemistry used for isolation and purification of elements and compounds from chemicals that led to the establishment of modern chemistry, the concept was defined as is found in most chemistry textbooks. However, there are some controversies regarding this definition mainly because the large number of chemical substances reported in chemistry literature need to be indexed.

Chemical elements
An element is a chemical substance that is made up of a particular kind of atoms and hence cannot be broken down or transformed by a chemical reaction into a different element, though it can be transmutated into another element through a nuclear reaction. This is so, because all of the atoms in a sample of an element have the same number of protons, though they may be different isotopes, with differing numbers of neutrons. There are about 120 known elements, about 80 of which are stable that is, they do not change by radioactive decay into other elements. However, the number of chemical substances that are elements can be more than 120, because some elements can occur as more than a single chemical substance (allotropes). For instance, oxygen exists as both diatomic oxygen (O2) and ozone (O3). The majority of elements are classified as metals. These are elements with a characteristic lustre such as iron, copper, and gold. Metals typically conduct electricity and heat well, and they are malleable and ductile.[8] Around a dozen elements,[9] such as carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen, are classified as non-metals. Non-metals lack the metallic properties described above, they also have a high electronegativity and a tendency to form negative ions. Certain elements such as silicon sometimes resemble metals and sometimes resemble non-metals, and are known as metalloids.

Chemical compounds
A pure chemical compound is a chemical substance that is composed of a particular set of molecules or ions. Two or more elements combined into one substance through a chemical reaction form a chemical compound. All compounds are substances, but not all substances are compounds. A chemical compound can be either atoms bonded together in molecules or crystals in which atoms, molecules or ions form a crystalline lattice. Compounds based primarily on carbon and hydrogen atoms are called organic compounds, and all others are called inorganic compounds. Compounds containing bonds between carbon and a metal are called organometallic compounds. Compounds in which components share electrons are known as covalent compounds. Compounds consisting of oppositely charged ions are known as ionic compounds, or salts. In organic chemistry, there can be more than one chemical compound with the same composition and molecular weight. Generally, these are called isomers. Isomers usually have substantially different chemical properties, may be isolated and do not spontaneously convert to each other. A common example is glucose vs. fructose. The former is an aldehyde, the latter is a ketone. Their interconversion requires either enzymatic or acid-base catalysis. However, there are also tautomers, where isomerization occurs spontaneously, such that a pure substance cannot be isolated into its tautomers. A common example is glucose, which has open-chain and ring forms. One cannot manufacture pure open-chain glucose because glucose spontaneously cyclizes to the hemiacetal form.

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Substances versus mixtures

All matter consists of various elements and chemical compounds, but these are often intimately mixed together. Mixtures contain more than one chemical substance, and they do not have a fixed composition. In principle, they can be separated into the component substances by purely mechanical processes. Butter, soil and wood are common examples of mixtures. Grey iron metal and yellow sulfur are both chemical elements, and they can be mixed together in any ratio to form a yellow-grey mixture. No chemical process occurs, and the material can be identified as a mixture by the fact that the sulfur and the iron can be separated by a mechanical process, such as using a magnet to attract the iron away from the sulfur. In contrast, if iron and sulfur are heated together in a certain ratio (1 atom of iron for each atom of sulfur, or by weight, 56 grams (1 mol) of iron to 32grams (1mol) of sulfur), a chemical reaction takes place and a new substance is formed, the compound iron(II) sulfide, with chemical formula FeS. The resulting compound has all the properties of a chemical substance and is not a mixture. Iron(II) sulfide has its own distinct properties such as melting point and solubility, and the two elements cannot be separated using normal mechanical processes; a magnet will be unable to recover the iron, since there is no metallic iron present in the compound.

Chemicals versus chemical substances

While the term chemical substance is a somewhat technical term used most often by professional chemists, the word chemical is more widely used in the pharmaceutical industry, government and society in general.[10] Thus the word chemical includes a wider class of substances that contain many mixtures of such chemical substances, often finding application in many vocations.[11] Artificial chemicals can be classified by production volume into bulk chemicals, fine chemicals and chemicals found in research only. Bulk chemicals are produced in very large quantities, usually with highly optimized continuous processes and to a relatively low price. Fine chemicals are produced at a high cost in small quantities for special low-volume applications such as biocides, pharmaceuticals and speciality chemicals for technical applications. Research chemicals are produced individually for research, such as when searching for synthetic routes or screening substances for pharmaceutical activity. In effect, their price per gram is very high, although they are not sold.

Naming and indexing

Every chemical substance has one or more systematic names, usually named according to the IUPAC rules for naming. An alternative system is used by the Chemical Abstracts Service (CAS). Many compounds are also known by their more common, simpler names, many of which predate the systematic name. For example, the long-known sugar glucose is now systematically named 6-(hydroxymethyl)oxane-2,3,4,5-tetrol. Natural products and pharmaceuticals are also given simpler names, for example the mild pain-killer Naproxen is the more common name for the chemical compound (S)-6-methoxy--methyl-2-naphthaleneacetic acid. Chemists frequently refer to chemical compounds using chemical formulae or molecular structure of the compound. There has been a phenomenal growth in the number of chemical compounds being synthesized (or isolated), and then reported in the scientific literature by professional chemists around the world.[12] An enormous number of chemical compounds are possible through the chemical combination of the known chemical elements. As of May 2011, about sixty million chemical compounds are known.[13] The names of many of these compounds are often nontrivial and hence not very easy to remember or cite accurately. Also it is difficult to keep the track of them in the literature. Several international organizations like IUPAC and CAS have initiated steps to make such tasks easier. CAS provides the abstracting services of the chemical literature, and provides a numerical identifier, known as CAS registry number to each chemical substance that has been reported in the chemical literature (such as chemistry

Chemical substance journals and patents). This information is compiled as a database and is popularly known as the Chemical substances index. Other computer-friendly systems that have been developed for substance information, are: SMILES and the International Chemical Identifier or InChI.

172

Identification of a typical chemical substance

Common name alcohol, or ethyl alcohol Systematic name Chemical formula ethanol C2H5OH Chemical structure CAS registry number [64-17-5] InChI 1/C2H6O/c1-2-3/h3H,2H2,1H3

Isolation, purification, characterization, and identification

Often a pure substance needs to be isolated from a mixture, for example from a natural source (where a sample often contains numerous chemical substances) or after a chemical reaction (which often give mixtures of chemical substances).

Notes and references

[1] IUPAC, Compendium of Chemical Terminology, 2nd ed. (the "Gold Book") (1997). Online corrected version: (2006) " Chemical Substance (http:/ / goldbook. iupac. org/ C01039. html)". [2] Hill, J. W.; Petrucci, R. H.; McCreary, T. W.; Perry, S. S. General Chemistry, 4th ed., p5, Pearson Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey, 2005 [3] Pure Substance DiracDelta Science & Engineering Encyclopedia (http:/ / www. diracdelta. co. uk/ science/ source/ p/ u/ pure substance/ source. html) [4] Appendix IV: Chemical Substance Index Names (http:/ / www. cas. org/ ASSETS/ 58D34DD3892142D18F5C3B0A004D3A0C/ indexguideapp. pdf) [5] "What is the TSCA Chemical Substance Inventory?" (http:/ / www. epa. gov/ oppt/ newchems/ pubs/ invntory. htm). US Environmental Protection Agency. . Retrieved 2009-10-19. [6] Hill, J. W.; Petrucci, R. H.; McCreary, T. W.; Perry, S. S. General Chemistry, 4th ed., p37, Pearson Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey, 2005. [7] Law of Definite Proportions (http:/ / dbhs. wvusd. k12. ca. us/ webdocs/ AtomicStructure/ LawofDefiniteProportion. html) [8] Hill, J. W.; Petrucci, R. H.; McCreary, T. W.; Perry, S. S. General Chemistry, 4th ed., pp4546, Pearson Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey, 2005. [9] The boundary between metalloids and non-metals is imprecise, as explained in the previous reference. [10] What is a chemical (http:/ / www. nicnas. gov. au/ Industry/ New_Chemicals/ Does_My_Chemical_Require_Notification/ What_Is_A_Chemical. asp) [11] BfR Chemicals (http:/ / www. bfr. bund. de/ cd/ 569) [12] Coping with the Growth of Chemical Knowledge: Challenges for Chemistry Documentation, Education, and Working Chemists (http:/ / www. rz. uni-karlsruhe. de/ ~ed01/ Jslit/ eduquim. htm) [13] Chemical Abstracts substance count (http:/ / www. cas. org/ newsevents/ releases/ 60millionth052011. html)

ltg:Ltne - fizik, biologej

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Common phases of matter

Phases
In the physical sciences, a phase is a region of space (a thermodynamic system), throughout which all physical properties of a material are essentially uniform.[1] Examples of physical properties include density, index of refraction, and chemical composition. A simple description is that a phase is a region of material that is chemically uniform, physically distinct, and (often) mechanically separable. In a system consisting of ice and water in a glass jar, the ice cubes are one phase, the water is a second phase, and the humid air over the water is a third phase. The glass of the jar is another separate phase. (See State of Matter#Glass) The term phase is sometimes used as a synonym for state of matter. Also, the term phase is sometimes used to refer to a set of equilibrium states demarcated in terms of state variables such as pressure and temperature by a phase boundary on a phase diagram. Because phase boundaries relate to changes in the organization of matter, such as a change from liquid to solid or a more subtle change from one crystal structure to another, this latter usage is similar to the use of "phase" as a synonym for state of matter. However, the state of matter and phase diagram usages are not commensurate with the formal definition given above and the intended meaning must be determined in part from the context in which the term is used.

A small piece of rapidly melting argon ice shows the transition from solid to liquid.

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Types of phases
Distinct phases may be described as different states of matter such as gas, liquid, solid, plasma or BoseEinstein condensate. Useful mesophases between solid and liquid form other states of matter. Distinct phases may also exist within a given state of matter. As shown in the diagram for iron alloys, several phases exist for both the solid and liquid states. Phases may also be differentiated based on solubility as in polar (hydrophilic) or non-polar (hydrophobic). A mixture of water (a polar liquid) and oil (a non-polar liquid) will spontaneously separate into two phases. Water has a very low solubility (is insoluble) in oil, and oil Iron-carbon phase diagram, showing the conditions necessary to form different phases has a low solubility in water. Solubility is the maximum amount of a solute that can dissolve in a solvent before the solute ceases to dissolve and remains in a separate phase. A mixture can separate into more than two liquid phases and the concept of phase separation extends to solids, i.e., solids can form solid solutions or crystallize into distinct crystal phases. Metal pairs that are mutually soluble can form alloys, whereas metal pair that are mutually insoluble cannot. As many as eight immiscible liquid phases have been observed.[2] Mutually immiscible liquid phases are formed from water (aqueous phase), hydrophobic organic solvents, perfluorocarbons (fluorous phase), silicones, several different metals, and also from molten phosphorus. Not all organic solvents are completely miscible, e.g. a mixture of ethylene glycol and toluene may separate into two distinct organic phases.[3] Phases do not need to macroscopically separate spontaneously. Emulsions and colloids are examples of immiscible phase pair combinations that do not physically separate.

Phase equilibrium
Left to equilibration, many compositions will form a uniform single phase, but depending on the temperature and pressure even a single substance may separate into two or more distinct phases. Within each phase, the properties are uniform but between the two phases properties differ. Water in a closed jar with an air space over it forms a two phase system. Most of the water is in the liquid phase, where it is held by the mutual attraction of water molecules. Even at equilibrium molecules are constantly in motion and, once in a while, a molecule in the liquid phase gains enough kinetic energy to break away from the liquid phase and enter the gas phase. Likewise, every once in a while a vapor molecule collides with the liquid surface and condenses into the liquid. At equilibrium, evaporation and condensation processes exactly balance and there is no net change in the volume of either phase. At room temperature and pressure, the water jar reaches equilibrium when the air over the water has a humidity of about 3%. This percentage increases as the temperature goes up. At 100 C and atmospheric pressure, equilibrium is

Phases not reached until the air is 100% water. If the liquid is heated a little over 100 C, the transition from liquid to gas will occur not only at the surface, but throughout the liquid volume: the water boils.

175

Number of phases
For a given composition, only certain phases are possible at a given temperature and pressure. The number and type of phases that will form is hard to predict and is usually determined by experiment. The results of such experiments can be plotted in phase diagrams. The phase diagram shown here is for a single component system. In this simple system, which phases that are possible depends only on pressure and temperature. The markings show points where two or more phases can co-exist in equilibrium. At temperatures and pressures away from the markings, there will be only one phase at equilibrium.
A typical phase diagram for a single-component material, exhibiting solid, In the diagram, the blue line marking the liquid and gaseous phases. The solid green line shows the usual shape of the boundary between liquid and gas does not liquid-solid phase line. The dotted green line shows the anomalous behavior continue indefinitely, but terminates at a point of water. called the critical point. As the temperature and pressure approach the critical point, the properties of the liquid and gas become progressively more similar. At the critical point, the liquid and gas become indistinguishable. Above the critical point, there are no longer separate liquid and gas phases: there is only a generic fluid phase referred to as a supercritical fluid. In water, the critical point occurs at around 647 K (374 C or 705 F) and 22.064 MPa.

An unusual feature of the water phase diagram is that the solid-liquid phase line (illustrated by the dotted green line) has a negative slope. For most substances, the slope is positive as exemplified by the dark green line. This unusual feature of water is related to ice having a lower density than liquid water. Increasing the pressure drives the water into the higher density phase, which causes melting. Another interesting though not unusual feature of the phase diagram is the point where the solid-liquid phase line meets the liquid-gas phase line. The intersection is referred to as the triple point. At the triple point, all three phases can coexist. Experimentally, the phase lines are relatively easy to map due to the interdependence of temperature and pressure that develops when multiple phases forms. See Gibbs' phase rule. Consider a test apparatus consisting of a closed and well insulated cylinder equipped with a piston. By charging the right amount of water and applying heat, the system can be brought to any point in the gas region of the phase diagram. If the piston is slowly lowered, the system will trace a curve of increasing temperature and pressure within the gas region of the phase diagram. At the point where liquid begins to condense, the direction of the temperature and pressure curve will abruptly change to trace along the phase line until all of the water has condensed.

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Interfacial phenomena
Between two phases in equilibrium there is a narrow region where the properties are not that of either phase. Although this region may be very thin, it can have significant and easily observable effects, such as causing a liquid to exhibit surface tension. In mixtures, some components may preferentially move toward the interface. In terms of modeling, describing, or understanding the behavior of a particular system, it may be efficacious to treat the interfacial region as a separate phase.

Crystal phases
A single material may have several distinct solid states capable of forming separate phases. Water is a well known example of such a material. For example, water ice is ordinarily found in the hexagonal form Ice Ih, but can also exist as the cubic ice Ic, the rhombohedral ice II, and many other forms. Polymorphism is the ability of a solid to exist in more than one crystal form. For pure chemical elements, polymorphism is known as allotropy. For example, diamond, graphite, and fullerenes are different allotropes of carbon.

Phase transitions
When a substance undergoes a phase transition (changes from one state of matter to another) it usually either takes up or releases energy. For example, when water evaporates, the kinetic energy expended as the evaporating molecules escape the attractive forces of the liquid is reflected in a decrease in temperature. The amount of energy required to induce the transition is more than the amount required to heat the water from room temperature to just short of boiling temperature, which is why evaporation is useful for cooling. See Enthalpy of vaporization. The reverse process, condensation, releases heat. The heat energy, or enthalpy, associated with a solid to liquid transition is the enthalpy of fusion and that associated with a solid to gas transition is the enthalpy of sublimation.

Notes and references

[1] Modell, Michael; Robert C. Reid (1974). Thermodynamics and Its Applications. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. ISBN0-13-914861-2. [2] One such system is, from the top, paraffin oil, silicone oil, water, aniline, perfluoro(dimethylcyclohexane), white phosphorus, gallium and mercury. The system remains indefinitely separated at 45C, where gallium and phosphorus are in the molten state. From Reichardt, C. (2006). Solvents and Solvent Effects in Organic Chemistry. Wiley-VCH. pp.910. ISBN3-527-60567-3. [3] This phenomenon can be used to help with catalyst recycling in Heck vinylation. See Bhanage, B.M., et al (1998). "Comparison of activity and selectivity of various metal-TPPTS complex catalysts in ethylene glycol toluene biphasic Heck vinylation reactions of iodobenzene". Tetrahedron Letters 39 (51): 95099512. doi:10.1016/S0040-4039(98)02225-4.

External links
French physicists find a solution that reversibly solidifies with a rise in temperature (http://physicsweb.org/ articles/news/8/9/15/1) - -cyclodextrin, water, and 4-methylpyridine

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Gas
Gas is one of the three classical states of matter (the others being liquid and solid). Near absolute zero, a substance exists as a solid. As heat is added to this substance it melts into a liquid at its melting point (see phase change), boils into a gas at its boiling point, and if heated high enough would enter a plasma state in which the electrons are so energized that they leave their parent atoms from within the gas. A pure gas may be made up of individual atoms (e.g. a noble gas or atomic gas like neon), elemental molecules made from one type of atom (e.g. oxygen), or compound molecules made from a variety of Gas phase particles (atoms, molecules, or ions) atoms (e.g. carbon dioxide). A gas mixture would contain a variety of move around freely in the absence of an applied electric field. pure gases much like the air. What distinguishes a gas from liquids and solids is the vast separation of the individual gas particles. This separation usually makes a colorless gas invisible to the human observer. The interaction of gas particles in the presence of electric and gravitational fields are considered negligible as indicated by the constant velocity vectors in the image. The gaseous state of matter is found between the liquid and plasma states,[1] the latter of which provides the upper temperature boundary for gases. Bounding the lower end of the temperature scale lie degenerative quantum gases[2] which are gaining increased attention these days.[3] High-density atomic gases super cooled to incredibly low temperatures are classified by their statistical behavior as either a Bose gas or a Fermi gas. For a comprehensive listing of these exotic states of matter see list of states of matter.

Etymology
The word gas is a neologism first used by the early 17th century Flemish chemist J.B. Van Helmont. Van Helmont's word appears to have been simply a phonetic transcription of the Greek word Chaos the g in Dutch being pronounced like the English ch in which case Van Helmont was simply following the established alchemical usage first attested in the works of Paracelsus. According to Paracelsus's terminology, chaos meant something like "ultra-rarified water".[4]

Physical characteristics
As most gases are difficult to observe directly with our senses, they are described through the use of four physical properties or macroscopic characteristics: the gass pressure, volume, number of particles (chemists group them by moles), and temperature. These four characteristics were repeatedly observed by men such as Robert Boyle, Jacques Charles, John Dalton, Joseph Gay-Lussac and Amedeo Avogadro for a variety of gases in a great many settings. Their detailed studies ultimately led to a mathematical relationship among these properties expressed by the ideal gas law (see simplified models section below).

Drifting smoke particles provide clues to the movement of the surrounding gas.

Gas Gas particles are widely separated from one another, and as such are not as strongly intermolecularly bonded to the same degree as liquids or solids. These intermolecular forces result from electrostatic interactions between each gas particle. Like charged areas of different gas particles repel, while oppositely charged regions of different gas particles attract one another; gases that contain permanently charged ions are known as plasmas. Gaseous compounds with polar covalent bonds contain permanent charge imbalances and so experience relatively strong intermolecular forces, although the molecule while the compound's net charge remains neutral. Transient, randomly-induced charges exist across non-polar covalent bonds of molecules and electrostatic interactions caused by them are referred to as van der Waals forces. The interaction of these intermolecular forces varies within a substance which determines many of the physical properties unique to each gas.[5] [6] A quick comparison of boiling points for compounds formed by ionic and covalent bonds leads us to this conclusion.[7] The drifting smoke particles in the image provides some insight into low pressure gas behavior. Compared to the other states of matter, gases have an incredibly low density and viscosity. Pressure and temperature influence the particles within a certain volume. This variation in particle separation and speed is referred to as compressibility. This particle separation and size influences optical properties of gases as can be found in the following list of refractive indices. Finally, gas particles spread apart or diffuse in order to homogeneously distribute themselves throughout any container.

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Macroscopic
When observing a gas, it is typical to specify a frame of reference or length scale. A larger length scale corresponds to a macroscopic or global point of view of the gas. This region (referred to as a volume) must be sufficient in size to contain a large sampling of gas particles. The resulting statistical analysis of this sample size produces the "average" behavior (i.e. velocity, temperature or pressure) of all the gas particles within the region. By way of contrast, a smaller length scale corresponds to a microscopic or particle point of view. From this global vantage point, the gas characteristics measured are Shuttle imagery of re-entry phase. either in terms of the gas particles themselves (velocity, pressure, or temperature) or their surroundings (volume). By way of example, Robert Boyle studied pneumatic chemistry for a small portion of his career. One of his experiments related the macroscopic properties of pressure and volume of a gas. His experiment used a J-tube manometer which looks like a test tube in the shape of the letter J. Boyle trapped an inert gas in the closed end of the test tube with a column of mercury, thereby locking the number of particles and temperature. He observed that when the pressure was increased on the gas, by adding more mercury to the column, the trapped gas volume decreased. Mathematicians describe this situation as an inverse relationship. Furthermore, when Boyle multiplied the pressure and volume of each observation, the product (math) was always the same, a constant. This relationship held true for every gas that Boyle observed leading to the law, (PV=k), named to honor his work in this field of study. There are many math tools to choose from when analyzing gas properties. As gases are subjected to extreme conditions, the math tools become a bit more complex, from the Euler equations (inviscid flow) to the Navier-Stokes equations[8] that fully account for viscous effects. These equations are tailored to meet the unique conditions of the gas system in question. Boyle's lab equipment allowed the use of algebra to obtain his analytical results. His results were possible because he was studying gases in relatively low pressure situations where they behaved in an "ideal" manner. These ideal relationships enable safety calculations for a variety of flight conditions on the materials in use. The high technology equipment in use today was designed to help us safely explore the more exotic operating environments where the gases no longer behave in an "ideal" manner. This advanced math, to include statistics and

Gas multivariable calculus, makes possible the solution to such complex dynamic situations as space vehicle reentry. One such example might be the analysis of the image depicting space shuttle reentry to ensure the material properties under this loading condition are not exceeded. It is safe to say that in this flight regime, the gas is no longer behaving ideally.

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Pressure
The symbol used to represent pressure in equations is "p" or "P" with SI units of pascals. When describing a container of gas, the term pressure (or absolute pressure) refers to the average force the gas exerts on the surface area of the container. Within this volume, it is sometimes easier to visualize the gas particles moving in straight lines until they collide with the container (see diagram at top of the article). The force imparted by a gas particle into the container during this collision is the change in momentum of the particle. As a reminder from classical mechanics, momentum, by definition, is the product of mass and velocity.[9] Notice that during a collision only the normal component of velocity changes. A particle traveling parallel to the wall never changes its momentum. So the average force on a surface must be the average change in linear momentum from all of these gas particle collisions. To be more precise, pressure is the sum of all the normal components of force exerted by the particles impacting the walls of the container divided by the surface area of the wall. The image "Pressurized gases" depicts gas pressure and temperature spikes used in the entertainment industry.

Temperature
The symbol used to represent temperature in equations is T with SI units of kelvins. The speed of a gas particle is proportional to its absolute temperature. The volume of the balloon in the video shrinks when the trapped gas particles slow down with the addition of extremely cold nitrogen. The temperature of any physical system is related to the motions of the particles (molecules and atoms) which make up the [gas] system.[10] In statistical mechanics, temperature is the measure of the average kinetic energy stored in a particle. The methods of storing this energy are dictated by the degrees of freedom of the particle itself (energy modes). Kinetic energy added (endothermic process) to gas particles by way of collisions produces linear, rotational, and vibrational motion as well. By contrast, a molecule in a solid can only increase its vibration modes with the addition of heat as the lattice crystal structure prevents both linear and rotational motions. These heated gas molecules have a greater speed range which constantly varies due to constant collisions with other particles. The speed range can be described by the Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution. Use of this distribution implies ideal gases near thermodynamic equilibrium for the system of particles being considered.

Specific volume
The symbol used to represent specific volume in equations is "v" with SI units of cubic meters per kilogram. The symbol used to represent volume in equations is "V" with SI units of cubic meters. When performing a thermodynamic analysis, it is typical to speak of Expanding gases link to changes in specific intensive and extensive properties. Properties which depend on the volume. amount of gas (either by mass or volume) are called extensive properties, while properties that do not depend on the amount of gas are called intensive properties. Specific volume is an example of an intensive property because it is the ratio of volume occupied by a unit of mass of a gas that is identical throughout a system at equilibrium.[11] 1000 atoms of protactinium as a gas occupy the same space as any other 1000 atoms for any given temperature and pressure. This concept is easier to visualize for solids such as iron which are incompressible compared to gases. When the seat ejection is initiated in the rocket sled image the specific

Gas volume increases with the expanding gases, while mass is conserved. Since a gas fills any container in which it is placed, volume is an extensive property.

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Density
The symbol used to represent density in equations is (pronounced rho) with SI units of kilograms per cubic meter. This term is the reciprocal of specific volume. Since gas molecules can move freely within a container, their mass is normally characterized by density. Density is the mass per volume of a substance or simply, the inverse of specific volume. For gases, the density can vary over a wide range because the particles are free to move closer together when constrained by pressure or volume or both. This variation of density is referred to as compressibility. Like pressure and temperature, density is a state variable of a gas and the change in density during any process is governed by the laws of thermodynamics. For a static gas, the density is the same throughout the entire container. Density is therefore a scalar quantity; it is a simple physical quantity that has a magnitude but no direction associated with it. It can be shown by kinetic theory that the density is inversely proportional to the size of the container in which a fixed mass of gas is confined. In this case of a fixed mass, the density decreases as the volume increases.

Microscopic
If one could observe a gas under a powerful microscope, one would see a collection of particles (molecules, atoms, ions, electrons, etc.) without any definite shape or volume that are in more or less random motion. These neutral gas particles only change direction when they collide with another particle or the sides of the container. By stipulating that these collisions are perfectly elastic, this substance is transformed from a real to an ideal gas. This particle or microscopic view of a gas is described by the Kinetic-molecular theory. All of the assumptions behind this theory can be found in the postulates section of Kinetic Theory.

Kinetic theory
Kinetic theory provides insight into the macroscopic properties of gases by considering their molecular composition and motion. Starting with the definitions of momentum and kinetic energy,[12] one can use the conservation of momentum and geometric relationships of a cube to relate macro system properties of temperature and pressure to the microscopic property of kinetic energy per molecule. The theory provides averaged values for these two properties. The theory also explains how the gas system responds to change. For example, as a gas is heated from absolute zero, when it is (in theory) perfectly still, its internal energy (temperature) is increased. As a gas is heated, the particles speed up and its temperature rise. This results in greater numbers of collisions with the container sides each second due to the higher particle speeds associated with elevated temperatures. As the number of collisions (per unit time) increase on the surface area of the container, the pressure increases in a proportional manner.

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Brownian motion
Brownian motion is the mathematical model used to describe the random movement of particles suspended in a fluid. The gas particle animation, using pink and green particles, illustrates how this behavior results in the spreading out of gases (entropy). These events are also described by particle theory. Since it is at the limit of (or beyond) current technology to observe individual gas particles (atoms or molecules), only theoretical calculations give suggestions as to how they move, but their motion is different from Brownian Motion. The reason is that Brownian Motion involves a smooth drag due to the frictional force of many gas Random motion of gas particles results in molecules, punctuated by violent collisions of an individual (or diffusion. several) gas molecule(s) with the particle. The particle (generally consisting of millions or billions of atoms) thus moves in a jagged course, yet not so jagged as would be expected if an individual gas molecule was examined.

Intermolecular forces
As discussed earlier, momentary attractions (or repulsions) between particles have an effect on gas dynamics. In physical chemistry, the name given to these intermolecular forces is van der Waals force. These forces play a key role in determining physical properties of a gas such as viscosity and flow rate (see physical characteristics section). Ignoring these forces in certain conditions (see Kinetic-molecular theory) allows a real gas to be treated like an ideal gas. This assumption allows the use of ideal gas laws which greatly simplifies the path to a solution. Proper use of these gas relationships requires us to take one more look at the Kinetic-molecular theory (KMT). When these gas particles possess a magnetic charge or Intermolecular force they gradually influence one another as the spacing between them is reduced (the hydrogen bond model illustrates one example). In the absence of any charge, at some point when the spacing between gas particles is greatly reduced they can no longer avoid collisions between themselves at normal gas temperatures found in a lab. Another case for increased collisions among gas particles would include a fixed volume of gas, which upon heating would contain very fast particles. What this means to us is that these ideal equations provide reasonable results except for extremely high pressure [compressible] or high temperature [ionized] conditions. Notice that all of these excepted conditions allow energy transfer to take place within the gas system. The absence of these internal transfers is what is referred to as ideal conditions (perfect or well behaved) in which the energy exchange occurs only at the boundaries of the system. Real gases experience some of these collisions and intermolecular forces. When these collisions are statistically negligible [incompressible], results from these ideal equations are still valid. At the other end of the spectrum, when the gas particles are compressed into close proximity they behave more like a liquid, and hence another connection to fluid dynamics.
When gases are compressed, intermolecular forces like those shown here start to play a more active role.

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Simplified models
An equation of state (for gases) is a mathematical model used to roughly describe or predict the state properties of a gas. At present, there is no single equation of state that accurately predicts the properties of all gases under all conditions. Therefore, a number of much more accurate equations of state have been developed for gases in specific temperature and pressure ranges. The "gas models" that are most widely discussed are "perfect gas", "ideal gas" and "real gas". Each of these models has its own set of assumptions to facilitate the analysis of a given thermodynamic system.[13] Each successive model expands the temperature range of coverage to which it applies. The image of first powered flight at Kitty Hawk, North Carolina illustrates one example on the successful application of these relationships in 1903. More recent examples include the 2009 maiden flights of the first solar powered aircraft, the Solar Impulse, and the first commercial airliner to be constructed primarily from composite materials, the Dreamliner.

Perfect gas
By definition, a perfect gas is one in which intermolecular forces are negligible due to the separation of the molecules and any particle collisions are elastic. Perfect gas equation of state The symbol n represents the number of particles grouped by moles of a substance. All other symbols in these equations use notation described earlier in the Macroscopic Section. These relationships are valid only when used with absolute temperatures and pressures. Chemist's version PV = nRT The gas constant, R, in this expression has different units than the Gas Dynamicist's version. The Chemist's version emphasizes numbers of particles (n), while the latter emphasizes the particle mass in the density term . Gas dynamicist's version- P = RT There are two subclassifications to a perfect gas although various textbooks either omit or combine the following simplifications into a general "perfect gas" definition. For sake of clarity, these simplifications are defined separately in the following two subsections. Calorically perfect The Calorically perfect gas model is the most restrictive from a temperature perspective,[14] as it adds the following condition: Constant specific heats (valid for most gases below 1000 K) u = CvT, h = CpT Here u represents internal energy, h represents enthalpy, and the C terms represent the specific heat capacity at either constant volume or constant pressure, respectively. Although this may be the most restrictive model from a temperature perspective, it is accurate enough to make reasonable predictions within the limits specified. A comparison of calculations for one compression stage of an axial compressor (one with variable Cp, and one with constant Cp) produces a deviation small enough to support this approach. As it turns out, other factors come into play and dominate during this compression cycle. These other effects would have a greater impact on the final calculated result than whether or not Cp was held constant. (examples of these real gas effects include compressor tip-clearance, separation, and boundary layer/frictional losses, etc.)

First flight at Kitty Hawk, NC.

Gas Thermally perfect A thermally perfect gas is: in thermodynamic equilibrium not chemically reacting (chemical equilibrium) cp cv = R (still valid even though specific heats vary with temperature) Internal energy, enthalpy, and specific heats are functions of temperature only. u = u(T), h = h(T), du = CvdT, dh = CpdT This type of approximation is useful for modeling, for example, a turbine where temperature fluctuations are usually not large enough to cause any significant deviations from the thermally perfect gas model. Heat capacity is still allowed to vary, though only with temperature and the molecules are not permitted to dissociate.[15]

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Ideal gas
An "ideal gas" is a simplified "real gas" with the assumption that the compressibility factor Z is set to 1 meaning that this pneumatic ratio remains constant. A compressibility factor of one also requires the four state variables to follow the ideal gas law. This approximation is more suitable for applications in engineering although simpler models can be used to produce a "ball-park" range as to where the real solution should lie. An example where the "ideal gas approximation" would be suitable would be inside a combustion chamber of a jet engine.[16] It may also be useful to keep the elementary reactions and chemical dissociations for calculating emissions.

Real gas
Each one of the assumptions listed below adds to the complexity of the problem's solution. As the density of a gas increases with pressure rises, the intermolecular forces play a more substantial role in gas behavior which results in the ideal gas law no longer providing "reasonable" results. At the upper end of the engine temperature ranges (e.g. combustor sections 1300 K), the complex fuel particles absorb internal energy by means of rotations and vibrations that cause their specific heats to vary from those of diatomic molecules and noble 21 April 1990 eruption of Mount Redoubt, gases. At more than double that temperature, electronic excitation and Alaska, illustrating real gases not in dissociation of the gas particles begins to occur causing the pressure to thermodynamic equilibrium. adjust to a greater number of particles (transition from gas to plasma).[17] Finally, all of the thermodynamic processes were presumed to describe uniform gases whose velocities varied according to a fixed distribution. Using a non-equilibrium situation implies the flow field must be characterized in some manner to enable a solution. One of the first attempts to expand the boundaries of the ideal gas law was to include coverage for different thermodynamic processes by adjusting the equation to read pVn = constant and then varying the n through different values such as the specific heat ratio, . Real gas effects include those adjustments made to account for a greater range of gas behavior: Compressibility effects (Z allowed to vary from 1.0) Variable heat capacity (specific heats vary with temperature) Van der Waals forces (related to compressibility, can substitute other equations of state) Non-equilibrium thermodynamic effects Issues with molecular dissociation and elementary reactions with variable composition.

Gas For most applications, such a detailed analysis is excessive. Examples where "Real Gas effects" would have a significant impact would be on the Space Shuttle re-entry where extremely high temperatures and pressures are present or the gases produced during geological events as in the image of the 1990 eruption of Mount Redoubt.

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Historical synthesis
Boyle's Law
Boyle's Law was perhaps the first expression of an equation of state. In 1662 Robert Boyle performed a series of experiments employing a J-shaped glass tube, which was sealed on one end. Mercury was added to the tube, trapping a fixed quantity of air in the short, sealed end of the tube. Then the volume of gas was carefully measured as additional mercury was added to the tube. The pressure of the gas could be determined by the difference between the mercury level in the short end of the tube and that in the long, open end. Through these experiments, Boyle noted that the gas volume varied inversely with the pressure.[18] The image of Boyle's Equipment shows some of the exotic tools used by Boyle during his study of gases. Boyle's Law describes a gas in which the number of particles and Temperature are constant. PV = constant in this situation constant = nRT from the ideal gas law.

Law of volumes

Boyle's equipment.

In 1787, the French physicist and balloon pioneer, Jacques Charles, found that oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen, carbon dioxide, and air expand to the same extent over the same 80 kelvin interval. In 1802, Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac published results of similar, though more extensive experiments, indicating a linear relationship between volume and temperature. Gay-Lussac credited Charle's earlier work by naming the law in his honor. In the absence of this linkage, Dalton could have been in contention for this honor for his previously published work on partial pressures. Law of Volumes Both Charles and Gay-Lussac played a role in developing this relationship.[19] V/T = constant notice that constant = nR/P from the ideal gas law.

Avogadro's Law

Gas

185 In 1811, Amedeo Avogadro verified that equal volumes of pure gases contain the same number of particles. His theory was not generally accepted until 1858 when another Italian chemist Stanislao Cannizzaro was able to explain non-ideal exceptions. For his work with gases a century prior, the number that bears his name Avogadro's constant represents the number of atoms found in 12grams of elemental carbon-12 (6.0221023 mol1). This specific number of gas particles, at standard temperature and pressure (ideal gas law) occupies 22.40 liters, which is referred to as the molar volume. Avogadro's Law describes a gas in a container in which the pressure and temperature are constant. The simplified form for the ideal gas law follows: V/n = constant notice that constant = RT/P from the ideal gas law.
Dalton's notation.

Dalton's Law
In 1801, John Dalton published the Law of Partial Pressures from his work with ideal gas law relationship: The pressure of a mixture of gases is equal to the sum of the pressures of all of the constituent gases alone. Mathematically, this can be represented for n species as: Pressuretotal = Pressure1 + Pressure2 + ... + Pressuren The image of Dalton's journal depicts symbology he used as shorthand to record the path he followed. Among his key journal observations upon mixing unreactive "elastic fluids" (gases) were the following.[20] : Unlike liquids, heavier gases did not drift to the bottom upon mixing. Gas particle identity played no role in determining final pressure (they behaved as if their size was negligible).

Special topics
Compressibility
Thermodynamicists use this factor (Z) to alter the ideal gas equation to account for compressibility effects of real gases. This factor represents the ratio of actual to ideal specific volumes. It is sometimes referred to as a "fudge-factor" or correction to expand the useful range of the ideal gas law for design purposes. Usually this Z value is very close to unity. The compressibility factor image illustrates how Z varies over a range of very cold temperatures.
Compressibility factors for air.

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Reynolds number
In fluid mechanics, the Reynolds number is the ratio of inertial forces (vs) to viscous forces (/L). It is one of the most important dimensionless numbers in fluid dynamics and is used, usually along with other dimensionless numbers, to provide a criterion for determining dynamic similitude. As such, the Reynolds number provides the link between modeling results (design) and the full-scale actual conditions. It can also be used to characterize the flow.

Viscosity
Viscosity, a physical property, is a measure of how well adjacent molecules stick to one another. A solid can withstand a shearing force due to the strength of these sticky intermolecular forces. A fluid will continuously deform when subjected to a similar load. While a gas has a lower value of viscosity than a liquid, it is still an observable property. If gases had no viscosity, then they would not stick to the surface of a wing and form a boundary layer. A study of the delta wing in the Schlieren image reveals that the gas particles stick to one another (see Boundary layer section).

Satellite view of weather pattern in vicinity of Robinson Crusoe Islands on 15 September 1999, shows a unique turbulent cloud pattern called a Krmn vortex street

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Turbulence
In fluid dynamics, turbulence or turbulent flow is a flow regime characterized by chaotic, stochastic property changes. This includes low momentum diffusion, high momentum convection, and rapid variation of pressure and velocity in space and time. The Satellite view of weather around Robinson Crusoe Islands illustrates just one example.

Boundary layer
Particles will, in effect, "stick" to the surface of an object moving through it. This layer of particles is called the boundary layer. At the surface of the object, it is essentially static due to the friction of the surface. The object, with its boundary layer is effectively the new shape of the object that the rest of the molecules "see" as the object Delta wing in wind tunnel. The shadows form as approaches. This boundary layer can separate from the surface, the indices of refraction change within the gas as it compresses on the leading edge of this wing. essentially creating a new surface and completely changing the flow path. The classical example of this is a stalling airfoil. The delta wing image clearly shows the boundary layer thickening as the gas flows from right to left along the leading edge.

Maximum entropy principle

As the total number of degrees of freedom approaches infinity, the system will be found in the macrostate that corresponds to the highest multiplicity. In order to illustrate this principle, observe the skin temperature of a frozen metal bar. Using a thermal image of the skin temperature, note the temperature distribution on the surface. This initial observation of temperature represents a "microstate." At some future time, a second observation of the skin temperature produces a second microstate. By continuing this observation process, it is possible to produce a series of microstates that illustrate the thermal history of the bar's surface. Characterization of this historical series of microstates is possible by choosing the macrostate that successfully classifies them all into a single grouping.

Thermodynamic equilibrium
When energy transfer ceases from a system, this condition is referred to as thermodynamic equilibrium. Usually this condition implies the system and surroundings are at the same temperature so that heat no longer transfers between them. It also implies that external forces are balanced (volume does not change), and all chemical reactions within the system are complete. The timeline varies for these events depending on the system in question. A container of ice allowed to melt at room temperature takes hours, while in semiconductors the heat transfer that occurs in the device transition from an on to off state could be on the order of a few nanoseconds.

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Etymology
The word "gas" was invented by Jan Baptist van Helmont, perhaps as a Dutch pronunciation re-spelling of "chaos".[21]

Notes
[1] This early 20th century discussion infers what is regarded as the plasma state. See page 137 of American Chemical Society, Faraday Society, Chemical Society (Great Britain)'s The Journal of physical chemistry, Volume 11 (Cornell 1907). [2] The work by T. Zelevinski provides another link to latest research about Strontium in this new field of study. See Tanya Zelevinsky (2009). "84Srjust right for forming a Bose-Einstein condensate" (http:/ / physics. aps. org/ articles/ v2/ 94). Physics 2: 94. . [3] ScienceDaily 4 November 2009 (http:/ / www. sciencedaily. com/ releases/ 2009/ 11/ 091104140812. htm) provides a link to more material on the Bose-Einstein condensate. [4] Harper, Douglas. "gas" (http:/ / www. etymonline. com/ index. php?term=gas). Online Etymology Dictionary. . [5] The authors make the connection between molecular forces of metals and their corresponding physical properties. By extension, this concept would apply to gases as well, though not universally. (Cornell 1907) pp. 1645. [6] One noticeable exception to this physical property connection is conductivity which varies depending on the state of matter (ionic compounds in water) as described by Michael Faraday in the 1833 when he noted that ice does not conduct a current. See page 45 of John Tyndall's Faraday as a Discoverer (1868). [7] John S. Hutchinson (2008). Concept Development Studies in Chemistry (http:/ / cnx. org/ content/ col10264/ latest/ ). p.67. . [8] Anderson, p.501 [9] J. Clerk Maxwell (1904). Theory of Heat. Mineola: Dover Publications. pp.31920. ISBN0486417352. [10] See pages 1378 of Society (Cornell 1907). [11] Kenneth Wark (1977). Thermodynamics (3 ed.). McGraw-Hill. p.12. ISBN0-07-068280-1. [12] For assumptions of Kinetic Theory see McPherson, pp.6061 [13] Anderson, pp. 289291 [14] Anderson, p.291 [15] Implies temperature limited to 1500 K. See John p.256 [16] John p.205 [17] John pp.24756 [18] McPherson, pp.5255 [19] McPherson, pp.5560 [20] John P. Millington (1906). John Dalton. pp.72, 7778. [21] Online Etymology Dictionary (http:/ / www. etymonline. com/ index. php?term=Gas)

References
John D. Anderson (1984). Fundamentals of Aerodynamics. McGraw-Hill Higher Education. ISBN0070016569. James John (1984). Gas Dynamics. Allyn and Bacon. ISBN0-205-08014-6. William McPherson and William Henderson (1917). An Elementary study of chemistry.

Further reading
Philip Hill and Carl Peterson. Mechanics and Thermodynamics of Propulsion: Second Edition Addison-Wesley, 1992. ISBN 0-201-14659-2 National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). Animated Gas Lab (http://www.grc.nasa.gov/ WWW/K-12/airplane/Animation/frglab.html). Accessed February, 2008. Georgia State University. HyperPhysics (http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/hframe.html). Accessed February, 2008. Antony Lewis WordWeb (http://www.wordwebonline.com/en/GASEOUSSTATE). Accessed February, 2008. Northwestern Michigan College The Gaseous State (http://www.nmc.edu/~bberthelsen/c9n03.htm). Accessed February, 2008.

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Liquid
Liquid is one of the three classical states of matter (the others being gas and solid). Like a gas, a liquid is able to flow and take the shape of a container. Some liquids resist compression, while others can be compressed. Unlike a gas, a liquid does not disperse to fill every space of a container, and maintains a fairly constant density. A distinctive property of the liquid state is surface tension, leading to wetting phenomena. The density of a liquid is usually close to that of a solid, and much higher than in a gas. Therefore, liquid and solid are both termed condensed matter. On the other hand, as liquids and gases share the ability to flow, they are both called fluids.

Introduction
Liquid is one of the three primary states of matter, with the others being solid and gas. A liquid is a fluid. Unlike a solid, the molecules in a liquid have a much greater freedom to move. The forces that bind the molecules together in a solid are only temporary in a liquid, allowing a liquid to flow while a solid remains rigid. A liquid, like a gas, displays the properties of a fluid. A liquid can flow, assume the shape of a container, and, if placed in a The formation of a spherical droplet of liquid water minimizes the surface area, sealed container, will distribute applied which is the natural result of surface tension in liquids. pressure evenly to every surface in the container. Unlike a gas, a liquid may not always mix readily with another liquid, will not always fill every space in the container, forming its own surface, and will not compress significantly, except under extremely high pressures. These properties make a liquid suitable for applications such as hydraulics. Liquid particles are bound firmly but not rigidly. They are able to move around one another freely, resulting in a limited degree of particle mobility. As the temperature increases, the increased vibrations of the molecules causes distances between the molecules to increase. When a liquid reaches its boiling point, the cohesive forces that bind the molecules closely together break, and the liquid changes to its gaseous state (unless superheating occurs). If the temperature is decreased, the distances between the molecules become smaller. When the liquid reaches its freezing point the molecules will usually lock into a very specific order, called crystallizing, and the bonds between them become more rigid, changing the liquid into its solid state (unless supercooling occurs).

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Examples
Only two elements are liquid at room temperature and pressure: mercury and bromine. Five more elements have melting points slightly above room temperature: francium, caesium, gallium and rubidium.[1] Metal alloys that are liquid at room temperature include NaK, a sodium-potassium metal alloy, galinstan, a fusible alloy liquid, and some amalgams (alloys involving mercury). Pure substances that are liquid under normal conditions include water, ethanol and many other organic solvents. Liquid water is of vital importance in chemistry and biology; it is believed to be a necessity for the existence of life. Important everyday liquids include aqueous solutions like household bleach, other mixtures of different substances such as mineral oil and gasoline, emulsions like vinaigrette or mayonnaise, suspensions like blood, and colloids like paint and milk. Many gases can be liquefied by cooling, producing liquids such as liquid oxygen, liquid nitrogen, liquid hydrogen and liquid helium. Not all gases can be liquified at atmospheric pressure, for example carbon dioxide can only be liquified at pressures above 5.1 atm. Some materials cannot be classified within the classical three states of matter; they possess solid-like and liquid-like properties. Examples include liquid crystals, used in LCD displays, and biological membranes.

Applications
Liquids have a variety of uses, as lubricants, solvents, and coolants. In hydraulic systems, liquid is used to transmit power. In tribology, liquids are studied for their properties as lubricants. Lubricants such as oil are chosen for viscosity and flow characteristics that are suitable throughout the operating temperature range of the component. Oils are often used in engines, gear boxes, metalworking, and hydraulic systems for their good lubrication properties.[2] Many liquids are used as solvents, to dissolve other liquids or solids. Solutions are found in a wide variety of applications, including paints, sealants, and adhesives. Naptha and acetone are used frequently in industry to clean oil, grease, and tar from parts and machinery. Body fluids are water based solutions. Surfactants are commonly found in soaps and detergents. Solvents like alcohol are often used as antimicrobials. They are found in cosmetics, inks, and liquid dye lasers. They are used in the food industry, in processes such as the extraction of vegetable oil.[3] Liquids tend to have better thermal conductivity than gases, and the ability to flow makes a liquid suitable for removing excess heat from mechanical components. The heat can be removed by channeling the liquid through a heat exchanger, such as a radiator, or the heat can be removed with the liquid during evaporation.[4] Water or glycol coolants are used to keep engines from overheating.[5] The coolants used in nuclear reactors include water or liquid metals, such as sodium or bismuth.[6] Liquid propellant films are used to cool the thrust chambers of rockets.[7] In machining, water and oils are used to remove the excess heat generated, which can quickly ruin both the work piece and the tooling. During perspiration, sweat removes heat from the human body by evaporating. In the heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning industry (HVAC), liquids such as water are used to transfer heat from one area to another.[8] Liquid is the primary component of hydraulic systems, which take advantage of Pascal's law to provide fluid power. Devices such as pumps and waterwheels have been used to change liquid motion into mechanical work since ancient times. Oils are forced through hydraulic pumps, which transmit this force to hydraulic cylinders. Hydraulics can be found in many applications, such as automotive brakes and transmissions, heavy equipment, and airplane control systems. Various hydraulic presses are used extensively in repair and manufacturing, for lifting, pressing, clamping and forming.[9]

Liquid Liquids are sometimes used in measuring devices. A thermometer often uses the thermal expansion of liquids, such as mercury, combined with their ability to flow to indicate temperature. A manometer uses the weight of the liquid to indicate air pressure.[10]

191

Mechanical Properties
Volume
Quantities of liquids are commonly measured in units of volume. These include the SI unit cubic metre (m3) and its divisions, in particular the cubic decimetre, more commonly called the litre (1 dm3 = 1 L = 0.001 m3), and the cubic centimetre, also called millilitre (1cm3 = 1 mL = 0.001 L = 106 m3). The volume of a quantity of liquid is fixed by its temperature and pressure. Liquids generally expand when heated, and contract when cooled. Water between 0C and 4C is a notable exception. Liquids have little compressibility: water, for example, requires a pressure of the order of 200 bar to increase its density by 1/1000. In the study of fluid dynamics, liquids are often treated as incompressible, especially when studying incompressible flow.

Pressure and buoyancy

In a gravitational field, liquids exert pressure on the sides of a container as well as on anything within the liquid itself. This pressure is transmitted in all directions and increases with depth. If a liquid is at rest in a uniform gravitational field, the pressure, p, at any depth, z, is given by

where: is the density of the liquid (assumed constant) is the gravitational acceleration. Note that this formula assumes that the pressure at the free surface is zero, and that surface tension effects may be neglected. Objects immersed in liquids are subject to the phenomenon of buoyancy. (Buoyancy is also observed in other fluids, but is especially strong in liquids due to their high density.)

Surfaces
Unless the volume of a liquid exactly matches the volume of its container, one or more surfaces are observed. The surface of a liquid behaves like an elastic membrane in which surface tension appears, allowing the formation of drops and bubbles. Surface waves, capillary action, wetting, and ripples are other consequences of surface tension.

Flow
Viscosity measures the resistance of a liquid which is being deformed by either shear stress or extensional stress.

Surface waves in water

When a liquid is supercooled towards the glass transition, the viscosity increases dramatically. The liquid then becomes a viscoelastic medium that shows both the elasticity of a solid and the fluidity of a liquid, depending on the time scale of observation or on the frequency of perturbation.

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Sound propagation
In a fluid the only non-zero stiffness is to volumetric deformation (a fluid does not sustain shear forces). Hence the speed of sound in a fluid is given by where K is the bulk modulus of the fluid, and the density. To give a typical value, in fresh water c=1497m/s at 25C.

Thermodynamics
Phase transitions
At a temperature below the boiling point, any matter in liquid form will evaporate until the condensation of gas above reach an equilibrium. At this point the gas will condense at the same rate as the liquid evaporates. Thus, a liquid cannot exist permanently if the evaporated liquid is continually removed. A liquid at its boiling point will evaporate more quickly than the gas can condense at the current pressure. A liquid at or above its boiling point will normally boil, though superheating can prevent this in certain circumstances. At a temperature below the freezing point, a liquid will tend to crystallize, changing to its A typical phase diagram. The dotted line gives the anomalous behaviour of water. solid form. Unlike the transition to gas, The green lines show how the freezing point can vary with pressure, and the blue there is no equilibrium at this transition line shows how the boiling point can vary with pressure. The red line shows the under constant pressure, so unless boundary where sublimation or deposition can occur. supercooling occurs, the liquid will eventually completely crystallize. Note that this is only true under constant pressure, so e.g. water and ice in a closed, strong container might reach an equilibrium where both phases coexist. For the opposite transition from solid to liquid, see melting.

Solutions
Liquids can display immiscibility. The most familiar mixture of two immiscible liquids in everyday life is the vegetable oil and water in Italian salad dressing. A familiar set of miscible liquids is water and alcohol. Liquid components in a mixture can often be separated from one another via fractional distillation.

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Microscopic Properties
Static structure factor
In a liquid, atoms do not form a crystalline lattice, nor do they show any other form of long-range order. This is evidenced by the absence of Bragg peaks in X-ray and neutron diffraction. Under normal conditions, the diffraction pattern has circular symmetry, expressing the isotropy of the liquid. In radial direction, the diffraction intensity smoothly oscillates. This is usually described by the static structure factor S(q), with wavenumber q=(4/)sin given by the wavelength of the probe (photon or neutron) and the Bragg angle . The oscillations of S(q) express the near order of the liquid, i.e. the correlations between an atom and a few shells of nearest, second nearest, ... neighbors.

Structure of a classical monatomic liquid. Atoms have many nearest neighbors in contact, yet no long-range order is present.

A more intuitive description of these correlations is given by the radial distribution function g(r), which is basically the Fourier transform of S(q). It represents a spatial average of a temporal snapshot of pair correlations in the liquid.

Radial distribution function of the Lennard-Jones model fluid.

Sound dispersion and structural relaxation

The above expression for the sound velocity contains the bulk modulus K. If K is frequency

independent then the liquid behaves as a linear medium, so that sound propagates without dissipation and without mode coupling. In reality, any liquid shows some dispersion: with increasing frequency, K crosses over from the low-frequency, liquid-like limit to the high-frequency, solid-like limit . In normal liquids, most of this cross over takes place at frequencies between GHz and THz, sometimes called hypersound. At sub-GHz frequencies, a normal liquid cannot sustain shear waves: the zero-frequency limit of the shear modulus is . This is sometimes seen as the defining property of a liquid.[11] However, just as the bulk modulus K, the shear modulus G is frequency dependent, and at hypersound frequencies it shows a similar cross over from the liquid-like limit to a solid-like, non-zero limit . According to the Kramers-Kronig relation, the dispersion in the sound velocity (given by the real part of K or G) goes along with a maximum in the sound attenuation (dissipation, given by the imaginary part of K or G). According to linear response theory, the Fourier transform of K or G describes how the system returns to equilibrium after an

Liquid external perturbation; for this reason, the dispersion step in the GHz..THz region is also called structural relaxation. According the fluctuation-dissipation theorem, relaxation towards equilibrium is intimately connected to fluctuations in equilibrium. The density fluctuations associated with sound waves can be experimentally observed by Brillouin scattering. On supercooling a liquid towards the glass transition, the crossover from liquid-like to solid-like response moves from GHz to MHz, kHz, Hz, ...; equivalently, the characteristic time of structural relaxation increases from ns to s, ms, s, ... This is the microscopic explanation for the above mentioned viscoelastic behaviour of glass-forming liquids.

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Effects of association
The mechanisms of atomic/molecular diffusion (or particle displacement) in solids are closely related to the mechanisms of viscous flow and solidification in liquid materials. Descriptions of viscosity in terms of molecular "free space" within the liquid[12] were modified as needed in order to account for liquids whose molecules are known to be "associated" in the liquid state at ordinary temperatures. When various molecules combine together to form an associated molecule, they enclose within a semi-rigid system a certain amount of space which before was available as free space for mobile molecules. Thus, increase in viscosity upon cooling due to the tendency of most substances to become associated on cooling.[13] Similar arguments could be used to describe the effects of pressure on viscosity, where it may be assumed that the viscosity is chiefly a function of the volume for liquids with a finite compressibility. An increasing viscosity with rise of pressure is therefore expected. In addition, if the volume is expanded by heat but reduced again by pressure, the viscosity remains the same. The local tendency to orientation of molecules in small groups lends the liquid (as referred to previously) a certain degree of association. This association results in a considerable "internal pressure" within a liquid, which is due almost entirely to those molecules which, on account of their temporary low velocities (following the Maxwell distribution) have coalesced with other molecules. The internal pressure between several such molecules might correspond to that between a group of molecules in the solid form.

References
[1] Theodore Gray, The Elements: A Visual Exploration of Every Known Atom in the Universe New York: Workman Publishing, 2009 p. 127 ISBN 1579128149 [2] Theo Mang, Wilfried Dressel Lubricants and lubrication (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=UTdfxf2rkNcC& ), Wiley-VCH 2007 ISBN 3527314970 [3] George Wypych Handbook of solvents (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=NzhUTvUkpDQC& pg=PA847) William Andrew Publishing 2001 pp. 847-881 ISBN 1895198240 [4] N. B. Vargaftik Handbook of thermal conductivity of liquids and gases CRC Press 1994 ISBN 0849393450 [5] Jack Erjavec Automotive technology: a systems approach (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=U4TBoJB2zgsC& pg=PA309) Delmar Learning 2000 p. 309 ISBN 1401848311 [6] Gerald Wendt The prospects of nuclear power and technology D. Van Nostrand Company 1957 p. 266 [7] Modern engineering for design of liquid-propellant rocket engines by Dieter K. Huzel, David H. Huang American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics 1992 p. 99 ISBN 1563470136 [8] Thomas E Mull HVAC principles and applications manual McGraw-Hill 1997 ISBN 007044451X [9] R. Keith Mobley Fluid power dynamics (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=8DyLdlfJzoMC& pg=PA1) Butterworth-Heinemann 2000 p. vii ISBN 0750671742 [10] Bela G. Liptak Instrument engineers handbook: process control (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=pPMursVsxlMC& pg=PA807) CRC Press 1999 p. 807 ISBN 0849310814 [11] Born, M., The Stability of Crystal Lattices, Proc. Camb. Phil. Soc., Vol. 36, p.160, (1940) doi=10.1017/S0305004100017138; Thermodynamics of Crystals and Melting, J. Chem. Phys., Vol. 7, p. 591 (1939) doi=10.1063/1.1750497; A General Kinetic Theory of Liquids, University Press (1949) [12] D.B. Macleod (1923). "On a relation between the viscosity of a liquid and its coefficient of expansion". Trans. Farad. Soc. 19: 6. doi:10.1039/tf9231900006.

Liquid
[13] G.W Stewart (1930). "The Cybotactic (Molecular Group) Condition in Liquids; the Association of Molecules". Phys. Rev. 35: 726. Bibcode1930PhRv...35..726S. doi:10.1103/PhysRev.35.726.

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Solid
Solid is one of the three classical states of matter (the others being gas and liquid). It is characterized by structural rigidity and resistance to changes of shape or volume. Unlike a liquid, a solid object does not flow to take on the shape of its container, nor does it expand to fill the entire volume available to it like a gas does. The atoms in a solid are tightly bound to each other, either in a regular geometric lattice (crystalline solids, which include metals and ordinary water ice) or irregularly (an amorphous solid such as common window glass). The branch of physics that deals with solids is called solid-state physics, and is the main branch of condensed matter physics (which also includes liquids). Materials science is primarily concerned with the physical and chemical properties of solids. Solid-state chemistry is especially concerned with the synthesis of novel materials, as well as the science of identification and chemical composition.
Single crystalline form of solid Insulin.

Metamorphic banded gneiss

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Microscopic description
The atoms, molecules or ions which make up a solid may be arranged in an orderly repeating pattern, or irregularly. Materials whose constituents are arranged in a regular pattern are known as crystals. In some cases, the regular ordering can continue unbroken over a large scale, for example diamonds, where each diamond is a single crystal. Solid objects that are large enough to see and handle are rarely composed of a single crystal, but instead are made of a large number of single crystals, known as crystallites, whose size can vary from a few nanometers to several meters. Such materials are called polycrystalline. Almost all common metals, and many ceramics, are polycrystalline.

Model of closely packed atoms within a crystalline solid.

In other materials, there is no long-range order in the position of the atoms. These solids are known as amorphous solids; examples include polystyrene and glass. Whether a solid is crystalline or amorphous depends on the material involved, and the conditions in which it was formed. Solids which are formed by slow cooling will tend to be crystalline, while solids which are frozen rapidly are more likely to be amorphous. Likewise, the specific crystal structure adopted by a crystalline solid depends on the material involved and on how it was formed. While many common objects, such as an ice cube or a coin, are chemically identical throughout, many other common materials comprise a number of different substances packed together. For example, a typical rock is an aggregate of several different minerals and mineraloids, with no specific chemical composition. Wood is a natural organic material consisting primarily of cellulose fibers embedded in a matrix of organic lignin. In materials science, composites of more than one constituent material can be designed to have desired properties.

Classes of solids
Further information: Bonding in solids The forces between the atoms in a solid can take a variety of forms. For example, a crystal of sodium chloride (common salt) is made up of ionic sodium and chlorine, which are held together by ionic bonds. In diamond or silicon, the atoms share electrons and form covalent bonds. In metals, electrons are shared in metallic bonding. Some solids, particularly most organic compounds, are held together with van der Waals forces resulting from the polarization of the electronic charge cloud on each molecule. The dissimilarities between the types of solid result from the differences between their bonding.

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Metals
Metals typically are strong, dense, and good conductors of both electricity and heat. The bulk of the elements in the periodic table, those to the left of a diagonal line drawn from boron to polonium, are metals. Mixtures of two or more elements in which the major component is a metal are known as alloys. People have been using metals for a variety of purposes since prehistoric times. The strength and reliability of metals has led to their widespread use in construction of buildings and other structures, as well as in most vehicles, many appliances and tools, pipes, road signs and railroad tracks. Iron and aluminium are the two most commonly used structural metals, and they are also the most abundant metals in the Earth's crust. Iron is most commonly used in the form of an alloy, steel, which contains up to 2.1% carbon, making it much harder than pure iron. Because metals are good conductors of electricity, they are valuable in The pinnacle of New York's Chrysler Building, the world's tallest steel-supported brick building, electrical appliances and for carrying an electric current over long is clad with stainless steel. distances with little energy loss or dissipation. Thus, electrical power grids rely on metal cables to distribute electricity. Home electrical systems, for example, are wired with copper for its good conducting properties and easy machinability. The high thermal conductivity of most metals also makes them useful for stovetop cooking utensils. The study of metallic elements and their alloys makes up a significant portion of the fields of solid-state chemistry, physics, materials science and engineering. Metallic solids are held together by a high density of shared, delocalized electrons, known as "metallic bonding". In a metal, atoms readily lose their outermost ("valence") electrons, forming positive ions. The free electrons are spread over the entire solid, which is held together firmly by electrostatic interactions between the ions and the electron cloud.[1] The large number of free electrons gives metals their high values of electrical and thermal conductivity. The free electrons also prevent transmission of visible light, making metals opaque, shiny and lustrous. More advanced models of metal properties consider the effect of the positive ions cores on the delocalised electrons. As most metals have crystalline structure, those ions are usually arranged into a periodic lattice. Mathematically, the potential of the ion cores can be treated by various models, the simplest being the nearly free electron model.

Minerals
Minerals are naturally occurring solids formed through various geological processes under high pressures. To be classified as a true mineral, a substance must have a crystal structure with uniform physical properties throughout. Minerals range in composition from pure elements and simple salts to very complex silicates with thousands of known forms. In contrast, a rock sample is a random aggregate of minerals and/or mineraloids, and has no specific chemical composition. The vast majority of the rocks of the Earth's crust consist of quartz (crystalline SiO2), feldspar, mica, chlorite, kaolin, calcite, epidote, olivine, augite, hornblende, magnetite, hematite, limonite and

A collection of various minerals.

Solid a few other minerals. Some minerals, like quartz, mica or feldspar are common, while others have been found in only a few locations worldwide. The largest group of minerals by far is the silicates (most rocks are 95% silicates), which are composed largely of silicon and oxygen, with the addition of ions of aluminium, magnesium, iron, calcium and other metals.

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Ceramics
Ceramic solids are composed of inorganic compounds, usually oxides of chemical elements. They are chemically inert, and often are capable of withstanding chemical erosion that occurs in an acidic or caustic environment. Ceramics generally can withstand high temperatures ranging from 1000 to 1600 C (1800 to 3000 F). Exceptions include non-oxide inorganic materials, such as nitrides, borides and carbides. Traditional ceramic raw materials include clay minerals such as kaolinite, more recent materials include aluminium oxide (alumina). The modern ceramic materials, which are classified as advanced ceramics, include silicon carbide and tungsten carbide. Both are valued for their abrasion resistance, and hence find use in such applications as the wear plates of crushing equipment in mining operations.

Si3N4 ceramic bearing parts

Most ceramic materials, such as alumina and its compounds, are formed from fine powders, yielding a fine grained polycrystalline microstructure which is filled with light scattering centers comparable to the wavelength of visible light. Thus, they are generally opaque materials, as opposed to transparent materials. Recent nanoscale (e.g. sol-gel) technology has, however, made possible the production of polycrystalline transparent ceramics such as transparent alumina and alumina compounds for such applications as high-power lasers. Advanced ceramics are also used in the medicine, electrical and electronics industries. Ceramic engineering is the science and technology of creating solid-state ceramic materials, parts and devices. This is done either by the action of heat, or, at lower temperatures, using precipitation reactions from chemical solutions. The term includes the purification of raw materials, the study and production of the chemical compounds concerned, their formation into components, and the study of their structure, composition and properties. Mechanically speaking, ceramic materials are brittle, hard, strong in compression and weak in shearing and tension. Brittle materials may exhibit significant tensile strength by supporting a static load. Toughness indicates how much energy a material can absorb before mechanical failure, while fracture toughness (denoted KIc ) describes the ability of a material with inherent microstructural flaws to resist fracture via crack growth and propagation. If a material has a large value of fracture toughness, the basic principles of fracture mechanics suggest that it will most likely undergo ductile fracture. Brittle fracture is very characteristic of most ceramic and glass-ceramic materials which typically exhibit low (and inconsistent) values of KIc. For example of applications of ceramics, the extreme hardness of Zirconia is utilized in the manufacture of knife blades, as well as other industrial cutting tools. Ceramics such as alumina, boron carbide and silicon carbide have been used in bulletproof vests to repel large-caliber rifle fire. Silicon nitride parts are used in ceramic ball bearings, where their high hardness makes them wear resistant. In general, ceramics are also chemically resistant and can be used in wet environments where steel bearings would be susceptible to oxidation (or rust).

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As another example of ceramic applications, in the early 1980s, Toyota researched production of an adiabatic ceramic engine with an operating temperature of over 6000 F (3300 C). Ceramic engines do not require a cooling system and hence allow a major weight reduction and therefore greater fuel efficiency. In a conventional metallic engine, much of the energy released from the fuel must be dissipated as waste heat in order to prevent a meltdown of the metallic parts. Work is also being done in developing ceramic parts for gas turbine engines. Turbine engines made with ceramics could operate more efficiently, Radial rotor made from Si3N4 for a gas turbine giving aircraft greater range and payload for a set amount of fuel. engine However, such engines are not in production because the manufacturing of ceramic parts in the sufficient precision and durability is difficult and costly. Processing methods often result in a wide distribution of microscopic flaws which frequently play a detrimental role in the sintering process, resulting in the proliferation of cracks, and ultimate mechanical failure.

Glass ceramics
Glass-ceramic materials share many properties with both non-crystalline glasses and crystalline ceramics. They are formed as a glass, and then partially crystallized by heat treatment, producing both amorphous and crystalline phases so that crystalline grains are embedded within a non-crystalline intergranular phase. Glass-ceramics are used to make cookware (originally known by the brand name CorningWare) and stovetops which have both high resistance to thermal shock and extremely low permeability to liquids. A high strength glass-ceramic cooktop with The negative coefficient of thermal expansion of the crystalline negligible thermal expansion. ceramic phase can be balanced with the positive coefficient of the glassy phase. At a certain point (~70% crystalline) the glass-ceramic has a net coefficient of thermal expansion close to zero. This type of glass-ceramic exhibits excellent mechanical properties and can sustain repeated and quick temperature changes up to 1000C. Glass ceramics may also occur naturally when lightning strikes the crystalline (e.g. quartz) grains found in most beach sand. In this case, the extreme and immediate heat of the lightning (~2500 C) creates hollow, branching rootlike structures called fulgurite via fusion.

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Organic solids
Organic chemistry studies the structure, properties, composition, reactions, and preparation by synthesis (or other means) of chemical compounds of carbon and hydrogen, which may contain any number of other elements such as nitrogen, oxygen and the halogens: fluorine, chlorine, bromine and iodine. Some organic compounds may also contain the elements phosphorus or sulfur. Examples of organic solids include wood, paraffin wax, naphthalene and a wide variety of polymers and plastics. Wood
The individual wood pulp fibers in this sample are around 10 m in

Wood is a natural organic material consisting primarily diameter. of cellulose fibers embedded in a matrix of lignin. Regarding mechanical properties, the fibers are strong in tension, and the lignin matrix resists compression. Thus wood has been an important construction material since humans began building shelters and using boats. Wood to be used for construction work is commonly known as lumber or timber. In construction, wood is not only a structural material, but is also used to form the mould for concrete. Wood-based materials are also extensively used for packaging (e.g. cardboard) and paper which are both created from the refined pulp. The chemical pulping processes use a combination of high temperature and alkaline (kraft) or acidic (sulfite) chemicals to break the chemical bonds of the lignin before burning it out. Polymers One important property of carbon in organic chemistry is that it can form certain compounds, the individual molecules of which are capable of attaching themselves to one another, thereby forming a chain or a network. The process is called polymerization and the chains or networks polymers, while the source compound is a monomer. Two main groups of polymers exist: those artificially manufactured are referred to as industrial polymers or synthetic polymers (plastics) and those naturally occurring as biopolymers. Monomers can have various chemical substituents, or functional chains of the organic semiconductor quinacridone groups, which can affect the chemical properties of organic on graphite. compounds, such as solubility and chemical reactivity, as well as the physical properties, such as hardness, density, mechanical or tensile strength, abrasion resistance, heat resistance, transparency, color, etc.. In proteins, these differences give the polymer the ability to adopt a biologically active conformation in preference to others (see self-assembly).
STM image of self-assembled supramolecular

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People have been using natural organic polymers for centuries in the form of waxes and shellac which is classified as a thermoplastic polymer. A plant polymer named cellulose provided the tensile strength for natural fibers and ropes, and by the early 19th century natural rubber was in widespread use. Polymers are the raw materials (the resins) used to make what we commonly call plastics. Plastics are the final product, created after one or more polymers or additives have been added to a resin during processing, which is then shaped into a final form. Polymers which have been Household items made of various kinds of plastic. around, and which are in current widespread use, include carbon-based polyethylene, polypropylene, polyvinyl chloride, polystyrene, nylons, polyesters, acrylics, polyurethane, and polycarbonates, and silicon-based silicones. Plastics are generally classified as "commodity", "specialty" and "engineering" plastics.

Composite materials
Composite materials contain two or more macroscopic phases, one of which is often ceramic. For example, a continuous matrix, and a dispersed phase of ceramic particles or fibers. Applications of composite materials range from structural elements such as steel-reinforced concrete, to the thermally insulative tiles which play a key and integral role in NASA's Space Shuttle thermal protection system which is used to protect the surface of the shuttle from the heat of re-entry into the Earth's atmosphere. One example is Reinforced Carbon-Carbon (RCC), the light gray material which withstands reentry temperatures up to 1510 C (2750 F) and protects the nose cap and leading edges of Space Shuttle's wings. RCC is a laminated composite material made from graphite rayon cloth and impregnated with a phenolic resin. After curing at high temperature in an autoclave, the laminate is pyrolized to convert the resin to carbon, impregnated with furfural alcohol in a vacuum chamber, and cured/pyrolized to convert the furfural alcohol to carbon. In order to provide oxidation resistance for reuse capability, the outer layers of the RCC are converted to silicon carbide. Domestic examples of composites can be seen in the "plastic" casings of television sets, cell-phones and so

Simulation of the outside of the Space Shuttle as it heats up to over 1500 C during re-entry

A cloth of woven carbon fiber filaments, a common element in composite materials

Solid on. These plastic casings are usually a composite made up of a thermoplastic matrix such as acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) in which calcium carbonate chalk, talc, glass fibers or carbon fibers have been added for strength, bulk, or electro-static dispersion. These additions may be referred to as reinforcing fibers, or dispersants, depending on their purpose. Thus, the matrix material surrounds and supports the reinforcement materials by maintaining their relative positions. The reinforcements impart their special mechanical and physical properties to enhance the matrix properties. A synergism produces material properties unavailable from the individual constituent materials, while the wide variety of matrix and strengthening materials provides the designer with the choice of an optimum combination.

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Semiconductors
Semiconductors are materials that have an electrical resistivity (and conductivity) between that of metallic conductors and non-metallic insulators. They can be found in the periodic table moving diagonally downward right from boron. They separate the electrical conductors (or metals, to the left) from the insulators (to the right). Devices made from semiconductor materials are the foundation of modern electronics, including radio, computers, telephones, etc. Semiconductor devices include the transistor, solar cells, diodes and integrated circuits. Solar photovoltaic panels are large semiconductor devices that directly convert light into electrical energy.

Semiconductor chip on crystalline silicon substrate.

In a metallic conductor, current is carried by the flow of electrons", but in semiconductors, current can be carried either by electrons or by the positively charged "holes" in the electronic band structure of the material. Common semiconductor materials include silicon, germanium and gallium arsenide.

Nanomaterials
Many traditional solids exhibit different properties when they shrink to nanometer sizes. For example, nanoparticles of usually yellow gold and gray silicon are red in color; gold nanoparticles melt at much lower temperatures (~300 C for 2.5nm size) than the gold slabs (1064 C);[2] and metallic nanowires are much stronger than the corresponding bulk metals.[3] [4] The high surface area of nanoparticles makes them extremely attractive for certain applications in the field of energy. For example, platinum metals may be provide improvements as automotive fuel catalysts, as well as proton exchange membrane (PEM) fuel cells. Also, ceramic oxides (or cermets) of lanthanum, Bulk silicon (left) and silicon nanopowder (right) cerium, manganese and nickel are now being developed as solid oxide fuel cells (SOFC). Lithium, lithium titanate and tantalum nanoparticles are being applied in lithium ion batteries. Silicon nanoparticles have been shown to dramatically expand the storage capacity of lithium ion batteries during the expansion/contraction cycle. Silicon nanowires cycle without significant degradation and present the potential for use in batteries with greatly expanded storage times. Silicon nanoparticles are also being used in new forms of solar energy cells. Thin film deposition of silicon quantum dots on the polycrystalline silicon substrate of a photovoltaic (solar) cell increases voltage output as much as 60% by fluorescing the incoming light prior to capture. Here again, surface area of the nanoparticles (and thin films) plays a critical role in maximizing the amount of absorbed radiation.

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Biomaterials
Many natural (or biological) materials are complex composites with remarkable mechanical properties. These complex structures, which have risen from hundreds of million years of evolution, are inspiring materials scientists in the design of novel materials. Their defining characteristics include structural hierarchy, multifunctionality and self-healing capability. Self-organization is also a fundamental feature of many biological materials and the manner by which the structures are assembled from the molecular level up. Thus, self-assembly is emerging as a new strategy in the chemical synthesis of high performance biomaterials.

Collagen fibers of woven bone

Physical properties
Physical properties of elements and compounds which provide conclusive evidence of chemical composition include odor, color, volume, density (mass per unit volume), melting point, boiling point, heat capacity, physical form and shape at room temperature (solid, liquid or gas; cubic, trigonal crystals, etc.), hardness, porosity, index of refraction and many others. This section discusses some physical properties of materials in the solid state.

Mechanical
The mechanical properties of materials describe characteristics such as their strength and resistance to deformation. For example, steel beams are used in construction because of their high strength, meaning that they neither break nor bend significantly under the applied load. Mechanical properties include elasticity and plasticity, tensile strength, compressive strength, shear strength, fracture toughness, ductility (low in brittle materials), and indentation hardness. Solid mechanics is the study of the behavior of solid matter under external actions such as external forces and temperature changes.

A solid does not exhibit macroscopic flow, as fluids do. Any degree of departure from its original shape is called deformation. The proportion of deformation to original size is called strain. If the applied stress is sufficiently low, almost all solid materials behave in such a way that the strain is directly proportional to the stress (Hooke's law). The coefficient of the proportion is called the modulus of elasticity or Young's modulus. This region of deformation is known as the linearly elastic region. Three models can describe how a solid responds to an applied stress:

Granite rock formation in the Chilean Patagonia. Like most inorganic minerals formed by oxidation in the Earth's atmosphere, granite consists primarily of crystalline silica SiO2 and alumina Al2O3.

Solid Elasticity When an applied stress is removed, the material returns to its undeformed state. Viscoelasticity These are materials that behave elastically, but also have damping. When the applied stress is removed, work has to be done against the damping effects and is converted to heat within the material. This results in a hysteresis loop in the stressstrain curve. This implies that the mechanical response has a time-dependence. Plasticity Materials that behave elastically generally do so when the applied stress is less than a yield value. When the stress is greater than the yield stress, the material behaves plastically and does not return to its previous state. That is, irreversible plastic deformation (or viscous flow) occurs after yield which is permanent. Many materials become weaker at high temperatures. Materials which retain their strength at high temperatures, called refractory materials, are useful for many purposes. For example, glass-ceramics have become extremely useful for countertop cooking, as they exhibit excellent mechanical properties and can sustain repeated and quick temperature changes up to 1000 C. In the aerospace industry, high performance materials used in the design of aircraft and/or spacecraft exteriors must have a high resistance to thermal shock. Thus, synthetic fibers spun out of organic polymers and polymer/ceramic/metal composite materials and fiber-reinforced polymers are now being designed with this purpose in mind.

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Thermal
Because solids have thermal energy, their atoms vibrate about fixed mean positions within the ordered (or disordered) lattice. The spectrum of lattice vibrations in a crystalline or glassy network provides the foundation for the kinetic theory of solids. This motion occurs at the atomic level, and thus cannot be observed or detected without highly specialized equipment, such as that used in spectroscopy. Thermal properties of solids include thermal conductivity, which is the property of a material that indicates its ability to conduct heat. Solids also have a specific heat capacity, which is the capacity of a material to store energy in the form of heat (or thermal lattice vibrations).

Electrical

Normal modes of atomic vibration in a crystalline solid.

Electrical properties include conductivity, resistance, impedance and capacitance. Electrical conductors such as metals and alloys are contrasted with electrical insulators such as glasses and ceramics. Semiconductors behave somewhere in between. Whereas conductivity in metals is caused by electrons, both electrons and holes contribute to current in semiconductors. Alternatively, ions support electric current in ionic conductors. Many materials also exhibit superconductivity at low temperatures; they include metallic elements such as tin and aluminium, various metallic alloys, some heavily doped semiconductors, and certain ceramics. The electrical resistivity of most electrical (metallic) conductors generally decreases gradually as the temperature is lowered, but remains finite. In a superconductor however, the resistance drops abruptly to zero when the material is cooled below its critical temperature. An electric current flowing in a loop of superconducting wire can persist indefinitely with no power source.

Solid A dielectric, or electrical insulator, is a substance that is highly resistant to the flow of electric current. A dielectric, such as plastic, tends to concentrate an applied electric field within itself which property is used in capacitors. A capacitor is an electrical device that can store energy in the electric field between a pair of closely spaced conductors (called 'plates'). When voltage is applied to the capacitor, electric charges of equal magnitude, but opposite polarity, build up on each plate. Capacitors are used in electrical circuits as energy-storage devices, as well as in electronic filters to differentiate between high-frequency and low-frequency signals. Electro-mechanical Piezoelectricity is the ability of crystals to generate a voltage in response to an applied mechanical stress. The piezoelectric effect is reversible in that piezoelectric crystals, when subjected to an externally applied voltage, can change shape by a small amount. Polymer materials like rubber, wool, hair, wood fiber, and silk often behave as electrets. For example, the polymer polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) exhibits a piezoelectric response several times larger than the traditional piezoelectric material quartz (crystalline SiO2). The deformation (~0.1%) lends itself to useful technical applications such as high-voltage sources, loudspeakers, lasers, as well as chemical, biological, and acousto-optic sensors and/or transducers.

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Optical
Materials can transmit (e.g. glass) or reflect (e.g. metals) visible light. Many materials will transmit some wavelengths while blocking others. For example, window glass is transparent to visible light, but much less so to most of the frequencies of ultraviolet light that cause sunburn. This property is used for frequency-selective optical filters, which can alter the color of incident light. For some purposes, both the optical and mechanical properties of a material can be of interest. For example, the sensors on an infrared homing ("heat-seeking") missile must be protected by a cover which is transparent to infrared radiation. The current material of choice for high-speed infrared-guided missile domes is single-crystal sapphire. The optical transmission of sapphire does not actually extend to cover the entire mid-infrared range (35m), but starts to drop off at wavelengths greater than approximately 4.5m at room temperature. While the strength of sapphire is better than that of other available mid-range infrared dome materials at room temperature, it weakens above 600 C. A long standing trade-off exists between optical bandpass and mechanical durability; new materials such as transparent ceramics or optical nanocomposites may provide improved performance. Guided lightwave transmission involves the field of fiber optics and the ability of certain glasses to transmit, simultaneously and with low loss of intensity, a range of frequencies (multi-mode optical waveguides) with little interference between them. Optical waveguides are used as components in integrated optical circuits or as the transmission medium in optical communication systems. Opto-electronic A solar cell or photovoltaic cell is a device that converts light energy into electrical energy. Fundamentally, the device needs to fulfill only two functions: photo-generation of charge carriers (electrons and holes) in a light-absorbing material, and separation of the charge carriers to a conductive contact that will transmit the electricity (simply put, carrying electrons off through a metal contact into an external circuit). This conversion is called the photoelectric effect, and the field of research related to solar cells is known as photovoltaics. Solar cells have many applications. They have long been used in situations where electrical power from the grid is unavailable, such as in remote area power systems, Earth-orbiting satellites and space probes, handheld calculators, wrist watches, remote radiotelephones and water pumping applications. More recently, they are starting to be used in assemblies of solar modules (photovoltaic arrays) connected to the electricity grid through an inverter, that is not to act as a sole supply but as an additional electricity source.

Solid All solar cells require a light absorbing material contained within the cell structure to absorb photons and generate electrons via the photovoltaic effect. The materials used in solar cells tend to have the property of preferentially absorbing the wavelengths of solar light that reach the earth surface. However, some solar cells are optimized for light absorption beyond Earth's atmosphere as well.

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References
[1] Mortimer, Charles E. (1975). Chemistry: A Conceptual Approach (3rd ed.). New York:: D. Van Nostrad Company. ISBN0442255454. [2] Buffat, Ph.; Borel, J.-P. (1976). "Size effect on the melting temperature of gold particles". Physical Review A 13 (6): 2287. Bibcode1976PhRvA..13.2287B. doi:10.1103/PhysRevA.13.2287. [3] Walter H. Kohl (1995). Handbook of materials and techniques for vacuum devices (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=-Ll6qjWB-RUC& pg=PA164). Springer. pp.164167. ISBN1563963876. . [4] Shpak, Anatoly P; Kotrechko, Sergiy O; Mazilova, Tatjana I; Mikhailovskij, Igor M (2009). "Inherent tensile strength of molybdenum nanocrystals" (free-download pdf). Science and Technology of Advanced Materials 10: 045004. Bibcode2009STAdM..10d5004S. doi:10.1088/1468-6996/10/4/045004.

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Periodic table
Valence electron
In chemistry, valence electrons are the electrons of an atom that can participate in the formation of chemical bonds with other atoms. Valence electrons are the "own" electrons, present in the free neutral atom, that combine with valence electrons of other atoms to form chemical bonds. In a single covalent bond both atoms contribute one valence electron to form a shared pair. For main group elements, only the outermost electrons are valence electrons. In transition metals, some inner-shell electrons are also valence electrons. Valence electrons are important in determining how the atom reacts chemically with other atoms. Atoms with a complete (closed) shell of valence electrons (corresponding to an electron configuration s2p6) tend to be chemically inert. Atoms with one or two valence electrons more than a closed shell are highly reactive because the extra electrons are easily removed to form positive ions. Atoms with one or two valence electrons fewer than a closed shell are also highly reactive because of a tendency either to gain the missing electrons and form negative ions, or to share electrons and form covalent bonds.

Four covalent bonds. Carbon has four valence electrons and here a valence of four. Each hydrogen atom has one valence electron and is univalent.

Valence electrons have the ability, like electrons in inner shells, to absorb or release energy in the form of photons. This gain or loss of energy can trigger an electron to move (jump) to another shell or even break free from the atom and its valence shell. When an electron absorbs energy in the form of one or more photons, then it moves to a more outer shell depending on the amount of energy gained. (See also : electrons in an excited state). When an electron loses energy (photons), then it moves to a more inner shell.

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The number of valence electrons

The number of valence electrons of an element is determined by its periodic table group (vertical column) in which the element is categorized. With the exception of groups 312 (transition metals), the number within the unit's place identifies how many valence electrons are contained within the elements listed under that particular column.

The periodic table of the chemical elements

Periodic table group

Valence electrons 1

Group 1 (I) (alkali metals)

Group 2 (II) (alkaline earth metals) 2 Groups 3-12 (transition metals) Group 13 (III) (boron group) Group 14 (IV) (carbon group) Group 15 (V) (nitrogen group) Group 16 (VI) (chalcogens) Group 17 (VII) (halogens) Group 18 (noble gases) See note * 3 4 5 6 7 8**

* The general method for counting valence electrons is generally not useful for transition metals. Instead the modified d electron count method is used. ** Except for helium, which has only two valence electrons.

Valence electrons and electron configuration

For main group elements, the number of valence electrons depends on the electron configuration in a simple way, but for transition metals the relationship is more complex. For main group elements, valence electrons can be defined as those in the electronic shell of highest principal quantum number n.[1] For example the electronic configuration of phosphorus (P) is 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p3 so that are 5 valence electrons (3s2 3p3), corresponding to a maximum valence for P of 5 as in the molecule PF5. This configuration is normally abbreviated to (Ne) 3s2 3p3, where (Ne) signifies the core electrons whose configuration is identical to the noble gas neon. However this simple method does not work for transition metals, which have incomplete nd (i.e. 3d, 4d or 5d) subshells whose energy is normally comparable with that of the (n+1)s electrons. The valence electrons are instead

Valence electron defined as those outside a noble-gas core.[2] For example, manganese (Mn) has configuration 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d5. This is abbreviated to (Ar) 4s2 3d5, where (Ar) denotes a core configuration identical to that of argon. In this atom, the 3d electrons have energies similar to those of the 4s electrons, and much higher than for the 3s and 3p electrons. In effect there are seven valence electrons (4s2 3d5) outside the argon-like core. This is consistent with the chemical fact that manganese can have oxidation states as high as +7 (in the permanganate ion MnO4-). Towards the right of each transition metal series, the d electrons descend to lower energies and have less valence electron character. Thus although nickel has in principle ten valence electrons (4s2 3d8), the oxidation state never exceeds four. For zinc and succeeding elements, the 3d subshell is complete and the 3d electrons are considered core electrons. Since the number of valence electrons which actually participate in chemical reactions is difficult to predict, the concept of valence electrons is less useful for transition metals than for main group elements. As mentioned above, the d electron count provides a more useful tool for the understanding of the chemistry of these elements.

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Valence electrons in chemical reactions

The number of electrons in an atom's outermost valence shell governs its bonding behavior. Therefore, elements with the same number of valence electrons are grouped together in the periodic table of the elements. As a general rule, atoms of main group elements (except hydrogen and helium) tend to react to form a "closed" or complete shell, corresponding to an s2p6 electron configuration. This tendency is called the octet rule since the bonded atom has or shares eight valence electrons. The most reactive metallic elements are the alkali metals of Group 1, for example sodium (Na) and potassium (K) whose atoms each have a single valence electron. This is easily lost to form a positive ion (cation) with a closed shell (Na+ or K+), during the formation of an ionic bond which provides the necessary ionization energy. The alkaline earth metals of Group 2, for example magnesium, are somewhat less reactive since each atom must lose two valence electrons to form a positive ion with a closed shell such as Mg2+. Nonmetal atoms tend to attract additional valence electrons to attain a full valence shell. This can be achieved one of two ways: an atom can either share electrons with neighboring atoms, a covalent bond, or it can remove electrons from other atoms, an ionic bond. The most reactive non-metals are the halogens such as fluorine (F) and chlorine (Cl), which have electron configurations s2p5 and require only one additional valence electron for a closed shell. To form an ionic bond, a halogen atom can remove an electron from another atom to form an anion (F-, Cl-, etc.). To form a covalent bond, one electron from the halogen and one electron from another atom form a shared pair. For example in the molecule H-F, the line represents a shared pair of valence electrons, one from H and one from F. In these simple cases where the octet rule is obeyed, the valence of an atom equals the number of electrons gained, lost or shared to form the stable octet. However there are also many molecules which are exceptions, and for which the valence is less clearly defined.

Valence electrons and electrical conductivity

The valence electrons are also responsible for the electrical conductivity of elements, which may be divided into metals, nonmetals, and semiconductors or metalloids. Metals or metallic elements are elements with high electrical conductivity in the solid state. In each row of the periodic table the metals occur to the left of the nonmetals and thus have fewer valence electrons. The valence electrons which are present have small ionization energies, and in the solid state they are relatively free to leave one atom and move to its neighbour. These free electrons can move under the influence of an electric field and their motion constitutes an electric current. They are therefore responsible for the electrical conductivity of the metal. Copper, aluminium, silver and gold are examples of good conductors used widely in industry.

Valence electron Nonmetallic elements have low electrical conductivity and act as insulators. They are found to the right of the periodic table with valence shells which are at least half full (except for boron). Their ionization energies are large so that electrons cannot leave an atom easily when an electric field is applied, and they conduct only very small electric currents. Examples of solid elemental insulators are diamond (an allotrope of carbon) and sulfur. Solid compounds containing metals can also be insulators if the valence electrons of the metal atoms are used to form ionic bonds. For example, although elemental sodium is a metal, solid sodium chloride is an insulator because the valence electron of sodium is transferred to chlorine to form an ionic bond and cannot move easily in an electric field. Semiconductors have an electrical conductivity intermediate between metals and nonmetals, and also differ from metals in that their conductivity increases with temperature. The typical elemental semiconductors are silicon and germanium with four valence electrons each. Their properties are best explained using band theory, as a consequence of a small energy gap between a valence band which contains the valence electrons at absolute zero, and a conduction band to which valence electrons are excited by thermal energy.

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References
[1] Petrucci R.H., Harwood W.S. and Herring F.G., General Chemistry (8th edn, Prentice-Hall 2002), p.339 [2] Miessler G.L. and Tarr, D.A., Inorganic Chemistry (2nd edn. Prentice-Hall 1999). p.48

External links
1. Francis, Eden. Valence Electrons (http://dl.clackamas.cc.or.us/ch104-06/valence_electrons.htm).

Periodic table
The periodic table of the chemical elements (also known as the periodic table or periodic table of the elements) is a tabular display of the 118 known chemical elements organized by selected properties of their atomic structures. Elements are presented by increasing atomic number, the number of protons in an atom's atomic nucleus. While rectangular in general outline, gaps are included in the horizontal rows (known as periods) as needed to keep elements with similar properties together in vertical columns (known as groups), e.g. alkali metals, alkali earths, halogens, noble gases.[1] The following is the periodic table as defined by the IUPAC:
Group# Period 1 1 H 3 Li 11 Na 19 K 37 Rb 55 Cs 4 Be 12 Mg 20 Ca 38 Sr 56 Ba 21 Sc 39 Y 22 Ti 23 V 24 25 26 Cr Mn Fe 44 Ru 76 Os 27 Co 45 Rh 77 Ir 28 Ni 5 B 13 Al 29 30 31 Cu Zn Ga 49 In 81 Tl 6 C 14 Si 32 Ge 50 Sn 82 Pb 7 N 15 P 33 As 51 Sb 83 Bi 8 O 16 S 34 Se 52 Te 84 Po 9 F 17 Cl 35 Br 53 I 85 At 2 He 10 Ne 18 Ar 36 Kr 54 Xe 86 Rn 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18

40 41 42 43 Zr Nb Mo Tc 74 W 75 Re

46 47 48 Pd Ag Cd 78 79 80 Pt Au Hg

* 72 73 lanthanides Hf Ta

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7 87 Fr 88 Ra ** actinides 57 La 89 Ac 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118 Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cn Uut Uuq Uup Uuh Uus Uuo 58 59 60 61 62 63 Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu 90 91 Th Pa 92 U 64 65 66 67 Gd Tb Dy Ho 99 Es 68 Er 69 Tm 70 Yb 71 Lu

* Lanthanides (Lanthanoids)

** Actinides (Actinoids)

93 94 95 96 97 98 Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf

100 101 102 103 Fm Md No Lr

This common arrangement of the periodic table separates the lanthanides (lanthanoids) and actinides (actinoids) (the f-block) from other elements. The wide periodic table incorporates the f-block. The extended periodic table adds the 8th and 9th periods, incorporating the f-block and adding the theoretical g-block.
Element categories in the periodic table

Metals Alkali metals Alkaline Inner transition metals Transition earth metals metals Lanthanides Actinides Post-transition metals

Metalloids

Unknown chemical Other Halogens Noble properties nonmetals gases

Nonmetals

Solids

Liquids

Gases

Unknown

Primordial From decay Synthetic

Although there were precursors, the current presentation's invention is generally credited to Russian chemist Dmitri Mendeleev, who developed a version of the now-familiar tabular presentation in 1869 to illustrate recurring ("periodic") trends in the properties of the then-known elements.[2] The layout of the table has been refined and extended over time, as new elements have been discovered, and new theoretical models have been developed to explain chemical behavior.[3] Since the periodic table accurately predicts the abilities of various elements to combine into chemical compounds, use of the periodic table is now ubiquitous within the academic discipline of chemistry, providing a useful framework to classify, systematize, and compare many of the many different forms of chemical behavior. The table has found many applications not only in chemistry and physics, but also in such diverse fields as geology, biology, materials science, engineering, agriculture, medicine, nutrition, environmental health, and astronomy. Its principles are especially important in chemical engineering. One of the strengths of Mendeleev's presentation is that the original version accurately predicted of the properties of then-undiscovered elements expected to fill gaps in his arrangement. For example: "eka-aluminium", expected to have properties intermediate between aluminium and indium, was discovered with said properties in 1875 and named gallium. No gaps remain in the current 118-element periodic table; all elements from hydrogen to plutonium except technetium, promethium and neptunium exist in the Earth in macroscopic or recurrently produced trace quantities. The three said exceptions do exist naturally, but only in trace amounts as the result of rare nuclear processes from decay of heavy elements. Every element through Copernicium, element 112, has been isolated, characterized, and named, and elements 113 through 118 have been synthesized in laboratories around the world. While plutonium is now included among the 91 regularly occurring natural elements, and technetium, promethium, and neptunium also occur naturally in transient trace amounts, these four elements were first identified and characterized from technologically produced samples. Numerous synthetic radionuclides of various naturally occurring elements have been produced as well. Production of additional synthetic elements beyond atomic number 118 is being pursued; whether the next elements will neatly fill an eighth period or require modifications to the overall patterns of the present periodic table remains unknown.

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Organizing principles
The main value of the periodic table is the ability to predict the chemical properties of an element based on its location on the table. It should be noted that the properties vary differently when moving vertically along the columns of the table than when moving horizontally along the rows.[1] The layout of the periodic table demonstrates recurring ("periodic") chemical properties. Elements are listed in order of increasing atomic number (i.e., the number of protons in the atomic nucleus). Rows are arranged so that elements with similar properties fall into the same columns (groups or families). According to quantum mechanical theories of electron configuration within atoms, each row (period) in the table corresponded to the filling of a quantum shell of electrons. There are progressively longer periods further down the table, grouping the elements into s-, p-, d- and f-blocks to reflect their electron configuration.[1]

Elements, natural and synthetic

Only chemical elements, not mixtures, compounds, or subatomic particles, are included in the periodic table. Each element has a single entry, even if it has multiple isotopes.[1] As of June 2011, the periodic table includes 118 chemical elements whose discoveries have been confirmed. Of these, 91 are regularly occurring primordial or recurrently produced elements found naturally on the Earth, at least in transient trace amounts, and three others occur naturally, but only incidentally.[1] The 24 other known elements (those from americium through ununoctium) are synthetic, produced by human technology but not regularly or incidentally occurring naturally.[1] Various synthetic elements, as well as synthetic isotopes of naturally occurring elements, are now also present in the environment from such sources as nuclear weapons explosions, nuclear waste processing, and disposal of materials including industrial and medical nucleotides. For example, americium and its decay product neptunium are incidentally present in household and commercial waste from disposal of unwanted americium-containing smoke detectors. Formal naming of the chemical elements is overseen by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC). Provisional names, such as ununtrium, ununquadium, or ununpentium, are provided for elements that have been discovered but not yet been formally named; these names are based on the three digits of their atomic numbers.[1] [4]

Atomic number
By definition, each chemical element has a unique atomic number, the number of protons in its nucleus. Different atoms of many elements have different numbers of neutrons, which differentiates between isotopes of an element. For example, all atoms of hydrogen have one proton, and no atoms of any other element have exactly one proton. On the other hand, a hydrogen atom can have one or two neutrons in its nucleus, or none at all, yet all of these cases are isotopes of hydrogen, not instances of some other element. (A hydrogen atom with no neutrons in addition to its sole proton is called protium, one with one neutron in addition to its proton is called deuterium, and one with two additional neutrons, tritium.) In the modern periodic table, the elements are placed progressively in each row (period) from left to right in the sequence of their atomic numbers, with each new row starting with the next atomic number following the last number in the previous row. No gaps or duplications exist. Since the elements can be uniquely sequenced by atomic number, conventionally from lowest to hightest, sets of elements are sometimes specified by such notation as "through", "beyond", or "from ... through", as in "through iron", "beyond uranium", or "from lanthanum through lutetium". The terms "light" and "heavy" are sometimes also used informally to indicate relative atomic numbers (not densities!), as in "lighter than carbon" or "heavier than lead", although technically the weight or mass of atoms of an element (their atomic weights or atomic masses) do not always increase monotonically with their atomic numbers.

Periodic table The significance of atomic numbers to the organization of the periodic table was not appreciated until the existence and properties of protons and neutrons became understood. Mendeleev's periodic tables instead used atomic weights, information determinable to fair precision in his time, which worked well enough in most cases to give a powerfully predictive presentation far better than any other comprehensive portrayal of the chemical elements' properties then possible. Substitution of atomic numbers, once understood, gave a definitive, integer-based sequence for the elements, still used today even as new synthetic elements are being produced and studied.

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Periodicity of chemical properties

The primary determinant of an element's chemical properties is its electron configuration, particularly the valence shell electrons. For instance, any atoms with four valence electrons occupying p orbitals will exhibit some similarity. The type of orbital in which the atom's outermost electrons reside determines the "block" to which it belongs. The number of valence shell electrons determines the family, or group, to which the element belongs.[1]
Subshell S Period 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 1s 2s 3s 4s 5s 6s 7s 2p 3p 3d 4p 4d 5p 4f 5d 6p 5f 6d 7p G F D P

8s 5g 6f 7d 8p

The total number of electron shells an atom has determines the period to which it belongs. Each shell is divided into different subshells, which as atomic number increases are filled in roughly this order (the Aufbau principle) (see table).[5] Hence the structure of the periodic table. Since the outermost electrons determine chemical properties, those with the same number of valence electrons are generally grouped together.[1] Progressing through a group from lightest element to heaviest element, the outer-shell electrons (those most readily accessible for participation in chemical reactions) are all in the same type of orbital, with a similar shape, but with increasingly higher energy and average distance from the nucleus. For instance, the outer-shell (or "valence") electrons of the first group, headed by hydrogen, all have one electron in an s orbital. In hydrogen, that s orbital is in the lowest possible energy state of any atom, the first-shell orbital (and represented by hydrogen's position in the first period of the table).[6] In francium, the heaviest element of the group, the outer-shell electron is in the seventh-shell orbital, significantly further out on average from the nucleus than those electrons filling all the shells below it in energy. As another example, both carbon and lead have four electrons in their outer shell orbitals.[1] Note that as atomic number (i.e., charge on the atomic nucleus) increases, this leads to greater spin-orbit coupling between the nucleus and the electrons, reducing the validity of the quantum mechanical orbital approximation model, which considers each atomic orbital as a separate entity.

Periodic table Groups A group or family is a vertical column in the periodic table. Groups are considered the most important method of classifying the elements. In some groups, the elements have very similar properties and exhibit a clear trend in properties down the group. Under the international naming system, the groups are numbered numerically 1 through 18 from the left most column (the alkali metals) to the right most column (the noble gases).[7] The older naming systems differed slightly between Europe and America (the table shown in this section shows the old American Naming System).[8] Some of these groups have been given trivial (unsystematic) names, such as the alkali metals, alkaline earth metals, halogens, pnictogens, chalcogens, and noble gases. However, some other groups, such as group 7, have no trivial names and are referred to simply by their group numbers, since they display fewer similarities and/or vertical trends.[7] Modern quantum mechanical theories of atomic structure explain group trends by proposing that elements within the same group generally have the same electron configurations in their valence shell, which is the most important factor in accounting for their similar properties.[1] Elements in the same group show patterns in atomic radius, ionization energy, and electronegativity. From top to bottom in a group, the atomic radii of the elements increase. Since there are more filled energy levels, valence electrons are found farther from the nucleus. From the top, each successive element has a lower ionization energy because it is easier to remove an electron since the atoms are less tightly bound. Similarly, a group has a top to bottom decrease in electronegativity due to an increasing distance between valence electrons and the nucleus.[9] Periods A period is a horizontal row in the periodic table. Although groups are the most common way of classifying elements, there are some regions of the periodic table where the horizontal trends and similarities in properties are more significant than vertical group trends. This can be true in the d-block (or "transition metals"), and especially for the f-block, where the lanthanides and actinides form two substantial horizontal series of elements. Elements in the same period show trends in atomic radius, ionization energy, electron affinity, and electronegativity. Moving left to right across a period, atomic radius usually decreases. This occurs because each successive element has an added proton and electron which causes the electron to be drawn closer to the nucleus.[10] This decrease in atomic radius also causes the ionization Periodic trend for ionization energy. Each period begins at a minimum for the alkali energy to increase when moving from metals, and ends at a maximum for the noble gases. left to right across a period. The more tightly bound an element is, the more energy is required to remove an electron. Electronegativity increases in the same manner as ionization energy because of the pull exerted on the electrons by the nucleus.[9] Electron affinity also shows a slight trend across a period. Metals (left side of a period) generally have a lower electron affinity than nonmetals (right side of a period) with the exception of the noble gases.[11]

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Periodic table Blocks Because of the importance of the outermost electron shell, the different regions of the periodic table are sometimes referred to as periodic table blocks, named according to the subshell in which the "last" electron resides. The s-block comprises the first two groups (alkali metals and alkaline earth metals) as well as hydrogen and helium. The p-block comprises the last six groups which are groups 13 through 18 in IUPAC (3A through 8A in American) and contains, among This diagram shows the periodic table blocks with the CAS (American Group Numbering others, all of the semimetals. The System). d-block comprises groups 3 through 12 in IUPAC (or 3A through 8A in American group numbering) and contains all of the transition metals. The f-block, usually offset below the rest of the periodic table, comprises the lanthanides and actinides.[12] Uncertainties after element 118 Element 118 completes the seventh period of the periodic table. Since the properties of any additional elements are still unknown, it is unclear whether they will continue the pattern of the currently accepted periodic table as an additional period (Period 8), or require further adaptations or adjustments to the currently known patterns. Glenn T. Seaborg expected the next 50 elements to form an eighth period, including a two-element s-block for elements 119 and 120, a g-block (the first) for the next 18 elements (121-138), filling a g-shell of electrons, and the 30 additional elements continuing the current p-, d-, and f-blocks.[13] [14] However, some physicists, including Pekka Pyykk, have theorized that these additional elements will deviate from the Madelung energy-ordering rule, which predicts how electron shells are filled, and thus affect the appearance of the present periodic table.[15]

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Periodic table

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Conventional and alternative formats

In printed or other formally presented periodic tables, each element is provided a formatted cell that provides selected information on each element. Atomic number, element symbol, and name, are generally included, as well as selected other information, such as each element's atomic weight, density, melting and boiling points, crystal structure as a solid, origin, abbreviated electron configuration, electronegativity, and most common valence numbers.[16]

The information included in a periodic table can be presented in many ways, including selection of kinds of data to be shown, layout within the cells representing particular elements, and the format used to present the table's periodic patterns. Colors, symbols, and other formatting conventions are often used in periodic tables to show selected additional information for each element compactly. Interactive versions may also include hyperlinks to additional information, as in the version shown at the top of this Wikipedia article. While the iconic format presented above is widely used,[1] other alternative periodic tables exist, including not only various rectangular formats, but also circular or cylindrical versions in which the rows (periods) flow from one into another, without the arbitrary breaks required at the margins of the usual printed or screen-formatted versions. In presentations of the periodic table, the lanthanides and the actinides are customarily shown as two additional rows below the main body of the table,[1] with placeholders or else a selected single Sculpture of the periodic table in circular layout, with the portrait of Dmitri element of each series (either lanthanum or Mendeleev in the middle (Bratislava, Slovakia). The table is shown to be almost lutetium, and either actinium or lawrencium, circular even though most commonly it is not drawn so. respectively) shown in a single cell of the main table, between barium and hafnium, and radium and rutherfordium, respectively. This convention is entirely a matter of aesthetics and formatting practicality; a rarely used wide-formatted periodic table inserts the lanthanide and actinide series in their proper places, as parts of the table's sixth and seventh rows (periods). Many presentations of the periodic table show a dark stair-step diagonal line along the metalloids, with metals to the left of the line and non-metals to the right.[1] [17] Various other groupings of the chemical elements are sometimes also highlighted on a periodic table, such as transition metals, poor metals, and metalloids. Other informal groupings of the elements exist, such as the platinum group and the noble metals, but are rarely addressed in periodic tables.

The periodic table as commonly presented, with horizontal periods, vertical groups, and highlighting to show similar elements. Rather than being incorporated in their proper places, the lanthanides and actinides are here shown in separate rows beneath the other elements, providing a more convenient (and aesthetically more pleasing), but less accurate, layout.

Periodic table Hydrogen is usually placed above lithium, although its chemistry differs substantially from that of lithium and the other alkali metals; some periodic tables place it on its own.[1] Elements with atomic numbers greater than 82, as well as technetium and promethium, have no stable isotopes; the atomic mass of each of these element's isotope having the longest half-life is typically reported on periodic tables with parentheses.[18]

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History
In 1789, Antoine Lavoisier published a list of 33 chemical elements. Although Lavoisier grouped the elements into gases, metals, non-metals, and earths, chemists spent the following century searching for a more precise classification scheme. In 1829, Johann Wolfgang Dbereiner observed that many of the elements could be grouped into triads (groups of three) based on their chemical properties. Lithium, sodium, and potassium, for example, were grouped together as being soft, reactive metals. Dbereiner also observed that, when arranged by atomic weight, the second member of each triad was roughly the average of the first and the third.[19] This became known as the Law of Triads.[20] German chemist Leopold Gmelin worked with this system, and by 1843 he had identified ten triads, three groups of four, and one group of five. Jean Baptiste Dumas published work in 1857 describing relationships between various groups of Mendeleev's 1869 periodic table; note that his arrangement presents the periods metals. Although various chemists were able vertically, and the groups horizontally to identify relationships between small groups of elements, they had yet to build one scheme that encompassed them all.[19] German chemist August Kekul had observed in 1858 that carbon has a tendency to bond with other elements in a ratio of one to four. Methane, for example, has one carbon atom and four hydrogen atoms. This concept eventually became known as valency. In 1864, fellow German chemist Julius Lothar Meyer published a table of the 49 known elements arranged by valency. The table revealed that elements with similar properties often shared the same valency.[21] English chemist John Newlands produced a series of papers in 1864 and 1865 that described his own classification of the elements: he noted that when listed in order of increasing atomic weight, similar physical and chemical properties recurred at intervals of eight, which he likened to the octaves of music.[22] [23] This Law of Octaves, however, was ridiculed by his contemporaries, and the Chemical Society refused to publish his work.[24] Nonetheless, Newlands was able to draft an atomic table and use it to predict the existence of missing elements, such as germanium. The Chemical Society only acknowledged the significance of his discoveries some five years after they credited Mendeleev.

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Russian chemistry professor Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev and German chemist Julius Lothar Meyer independently published their periodic tables in 1869 and 1870, respectively. They both constructed their tables in a similar manner: by listing the elements in a row or column in order of atomic weight and starting a new row or column when the characteristics of the elements began to repeat.[25] The success of Mendeleev's table came from two decisions he made: The first was to leave gaps in the table when it seemed that the corresponding element had not yet been discovered.[26] Mendeleev was not the first chemist to do so, but he was the first to be recognized as using the trends in his periodic table to predict the properties of those missing elements, such as gallium and germanium.[27] The second decision was to occasionally ignore the order suggested by the atomic Dmitri Mendeleev weights and switch adjacent elements, such as cobalt and nickel, to better classify them into chemical families. With the development of theories of atomic structure, it became apparent that Mendeleev had listed the elements in order of increasing atomic number.[28] With the development of modern quantum mechanical theories of electron configurations within atoms, it became apparent that each row (or period) in the table corresponded to the filling of a quantum shell of electrons. In Mendeleev's original table, each period was the same length. However, because larger atoms have more electron sub-shells, modern tables have progressively longer periods further down the table.[29] In the years following publication of Mendeleev's periodic table, the gaps he identified were filled as chemists discovered additional naturally occurring elements. It is often stated that the last naturally occurring element to be discovered was francium (referred to by Mendeleev as eka-caesium) in 1939.[30] However, plutonium, produced synthetically in 1940, was identified in trace quantities as a naturally occurring primordial element in 1971.[31] The production of various transuranic elements has expanded the periodic table significantly, the first of these being neptunium, synthesized in 1939.[32] Because many of the transuranic elements are highly unstable and decay quickly, they are challenging to detect and characterize when produced, and there have been controversies concerning the acceptance of competing discovery claims for some elements, requiring independent review to determine which party has priority, and hence naming rights. The most recently named element is copernicium (number 112), named on 19 February 2010;[33] the most recently accepted discoveries are ununquadium (114) and ununhexium (116), both accepted on 1 June 2011.[34]

References
[1] Gray, Theodore (2009). The Elements: A Visual Exploration of Every Known Atom in the Universe. New York: Black Dog & Leventhal Publishers. pp.240. ISBN978-1-57912-814-2. [2] Dimitri Mendelejew: Ueber die Beziehungen der Eigenschaften zu den Atomgewichten der Elemente. In: Zeitschrift fr Chemie. 1869, pp. 405406. [3] IUPAC article on periodic table (http:/ / www. iupac. org/ didac/ Didac Eng/ Didac01/ Content/ S01. htm) [4] Koppenol, W. H. (2002). "Naming of New Elements (IUPAC Recommendations 2002)" (http:/ / media. iupac. org/ publications/ pac/ 2002/ pdf/ 7405x0787. pdf) (PDF). Pure and Applied Chemistry 74 (5): 787791. . [5] Moore, p. 46 [6] Hornback, Joseph (2006). Organic Chemistry (2nd ed.). Pacific Grove: Thomson Brooks/Cole. p.62. ISBN978-0-534-49317-2. OCLC66441248. [7] Leigh, G. J. Nomenclature of Inorganic Chemistry: Recommendations 1990. Blackwell Science, 1990. ISBN 0632024941. [8] Leigh, Jeffery. "Periodic Tables and IUPAC" (http:/ / www. iupac. org/ publications/ ci/ 2009/ 3101/ 1_leigh. html). Chemistry International: The News Magazine of The International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC). . Retrieved 23 March 2011. [9] Moore, p. 111 [10] Mascetta, Joseph (2003). Chemistry The Easy Way (4th ed.). New York: Hauppauge. p.50. ISBN9780764119781. OCLC52047235. [11] Kotz, John; Treichel, Paul; Townsend, John (2009). Chemistry and Chemical Reactivity, Volume 2 (7th ed.). Belmont: Thomson Brooks/Cole. p.324. ISBN978-0-495-37812-1. OCLC220756597. [12] Jones, Chris (2002). d- and f-block chemistry. New York: J. Wiley & Sons. p.2. ISBN9780471224761. OCLC300468713.

Periodic table
[13] Seaborg, Glenn (August 26, 1996). "An Early History of LBNL" (http:/ / www. lbl. gov/ LBL-PID/ Nobelists/ Seaborg/ 65th-anniv/ 29. html). . [14] Frazier, K. (1978). "Superheavy Elements". Science News 113 (15): 236238. doi:10.2307/3963006. JSTOR3963006. [15] "Extended elements: new periodic table" (http:/ / www. rsc. org/ Publishing/ ChemScience/ Volume/ 2010/ 11/ Extended_elements. asp). 2010. . [16] An example (among many) showing several of these descriptors: (Plasticized placemat) Painless Learning Placemats: Periodic Table of the Elements. M. Ruskin Co.. 2000. pp.2. [17] Science Standards of Learning Curriculum Framework (http:/ / www. doe. virginia. gov/ VDOE/ Instruction/ Science/ ScienceCF-PS. doc) [18] Dynamic periodic table (http:/ / www. ptable. com/ ) [19] Ball, p. 100 [20] Horvitz, Leslie (2002). Eureka!: Scientific Breakthroughs That Changed The World. New York: John Wiley. p.43. ISBN9780471233411. OCLC50766822. [21] Ball, p. 101 [22] Newlands, John A. R. (1864-08-20). "On Relations Among the Equivalents" (http:/ / web. lemoyne. edu/ ~giunta/ EA/ NEWLANDSann. HTML#newlands3). Chemical News 10: 9495. . [23] Newlands, John A. R. (1865-08-18). "On the Law of Octaves" (http:/ / web. lemoyne. edu/ ~giunta/ EA/ NEWLANDSann. HTML#newlands4). Chemical News 12: 83. . [24] Bryson, Bill (2004). A Short History of Nearly Everything. London: Black Swan. pp.141142. ISBN9780552151740. [25] Ball, pp. 100102 [26] Pullman, Bernard (1998). The Atom in the History of Human Thought. Translated by Axel Reisinger. Oxford University Press. p.227. ISBN0-19-515040-6. [27] Ball, p. 105 [28] Atkins, P. W. (1995). The Periodic Kingdom. HarperCollins Publishers, Inc.. p.87. ISBN0-465-07265-8. [29] Ball, p. 111 [30] Adloff, Jean-Pierre; Kaufman, George B. (2005-09-25). Francium (Atomic Number 87), the Last Discovered Natural Element (http:/ / chemeducator. org/ sbibs/ s0010005/ spapers/ 1050387gk. htm). The Chemical Educator 10 (5). Retrieved on 2007-03-26. [31] Hoffman, D. C.; Lawrence, F. O.; Mewherter, J. L.; Rourke, F. M. (1971). "Detection of Plutonium-244 in Nature" (http:/ / www. nature. com/ nature/ journal/ v234/ n5325/ abs/ 234132a0. html). Nature 234 (5325): 132134. Bibcode1971Natur.234..132H. doi:10.1038/234132a0. . [32] Ball, p. 123 [33] "[IUPAC]Element 112 is Named Copernicium" (http:/ / www. iupac. org/ web/ nt/ 2010-02-20_112_Copernicium). iupac.org. doi:10.1351/PAC-REP-08-03-05. . Retrieved 2010-06-12. [34] Barber, Robert C.; Karol, Paul J; Nakahara, Hiromichi; Vardaci, Emanuele; Vogt, Erich W. (2011). "Discovery of the elements with atomic numbers greater than or equal to 113 (IUPAC Technical Report)". Pure Appl. Chem.. doi:10.1351/PAC-REP-10-05-01.

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Bibliography
Ball, Philip (2002). The Ingredients: A Guided Tour of the Elements. Oxford University Press. ISBN0-19-284100-9. Moore, John (2003). Chemistry For Dummies. New York: Wiley Publications. p.111. ISBN978-0-7645-5430-8. OCLC51168057.

Further reading
Bouma, J. (1989). "An Application-Oriented Periodic Table of the Elements". J. Chem. Ed. 66: 741. Bibcode1989JChEd..66..741B. doi:10.1021/ed066p741. Hjrland, Birger (2011). "The periodic table and the philosophy of classification" (http://ucla.academia.edu/ EricScerri/Papers/432740/Forum_The_Philosophy_of_Classification). Knowledge Organization 38 (1): 921. Retrieved 2011-03-13. Mazurs, E.G (1974). Graphical Representations of the Periodic System During One Hundred Years. Alabama: University of Alabama Press. Scerri, Eric (2007). The periodic table: its story and its significance. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN0-19-530573-6.

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External links
Interactive periodic table (http://www.ptable.com/) Video periodic table (http://www.periodicvideos.com) WebElements (http://www.webelements.com/) IUPAC periodic table (http://www.iupac.org/reports/periodic_table/index.html) 118 elements (http://www.periodicvideos.com): The Periodic Table of Videos made by Brady Haran, featuring Martyn Poliakoff and others, at the University of Nottingham. A catalog of various forms of the periodic table (http://www.meta-synthesis.com/webbook/35_pt/ pt_database.php)

Periodic trends
In Chemistry, periodic trends are the tendencies of certain elemental characteristics to increase or decrease as one progresses along a row or column of the periodic table of elements.

Atomic radius
The atomic radius is the distance from the atomic nucleus to the The Periodic Trends outermost stable electron orbital in an atom that is at equilibrium. The atomic radius tends to decrease as one progresses across a period because the effective nuclear charge increases, thereby attracting the orbiting electrons and lessening the radius. The atomic radius usually increases while going down a group due to the addition of a new energy level (shell). However, diagonally, the number of protons has a larger effect than the sizeable radius. For example, lithium (145 picometer) has a smaller atomic radius than magnesium (150 picometer). Atomic radius decreases from left to right across a period, and also increases from top to bottom down a group. NOTE: 1pm=1x10^-12 meters

Ionization potential
The ionization potential (or the ionization energy) is the minimum energy required to remove one electron from each atom in a mole of atoms in the gaseous state. The first ionization energy is the energy required to remove one, the nth ionization energy is the energy required to remove the atom's nth electron, after the (n1) electrons before it have been removed. Trend-wise, ionization potentials tend to increase while one progresses across a period because the greater number of protons (higher nuclear charge) attract the orbiting electrons more strongly, thereby increasing the energy required to remove one of the electrons. As one progresses down a group on the periodic table, the ionization energy will likely decrease, since the valence electrons are farther away from the nucleus and experience a weaker; attraction to the nucleus's positive charge. There will be an increase of ionization energy from left to right of a given period and a decrease from top to bottom. As a rule, it requires far less energy to remove an outer-shell electron than an inner-shell electron. As a result the ionization energies for a given element will increase steadily within a given shell, and when starting on the next shell down will show a drastic jump in ionization energy. Simply put, the lower the principal quantum number, the higher the ionization energy for the electrons within that shell. The exceptions are the elements in the boron and oxygen family which require slightly less energy than the general trend.

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Electron affinity
The electron affinity of an atom can be described either as the energy gained by an atom when an electron is added to it, or conversely as the energy required to detach an electron from a singly charged anion. The sign of the electron affinity can be quite confusing, as atoms that become more stable with the addition of an electron (and so are considered to have a higher electron affinity) show a decrease in potential energy; i.e. the energy gained by the atom appears to be negative. For atoms that become less stable upon gaining an electron, potential energy increases, which implies that the atom gains energy. In such a case, the atom's electron affinity value is positive.[1] Consequently, atoms with a more negative electron affinity value are considered to have a lower electron affinity (they are more receptive to gaining electrons), and vice versa. However in the reverse scenario where electron affinity is defined as the energy required to detach an electron from an anion, the energy value obtained will be of the same magnitude but have the opposite sign. This is because those atoms with a high electron affinity are less inclined to give up an electron, and so take more energy to remove the electron from the atom. In this case, the atom with the more positive energy value has the higher electron affinity. As one progresses from left to right across a period, the electron affinity will increase, due to the larger attraction from the nucleus, and the atom "wanting" the electron more as it reaches maximum stability. Down a group, the electron affinity decreases because of a large increase in the atomic radius, electron-electron repulsion and the shielding effect of inner electrons against the valence electrons of the atom.

Electronegativity
Electronegativity is a measure of the ability of an atom or molecule to attract pairs of electrons in the context of a chemical bond. The type of bond formed is largely determined by the difference in electronegativity between the atoms involved, using the Pauling scale. Trend-wise, as one moves from left to right across a period in the periodic table, the electronegativity increases due to the stronger attraction that the atoms obtain as the nuclear charge increases. Moving down a group, the electronegativity decreases due to the longer distance between the nucleus and the valence electron shell, thereby decreasing the attraction, making the atom have less of an attraction for electrons or protons.

Metallic Properties
Metallic property decreases across a period with increase in number of valence electrons as well as a decrease in atomic radius, and it increases down the group with increase in number of shells and atomic radius.

Non-metallic properties
Non-metallic property increases across a period and decreases down the group due to the same reason.

References
[1] http:/ / www. sparknotes. com/ chemistry/ fundamentals/ atomicstructure/ section3. rhtml

http://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/jlve/33/2/33_67/_article

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Period
In the periodic table of the elements, elements are arranged in a series of rows (or periods) so that those with similar properties appear in vertical columns. Elements of the same period have the same number of electron shells; with each group across a period, the elements have one more proton and electron and become less metallic. This arrangement reflects the periodic recurrence of similar properties as the atomic number increases. For example, the alkaline metals lie in one group (group 1) and share similar properties, such as high reactivity and the tendency to lose one electron to arrive at a noble-gas electronic configuration. The periodic table of elements has a total of 118 elements. Modern quantum mechanics explains these periodic trends in properties in terms of electron shells. As atomic number increases, shells fill with electrons in approximately the order shown at right. The filling of each shell corresponds to a row in the table. In the s-block and p-block of the periodic table, elements within the same period generally do not exhibit trends and similarities in properties (vertical trends down groups are more significant). However in the d-block, trends across periods become significant, and in the f-block elements show a high degree of similarity across periods (particularly the lanthanides).

Periods
Seven periods of elements occur naturally on Earth. For period 8, which includes elements which may be synthesized after 2011, see the extended periodic table. A group in chemistry means a family of objects with similarities like different families.

Chemical elements in the first period

Group 1/17 2/18 # Name 1 H 2 He

The first period contains fewer elements than any other, with only two, hydrogen and helium. They therefore do not follow the octet rule. Chemically, helium behaves as a noble gas, and thus is taken to be part of the group 18 elements. However, in terms of its nuclear structure it belongs to the s block, and is therefore sometimes classified as a group 2 element, or simultaneously both 2 and 18. Hydrogen readily loses and gains an electron, and so behaves chemically as both a group 1 and a group 17 element.

Period Hydrogen (H) is the most abundant of the chemical elements, constituting roughly 75% of the universe's elemental mass.[1] Ionized hydrogen is just a proton. Stars in the main sequence are mainly composed of hydrogen in its plasma state. Elemental hydrogen is relatively rare on Earth, and is industrially produced from hydrocarbons such as methane. Hydrogen can form compounds with most elements and is present in water and most organic compounds.[2] Helium (He) exists only as a gas except in extreme conditions.[3] It is the second lightest element and is the second most abundant in the universe.[4] Most helium was formed during the Big Bang, but new helium is created through nuclear fusion of hydrogen in stars.[5] On Earth, helium is relatively rare, only occurring as a byproduct of the natural decay of some radioactive elements.[6] Such 'radiogenic' helium is trapped within natural gas in concentrations of up to seven percent by volume.[7]

223

Chemical elements in the second period

Group 1 2 13 14 15 16 17 18 6 C 7 N 8 O 9 10 F Ne

# 3 4 5 Name Li Be B

Period 2 elements involve the 2s and 2p orbitals. They include the biologically most essential elements besides hydrogen: carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen. Lithium (Li) is the lightest metal and the least dense solid element.[8] In its non-ionized state it is one of the most reactive elements, and so is only ever found naturally in compounds. It is the heaviest primordial element forged in large quantities during the Big Bang. Beryllium (Be) has one of the highest melting points of all the light metals. Small amounts of beryllium were synthesised during the Big Bang, although most of it decayed or reacted further within stars to create larger nucleii, like carbon, nitrogen or oxygen. Beryllium is classified by the International Agency for Research on Cancer as Group 1 carcinogens.[9] Between 1% and 15% of people are sensitive to beryllium and may develop an inflammatory reaction in their respiratory system and skin, called chronic beryllium disease.[10] Boron (B) does not occur naturally as a free element, but in compounds such as borates. It is an essential plant micronutrient, required for cell wall strength and development, cell division, seed and fruit development, sugar transport and hormone development,[11] [12] though high levels are toxic. Carbon (C) is the fourth most abundant element in the universe by mass after hydrogen, helium and oxygen[13] and is the second most abundant element in the human body by mass after oxygen,[14] the third most abundant by number of atoms.[15] There are an almost infinite number of compounds that contain carbon due to carbon's ability to form long stable chains of CC bonds.[16] [17] All organic compounds, those essential for life, contain at least one atom of carbon;[16] [17] combined with hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, and phosphorus, carbon is the basis of every important biological compound.[17] Nitrogen (N) is found mainly as mostly inert diatomic gas, N2, which makes up 78% of the Earth's atmosphere. It is an essential component of proteins and therefore of life. Oxygen (O) comprising 21% of the atmosphere and is required for respiration by all (or nearly all) animals, as well as being the principal component of water. Oxygen is the third most abundant element in the universe, and oxygen compounds dominate the Earth's crust. Fluorine (F) is the most reactive element in its non-ionized state, and so is never found that way in nature. Neon (Ne) is a noble gas used in neon lighting.

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224

Chemical elements in the third period

Group 1 2 13 14 15 16 17 18

# 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 Name Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar

All period three elements occur in nature and have at least one stable isotope. All but the noble gas argon are all essential to basic geology and biology. Sodium (Na) is an alkali metal. It is present in Earth's oceans in large quantities in the form of sodium chloride (table salt). Magnesium (Mg) is an alkaline earth metal. Magnesium ions are found in chlorophyll. Aluminium (Al) is a poor metal. It is the most abundant metal in the Earth's crust. Silicon (Si) is a metalloid. It is a semiconductor, making it the principal component in many integrated circuits. Silicon dioxide is the principal constituent of sand. Phosphorus (P) is a nonmetal essential to DNA. It is highly reactive, and as such is never found in nature as a free element. Sulfur (S) is a nonmetal. It is found in two amino acids: cysteine and methionine. Chlorine (Cl) is a halogen. It is used as a disinfectant, especially in swimming pools. Argon (Ar) is a noble gas, making it almost entirely nonreactive. Incandescent lamps are often filled with noble gases such as argon in order to preserve the filaments at high temperatures.

Chemical elements in the fourth period

Group Atomic number Name 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18

19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr

Period 4 includes the biologically essential elements potassium and calcium, and is the first period in the d-block with the lighter transition metals. These include iron, the heaviest element forged in main-sequence stars and a principal component of the earth, as well as other important metals such as cobalt, nickel, copper, and zinc. Almost all have biological roles.

From left to right, aqueous solutions of: Co(NO3)2 (red); K2Cr2O7 (orange); K2CrO4 (yellow); NiCl2 (green); CuSO4 (blue); KMnO4 (purple).

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225

Chemical elements in the fifth period

Group Atomic number Name 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18

37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe

Period 5 contains the heaviest few elements that have biological roles, molybdenum and iodine. (Tungsten, a period 6 element, is the only heavier element that has a biological role.) It includes technetium, the lightest exclusively radioactive element.

Chemical elements in the sixth period

Group 1 2 3 (Lanthanides) 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18

# 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 Name Cs Ba La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn

Period 6 is the first period to include the f-block, with the lanthanides (also known as the rare earth elements), and includes the heaviest stable elements. Many of these heavy metals are toxic and some are radioactive, but platinum and gold are largely inert.

Chemical elements in the seventh period

Group 1 2 3 (Actinides) 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18

# 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118 Name Fr Ra Ac Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cn Uut Uuq Uup Uuh Uus Uuo

All elements of period 7 are radioactive. This period contains the heaviest element which occurs naturally on earth, uranium. All of the subsequent elements in the period have been synthesized artificially. Whilst some of these (e.g. plutonium) are now available in tonne quantities, most are extremely rare, having only been prepared in microgram amounts or less. Some of the later elements have only ever been identified in laboratories in quantities of a few atoms at a time. Although the rarity of many of these elements means that experimental results are not very extensive, periodic and group trends in behaviour appear to be less well defined for period 7 than for other periods. Whilst francium and radium do show typical properties of Groups 1 and 2 respectively, the actinides display a much greater variety of behaviour and oxidation states than the lanthanides. Initial studies suggest Group 14 element ununquadium appears to be a noble gas instead of a poor metal, and group 18 element ununoctium probably is not a noble gas.[18] These peculiarities of period 7 may be due to a variety of factors, including a large degree of spin-orbit coupling and relativistic effects, ultimately caused by the very high positive electrical charge from their massive atomic nuclei.

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226

Chemical elements in the eighth period

No element of the eighth period has yet been synthesized. A g-block is predicted. It is not clear if all elements predicted for the eighth period are in fact physically possible. There may therefore be no ninth period. Element categories in the periodic table
Metals Alkali metals Alkaline earth metals Inner transition metals Lanthanides Actinides Transition metals Post-transition metals Metalloids Unknown chemical Other Halogens Noble properties nonmetals gases Nonmetals

References
[1] Palmer, David (November 13, 1997). "Hydrogen in the Universe" (http:/ / imagine. gsfc. nasa. gov/ docs/ ask_astro/ answers/ 971113i. html). NASA. . Retrieved 2008-02-05. [2] "hydrogen". Encyclopdia Britannica. 2008. [3] "Helium: physical properties" (http:/ / www. webelements. com/ helium/ physics. html). WebElements. . Retrieved 2008-07-15. [4] "Helium: geological information" (http:/ / www. webelements. com/ helium/ geology. html). WebElements. . Retrieved 2008-07-15. [5] Cox, Tony (1990-02-03). "Origin of the chemical elements" (http:/ / www. newscientist. com/ article/ mg12517027. 000-origin-of-the-chemical-elements. html). New Scientist. . Retrieved 2008-07-15. [6] "Helium supply deflated: production shortages mean some industries and partygoers must squeak by.". Houston Chronicle. 2006-11-05. [7] Brown, David (2008-02-02). "Helium a New Target in New Mexico" (http:/ / www. aapg. org/ explorer/ 2008/ 02feb/ helium. cfm). American Association of Petroleum Geologists. . Retrieved 2008-07-15. [8] Lithium (http:/ / www. webelements. com/ lithium/ ) at WebElements. [9] "IARC Monograph, Volume 58" (http:/ / www. inchem. org/ documents/ iarc/ vol58/ mono58-1. html). International Agency for Research on Cancer. 1993. . Retrieved 2008-09-18. [10] Information (http:/ / www. chronicberylliumdisease. com/ medical/ med_bediseases. htm#cbd) about chronic beryllium disease. [11] "Functions of Boron in Plant Nutrition" (http:/ / www. borax. com/ agriculture/ files/ an203. pdf) (PDF). U.S. Borax Inc.. . [12] Blevins, Dale G.; Lukaszewski, Krystyna M. (1998). "Functions of Boron in Plant Nutrition". Annual Review of Plant Physiology and Plant Molecular Biology 49: 481500. doi:10.1146/annurev.arplant.49.1.481. PMID15012243. [13] Ten most abundant elements in the universe, taken from The Top 10 of Everything, 2006, Russell Ash, page 10. Retrieved October 15, 2008. (http:/ / plymouthlibrary. org/ faqelements. htm) [14] Chang, Raymond (2007). Chemistry, Ninth Edition. McGraw-Hill. pp.52. ISBN0-07-110595-6. [15] Freitas Jr., Robert A. (1999). Nanomedicine (http:/ / www. foresight. org/ Nanomedicine/ Ch03_1. html),. Landes Bioscience. Tables 3-1 & 3-2. ISBN1570596808. [16] "Structure and Nomenclature of Hydrocarbons" (http:/ / chemed. chem. purdue. edu/ genchem/ topicreview/ bp/ 1organic/ organic. html). Purdue University. . Retrieved 2008-03-23. [17] Alberts, Bruce; Alexander Johnson, Julian Lewis, Martin Raff, Keith Roberts, Peter Walter. Molecular Biology of the Cell (http:/ / www. ncbi. nlm. nih. gov/ books/ bv. fcgi?highlight=carbon& rid=mboc4. section. 165). Garland Science. . [18] See references in the articles Ununquadium, Ununoctium

Group

227

Group
In chemistry, a group (also known as a family) is a vertical column in the periodic table of the chemical elements. There are 18 groups in the standard periodic table, including the d-block elements, but excluding the f-block elements. The modern explanation of the pattern of the table is that the elements in a group have similar configurations of the outermost electron shells of their atoms: as most chemical properties are The periodic table of the chemical elements. The columns represent the groups dominated by the orbital location of the outermost electron. There are three conventional ways of numbering: One using Arabic numerals, and two using Roman numerals. The Roman numeral names are the original traditional names of the groups; the Arabic numeral names are those recommended by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) to replace the old names in an attempt to reduce the confusion generated by the two older, but mutually confusing, schemes. There is considerable confusion surrounding the two old systems in use (old IUPAC and CAS) that combined the use of Roman numerals with letters. Both systems agree on the Roman numerals, which indicate (approximately) the highest oxidation number of the elements in that group (and therefore indicates similar chemistry with other elements with the same Roman numeral), which proceeds in a linearly increasing fashion for the most part, once on the left of the table, and once on the right (see List of oxidation states of the elements), with some irregularities in the transition metals. However, the two systems use the letters differently. In the old IUPAC system the letters A and B were designated to the left (A) and right (B) part of the table, while in the CAS system the letters A and B were designated to main group elements (A) and transition elements (B). The old IUPAC system was frequently used in Europe while the CAS was most common in America. The new IUPAC scheme was developed to replace both systems as they confusingly used the same names to mean different things. The new system simply numbers the groups increasingly from left to right on the standard periodic table. The IUPAC proposal was first circulated in 1985 for public comments,[1] and was later included as part of the 1990 edition of the Nomenclature of Inorganic Chemistry.[2]

Groups
The periodic table groups are as follows:

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228

New IUPAC numbering Group 1 Group 2 Group 3 IA IIA IIIA

Old IUPAC (European)

CAS (American)

Name

IA IIA IIIB

the alkali metals or lithium family the alkaline earth metals or beryllium family the scandium family (consisting of the rare earth elements plus the actinides) the titanium family the vanadium family the chromium family the manganese family the iron family the cobalt family the nickel family the coinage metals (not an IUPAC-recommended name) or copper family the zinc family the boron group or boron family the carbon group or carbon family the pnictogens or nitrogen family the chalcogens or oxygen family the halogens or fluorine family the noble gases or helium family or neon family

Group 4 Group 5 Group 6 Group 7 Group 8 Group 9 Group 10 Group 11

IVA VA VIA VIIA VIII VIII VIII IB

IVB VB VIB VIIB VIIIB VIIIB VIIIB IB

Group 12 Group 13 Group 14 Group 15 Group 16 Group 17 Group 18

IIB IIIB IVB VB VIB VIIB Group 0

IIB IIIA IVA VA VIA VIIA VIIIA

References
Footnotes
[1] Fluck, E. New notations in the periodic table. Pure & App. Chem. 1988, 60, 431-436. (http:/ / www. iupac. org/ publications/ pac/ 1988/ pdf/ 6003x0431. pdf) [2] Leigh, G. J. Nomenclature of Inorganic Chemistry: Recommendations 1990. Blackwell Science, 1990. ISBN 0632024941.

Background
Scerri, E. R. The Periodic Table, Its Story and Its Significance, Oxford University Press, 2007. ISBN 978-0-19-530573-9.

229

Chemical concepts
Ionic radius
Ionic radius, rion, is the radius ascribed to an atom's ion. Although neither atoms nor ions have sharp boundaries, it is useful to treat them as if they are hard spheres with radii such that the sum of ionic radii of the cation and anion gives the distance between the ions in a crystal lattice. Ionic radii are typically given in units of either picometers (pm) or Angstroms (), with 1= 100pm. Typical values range from 30pm (0.3) to over 200pm (2).

Trends in ionic radii

X F Cl Br 464 564 598 NaX 492 555 577 AgX

Unit cell parameters (in pm, equal to two MX bond lengths) for sodium and silver halides. All compounds crystallize in the NaCl structure.

Ions may be larger or smaller than the neutral atom, depending on the ion's charge. When an atom loses an electron to form a cation, the lost electron no longer contributes to shielding the other electrons from the charge of the nucleus; consequently, the other electrons are more strongly attracted to the nucleus, and the radius of the atom gets smaller. Similarly, when an electron is added to an atom, forming an anion, the added electron shields the other electrons from the nucleus, with the result that the size of the atom increases. The ionic radius is not a fixed property of a given ion, but varies with coordination number, spin state and other parameters. Relative sizes of atoms and ions. The neutral atoms are colored gray, cations red, Nevertheless, ionic radius values are and anions blue. sufficiently transferable to allow periodic trends to be recognized. As with other types of atomic radius, ionic radii increase on descending a group. Ionic size (for the same ion) also increases with increasing coordination number, and an ion in a high-spin state will be larger than the same ion in a low-spin state. In general, ionic radius decreases with increasing positive charge and increases with increasing negative charge. An "anomalous" ionic radius in a crystal is often a sign of significant covalent character in the bonding. No bond is completely ionic, and some supposedly "ionic" compounds, especially of the transition metals, are particularly covalent in character. This is illustrated by the unit cell parameters for sodium and silver halides in the table. On the

Ionic radius basis of the fluorides, one would say that Ag+ is larger than Na+, but on the basis of the chlorides and bromides the opposite appears to be true.[1] This is because the greater covalent character of the bonds in AgCl and AgBr reduces the bond length and hence the apparent ionic radius of Ag+, an effect which is not present in the halides of the more electropositive sodium, nor in silver fluoride in which the fluoride ion is relatively unpolarizable.

230

Determination of ionic radii

The distance between two ions in an ionic crystal can be determined by X-ray crystallography, which gives the lengths of the sides of the unit cell of a crystal. For example, the length of each edge of the unit cell of sodium chloride is found to be 564.02pm. Each edge of the unit cell of sodium chloride may be considered to have the atoms arranged as Na+Cl-Na+, so the edge is twice the Na-Cl separation. Therefore, the distance between the Na+ and Cl- ions is half of 564.02pm, which is 282.01 pm. However, although X-ray crystallography gives the distance between ions, it doesn't indicate where the boundary is between those ions, so it doesn't directly give ionic radii. Land[2] estimated ionic radii by considering crystals in which the anion and cation have a large difference in size, such as LiI. The lithium ions are so much smaller than the iodide ions that the lithium fits into holes within the crystal lattice, allowing the iodide ions to touch. That is, the distance between two neighboring iodides in the crystal is assumed to be twice the radius of the iodide ion, which was deduced to be 214 pm. This value can be used to determine other radii. For example, the inter-ionic distance in RbI is 356 pm, giving 142 pm for the ionic radius of Rb+. In this way values for the radii of 8 ions were determined. Wasastjerna estimated ionic radii by considering the relative volumes of ions as determined from electrical polarizability as determined by measurements of refractive index.[3] These results were extended by Victor Goldschmidt[4] Both Wasastjerna and Goldschmidt used a value of 132 pm for the O2- ion.

Front view of the unit cell of a LiI crystal, using Shannon's crystal data (Li+ = 90 pm; I- = 206 pm). The iodide ions nearly touch (but don't quite), indicating that Land's assumption is fairly good.

Pauling used effective nuclear charge to proportion the distance between ions into anionic and a cationic radii.[5] His data gives the O2- ion a radius of 140 pm. A major review of crystallographic data led to the publication of revised ionic radii by Shannon.[6] Shannon gives different radii for different coordination numbers, and for high and low spin states of the ions. To be consistent with Pauling's radii, Shannon has used a value of rion(O2)= 140pm; data using that value are referred to as "effective" ionic radii. However, Shannon also includes data based on rion(O2)= 126pm; data using that value are referred to as "Crystal" ionic radii. Shannon states that "it is felt that crystal radii correspond more closely to the physical size of ions in a solid."[6] The two sets of data are listed in the two tables below.

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231

Crystal ionic radii in pm of elements in function of ionic charge and spin (ls = low spin, hs= high spin). Ions are 6-coordinate unless indicated differently in parentheses (e.g. 146 (4) for 4-coordinate N3).[6]
Number 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 37 38 39 Name Lithium Beryllium Boron Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen Fluorine Sodium Magnesium Aluminum Silicon Phosphorus Sulfur Chlorine Potassium Calcium Scandium Titanium Vanadium Chromium Manganese Iron Cobalt Nickel Copper Zinc Gallium Germanium Arsenic Selenium Bromine Rubidium Strontium Yttrium Symbol Li Be B C N O F Na Mg Al Si P S Cl K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Rb Sr Y 184 182 166 132 104 73 (4sq) 87 72 64 45 (3py) 91 100 93 87 ls; 94 hs 81 ls; 97 hs 75 ls; 92 hs 170 167 152 114 88.5 81 78 75.5 74.5 72 69 68 63 47 (4) 58 39.5 (4) 60 39 (4) 58 51 26 (3py) 132 (4) 126 119 116 86 67.5 54 52 43 41 22 30 3 2 1 1+ 90 59 41 30 27 2+ 3+ 4+ 5+ 6+ 7+ 8+

72 ls; 78.5 hs 67 69 ls; 78.5 hs 72.5

79 ls; 88.5 hs 68.5 ls; 75 hs 67 hs 83 87 88 76 67 60 56 53 70 ls; 74 hs 68 ls 62 ls

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232
Zirconium Niobium Molybdenum Technetium Ruthenium Rhodium Palladium Silver Cadmium Indium Tin Antimony Tellurium Iodine Xenon Caesium Barium Lanthanum Cerium Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe Cs Ba La Ce 181 149 117.2 115 113 143 (8) 112.3 111 136 (7) 131 109.8 108.7 107.5 106.3 121 105.2 104.1 103 117 116 102 100.8 100.1 85 86 82 80 77 77 82 94 76.5 76.5 78 76 72 71.5 71 71 74 69 68.5 67 66.5 53 (4) 90 101 99 207 206 90 111 109 73 (2) 100 129 108 109 94 83 76 70 67 62 82 80.5 90 89 86 83 86 82 79 78.5 76 74 75.5 78 75 74 70.5 69 73 70 52 (4) 50 (4)

40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78

Praseodymium Pr Neodymium Promethium Samarium Europium Gadolinium Terbium Dysprosium Holmium Erbium Thulium Ytterbium Lutetium Hafnium Tantalum Tungsten Rhenium Osmium Iridium Platinum Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt

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Gold Mercury Thallium Lead Bismuth Polonium Astatine Francium Radium Actinium Thorium Protactinium Uranium Neptunium Plutonium Americium Curium Berkelium Californium Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Fr Ra Ac Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf 140 (8) 124 116 116.5 115 114 111.5 111 110 109 194 162 (8) 126 108 104 103 101 100 99 99 97 96.1 92 90 89 88 87 86 85 85 151 133 164 133 117 108 116 102.5 91.5 90 81 76 99 71

79 80 81 82 83 84 85 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98

Effective ionic radii in pm of elements in function of ionic charge and spin (ls = low spin, hs= high spin). Ions are 6-coordinate unless indicated differently in parentheses (e.g. 146 (4) for 4-coordinate N3).[6]
Number 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 Name Lithium Beryllium Boron Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen Fluorine Sodium Magnesium Aluminum Silicon Phosphorus Sulfur Chlorine Symbol Li Be B C N O F Na Mg Al Si P S Cl 184 181 44 37 12 (3py) 146 (4) 140 133 102 72 53.5 40 38 29 27 8 16 3 2 1 1+ 76 45 27 16 13 2+ 3+ 4+ 5+ 6+ 7+ 8+

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234
Potassium Calcium Scandium Titanium Vanadium Chromium Manganese Iron Cobalt Nickel Copper Zinc Gallium Germanium Arsenic Selenium Bromine Rubidium Strontium Yttrium Zirconium Niobium Molybdenum Technetium Ruthenium Rhodium Palladium Silver Cadmium Indium Tin Antimony Tellurium Iodine Xenon Caesium Barium Lanthanum Cerium K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe Cs Ba La Ce 167 135 103.2 101 87 221 220 76 97 95 59 (2) 86 115 94 95 80 69 60 56 53 48 68 66.5 76 75 72 69 198 196 152 118 90 72 68 65 64.5 62 60 61.5 64 61 60 56.5 55 59 56 38 (4) 36 (4) 59 (4sq) 73 58 50 31 (3py) 77 86 79 73 ls; 80 hs 67 ls; 83 hs 61 ls; 78 hs 138 100 74.5 67 64 61.5 60.5 58 55 54 49 33 (4) 44 25.5 (4) 46 25 (4)

19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58

58 ls; 64.5 hs 53 55 ls; 64.5 hs 58.5

65 ls; 74.5 hs 54.5 ls; 61 hs 53 hs 69 73 74 62 53 46 42 39 56 ls; 60 hs 54 ls 48 ls

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Praseodymium Pr Neodymium Promethium Samarium Europium Gadolinium Terbium Dysprosium Holmium Erbium Thulium Ytterbium Lutetium Hafnium Tantalum Tungsten Rhenium Osmium Iridium Platinum Gold Mercury Thallium Lead Bismuth Polonium Astatine Francium Radium Actinium Thorium Protactinium Uranium Neptunium Plutonium Americium Curium Berkelium Californium Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Fr Ra Ac Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf 126 (8) 110 104 102.5 101 100 97.5 97 96 95 180 148 (8) 112 94 90 89 87 86 85 85 83 82.1 78 76 75 74 73 72 71 71 137 119 150 119 103 94 102 88.5 77.5 76 67 62 80 85 68 72 103 102 107 122 (8) 117 129 (8) 99 98.3 97 95.8 94.7 93.5 92.3 91.2 90.1 89 88 86.8 86.1 71 68 66 63 63 62.5 62.5 64 62 58 57.5 57 57 57 60 55 54.5 53 52.5 39 (4) 76 85

59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98

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The Soft-sphere Model

Soft-sphere ionic radii (in pm) of some ions
Cation, M Li+ Na+ RM 109.4 149.7 Anion, X ClBrRX 218.1 237.2

For many compounds, the model of ions as hard spheres does not reproduce the distance between ions,

, to the

accuracy with which it can be measured in crystals. One approach to improving the calculated accuracy is to model ions as "soft spheres" that overlap in the crystal. Because the ions overlap, their separation in the crystal will be less than the sum of their soft-sphere radii.[7] The relation between soft-sphere ionic radii, and , and , is given by , where giving is an exponent that varies with the type of crystal structure. In the hard-sphere model, . In the soft-sphere model, would be 1, has a value between 1 and 2. For example, for crystals of

group 1 halides with the sodium chloride structure, a value of 1.6667 gives good agreement with experiment. Some soft-sphere ionic radii are in the table. These radii are larger than the crystal radii given above (Li+, 90 pm; Cl-, 167 pm).

Comparison between observed and calculated ion separations (in pm)

MX LiCl LiBr NaCl NaBr Observed 257.0 275.1 282.0 298.7 Soft-sphere model 257.2 274.4 281.9 298.2

Inter-ionic separations calculated with these radii give remarkably good agreement with experimental values. Some data are given in the table. Curiously, no theoretical justification for the equation containing has been given.

Non-spherical Ions
The concept of ionic radii is based on the assumption of a spherical ion shape. However, from a group-theoretical point of view the assumption is only justified for ions that reside on high-symmetry crystal lattice sites like Na and Cl in halite or Zn and S in sphalerite. A clear distinction can be made, when the point symmetry group of the respective lattice site is considered,[8] which are the cubic groups Oh and Td in NaCl and ZnS. For ions on lower-symmetry sites significant deviations of their electron density from a spherical shape may occur. This holds in particular for ions on lattice sites of polar symmetry, which are the crystallographic point groups C1, C1h, Cn or Cnv, n = 2, 3, 4 or 6.[9] A thorough analysis of the bonding geometry was recently carried out for pyrite-type disulfides, where monovalent sulfur ions reside on C3 lattice sites. It was found that the sulfur ions have to be modeled by thermal ellipsoids with different radii in direction of the symmetry axis and perpendicular to it.[10] Remarkably, it turned out in this case that it is not the ionic radius, but the ionic volume that remains constant in different crystalline compounds.

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237

References
[1] On the basis of conventional ionic radii, Ag+ (129pm) is indeed larger than Na+ (116pm) [2] Land, A. (1920). "ber die Gre der Atome" (http:/ / springerlink. com/ content/ j862631p43032333/ ). Zeitschrift fr Physik 1 (3): 191197. doi:10.1007/BF01329165. . Retrieved 1 June 2011. [3] Wasastjerna, J. A. (1923). "On the radii of ions". Comm. Phys.-Math., Soc. Sci. Fenn. 1 (38): 125. [4] Goldschmidt, V. M. (1926). Geochemische Verteilungsgesetze der Elemente. Skrifter Norske VidenskapsAkad. Oslo, (I) Mat. Natur.. This is an 8 volume set of books by Goldschmidt. [5] Pauling, L. (1960). The Nature of the Chemical Bond (3rd Edn.). Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. [6] R. D. Shannon (1976). "Revised effective ionic radii and systematic studies of interatomic distances in halides and chalcogenides". Acta Cryst A32: 751767. Bibcode1976AcCrA..32..751S. doi:10.1107/S0567739476001551. [7] Lang, Peter F.; Smith, Barry C. (2010). "Ionic radii for Group 1 and Group 2 halide, hydride, fluoride, oxide, sulfide, selenide and telluride crystals". Dalton Transactions 39 (33): 7786-7791. doi:10.1039/C0DT00401D. PMID20664858. [8] H. Bethe (1929). "Termaufspaltung in Kristallen". Ann. Physik 3 (2): 133208. doi:10.1002/andp.19293950202. [9] M. Birkholz (1995). "Crystal-field induced dipoles in heteropolar crystals II. Physical significance (http:/ / www. mariobirkholz. de/ ZPB1995b. pdf)"]. Z. Phys. B 96: 333340. Bibcode1995ZPhyB..96..333B. doi:10.1007/BF01313055. . [10] M. Birkholz, R. Rudert (2008). "Interatomic distances in pyrite-structure disulfides a case for ellipsoidal modelling of sulphur ions" (http:/ / www. mariobirkholz. de/ pssb2008. pdf). phys. stat. sol. (b) 245: 18581864. Bibcode2008PSSBR.245.1858B. doi:10.1002/pssb.200879532. .

Effective nuclear charge

The effective nuclear charge is the net positive charge experienced by an electron in a multi-electron atom. The term "effective" is used because the shielding effect of negatively charged electrons prevents higher orbital electrons from experiencing the full nuclear charge by the repelling effect of inner-layer electrons. It is possible to determine the strength of the nuclear charge by looking at the oxidation number of the atom.

Effective Nuclear Charge Diagram

In an atom with one electron, that electron experiences the full charge of the positive nucleus. In this case, the effective nuclear charge can be calculated from Coulomb's law. However, in an atom with many electrons the outer electrons are simultaneously attracted to the positive nucleus and repelled by the negatively charged electrons. The effective nuclear charge on such an electron is given by the following equation:

where Z is the number of protons in the nucleus (atomic number), and S is the average number of electrons between the nucleus and the electron in question (the number of nonvalence electrons). S can be found by the systematic application of various rule sets, the simplest of which is known as "Slater's rules" (named after John C. Slater). Douglas Hartree defined the effective Z of a Hartree-Fock orbital to be:

Effective nuclear charge

238

where <r>H is the mean radius of the orbital for hydrogen whereas <r>Z is the mean radius of the orbital for an electron configuration with nuclear charge Z. Note: Zeff is also often written Z*.

Example
Consider a sodium cation, a fluorine anion, and a neutral neon atom. Each has 10 electrons, and the number of nonvalence electrons is 2 (10 total electrons - 8 valence) but the effective nuclear charge varies because each has a different atomic number:

So, the sodium cation has the largest effective nuclear charge, and thus the smallest atomic radius.

Values
Updated values of screening constants were provided by Clementi et al.[1] [2]

Effective Nuclear Charges

H Z 1s 1 1.000 Li Z 1s 2s 2p Na Z 11 Mg 12 3 2.691 1.279 Be 4 3.685 1.912 B 5 4.680 2.576 2.421 Al 13 C 6 5.673 3.217 3.136 Si 14 N 7 6.665 3.847 3.834 P 15 O 8 7.658 4.492 4.453 S 16 F 9 8.650 5.128 5.100 Cl 17 He 2 1.688 Ne 10 9.642 5.758 5.758 Ar 18

1s 10.626 11.609 2s 2p 3s 3p K Z 19 Ca 20 Sc 21 Ti 22 V 23 Cr 24 Mn 25 Fe 26 Co 27 Ni 28 Cu 29 Zn 30 6.571 6.802 2.507 7.392 7.826 3.308

12.591 13.575 14.558 15.541 16.524 17.508 8.214 8.963 4.117 4.066 Ga 31 9.020 9.825 10.629 11.430 12.230

9.945 10.961 11.977 12.993 14.008 4.903 4.285 Ge 32 5.642 4.886 As 33 6.367 5.482 Se 34 7.068 6.116 Br 35 7.757 6.764 Kr 36

1s 18.490 19.473 20.457 21.441 22.426 23.414 24.396 25.381 26.367 2s 13.006 13.776 14.574 15.377 16.181 16.984 17.794 18.599 19.405 2p 15.027 16.041 17.055 18.065 19.073 20.075 21.084 22.089 23.092 3s 8.680 9.602 10.340 11.033 11.709 12.368 13.018 13.676 14.322

27.353 28.339 29.325 30.309 31.294 32.278 33.262 34.247 35.232 20.213 21.020 21.828 22.599 23.365 24.127 24.888 25.643 26.398 24.095 25.097 26.098 27.091 28.082 29.074 30.065 31.056 26.047 14.961 15.594 16.219 16.996 17.790 18.596 19.403 20.219 21.033

Effective nuclear charge

239
14.085 14.731 15.369 16.204 17.014 17.850 18.705 19.571 20.434 5.711 5.842 5.965 7.067 8.044 8.944 9.758 10.553 11.316

3p 4s 3d 4p

7.726 3.495

8.658 4.398

9.406 10.104 10.785 11.466 12.109 12.778 13.435 4.632 7.120 4.817 8.141 4.981 8.983 5.133 5.283 5.434 5.576

9.757 10.528 11.180 11.855

12.530 13.201 13.878 15.093 16.251 17.378 18.477 19.559 20.626 6.222 6.780 Sn 50 7.449 Sb 51 8.287 Te 52 9.028 I 53 9.338 Xe 54

Rb Z 37

Sr 38

Y 39

Zr 40

Nb 41

Mo 42

Tc 43

Ru 44

Rh 45

Pd 46

Ag 47

Cd 48

In 49

1s 36.208 37.191 38.176 39.159 40.142 41.126 42.109 43.092 44.076 2s 27.157 27.902 28.622 29.374 30.125 30.877 31.628 32.380 33.155 2p 33.039 34.030 35.003 35.993 36.982 37.972 38.941 39.951 40.940 3s 21.843 22.664 23.552 24.362 25.172 25.982 26.792 27.601 28.439 3p 21.303 22.168 23.093 23.846 24.616 25.474 26.384 27.221 28.154 4s 12.388 13.444 14.264 14.902 15.283 16.096 17.198 17.656 18.582 3d 21.679 22.726 25.397 25.567 26.247 27.228 28.353 29.359 30.405 4p 10.881 11.932 12.746 13.460 14.084 14.977 15.811 16.435 17.140 5s 4d 5p 4.985 6.071 6.256 6.446 5.921 6.106 7.227 6.485

45.059 46.042 47.026 48.010 48.992 49.974 50.957 51.939 52.922 33.883 34.634 35.386 36.124 36.859 37.595 38.331 39.067 39.803 41.930 42.919 43.909 44.898 45.885 46.873 47.860 48.847 49.835 29.221 30.031 30.841 31.631 32.420 33.209 33.998 34.787 35.576 29.020 29.809 30.692 31.521 32.353 33.184 34.009 34.841 35.668 18.986 19.865 20.869 21.761 22.658 23.544 24.408 25.297 26.173 31.451 32.540 33.607 34.678 35.742 36.800 37.839 38.901 39.947 17.723 18.562 19.411 20.369 21.265 22.181 23.122 24.030 24.957 6.756 8.192 9.512 10.629 11.617 12.538 13.404 14.218

6.640 (empty)

15.958 13.072 11.238 11.392 12.882 12.813 13.442

13.618 14.763 15.877 16.942 17.970 18.974 19.960 20.934 21.893 8.470 9.102 9.995 10.809 11.612 12.425

References
[1] Clementi, E.; Raimondi, D. L. (1963). "Atomic Screening Constants from SCF Functions". J. Chem. Phys 38 (11): 26862689. Bibcode1963JChPh..38.2686C. doi:10.1063/1.1733573. [2] Clementi, E.; Raimondi, D. L.; Reinhardt, W. P. (1967). "Atomic Screening Constants from SCF Functions. II. Atoms with 37 to 86 Electrons". Journal of Chemical Physics 47: 13001307. Bibcode1967JChPh..47.1300C. doi:10.1063/1.1712084.

Resources
Brown, Theodore; LeMay, H.E.; & Bursten, Bruce (2002). Chemistry: The Central Science (8th revised edition). Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458: Prentice-Hall. ISBN 0-61155-61141-5.

Electronegativity

240

Electronegativity
Electronegativity, symbol (the Greek letter chi), is a chemical property that describes the tendency of an atom or a functional group to attract electrons (or electron density) towards itself and thus the tendency to form negative ions.[1] An atom's This electrostatic potential map shows how the oxygen atom has a more negative charge than the hydrogen atoms. electronegativity is affected by both its atomic number and the distance that its valence electrons reside from the charged nucleus. The higher the associated electronegativity number, the more an element or compound attracts electrons towards it. First proposed by Linus Pauling in 1932 as a development of valence bond theory,[2] it has been shown to correlate with a number of other chemical properties. Electronegativity cannot be directly measured and must be calculated from other atomic or molecular properties. Several methods of calculation have been proposed and, although there may be small differences in the numerical values of the electronegativity, all methods show the same periodic trends between elements. The most commonly used method of calculation is that originally proposed by Linus Pauling. This gives a dimensionless quantity, commonly referred to as the Pauling scale, on a relative scale running from around 0.7 to 3.98 (hydrogen= 2.20). When other methods of calculation are used, it is conventional (although not obligatory) to quote the results on a scale that covers the same range of numerical values: this is known as an electronegativity in Pauling units. Electronegativity, as it is usually calculated, is not strictly a property of an atom, but rather a property of an atom in a molecule.[3] Properties of a free atom include ionization energy and electron affinity. It is to be expected that the electronegativity of an element will vary with its chemical environment,[4] but it is usually considered to be a transferable property, that is to say that similar values will be valid in a variety of situations. On the most basic level, electronegativity is determined by factors like the nuclear charge (the more protons an atom has, the more "pull" it will have on negative electrons) and the number/location of other electrons present in the atomic shells (the more electrons an atom has, the farther from the nucleus the valence electrons will be, and as a result the less positive charge they will experience -- both because of their increased distance from the nucleus, and because the other electrons in the lower energy core orbitals will act to shield the valence electrons from the positively charged nucleus). The opposite of electronegativity is electropositivity: a measure of an element's ability to donate electrons.

Electronegativities of the elements

Electronegativity

241

Atomic radius decreases Ionization energy increases Electronegativity increases Group (vertical) Period (horizontal) 1 H 2.20 Li Be 0.98 1.57 Na Mg 0.93 1.31 B C N O F 2.04 2.55 3.04 3.44 3.98 Al Si P S Cl 1.61 1.90 2.19 2.58 3.16 He 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18

Ne

Ar

K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr 0.82 1.00 1.36 1.54 1.63 1.66 1.55 1.83 1.88 1.91 1.90 1.65 1.81 2.01 2.18 2.55 2.96 3.00 Rb Sr Y Zr 0.82 0.95 1.22 1.33 Cs Ba 0.79 0.89 Fr 0.7 * Ra 0.9 La 1.1 Ac 1.1 * Hf 1.3 Rf Nb 1.6 Ta 1.5 Db Mo 2.16 W 2.36 Sg Tc 1.9 Re 1.9 Bh Ru 2.2 Os 2.2 Hs Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb 2.28 2.20 1.93 1.69 1.78 1.96 2.05 Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi 2.20 2.28 2.54 2.00 1.62 2.33 2.02 Mt Ds Rg Cn Te 2.1 Po 2.0 I Xe 2.66 2.60 At 2.2 Rn 2.2

**

Uut Uuq Uup Uuh Uus Uuo

Lanthanoids

Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm 1.12 1.13 1.14 1.13 1.17 Th 1.3 Pa 1.5

Eu 1.2

Gd 1.2

Tb 1.1 Bk 1.3

Dy Ho Er Tm 1.22 1.23 1.24 1.25 Cf 1.3 Es 1.3 Fm 1.3 Md 1.3

Yb 1.1 No 1.3

Lu 1.27 Lr 1.3

Actinoids

**

U Np Pu Am Cm 1.38 1.36 1.28 1.13 1.28

Periodic table of electronegativity using the Pauling scale See also Electronegativities of the elements (data page) and List of electronegativities

Methods of calculation
Pauling electronegativity
Pauling first proposed[2] the concept of electronegativity in 1932 as an explanation of the fact that the covalent bond between two different atoms (AB) is stronger than would be expected by taking the average of the strengths of the AA and BB bonds. According to valence bond theory, of which Pauling was a notable proponent, this "additional stabilization" of the heteronuclear bond is due to the contribution of ionic canonical forms to the bonding. The difference in electronegativity between atoms A and B is given by:

where the dissociation energies, Ed, of the AB, AA and BB bonds are expressed in electronvolts, the factor (eV) being included to ensure a dimensionless result. Hence, the difference in Pauling electronegativity between hydrogen and bromine is 0.73 (dissociation energies: HBr, 3.79eV; HH, 4.52eV; BrBr 2.00eV) As only differences in electronegativity are defined, it is necessary to choose an arbitrary reference point in order to construct a scale. Hydrogen was chosen as the reference, as it forms covalent bonds with a large variety of elements: its electronegativity was fixed first[2] at 2.1, later revised[5] to 2.20. It is also necessary to decide which of the two elements is the more electronegative (equivalent to choosing one of the two possible signs for the square root). This is done by "chemical intuition": in the above example, hydrogen bromide dissolves in water to form H+ and Br ions, so it may be assumed that bromine is more electronegative than hydrogen.

Electronegativity To calculate Pauling electronegativity for an element, it is necessary to have data on the dissociation energies of at least two types of covalent bond formed by that element. Allred updated Pauling's original values in 1961 to take account of the greater availability of thermodynamic data,[5] and it is these "revised Pauling" values of the electronegativity which are most usually used.

242

Mulliken electronegativity
Mulliken proposed that the arithmetic mean of the first ionization energy and the electron affinity should be a measure of the tendency of an atom to attract electrons.[6] [7] As this definition is not dependent on an arbitrary relative scale, it has also been termed absolute electronegativity,[8] with the units of kilojoules per mole or electronvolts. However, it is more usual to use a linear transformation to transform these absolute values into values which resemble the more familiar Pauling values. For ionization energies and electron affinities in electronvolts,[9] and for energies in kilojoules per mole,[10]

The correlation between Mulliken electronegativities (x-axis, in kJ/mol) and Pauling electronegativities (y-axis).

The Mulliken electronegativity can only be calculated for an element for which the electron affinity is known, fifty-seven elements as of 2006. The Mulliken electronegativity of an atom is sometimes said to be the negative of the chemical potential. By inserting the energetic definitions of the ionization potential and electron affinity into the Mulliken electronegativity, it is possible to show that the Mulliken chemical potential is a finite difference approximation of the electronic energy with respect to the number of electrons., i.e., Mulliken = -Mulliken = -(IP + EA)/2 where IP and EA are the ionization potential and electron affinity of the atom, respectively.

Electronegativity

243

AllredRochow electronegativity
Allred and Rochow considered[11] that electronegativity should be related to the charge experienced by an electron on the "surface" of an atom: the higher the charge per unit area of atomic surface, the greater the tendency of that atom to attract electrons. The effective nuclear charge, Z*experienced by valence electrons can be estimated using Slater's rules, while the surface area of an atom in a molecule can be taken to be proportional to the square of the covalent radius, rcov. When rcov is expressed in angstroms,

The correlation between AllredRochow electronegativities (x-axis, in 2) and Pauling electronegativities (y-axis).

Sanderson electronegativity equalization

Sanderson has also noted the relationship between Mulliken electronegativity and atomic size, and has proposed a method of calculation based on the reciprocal of the atomic volume.[12] With a knowledge of bond lengths, Sanderson's model allows the estimation of bond energies in a wide range of compounds.[13] Sanderson's model has also been used to calculate molecular geometry, s-electrons energy, NMR spin-spin constants and other parameters for organic compounds.[14] [15] This work The correlation between Sanderson electronegativities (x-axis, arbitrary units) and Pauling electronegativities (y-axis). underlies the concept of electronegativity equalization, which suggests that electrons distribute themselves around a molecule to minimize or to equalize the Mulliken electronegativity.[16] This behavior is analogous to the equalization of chemical potential in macroscopic thermodynamics.[17]

Electronegativity

244

Allen electronegativity
Perhaps the simplest definition of electronegativity is that of Allen, who has proposed that it is related to the average energy of the valence electrons in a free atom,[18]

The correlation between Allen electronegativities (x-axis, in kJ/mol) and Pauling electronegativities (y-axis).

where s,p are the one-electron energies of s- and p-electrons in the free atom and ns,p are the number of s- and p-electrons in the valence shell. It is usual to apply a scaling factor, 1.75103 for energies expressed in kilojoules per mole or 0.169 for energies measured in electronvolts, to give values which are numerically similar to Pauling electronegativities. The one-electron energies can be determined directly from spectroscopic data, and so electronegativities calculated by this method are sometimes referred to as spectroscopic electronegativities. The necessary data are available for almost all elements, and this method allows the estimation of electronegativities for elements which cannot be treated by the other methods, e.g. francium, which has an Allen electronegativity of 0.67.[19] However, it is not clear what should be considered to be valence electrons for the d- and f-block elements, which leads to an ambiguity for their electronegativities calculated by the Allen method. In this scale neon has the highest electronegativity of all elements, followed by fluorine, helium and oxygen.
Group (vertical) Period (horizontal) 1 H 2.300 Li Be 0.912 1.576 Na Mg 0.869 1.293 He 4.160 B C N O F Ne 2.051 2.544 3.066 3.610 4.193 4.789 Al Si P S Cl Ar 1.613 1.916 2.253 2.589 2.869 3.242 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18

K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr 0.734 1.034 1.19 1.38 1.53 1.65 1.75 1.80 1.84 1.88 1.85 1.59 1.756 1.994 2.211 2.434 2.685 2.966 Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe 0.706 0.963 1.12 1.32 1.41 1.47 1.51 1.54 1.56 1.59 1.87 1.52 1.656 1.824 1.984 2.158 2.359 2.582 Cs Ba Lu Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb 0.659 0.881 1.09 1.16 1.34 1.47 1.60 1.65 1.68 1.72 1.92 1.76 1.789 1.854 Fr 0.67 Ra 0.89 ** Bi 2.01 Po 2.19 At 2.39 Rn 2.60

Electronegativity Periodic table of electronegativity using the Allen scale List of various electronegativities of main group elements See also Electronegativities of the elements (data page) and List of electronegativities Recently a new scale of electronegativity which is based on the electrophilicities of chemical systems is proposed by Noorizadeh and Shakerzadeh. It is shown that this scale has a significant correlation with the Pauling and Allred-Rochow electronegativities.[20]

245

Correlation of electronegativity with other properties

The wide variety of methods of calculation of electronegativities, which all give results which correlate well with one another, is one indication of the number of chemical properties which might be affected by electronegativity. The most obvious application of electronegativities is in the discussion of bond polarity, for which the concept was introduced by Pauling. In general, the greater the difference in electronegativity between two atoms, the The variation of the isomer shift (y-axis, in mm/s) of [SnX6]2 anions, as measured more polar the bond that will be formed by 119Sn Mssbauer spectroscopy, against the sum of the Pauling electronegativities of the halide substituents (x-axis). between them, with the atom having the higher electronegativity being at the negative end of the dipole. Pauling proposed an equation to relate "ionic character" of a bond to the difference in electronegativity of the two atoms,[3] although this has fallen somewhat into disuse. Several correlations have been shown between infrared stretching frequencies of certain bonds and the electronegativities of the atoms involved:[21] however, this is not surprising as such stretching frequencies depend in part on bond strength, which enters into the calculation of Pauling electronegativities. More convincing are the correlations between electronegativity and chemical shifts in NMR spectroscopy[22] or isomer shifts in Mssbauer spectroscopy[23] (see figure). Both these measurements depend on the s-electron density at the nucleus, and so are a good indication that the different measures of electronegativity really are describing "the ability of an atom in a molecule to attract electrons to itself".[1] [3]

Electronegativity

246

Trends in electronegativity
Periodic trends
In general, electronegativity increases on passing from left to right along a period, and decreases on descending a group. Hence, fluorine is undoubtedly the most electronegative of the elements (not counting noble gases) while caesium is the least electronegative, at least of those elements for which substantial data is available.[19] There are some exceptions to this general rule. Gallium and germanium have higher electronegativities than aluminium and silicon respectively because of the d-block The variation of Pauling electronegativity (y-axis) as one descends the main groups contraction. Elements of the fourth period of the Periodic table from the second period to the sixth period. immediately after the first row of the transition metals have unusually small atomic radii because the 3d-electrons are not effective at shielding the increased nuclear charge, and smaller atomic size correlates with higher electronegativity (see Allred-Rochow electronegativity, Sanderson electronegativity above). The anomalously high electronegativity of lead, particularly when compared to thallium and bismuth, appears to be an artifact of data selection (and data availability)methods of calculation other than the Pauling method show the normal periodic trends for these elements.

Variation of electronegativity with oxidation number

In inorganic chemistry it is common to consider a single value of the electronegativity to be valid for most "normal" situations. While this approach has the advantage of simplicity, it is clear that the electronegativity of an element is not an invariable atomic property and, in particular, increases with the oxidation state of the element. Allred used the Pauling method to calculate separate electronegativities for different oxidation states of the handful of elements (including tin and lead) for which sufficient data was available.[5] However, for most elements, there are not enough different covalent compounds for which bond dissociation energies are known to make this approach feasible. This is particularly true of the transition elements, where quoted electronegativity values are usually, of necessity, averages over several different oxidation states and where trends in electronegativity are harder to see as a result.

Electronegativity

247

Acid

Formula Chlorine pKa oxidation state HClO HClO2 HClO3 HClO4 +1 +3 +5 +7 +7.5 +2.0 1.0 10

Hypochlorous acid Chlorous acid Chloric acid Perchloric acid

The chemical effects of this increase in electronegativity can be seen both in the structures of oxides and halides and in the acidity of oxides and oxoacids. Hence CrO3 and Mn2O7 are acidic oxides with low melting points, while Cr2O3 is amphoteric and Mn2O3 is a completely basic oxide. The effect can also be clearly seen in the dissociation constants of the oxoacids of chlorine. The effect is much larger than could be explained by the negative charge being shared among a larger number of oxygen atoms, which would lead to a difference in pKa of log10()= 0.6 between hypochlorous acid and perchloric acid. As the oxidation state of the central chlorine atom increases, more electron density is drawn from the oxygen atoms onto the chlorine, reducing the partial negative charge on the oxygen atoms and increasing the acidity.

Group electronegativity
In organic chemistry, electronegativity is associated more with different functional groups than with individual atoms. The terms group electronegativity and substituent electronegativity are used synonymously. However, it is common to distinguish between the inductive effect and the resonance effect, which might be described as - and -electronegativities respectively. There are a number of linear free-energy relationships which have been used to quantify these effects, of which the Hammett equation is the best known. Kabachnik parameters are group electronegativities for use in organophosphorus chemistry.

Electropositivity
Electropositivity is a measure of an element's ability to donate electrons, and therefore form positive ions; thus, it is opposed to electronegativity. Mainly, this is an attribute of metals, meaning that for the most part, the greater the metallic character of an element, the greater the electropositivity. Therefore the alkali metals are most electropositive of all. This is because they have a single electron in their outer shell and, as this is relatively far from the nucleus of the atom, it is easily lost; in other words, these metals have low ionization energies.[24] While electronegativity increases along periods in the periodic table, and decreases down groups, electropositivity decreases along periods and increases down groups. Electropositive shark repellent utilizes electropositive metals as shark repellents, since they generate measurable voltages in a seawater electrolyte relative to a shark.

Electronegativity

248

References
[1] IUPAC, Compendium of Chemical Terminology, 2nd ed. (the "Gold Book") (1997). Online corrected version: (2006) " Electronegativity (http:/ / goldbook. iupac. org/ E01990. html)". [2] Pauling, L. (1932). "The Nature of the Chemical Bond. IV. The Energy of Single Bonds and the Relative Electronegativity of Atoms". Journal of the American Chemical Society 54 (9): 35703582. doi:10.1021/ja01348a011. [3] Pauling, Linus (1960). Nature of the Chemical Bond. Cornell University Press. pp.88107. ISBN0801403332. [4] Greenwood, N. N.; Earnshaw, A. (1984). Chemistry of the Elements. Pergamon. p.30. ISBN0-08-022057-6. [5] Allred, A. L. (1961). "Electronegativity values from thermochemical data". Journal of Inorganic and Nuclear Chemistry 17 (34): 215221. doi:10.1016/0022-1902(61)80142-5. [6] Mulliken, R. S. (1934). "A New Electroaffinity Scale; Together with Data on Valence States and on Valence Ionization Potentials and Electron Affinities". Journal of Chemical Physics 2: 782793. doi:10.1063/1.1749394. [7] Mulliken, R. S. (1935). "Electronic Structures of Molecules XI. Electroaffinity, Molecular Orbitals and Dipole Moments". J. Chem. Phys. 3: 573585. doi:10.1063/1.1749731. [8] Pearson, R. G. (1985). "Absolute electronegativity and absolute hardness of Lewis acids and bases". J. Am. Chem. Soc. 107: 6801. doi:10.1021/ja00310a009. [9] Huheey, J. E. (1978). Inorganic Chemistry (2nd Edn.). New York: Harper & Row. p.167. [10] This second relation has been recalculated using the best values of the first ionization energies and electron affinities available in 2006. [11] Allred, A. L.; Rochow, E. G. (1958). "A scale of electronegativity based on electrostatic force". Journal of Inorganic and Nuclear Chemistry 5: 264. doi:10.1016/0022-1902(58)80003-2. [12] Sanderson, R. T. (1983). "Electronegativity and bond energy". Journal of the American Chemical Society 105: 2259. doi:10.1021/ja00346a026. [13] Sanderson, R. T. (1983). Polar Covalence. New York: Academic Press. ISBN0126180806. [14] Zefirov, N. S.; M. A. Kirpichenok, F. F. Izmailov, and M. I. Trofimov (1987). Doklady Akademii Nauk SSSR 296: 883. [15] Trofimov, M. I.; Smolenskii, E. A. (2005). "Application of the electronegativity indices of organic molecules to tasks of chemical informatics". Russian Chemical Bulletin 54: 2235. doi:10.1007/s11172-006-0105-6. [16] SW Rick &SJ Stuart (2002). "Electronegativity equalization models" (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=IqWXSLz6QE8C& pg=PA106). In Kenny B. Lipkowitz, Donald B. Boyd. Reviews in computational chemistry. Wiley. p.106. ISBN0471215767. . [17] Robert G. Parr, Weitao Yang (1994). Density-functional theory of atoms and molecules (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=mGOpScSIwU4C& pg=PA91). Oxford University Press. p.91. ISBN0195092767. . [18] Allen, Leland C. (1989). "Electronegativity is the average one-electron energy of the valence-shell electrons in ground-state free atoms". Journal of the American Chemical Society 111: 9003. doi:10.1021/ja00207a003. [19] The widely quoted Pauling electronegativity of 0.7 for francium is an extrapolated value of uncertain provenance. The Allen electronegativity of caesium is 0.66. [20] Noorizadeh, S.; Shakerzadeh, E.J. (2008). "A New Scale of Electronegativity Based on Electrophilicity Index". Physical Chemistry A 112 (15): 34863491. doi:10.1021/jp709877h. PMID18331007. [21] See, e.g., Bellamy, L. J. (1958). The Infra-Red Spectra of Complex Molecules. New York: Wiley. p.392. ISBN0412138506. [22] Spieseke, H.; Schneider, W. G. (1961). "Effect of Electronegativity and Magnetic Anisotropy of Substituents on C13 and H1 Chemical Shifts in CH3X and CH3CH2X Compounds". Journal of Chemical Physics 35: 722. doi:10.1063/1.1731992. [23] Clasen, C. A.; Good, M. L. (1970). "Interpretation of the Moessbauer spectra of mixed-hexahalo complexes of tin(IV)". Inorganic Chemistry 9: 817. doi:10.1021/ic50086a025. [24] " Electropositivity (http:/ / au. encarta. msn. com/ encyclopedia_781538810/ Electropositivity. html)," Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopedia 2009. Archived (http:/ / www. webcitation. org/ 5kwpIKRbL) 2009-10-31.

External links
WebElements (http://www.webelements.com/), lists values of electronegativities by a number of different methods of calculation Video explaining electronegativity (http://sciencehack.com/videos/view/6952235798166539784)

Bibliography
Jolly, William L. (1991). Modern Inorganic Chemistry (2nd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. pp.7176. ISBN0-07-112651-1. Mullay, J. (1987). "Estimation of atomic and group electronegativities". Structure and Bonding 66: 125.

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Mole
The mole is a unit of measurement used in chemistry to express amounts of a chemical substance, defined as an amount of a substance that contains as many elementary entities (e.g., atoms, molecules, ions, electrons) as there are atoms in 12 grams of pure carbon-12 (12C), the isotope of carbon with atomic weight 12. This corresponds to a value of 6.02214179(30)1023 elementary entities of that substance. It is one of the base units in the International System of Units, and has the unit symbol mol.[1] The mole is widely used in chemistry, instead of units of mass or volume, as a convenient way to express the amounts of reagents and products of chemical reactions. For example, the chemical equation 2 H2 + O2 2 H2O implies that 2 mol of dihydrogen and 1 mol of dioxygen react to form 2 mol of water. The mole may also be used to express the number of atoms, ions, or other elementary entities in some sample. The concentration of a solution is commonly expressed by its molarity, the number of moles of the dissolved subtance per liter of solution. The number of molecules in a mole (known as Avogadro's number) is defined so that the mass of one mole of a substance, expressed in grams, is exactly equal to the substance's mean molecular weight. For example, the mean molecular weight of natural water is about 18.015, so one mole of water is about 18.015 grams. This property considerably simplifies many chemical and physical computations. The name gram-molecule was formerly used for essentially the same concept.[1] The name gram-atom (abbreviated gat.) has been used for related but distinct concept, namely a quantity of a substance that contains Avogadro's number of atoms, whether isolated or combined in molecules. Thus, for example, 1 mole of MgB2 is 1 gram-molecule of MgB2 but 3 gram-atoms of MgB2.[2] [3]

Definition and related concepts

As of 2011, the mole is defined by IUPAC to be an amount of a substance that contains as many elementary entities (e.g., atoms, molecules, ions, electrons) as there are atoms in 12 grams of pure carbon-12 (12C), the isotope of carbon with atomic weight 12.[1] Thus, by definition, one mole of pure 12C has a mass of exactly 12g. It also follows from the definition that X moles of any substance will contain the same number of molecules as X moles of any other substance. The mass per mole of a substance is called its molar mass. Since the standard unit for expressing the mass of molecules or atoms (the dalton or atomic mass unit) is defined as 1/12 of the mass of a 12C atom, it follows that the molar mass of a substance, measured in grams per mole, is exactly equal to its mean molecular or atomic mass, measured in daltons; which is to say, to the substance's mean molecular or atomic weight. The number of elementary entities in a sample of a substance is technically called its (chemical) amount. Therefore, the mole is a convenient unit for that physical quantity. One can determine the chemical amount of a known substance, in moles, by dividing the sample's mass by the substance's molar mass.[4] Other methods include the use of the molar volume or the measurement of electric charge.[4] It should be noted that the mass of one mole of a substance depends not only on its molecular formula, but also on the proportion of the isotopes of each element present in it. For example, one mole of calcium-40 is 39.96259098 0.00000022 grams, whereas one mole of calcium-42 is 41.95861801 0.00000027 grams, and one mole of calcium with the normal isotopic mix is 40.078 0.004 grams. Since the definition of the gram is not (as of 2011) mathematically tied to that of the dalton, the number NA of molecules in a mole (Avogadro's number) must be determined experimentally. The value adopted by CODATA in 2006 is NA = 6.022141791023 0.000000301023.[5] In 2011 the measurement was refined to 6.022140781023 0.000000181023.[6]

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History
The history of the mole is intertwined with that of molecular mass, atomic mass unit, Avogadro's number and related concepts. The first table of atomic weights was published by John Dalton (17661844) in 1805, based on a system in which the atomic weight of hydrogen was defined as 1. These atomic weights were based on the stoichiometric proportions of chemical reactions and compounds, a fact that greatly aided their acceptance: It was not necessary for a chemist to subscribe to atomic theory (an unproven hypothesis at the time) to make practical use of the tables. This would lead to some confusion between atomic weights (promoted by proponents of atomic theory) and equivalent weights (promoted by its opponents and which sometimes differed from atomic weights by an integer factor), which would last throughout much of the nineteenth century. Jns Jacob Berzelius (17791848) was instrumental in the determination of atomic weights to ever-increasing accuracy. He was also the first chemist to use oxygen as the standard to which other weights were referred. Oxygen is a useful standard, as, unlike hydrogen, it forms compounds with most other elements, especially metals. However, he chose to fix the atomic weight of oxygen as 100, an innovation that did not catch on. Charles Frdric Gerhardt (181656), Henri Victor Regnault (181078) and Stanislao Cannizzaro (18261910) expanded on Berzelius' works, resolving many of the problems of unknown stoichiometry of compounds, and the use of atomic weights attracted a large consensus by the time of the Karlsruhe Congress (1860). The convention had reverted to defining the atomic weight of hydrogen as 1, although at the level of precision of measurements at that time relative uncertainties of around 1% this was numerically equivalent to the later standard of oxygen = 16. However the chemical convenience of having oxygen as the primary atomic weight standard became ever more evident with advances in analytical chemistry and the need for ever more accurate atomic weight determinations. Developments in mass spectroscopy led to the adoption of oxygen-16 as the standard substance, in lieu of natural oxygen. The current definition of the mole, based on carbon-12, was approved during the 1960s.[1] [7] The four different definitions were equivalent to within 1%.
Scale basis Scale basis Relative deviation relative to 12C = 12 from the 12C = 12 scale 1.00794(7) 15.9994(3) 0.788% +0.00375% +0.0318%

Atomic weight of hydrogen = 1 Atomic weight of oxygen = 16

Relative atomic mass of 16O = 16 15.9949146221(15)

The name mole is an 1897 translation of the German unit Mol, coined by the chemist Wilhelm Ostwald in 1893 from the German word Molekl (molecule).[8] [9] [10] However, the related concept of equivalent mass had been in use at least a century earlier.[11]

The mole as a unit

Since its adoption into the International System of Units, there have been a number of criticisms of the concept of the mole as a unit like the meter or the second: the number of molecules, etc. in a given lump of material is a fixed dimensionless quantity that can be expressed simply as a number, so does not require its own base unit;[7] the SI thermodynamic mole is irrelevant to analytical chemistry and is causing avoidable costs to advanced economies;[12] the concepts of the SI quantity 'amount of substance' and unit 'mole' are confusing and difficult to teach.[13] the SI defines numbers of entities as quantities of dimension one, and thus ignores the ontological distinction between entities and units of continuous quantities.[14]

Mole In chemistry, it has been known since Proust's law of definite proportions (1794) that knowledge of the mass of each of the components in a chemical system is not sufficient to define the system. Amount of substance can be described as mass divided by Proust's "definite proportions", and contains information that is missing from the measurement of mass alone. As demonstrated by Dalton's law of partial pressures (1803), a measurement of mass is not even necessary to measure the amount of substance (although in practice it is usual). There are many physical relationships between amount of substance and other physical quantities, the most notable one being the ideal gas law (where the relationship was first demonstrated in 1857). The term "mole" was first used in a textbook describing these colligative properties.

251

Other units called "mole"

Chemical engineers use the concept extensively, but the unit is rather small for industrial use. For convenience in avoiding conversions, some American engineers adopted the pound-mole (noted lb-mol or lbmol), which is defined as the number of entities in 12 lb of 12C. One lb-mol is equal to 453.59237mol.[15] In the metric system, chemical engineers once used the kilogram-mole (noted kg-mol), which is defined as the number of entities in 12kg of 12C, and often referred to the mole as the gram-mole (noted g-mol), when dealing with laboratory data.[15] However modern chemical engineering practice is to use the kilomole (kmol), which is identical to the kilogram-mole, but whose name and symbol adopt the SI convention for standard multiples of metric units.

Proposed future definition

Kilogram
As with other SI base units, there have been proposals to redefine the kilogram in such a way as to define some currently measured physical constants to fixed values. One proposed definition of the kilogram is:[16] The kilogram is the mass of exactly (6.022141510230.012) unbound carbon-12 atoms at rest and in their ground state. This would have the effect of defining the Avogadro constant to be precisely 6.02214151023 elementary entities per mole. A decision on this proposal is expected by the CGPM in October 2011.[17]

Related units
The SI units for molar concentration are mol/m3. However, most chemical literature traditionally uses mol/dm3, or mol dm3, which is the same as mol/L. These traditional units are often denoted by a capital letter M (pronounced "molar"), sometimes preceded by an SI prefix, for example, millimoles per litre (mmol/L) or millimolar (mM), micromoles/litre (mol/L) or micromolar (M), or nanomoles/L (nmol/L) or nanomolar (nM).

The unit's holiday

October 23 is called Mole Day.[18] It is an informal holiday in honor of the unit among chemists in North America. The date is derived from Avogadro's number, which is approximately 6.0221023. It officially starts at 6:02 A.M. and ends at 6:01 P.M.

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References
[1] International Bureau of Weights and Measures (2006), The International System of Units (SI) (http:/ / www. bipm. org/ utils/ common/ pdf/ si_brochure_8_en. pdf) (8th ed.), pp.11415, ISBN92-822-2213-6, [2] Wang, Yuxing et al.; Bouquet, Fr d ric; Sheikin, Ilya; Toulemonde, Pierre; Revaz, Bernard; Eisterer, Michael; Weber, Harald W; Hinderer, Joerg et al. (2003). "Specific heat of MgB2 after irradiation". Journal of Physics: Condensed Matter 15 (6): 883893. arXiv:cond-mat/0208169. Bibcode2003JPCM...15..883W. doi:10.1088/0953-8984/15/6/315. [3] Lortz, R. et al.; Wang, Y.; Abe, S.; Meingast, C.; Paderno, Yu.; Filippov, V.; Junod, A. (2005). "Specific heat, magnetic susceptibility, resistivity and thermal expansion of the superconductor ZrB12". Phys. Rev. B 72 (2): 024547. arXiv:cond-mat/0502193. Bibcode2005PhRvB..72b4547L. doi:10.1103/PhysRevB.72.024547. [4] International Bureau of Weights and Measures. " Realising the mole (http:/ / www. bipm. org/ utils/ en/ pdf/ SIApp2_mol_en. pdf)." Retrieved 25 September 2008. [5] Mohr, Peter J.; Taylor, Barry N.; Newell, David B. (2008). "CODATA Recommended Values of the Fundamental Physical Constants: 2006" (http:/ / physics. nist. gov/ cuu/ Constants/ codata. pdf). Rev. Mod. Phys. 80: 633730. Bibcode2008RvMP...80..633M. doi:10.1103/RevModPhys.80.633. . Direct link to value (http:/ / physics. nist. gov/ cgi-bin/ cuu/ Value?na). [6] Andreas, Birk; et al (2011). "Determination of the Avogadro Constant by Counting the Atoms in a 28Si Crystal" (http:/ / physics. aps. org/ synopsis-for/ 10. 1103/ PhysRevLett. 106. 030801). Physical Review Letters 106 (3). Bibcode2011PhRvL.106c0801A. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.106.030801. . [7] de Bivre, P.; Peiser, H.S. (1992). "'Atomic Weight'The Name, Its History, Definition, and Units" (http:/ / www. iupac. org/ publications/ pac/ 1992/ pdf/ 6410x1535. pdf). Pure Appl. Chem. 64 (10): 153543. doi:10.1351/pac199264101535. [8] Helm, Georg (1897). The Principles of Mathematical Chemistry: The Energetics of Chemical Phenomena. transl. by Livingston, J.; Morgan, R.. New York: Wiley. p. 6. [9] Some sources place the date of first usage in English as 1902. MerriamWebster proposes (http:/ / www. merriam-webster. com/ dictionary/ mole[5]) an etymology from Molekulrgewicht (molecular weight). [10] Ostwald, Wilhelm (1893). Hand- und Hilfsbuch zur Ausfhrung Physiko-Chemischer Messungen. Leipzig. p.119. [11] mole, n.8, Oxford English Dictionary, Draft Revision Dec. 2008 [12] Price, Gary (2010). "Failures of the global measurement system. Part 1: the case of chemistry" (http:/ / www. springerlink. com/ content/ p63w663v127t5g0q/ ). Accreditation and Quality Assurance 15 (7): 421427. doi:10.1007/s00769-010-0655-z. .. [13] Furio, C; Azcona, R;Guisasola, J. (2002). "The learning and teaching of the concepts 'amount of substance' and mole - a review of the literature" (http:/ / www. uoi. gr/ cerp/ 2002_October/ pdf/ 02Furio. pdf). Chemistry Education: Research and Practice in Europe 3 (3): 277292. . [14] Cooper, G; Humphry, S (2010). "The ontological distinction between units and entities". Synthese. doi:10.1007/s11229-010-9832-1. [15] Himmelblau, David (1996). Basic Principles and Calculations in Chemical Engineering (6 ed.). pp.1720. ISBN0-13-305798-4. [16] Mills, Ian M.; Mohr, Peter J.; Quinn, Terry J.; Taylor, Barry N.; Williams, Edwin R. (2005). "Redefinition of the kilogram: a decision whose time has come" (http:/ / www. iop. org/ EJ/ article/ 0026-1394/ 42/ 2/ 001/ met5_2_001. pdf). Metrologia 42 (2): 7180. Bibcode2005Metro..42...71M. doi:10.1088/0026-1394/42/2/001. . Abstract (http:/ / www. iop. org/ EJ/ abstract/ 0026-1394/ 42/ 2/ 001/ ). [17] Ian Mills (29 September 2010). "Draft Chapter 2 for SI Brochure, following redefinitions of the base units" (http:/ / www. bipm. org/ utils/ en/ pdf/ si_brochure_draft_ch2. pdf). CCU. . Retrieved 2011-01-01. [18] History of National Mole Day Foundation, Inc (http:/ / www. moleday. org/ htdocs/ history. html)

External links
ChemTeam: The Origin of the Word 'Mole' (http://web.archive.org/20071222072256/http://dbhs.wvusd. k12.ca.us/webdocs/Mole/Origin-of-Mole.html) at the Wayback Machine (archived December 22, 2007).

Lewis structure

253

Lewis structure
Lewis structures (also known as Lewis dot diagrams, electron dot diagrams, and electron dot structures) are diagrams that show the bonding between atoms of a molecule and the lone pairs of electrons that may exist in the molecule.[1] [2] [3] A Lewis structure can be drawn for any covalently bonded molecule, as well as coordination compounds. The Lewis structure was named after Gilbert Newton Lewis, who introduced it in his 1916 article The Atom and the Molecule.[4] They are similar to electron dot diagrams in that the valence electrons in lone pairs are represented as dots, but they also contain lines to represent shared pairs in a chemical bond (single, double, triple, etc.).

The Lewis structure of water.

Lewis structures show each atom and its position in the structure of the molecule using its chemical symbol. Lines are drawn between atoms that are bonded to one another (pairs of dots can be used instead of lines). Excess electrons that form lone pairs are represented as pairs of dots, and are placed next to the atoms. Although many of the elements react by gaining, losing or sharing electrons until they have achieved a valence shell electron configuration with a full octet (8) of electrons, there are many noteworthy exceptions to the 'octet rule'. One example is hydrogen (H), which has only a single valence electron and tends to react to attain either 0 or 2 valence electrons. When H has two electrons in its valence shell, it could be said to obey a 'duet rule', and achieves a valence shell electron configuration equivalent to helium (He).

Construction
Counting electrons
The total number of electrons represented in a Lewis structure is equal to the sum of the numbers of valence electrons on each individual atom. Non-valence electrons are not represented in Lewis structures. The octet rule states atoms with eight electrons in their valence shell will be stable, regardless of whether these electrons are bonding or nonbonding. The rule applies well to acidic compounds. The 18-Electron rule is operative on atoms from period 4, which have to achieve 18 electrons to their orbitals and achieve a stable configuration which has the same electron configuration as a Noble gas. Similarly from period 6, the atoms have to achieve 32 electrons to fill their orbitals. ?????

Placing electrons
Once the total number of available electrons has been determined, electrons must be placed into the structure. They should be placed initially as lone pairs: one pair of dots for each pair of electrons available. Lone pairs should initially be placed on outer atoms (other than hydrogen) until each outer atom has eight electrons in bonding pairs and lone

Lewis structures for oxygen, fluorine, the hydrogen sulfate anion, and formamide

Lewis structure pairs; extra lone pairs may then be placed on the central atom. When in doubt, lone pairs should be placed on more electronegative atoms first. Once all lone pairs are placed, atoms, especially the central atoms, may not have an octet of electrons. In this case, the atoms must form a double bond; a lone pair of electrons is moved to form a second bond between the two atoms. As the bonding pair is shared between the two atoms, the atom that originally had the lone pair still has an octet; the other atom now has two more electrons in its valence shell. Aside from organic compounds, only a minority of compounds have an octet of electrons. Incomplete octets are common for compounds of groups 2 and 13 such as beryllium, boron, and aluminium. Compounds with more than eight electrons in the Lewis representation of the valence shell of an atom are called hypervalent, and are common for elements of groups 15 to 18, such as phosphorus, sulfur, iodine, and xenon. Lewis structures for polyatomic ions may be drawn by the same method. When counting electrons, negative ions should have extra electrons placed in their Lewis structures; positive ions should have fewer electrons than an uncharged molecule. When the Lewis structure of an ion is written, the entire structure is placed in brackets, and the charge is written as a superscript on the upper right, outside the brackets. A simpler method has been proposed for constructing Lewis structures eliminating the need for electron counting: the atoms are drawn showing the valence electrons, bonds are then formed by pairing up valence electrons of the atoms involved in the bond-making process and anions and cations are formed by adding or removing electrons to/from the appropriate atoms.[5] A trick is to count up valence electrons, then count up the number of electrons needed to complete the octet rule (or with Hydrogen just 2 electrons), then take the difference of these two numbers and your answer is the number of electrons that make up the bonds. The rest of the electrons just go and fill all the other atoms' octets.

254

Formal charge
In terms of Lewis structures, formal charge is used in the description, comparison and assessment of likely topological and resonance structures[6] by determining the apparent electronic charge of each atom within, based upon its electron dot structure assuming exclusive covalency or non-polar bonding. It has uses in determining possible electron re-configuration when referring to reaction mechanisms, and often results in the same sign as the partial charge of the atom, with exceptions. In general, the formal charge of an atom can be calculated using the following formula, assuming non-standard definitions for the markup used:

where: is the Formal charge. represents the number of valence electrons in a free atom of the element. represents the number of unshared electrons on the atom. represents the total number of bonds the atom has with another.

The formal charge of an atom is computed as the difference between the number of valence electrons that a neutral atom would have and the number of electrons that belong to it in the Lewis structure. Electrons in covalent bonds are split equally between the atoms involved in the bond. The total of the formal charges on an ion should be equal to the charge on the ion, and the total of the formal charges on a neutral molecule should be equal to zero.

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Resonance
For some molecules and ions, it is difficult to determine which lone pairs should be moved to form double or triple bonds. This is sometimes the case when multiple atoms of the same type surround the central atom, and is especially common for polyatomic ions. When this situation occurs, the molecule's Lewis structure is said to be a resonance structure, and the molecule exists as a resonance hybrid. Each of the different possibilities is superimposed on the others, and the molecule is considered to have a Lewis structure equivalent to an average of these states. The nitrate ion (NO3-), for instance, must form a double bond between nitrogen and one of the oxygens to satisfy the octet rule for nitrogen. However, because the molecule is symmetrical, it does not matter which of the oxygens forms the double bond. In this case, there are three possible resonance structures. Expressing resonance when drawing Lewis structures may be done either by drawing each of the possible resonance forms and placing double-headed arrows between them or by using dashed lines to represent the partial bonds. When comparing resonance structures for the same molecule, usually those with the fewest formal charges contribute more to the overall resonance hybrid. When formal charges are necessary, resonance structures that have negative charges on the more electronegative elements and positive charges on the less electronegative elements are favored. The resonance structure should not be interpreted to indicate that the molecule switches between forms, but that the molecule acts as the average of multiple forms.

Example: Lewis structure of the nitrite ion

The formula of the nitrite ion is NO2. Step one: Nitrogen is the least electronegative atom, so it is the central atom by multiple criteria. Step two: Count valence electrons. Nitrogen has 5 valence electrons; each oxygen has 6, for a total of (6 2) + 5 = 17. The ion has a charge of 1, which indicates an extra electron, so the total number of electrons is 18. Step three: Place ion pairs. Each oxygen must be bonded to the nitrogen, which uses four electrons two in each bond. The 14 remaining electrons should initially be placed as 7 lone pairs. Each oxygen may take a maximum of 3 lone pairs, giving each oxygen 8 electrons including the bonding pair. The seventh lone pair must be placed on the nitrogen atom. Step four: Satisfy the octet rule. Both oxygen atoms currently have 8 electrons assigned to them. The nitrogen atom has only 6 electrons assigned to it. One of the lone pairs on an oxygen atom must form a double bond, but either atom will work equally well. We therefore must have a resonance structure. Step five: Tie up loose ends. Two Lewis structures must be drawn: one with each oxygen atom double-bonded to the nitrogen atom. The second oxygen atom in each structure will be single-bonded to the nitrogen atom. Place brackets around each structure, and add the charge () to the upper right outside the brackets. Draw a double-headed arrow between the two resonance forms.

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Alternative formats
Chemical structures may be written in more compact forms, particularly when showing organic molecules. In condensed structural formulas, many or even all of the covalent bonds may be left out, with subscripts indicating the number of identical groups attached to a particular atom. Another shorthand structural diagram is the skeletal formula (also known as a bond-line formula or carbon skeleton diagram). In skeletal formulae, carbon atoms are not signified by the symbol C but by the vertices of the lines. Hydrogen atoms bonded to carbon are not shown they can be inferred by counting the number of bonds to a particular carbon atom each carbon is assumed to have four bonds in total, so any bonds not shown are, by implication, to hydrogen atoms. Other diagrams may be more complex than Lewis structures, showing bonds in 3D using various forms such as space filling diagrams.

Two varieties of condensed structural formula, both showing butane

A skeletal diagram of butane

References
[1] IUPAC definition of Lewis formula (http:/ / goldbook. iupac. org/ L03513. html) [2] Zumdahl, S. (2005) Chemical Principles Houghton-Mifflin (ISBN 0-618-37206-7) [3] Miessler, G. L., Tar, D. A., (2003) "Inorganic Chemistry" 2nd ed. Pearson Prentice-Hall (ISBN 0-130-35471-6) [4] Lewis, G. N. The Atom and the Molecule. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1916, 38, 762-785. doi:10.1021/ja02261a002 [5] Simplified Lewis Structure Drawing for Non-science Majors Miburo, Barnabe B. J. Chem. Educ. 1993 75 317. Link (http:/ / www. jce. divched. org/ Journal/ Issues/ 1998/ Mar/ abs317. html) [6] Miessler, G. L., Tar, D. A., (2003), p53 - Explanation of formal charge usage. A space filling diagram for butane.

Chemical bond

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Chemical bond
A chemical bond is an attraction between atoms that allows the formation of chemical substances that contain two or more atoms. The bond is caused by the electromagnetic force attraction between opposite charges, either between electrons and nuclei, or as the result of a dipole attraction. The strength of chemical bonds varies considerably; there are "strong bonds" such as covalent or ionic bonds and "weak bonds" such as dipole-dipole interactions, the London dispersion force and hydrogen bonding. Since opposite charges attract via a simple electromagnetic force, the negatively charged electrons orbiting the nucleus and the positively charged protons in the nucleus attract each other. Also, an electron positioned between two nuclei will be attracted to both of them. Thus, the most stable configuration of nuclei and electrons is one in which the electrons spend more time between nuclei, than anywhere else in space. These electrons cause the nuclei to be attracted to each other, and this attraction results in the bond. However, this assembly cannot collapse to a size dictated by the volumes of these individual particles. Due to the matter wave nature of electrons and their smaller mass, they occupy a much larger amount of volume compared with the nuclei, and this volume occupied by the electrons keeps the atomic nuclei relatively far apart, as compared with the size of the nuclei themselves. In general, strong chemical bonding is associated with the sharing or transfer of electrons between the participating atoms. The atoms in molecules, crystals, metals and diatomic gases indeed most of the physical environment around us are held together by chemical bonds, which dictate the structure of matter.

Overview of main types of chemical bonds

In the simplest view of a so-called 'covalent' bond, one or more electrons (often a pair of electrons) are drawn into the space between the two atomic nuclei. Here the negatively charged electrons are attracted to the positive charges of both nuclei, instead of just their own. This overcomes the repulsion between the two positively charged nuclei of the two atoms, and so this overwhelming attraction holds the two nuclei in a fixed configuration of equilibrium, even though they will still vibrate at equilibrium position. In summary, covalent bonding involves Examples of Lewis dot-style chemical bonds between carbon C, hydrogen H, and sharing of electrons in which the positively oxygen O. Lewis dot depictures represent an early attempt to describe chemical bonding and are still widely used today. charged nuclei of two or more atoms simultaneously attract the negatively charged electrons that are being shared. In a polar covalent bond, one or more electrons are unequally shared between two nuclei. In a simplified view of an ionic bond, the bonding electron is not shared at all, but transferred. In this type of bond, the outer atomic orbital of one atom has a vacancy which allows addition of one or more electrons. These newly added electrons potentially occupy a lower energy-state (effectively closer to more nuclear charge) than they experience in a different atom. Thus, one nucleus offers a more tightly bound position to an electron than does

Chemical bond another nucleus, with the result that one atom may transfer an electron to the other. This transfer causes one atom to assume a net positive charge, and the other to assume a net negative charge. The bond then results from electrostatic attraction between atoms, and the atoms become positive or negatively charged ions. The last and rarely mentioned type of bonding is metallic bond. All bonds can be explained by quantum theory, but, in practice, simplification rules allow chemists to predict the strength, directionality, and polarity of bonds. The octet rule and VSEPR theory are two examples. More sophisticated theories are valence bond theory which includes orbital hybridization and resonance, and the linear combination of atomic orbitals molecular orbital method which includes ligand field theory. Electrostatics are used to describe bond polarities and the effects they have on chemical substances.

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History
Early speculations into the nature of the chemical bond, from as early as the 12th century, supposed that certain types of chemical species were joined by a type of chemical affinity. In 1704, Isaac Newton famously outlined his atomic bonding theory, in "Query 31" of his Opticks, whereby atoms attach to each other by some "force". Specifically, after acknowledging the various popular theories in vogue at the time, of how atoms were reasoned to attach to each other, i.e. "hooked atoms", "glued together by rest", or "stuck together by conspiring motions", Newton states that he would rather infer from their cohesion, that "particles attract one another by some force, which in immediate contact is exceedingly strong, at small distances performs the chemical operations, and reaches not far from the particles with any sensible effect." In 1819, on the heels of the invention of the voltaic pile, Jns Jakob Berzelius developed a theory of chemical combination stressing the electronegative and electropositive character of the combining atoms. By the mid 19th century, Edward Frankland, F.A. Kekule, A.S. Couper, A.M. Butlerov, and Hermann Kolbe, building on the theory of radicals, developed the theory of valency, originally called "combining power", in which compounds were joined owing to an attraction of positive and negative poles. In 1916, chemist Gilbert N. Lewis developed the concept of the electron-pair bond, in which two atoms may share one to six electrons, thus forming the single electron bond, a single bond, a double bond, or a triple bond; in Lewis's own words, "An electron may form a part of the shell of two different atoms and cannot be said to belong to either one exclusively."[1] That same year, Walther Kossel put forward a theory similar to Lewis' only his model assumed complete transfers of electrons between atoms, and was thus a model of ionic bonds. Both Lewis and Kossel structured their bonding models on that of Abegg's rule (1904). In 1927, the first mathematically complete quantum description of a simple chemical bond, i.e. that produced by one electron in the hydrogen molecular ion, H2+, was derived by the Danish physicist Oyvind Burrau.[2] This work showed that the quantum approach to chemical bonds could be fundamentally and quantitatively correct, but the mathematical methods used could not be extended to molecules containing more than one electron. A more practical, albeit less quantitative, approach was put forward in the same year by Walter Heitler and Fritz London. The Heitler-London method forms the basis of what is now called valence bond theory. In 1929, the linear combination of atomic orbitals molecular orbital method (LCAO) approximation was introduced by Sir John Lennard-Jones, who also suggested methods to derive electronic structures of molecules of F2 (fluorine) and O2 (oxygen) molecules, from basic quantum principles. This molecular orbital theory represented a covalent bond as an orbital formed by combining the quantum mechanical Schrdinger atomic orbitals which had been hypothesized for electrons in single atoms. The equations for bonding electrons in multi-electron atoms could not be solved to mathematical perfection (i.e., analytically), but approximations for them still gave many good qualitative predictions and results. Most quantitative calculations in modern quantum chemistry use either valence bond or molecular orbital theory as a starting point, although a third approach, Density Functional Theory, has become increasingly popular in recent years.

Chemical bond In 1935, H. H. James and A. S. Coolidge carried out a calculation on the dihydrogen molecule that, unlike all previous calculation which used functions only of the distance of the electron from the atomic nucleus, used functions which also explicitly added the distance between the two electrons.[3] With up to 13 adjustable parameters they obtained a result very close to the experimental result for the dissociation energy. Later extensions have used up to 54 parameters and give excellent agreement with experiment. This calculation convinced the scientific community that quantum theory could give agreement with experiment. However this approach has none of the physical pictures of the valence bond and molecular orbital theories and is difficult to extend to larger molecules.

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Valence bond theory

In 1927, valence bond theory was formulated and it argues that a chemical bond forms when two valence electrons, in their respective atomic orbitals, work or function to hold two nuclei together, by virtue of effects of lowering system energies. Building on this theory, the chemist Linus Pauling published in 1931 what some consider one of the most important papers in the history of chemistry: "On the Nature of the Chemical Bond". In this paper, elaborating on the works of Lewis, and the valence bond theory (VB) of Heitler and London, and his own earlier works, Pauling presented six rules for the shared electron bond, the first three of which were already generally known: 1. The electron-pair bond forms through the interaction of an unpaired electron on each of two atoms. 2. The spins of the electrons have to be opposed. 3. Once paired, the two electrons cannot take part in additional bonds. His last three rules were new: 4. The electron-exchange terms for the bond involves only one wave function from each atom. 5. The available electrons in the lowest energy level form the strongest bonds. 6. Of two orbitals in an atom, the one that can overlap the most with an orbital from another atom will form the strongest bond, and this bond will tend to lie in the direction of the concentrated orbital. Building on this article, Pauling's 1939 textbook: On the Nature of the Chemical Bond would become what some have called the "Bible" of modern chemistry. This book helped experimental chemists to understand the impact of quantum theory on chemistry. However, the later edition in 1959 failed to adequately address the problems that appeared to be better understood by molecular orbital theory. The impact of valence theory declined during the 1960s and 1970s as molecular orbital theory grew in usefulness as it was implemented in large digital computer programs. Since the 1980s, the more difficult problems of implementing valence bond theory into computer programs have been solved largely, and valence bond theory has seen a resurgence.

Comparison of valence bond and molecular orbital theory

In some respects valence bond theory is superior to molecular orbital theory. When applied to the simplest two-electron molecule, H2, valence bond theory, even at the simplest Heitler-London approach, gives a much closer approximation to the bond energy, and it provides a much more accurate representation of the behavior of the electrons as chemical bonds are formed and broken. In contrast simple molecular orbital theory predicts that the hydrogen molecule dissociates into a linear superposition of hydrogen atoms and positive and negative hydrogen ions, a completely unphysical result. This explains in part why the curve of total energy against interatomic distance for the valence bond method lies above the curve for the molecular orbital method at all distances and most particularly so for large distances. This situation arises for all homonuclear diatomic molecules and is particularly a problem for F2, where the minimum energy of the curve with molecular orbital theory is still higher in energy than the energy of two F atoms. The concepts of hybridization are so versatile, and the variability in bonding in most organic compounds is so modest, that valence bond theory remains an integral part of the vocabulary of organic chemistry. However, the work

Chemical bond of Friedrich Hund, Robert Mulliken, and Gerhard Herzberg showed that molecular orbital theory provided a more appropriate description of the spectroscopic, ionization and magnetic properties of molecules. The deficiencies of valence bond theory became apparent when hypervalent molecules (e.g. PF5) were explained without the use of d orbitals that were crucial to the bonding hybridisation scheme proposed for such molecules by Pauling. Metal complexes and electron deficient compounds (e.g. diborane) also appeared to be well described by molecular orbital theory, although valence bond descriptions have been made. In the 1930s the two methods strongly competed until it was realised that they are both approximations to a better theory. If we take the simple valence bond structure and mix in all possible covalent and ionic structures arising from a particular set of atomic orbitals, we reach what is called the full configuration interaction wave function. If we take the simple molecular orbital description of the ground state and combine that function with the functions describing all possible excited states using unoccupied orbitals arising from the same set of atomic orbitals, we also reach the full configuration interaction wavefunction. It can be then seen that the simple molecular orbital approach gives too much weight to the ionic structures, while the simple valence bond approach gives too little. This can also be described as saying that the molecular orbital approach is too delocalised, while the valence bond approach is too localised. The two approaches are now regarded as complementary, each providing its own insights into the problem of chemical bonding. Modern calculations in quantum chemistry usually start from (but ultimately go far beyond) a molecular orbital rather than a valence bond approach, not because of any intrinsic superiority in the former but rather because the MO approach is more readily adapted to numerical computations. However better valence bond programs are now available.

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Bonds in chemical formulas

The fact that atoms and molecules are three-dimensional makes it difficult to use a single technique for indicating orbitals and bonds. In molecular formulas the chemical bonds (binding orbitals) between atoms are indicated by various different methods according to the type of discussion. Sometimes, they are completely neglected. For example, in organic chemistry chemists are sometimes concerned only with the functional groups of the molecule. Thus, the molecular formula of ethanol (a compound in alcoholic beverages) may be written in a paper in conformational, three-dimensional, full two-dimensional (indicating every bond with no three-dimensional directions), compressed two-dimensional (CH3CH2OH), separating the functional group from another part of the molecule (C2H5OH), or by its atomic constituents (C2H6O), according to what is discussed. Sometimes, even the non-bonding valence shell electrons (with the two-dimensional approximate directions) are marked, i.e. for elemental carbon .'C'. Some chemists may also mark the respective orbitals, i.e. the hypothetical ethene4 anion (\/C=C/\ 4) indicating the possibility of bond formation.

Strong chemical bonds

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Typical bond lengths in pm and bond energies in kJ/mol. Bond lengths can be converted to by division by 100 (1 = 100 pm). Data taken from [4]. Bond Length (pm) H Hydrogen HH HO HF HCl 74 96 92 127 C Carbon CH CC C=C CC CN CO CF CCl 109 154 134 120 147 143 134 177 N Nitrogen NH NN NN 101 145 110 O Oxygen OO O=O 148 121 F, Cl, Br, I Halogens FF ClCl BrH BrBr IH II 142 199 141 228 161 267 158 243 366 193 298 151 145 498 391 170 945 413 348 614 839 308 360 488 330 436 366 568 432 Energy (kJ/mol)

Strong chemical bonds are the intramolecular forces which hold atoms together in molecules. A strong chemical bond is formed from the transfer or sharing of electrons between atomic centers and relies on the electrostatic attraction between the protons in nuclei and the electrons in the orbitals. Although these bonds typically involve the transfer of integer numbers of electrons (this is the bond order, which respresents one transferred electron or two shared electrons), some systems can have intermediate numbers of bonds. An example of this is the organic molecule benzene, where the bond order is 1.5 for each carbon atom, meaning that it has 1.5 bonds (shares three electrons)

Chemical bond with each one of its two neighbors. The types of strong bond differ due to the difference in electronegativity of the constituent elements. A large difference in electronegativity leads to more polar (ionic) character in the bond.

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Covalent bond
Covalent bonding is a common type of bonding, in which the electronegativity difference between the bonded atoms is small or nonexistent. Bonds within most organic compounds are described as covalent. See sigma bonds and pi bonds for LCAO-description of such bonding. A polar covalent bond is a covalent bond with a significant ionic character. This means that the electrons are closer to one of the atoms than the other, creating an imbalance of charge. They occur as a bond between two atoms with moderately different electronegativities, and give rise to dipole-dipole interactions. The electronegativity of these bonds is 0.3 to 1.7 . A coordinate covalent bond is one where both bonding electrons are from one of the atoms involved in the bond. These bonds give rise to Lewis acids and bases. The electrons are shared roughly equally between the atoms in contrast to ionic bonding. Such bonding occurs in molecules such as the ammonium ion (NH4+) and are shown by an arrow pointing to the Lewis acid. Also known as non-polar covalent bond, the electronegativity of these bonds range from 0 to 0.3. Molecules which are formed primarily from non-polar covalent bonds are often immiscible in water or other polar solvents, but much more soluble in non-polar solvents such as hexane.

Ionic bond
Ionic bonding is a type of electrostatic interaction between atoms which have a large electronegativity difference. There is no precise value that distinguishes ionic from covalent bonding, but a difference of electronegativity of over 1.7 is likely to be ionic, and a difference of less than 1.7 is likely to be covalent.[5] Ionic bonding leads to separate positive and negative ions. Ionic charges are commonly between 3e to +3e. Ionic bonding commonly occurs in metal salts such as sodium chloride (table salt). A typical feature of ionic bonds is that the species form into ionic crystals, in which no ion is specifically paired with any single other ion, in a specific directional bond. Rather, each species of ion is surrounded by ions of the opposite charge, and the spacing between it and each of the oppositely charged ions near it, is the same for all surrounding atoms of the same type. It is thus no longer possible to associate an ion with any specific other single ionized atom near it. This is a situation unlike that in covalent crystals, where covalent bonds between specific atoms are still discernable from the shorter distances between them, as measured by with such techniques as X-ray diffraction. Ionic crystals may contain a mixture of covalent and ionic species, as for example salts of complex acids, such as sodium cyanide, NaCN. Many minerals are of this type. X-ray diffration shows that in NaCN, for example, the bonds between sodium cations (Na+) and the cyanide anions (CN-) are ionic, with no sodium ion associated with any particular cyanide. However, the bonds between C and N atoms in cyanide are of the covalent type, making each of the carbon and nitrogen associated with just one of its opposite type, to which it is physically much closer than it is to other carbons or nitrogens in a sodium cyanide crystal. When such salts dissolve into water, the ionic bonds are typically broken by the interaction with water, but the covalent bonds continue to hold. In solution, the cyanide ions, still bound together as single CN- ions, move independently through the solution, as do sodium ions, as Na+. These charged ions move apart because each of them are more strongly attracted to a number of water molecules, than to each other. The attraction between ions and water molecules in such solutions is due to a type of weak dipole-dipole type chemical bond.

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One- and three-electron bonds

Bonds with one or three electrons can be found in radical species, which have an odd number of electrons. The simplest example of a 1-electron bond is found in the hydrogen molecular cation, H2+. One-electron bonds often have about half the bond energy of a 2-electron bond, and are therefore called "half bonds". However, there are exceptions: in the case of dilithium, the bond is actually stronger for the 1-electron Li2+ than for the 2-electron Li2. This exception can be explained in terms of hybridization and inner-shell effects.[6] The simplest example of three-electron bonding can be found in the helium dimer cation, He2+, and can also be considered a "half bond" because, in molecular orbital terms, the third electron is in an anti-bonding orbital which cancels out half of the bond formed by the other two electrons. Another example of a molecule containing a 3-electron bond, in addition to two 2-electron bonds, is nitric oxide, NO. The oxygen molecule, O2 can also be regarded as having two 3-electron bonds and one 2-electron bond, which accounts for its paramagnetism and its formal bond order of 2.[7] Molecules with odd-electron bonds are usually highly reactive. These types of bond are only stable between atoms with similar electronegativities.[7]

Bent bonds
Bent bonds, also known as banana bonds, are bonds in strained or otherwise sterically hindered molecules whose binding orbitals are forced into a banana-like form. Bent bonds are often more susceptible to reactions than ordinary bonds.

3c-2e and 3c-4e bonds

In three-center two-electron bonds ("3c2e") three atoms share two electrons in bonding. This type of bonding occurs in electron deficient compounds like diborane. Each such bond (2 per molecule in diborane) contains a pair of electrons which connect the boron atoms to each other in a banana shape, with a proton (nucleus of a hydrogen atom) in the middle of the bond, sharing electrons with both boron atoms. Three-center four-electron bonds ("3c4e") also exist which explain the bonding in hypervalent molecules. In certain cluster compounds, so-called four-center two-electron bonds also have been postulated. In certain conjugated (pi) systems, such as benzene and other aromatic compounds (see below), and in conjugated network solids such as graphite, the electrons in the conjugated system of -bonds are spread over as many nuclear centers as exist in the molecule, or the network.

Aromatic bond
In organic chemistry, certain configurations of electrons and orbitals infer extra stability to a molecule. This occurs when orbitals overlap and combine with others on different atomic centres, forming a long range bond. For a molecule to be aromatic, it must obey Hckel's rule, where the number of electrons fit the formula 4n + 2, where n is an integer. The bonds involved in the aromaticity are all planar. In benzene, the prototypical aromatic compound, 18 (n = 4) bonding electrons bind 6 carbon atoms together to form a planar ring structure. The bond "order" (average number of bonds) between the different carbon atoms may be said to be (18/6)/2=1.5, but in this case the bonds are all identical from the chemical point of view. They may sometimes be written as single bonds alternating with double bonds, but the view of all ring bonds as being equivalently about 1.5 bonds in strength, is much closer to truth. In the case of heterocyclic aromatics and substituted benzenes, the electronegativity differences between different parts of the ring may dominate the chemical behaviour of aromatic ring bonds, which otherwise are equivalent.

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Metallic bond
In a metallic bond, bonding electrons are delocalized over a lattice of atoms. By contrast, in ionic compounds, the locations of the binding electrons and their charges are static. The freely-moving or delocalization of bonding electrons leads to classical metallic properties such as shininess (surface light reflectivity), electrical and thermal conductivity, ductility, and high tensile strength.

Intermolecular bonding
There are four basic types of bonds that can be formed between two or more (otherwise non-associated) molecules, ions or atoms. Intermolecular forces cause molecules to be attracted or repulsed by each other. Often, these define some of the physical characteristics (such as the melting point) of a substance. A large difference in electronegativity between two bonded atoms will cause a permanent charge separation, or dipole, in a molecule or ion. Two or more molecules or ions with permanent dipoles can interact in dipole-dipole interactions. The bonding electrons in a molecule or ion will, on average, be closer to the more electronegative atom more frequently than the less electronegative one, giving rise to partial charges on each atom, and causing electrostatic forces between molecules or ions. A hydrogen bond is effectively a strong example of a permanent dipole. The large difference in electronegativities between hydrogen and any of fluorine, nitrogen and oxygen, coupled with their lone pairs of electrons cause strong electrostatic forces between molecules. Hydrogen bonds are responsible for the high boiling points of water and ammonia with respect to their heavier analogues. The London dispersion force arises due to instantaneous dipoles in neighbouring atoms. As the negative charge of the electron is not uniform around the whole atom, there is always a charge imbalance. This small charge will induce a corresponding dipole in a nearby molecule; causing an attraction between the two. The electron then moves to another part of the electron cloud and the attraction is broken. A cationpi interaction occurs between the electron density of pi bonds above and below an aromatic ring and a cation.

Summary: electrons in chemical bonds

In the (unrealistic) limit of "pure" ionic bonding, electrons are perfectly localized on one of the two atoms in the bond. Such bonds can be understood by classical physics. The forces between the atoms are characterized by isotropic continuum electrostatic potentials. Their magnitude is in simple proportion to the charge difference. Covalent bonds are better understood by valence bond theory or molecular orbital theory. The properties of the atoms involved can be understood using concepts such as oxidation number. The electron density within a bond is not assigned to individual atoms, but is instead delocalized between atoms. In valence bond theory, the two electrons on the two atoms are coupled together with the bond strength depending on the overlap between them. In molecular orbital theory, the linear combination of atomic orbitals (LCAO) helps describe the delocalized molecular orbital structures and energies based on the atomic orbitals of the atoms they came from. Unlike pure ionic bonds, covalent bonds may have directed anisotropic properties. These may have their own names, such as sigma bond and pi bond. In the general case, atoms form bonds that are intermediates between ionic and covalent, depending on the relative electronegativity of the atoms involved. This type of bond is sometimes called polar covalent.

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References
[1] Lewis, Gilbert N. (1916). "The Atom and the Molecule". Journal of the American Chemical Society 38: 772. [2] Laidler, K. J. (1993). The World of Physical Chemistry. Oxford University Press. p.347. [3] James, H. H.; A. S. Coolidge (1933). "The Ground State of the Hydrogen Molecule". Journal of Chemical Physics (American Institute of Physics) 1 (12): 825835. doi:10.1063/1.1749252. [4] http:/ / www. science. uwaterloo. ca/ ~cchieh/ cact/ c120/ bondel. html [5] Atkins, Peter; Loretta Jones (1997). Chemistry: Molecules, Matter and Change. New York: W. H. Freeman & Co.. pp.294295. ISBN0-7167-3107-X. [6] Weinhold, F.; Landis, C. (2005). Valency and bonding. Cambridge. pp.96100. ISBN0521831288. [7] Pauling, L. The Nature of the Chemical Bond. Cornell University Press, 1960.

External links
W. Locke (1997). Introduction to Molecular Orbital Theory (http://www.ch.ic.ac.uk/vchemlib/course/ mo_theory/main.html). Retrieved May 18, 2005. Carl R. Nave (2005). HyperPhysics (http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/chemical/bond.html). Retrieved May 18, 2005. Linus Pauling and the Nature of the Chemical Bond: A Documentary History (http://osulibrary.oregonstate. edu/specialcollections/coll/pauling/bond/index.html). Retrieved February 29, 2008.

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Chemical reactions
Chemical reaction
A chemical reaction is a process that leads to the transformation of one set of chemical substances to another.[1] Chemical reactions can be either spontaneous, requiring no input of energy, or non-spontaneous, typically following the input of some type of energy, viz. heat, light or electricity. Classically, chemical reactions encompass changes that strictly involve the motion of electrons in the forming and breaking of chemical bonds, although the general concept of a chemical reaction, in particular the notion of a chemical equation, is applicable to transformations of elementary particles, as well as nuclear reactions. The substance (or substances) initially involved in a chemical reaction are called reactants or reagents. Chemical reactions are usually characterized by a chemical change, and they yield one or more products, which usually have properties different from the reactants. Reactions often consist of a sequence of individual sub-steps, the so-called elementary reactions, and the information on the precise course of action is part of the reaction mechanism. Chemical reactions are described with chemical equations, which graphically present the starting materials, end products, and sometimes intermediate products and reaction conditions. Different chemical reactions are used in combination in chemical synthesis in order to obtain a desired product. In biochemistry, series of chemical reactions catalyzed by enzymes form metabolic pathways, by which syntheses and decompositions impossible under ordinary conditions are performed within a cell.
A thermite reaction using ferric oxide

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History
Chemical reactions such as combustion in the fire, fermentation and the reduction of ores to metals were known since antiquity. Initial theories of transformation of materials were developed by Greek philosophers, such as the Four-Element Theory of Empedocles stating that any substance is composed of the four basic elements fire, water, air and earth. In the Middle Ages, chemical transformations were studied by Alchemists. They attempted, in particular, to convert lead into gold, for which purpose they used reactions of lead and lead-copper alloys with sulfur.[2] The production of chemical substances that do not normally occur in nature has long been tried, such as the synthesis of sulfuric and nitric acids attributed to the controversial alchemist Jbir ibn Hayyn. The process involved heating of sulfate and nitrate minerals such as copper sulfate, alum and saltpeter. In the 17th century, Johann Rudolph Glauber produced hydrochloric acid and sodium sulfate by reacting sulfuric acid and sodium chloride. With the development of the lead Antoine Lavoisier developed the theory of chamber process in 1746 and the Leblanc process, allowing large-scale combustion as a chemical reaction with oxygen production of sulfuric acid and sodium carbonate, respectively, chemical reactions became implemented into the industry. Further optimization of sulfuric acid technology resulted in the contact process in 1880s,[3] and the Haber process was developed in 19091910 for ammonia synthesis.[4] From the 16th century, researchers including Jan Baptist van Helmont, Robert Boyle and Isaac Newton tried to establish theories of the experimentally observed chemical transformations. The phlogiston theory was proposed in 1667 by Johann Joachim Becher. It postulated the existence of a fire-like element called "phlogiston", which was contained within combustible bodies and released during combustion. This proved to be false in 1785 by Antoine Lavoisier who found the correct explanation of the combustion as reaction with oxygen from the air.[5] Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac recognized in 1808 that gases always react in a certain relationship with each other. Based on this idea and the atomic theory of John Dalton, Joseph Proust had developed the law of definite proportions, which later resulted in the concepts of stoichiometry and chemical equations.[6] Regarding the organic chemistry, it was long believed that compounds obtained from living organisms were too complex to be obtained synthetically. According to the concept of vitalism, organic matter was endowed with a "vital force" and distinguished from inorganic materials. This separation was ended however by the synthesis of urea from inorganic precursors by Friedrich Whler in 1828. Other chemists who brought major contributions to organic chemistry include Alexander William Williamson with his synthesis of ethers and Christopher Kelk Ingold, who, among many discoveries, established the mechanisms of substitution reactions.

Equations
Chemical equations are used to graphically illustrate chemical reactions. They consist of chemical or structural formulas of the reactants on the left and those of the products on the right. They are separated by an arrow () which indicates the direction and type of the reaction. The tip of the arrow points in the direction in which the reaction proceeds. A double arrow ( ) pointing in opposite directions is used for equilibrium reactions. Equations should be balanced according to the stoichiometry, the number of atoms of each species should be the same on both sides of the equation. This is achieved by scaling the number of involved molecules (A, B, C and D in a schematic example below) by the appropriate integers a, b, c and d.[7]

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More complex reactions are represented by reaction schemes, which in addition to starting materials and products show important intermediates or transition states. Also, some relatively minor additions to the reaction can be indicated above the reaction arrow; examples of such additions are water, heat, illumination, a catalyst, etc. Similarly, some minor products can be placed below the arrow, often with a minus sign.

An example of organic reaction: oxidation of ketones to esters with peroxycarboxylic acid

Retrosynthetic analysis can be applied to design a complex synthesis reaction. Here the analysis starts from the products, for example by splitting selected chemical bonds, to arrive at plausible initial reagents. A special arrow () is used in retro reactions.[8]

Elementary reactions
The elementary reaction is the smallest division into which a chemical reaction can be decomposed to, it has no intermediate products.[9] Most experimentally observed reactions are built up from many elementary reactions that occur in parallel or sequentially. The actual sequence of the individual elementary reactions is known as reaction mechanism. An elementary reaction involves a few molecules, usually one or two, because of the low probability for several molecules to meet at a certain time.[10] The most important elementary reactions are unimolecular and bimolecular reactions. Only one molecule is involved in a unimolecular reaction; it is transformed by an isomerization or a dissociation in one or more other molecules. Such reaction requires addition of energy in the form of heat or light. A typical example of a unimolecular reaction is the cistrans isomerization, in which the cis-form of a compound converts to the trans-form or vice versa.[11]

Isomerization of azobenzene, induced by light (h) or heat ()

In a typical dissociation reaction, a bond in a molecule splits resulting in two molecular fragments. The splitting can be homolytic or heterolytic. In the first case, the bond is divided so that each product retains an electron and becomes a neutral radical. In the second case, both electrons of the chemical bond remain with one of the products, resulting in charged ions. Dissociation plays an important role in triggering chain reactions, such as hydrogenoxygen or polymerization reactions.

Dissociation of a molecule AB into fragments A and B

For bimolecular reactions, two molecules collide and react with each other. Their merger is called chemical synthesis or an addition reaction.

Another possibility is that only a portion of one molecule is transferred to the other molecule. This type of reaction occurs, for example, in redox and acid-base reactions. In redox reactions, the transferred particle is an electron,

Chemical reaction whereas in acid-base reactions it is a proton. This type of reaction is also called metathesis.

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for example NaCl(aq) + AgNO3(aq) NaNO3(aq) + AgCl(s)

Chemical equilibrium
Most chemical reactions are reversible, that is they can and do run in both directions. The forward and reverse reactions are competing with each other and differ in reaction rates. These rates depend on the concentration and therefore change with time of the reaction: the reverse rate gradually increases and becomes equal to the rate of the forward reaction, establishing the so-called chemical equilibrium. The time to reach equilibrium depends on such parameters as temperature, pressure and the materials involved, and is determined by the minimum free energy. In equilibrium, the Gibbs free energy must be zero. The pressure dependence can be explained with the Le Chatelier's principle. For example, an increase in pressure due to decreasing volume causes the reaction to shift to the side with the fewer moles of gas.[12] The reaction yield stabilized at equilibrium, but can be increased by removing the product from the reaction mixture or increasing temperature or pressure. Change in the initial concentrations of the substances does not affect the equilibrium.

Thermodynamics
Chemical reactions are largely determined by the laws of thermodynamics. Reactions can proceed by themselves if they are exergonic, that is if they release energy. The associated free energy of the reaction is composed of two different thermodynamic quantities, enthalpy and entropy:[13]

G: free energy, H: enthalpy, T: temperature, S: entropy, : difference

Reactions can be exothermic, where H is negative and energy is released. Typical examples of exothermic reactions are precipitation and crystallization, in which ordered solids are formed from disordered gaseous or liquid phases. In contrast, in endothermic reactions, heat is consumed from the environment. This can occur by increasing the entropy of the system, often through the formation of gaseous reaction products, which have high entropy. Since the entropy increases with temperature, many endothermic reactions preferably take place at high temperatures. On the contrary, many exothermic reactions such as crystallization occur at low temperatures. Changes in temperature can sometimes reverse the direction of a reaction, as in the Boudouard reaction:

This reaction between carbon dioxide and carbon to form carbon monoxide is endothermic at temperatures above approximately 800 C and is exothermic below this temperature.[14] Reactions can also be characterized with the internal energy which takes into account changes in the entropy, volume and chemical potential. The latter depends, among other things, on the activities of the involved substances.[15]

U: internal energy, S: entropy, p: pressure, : chemical potential, n: number of molecules, d: small change sign

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Kinetics
The speed at which a reactions takes place is studied by reaction kinetics. The rate depends on various parameters, such as: Reactant concentrations, which usually make the reaction happen at a faster rate if raised through increased collisions per unit time. Some reactions, however, have rates that are independent of reactant concentrations. These are called zero order reactions. Surface area available for contact between the reactants, in particular solid ones in heterogeneous systems. Larger surface areas lead to higher reaction rates. Pressure increasing the pressure decreases the volume between molecules and therefore increases the frequency of collisions between the molecules. Activation energy, which is defined as the amount of energy required to make the reaction start and carry on spontaneously. Higher activation energy implies that the reactants need more energy to start than a reaction with a lower activation energy. Temperature, which hastens reactions if raised, since higher temperature increases the energy of the molecules, creating more collisions per unit time, The presence or absence of a catalyst. Catalysts are substances which change the pathway (mechanism) of a reaction which in turn increases the speed of a reaction by lowering the activation energy needed for the reaction to take place. A catalyst is not destroyed or changed during a reaction, so it can be used again. For some reactions, the presence of electromagnetic radiation, most notably ultraviolet light, is needed to promote the breaking of bonds to start the reaction. This is particularly true for reactions involving radicals. Several theories allow calculating the reaction rates at the molecular level. This field is referred to as reaction dynamics. The rate v of a first-order reaction, which could be disintegration of a substance A, is given by:

Its integration yields:

Here k is first-order rate constant having dimension 1/time, [A](t) is concentration at a time t and [A]0 is the initial concentration. The rate of a first-order reaction depends only on the concentration and the properties of the involved substance, and the reaction itself can be described with the characteristic half-life. More than one time constant is needed when describing reactions of higher order. The temperature dependence of the rate constant usually follows the Arrhenius equation:

where Ea is the activation energy and kB is the Boltzmann constant. One of the simplest models of reaction rate is the collision theory. More realistic models are tailored to a specific problem and include the transition state theory, the calculation of the potential energy surface, the Marcus theory and the RiceRamspergerKasselMarcus (RRKM) theory.[16]

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Reaction types
Four basic types
Synthesis In a synthesis reaction, two or more simple substances combine to form a more complex substance. Two or more reactants yielding one product is another way to identify a synthesis reaction. For example, simple hydrogen gas combined with simple oxygen gas can produce a more complex substance, such as water.[17] Decomposition A decomposition reaction is the opposite of a synthesis reaction, where a more complex substance breaks down into its more simple parts.[17] [18] Single replacement In a single replacement reaction, a single uncombined element replaces another in a compound.[17] Double replacement In a double replacement reaction, parts of two compounds switch places to form two new compounds.[17] This is when the anions and cations of two different molecules switch places, forming two entirely different compounds.[18] These reactions are in the general form: AB + CD ---> AD + CB One example of a double displacement reaction is the reaction of lead (II) nitrate with potassium iodide to form lead (II) iodide and potassium nitrate: Pb(NO3)2 + 2 KI ---> PbI2 + 2 KNO3

Oxidation and reduction

Redox reactions can be understood in terms of transfer of electrons from one involved species (reducing agent) to another (oxidizing agent). In this process, the former species is oxidized and the latter is reduced, thus the term redox. Though sufficient for many purposes, these descriptions are not precisely correct. Oxidation is better defined as an increase in oxidation number, and reduction as a decrease in oxidation number. In practice, the transfer of electrons will always change the oxidation number, but there are many reactions that are classed as "redox" even though no electron transfer occurs (such as those involving covalent bonds).[19] [20] An example of a redox reaction is: 2 S2O32(aq) + I2(aq) S4O62(aq) + 2 I(aq) Here I2 is reduced to I and S2O32 (thiosulfate anion) is oxidized to S4O62.
The two parts of a redox reaction

Illustration of a redox reaction

Which of the involved reactants would be reducing or oxidizing agent can be predicted from the electronegativity of their elements. Elements with low electronegativity, such as most metals, easily donate electrons and oxidize they are reducing agents. On the contrary, many ions with high oxidation numbers, such as H2O2, MnO, CrO3, Cr2O, OsO4) can gain one or two extra electrons and are strong oxidizing agents.

Chemical reaction The number of electrons donated or accepted in a redox reaction can be predicted from electron configuration of the reactant element. Elements are trying to reach the low-energy noble gas configuration, and therefore alkali metals and halogens will donate and accept one electron, respectively, and the noble gases themselves are chemically inactive.[21] An important class of redox reactions are the electrochemical reactions, where the electrons from the power supply are used as a reducing agent. These reactions are particularly important for the production of chemical elements, such as chlorine[22] or aluminium. The reverse process in which electrons are released in redox reactions and can be used as electrical energy is possible and is used in the batteries.

272

Complexation
In complexation reactions, several ligands react with a metal atom to form a coordination complex. This is achieved by providing lone pairs of the ligand into empty orbitals of the metal atom and forming dipolar bonds. The ligands are Lewis bases, they can be both ions and neutral molecules, such as carbon monoxide, ammonia or water. The number of ligands that react with a central metal atom can be found using the 18-electron rule, saying that the valence shells of a transition metal will collectively accommodate 18 electrons, whereas the symmetry of the resulting complex can be predicted with the crystal field theory and ligand field theory. Complexation reactions also include ligand exchange, in which one or more ligands are replaced by another, and redox processes which change the oxidation state of the central metal atom.[23]

Ferrocene an iron atom sandwiched between two C5H5 ligands

Acid-base reactions
Acid-base reactions involve transfer of protons from one molecule (acid) to another (base). Here, acids act as proton donors and bases as acceptors.
Acid-base reaction, HA: acid, B: Base, A: conjugated base, HB+: conjugated acid

The associated proton transfer results in the so-called conjugate acid and conjugate base.[24] The reverse reaction is possible, and thus the acid/base and conjugated base/acid are always in equilibrium. The equilibrium is determined by the acid and base dissociation constants (Ka and Kb) of the involved substances. A special case of the acid-base reaction is the neutralization where an acid and a base, taken at exactly same amounts, form a neutral salt. Acid-base reactions can have different definitions depending on the acid-base concept employed. Some of the most common are: Arrhenius definition: Acids dissociate in water releasing H3O+ ions; bases dissociate in water releasing OH ions. Brnsted-Lowry definition: Acids are proton (H+) donors, bases are proton acceptors; this includes the Arrhenius definition. Lewis definition: Acids are electron-pair acceptors, bases are electron-pair donors; this includes the Brnsted-Lowry definition.

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Precipitation
Precipitation is the formation of a solid in a solution or inside another solid during a chemical reaction. It usually takes place when the concentration of dissolved ions exceeds the solubility limit[25] and forms an insoluble salt. This process can be assisted by adding a precipitating agent or by removal of the solvent. Rapid precipitation results in an amorphous or microcrystalline residue and slow process can yield single crystals. The latter can also be obtained by recrystallization from microcrystalline salts.[26]

Solid-state reactions
Reactions can take place between two solids. However, because of the Precipitation relatively small diffusion rates in solids, the corresponding chemical reactions are very slow. They are accelerated by increasing the reaction temperature and finely dividing the reactant to increase the contacting surface area.[27]

Photochemical reactions
In photochemical reactions, atoms and molecules absorb energy (photons) of the illumination light and convert into an excited state. They can then release this energy by breaking chemical bonds, thereby producing radicals. Photochemical reactions include hydrogenoxygen reactions, radical polymerization, chain reactions and rearrangement reactions.[28]

In this PaternoBchi reaction, a photoexcited carbonyl group is added to an unexcited olefin, yielding an oxetane.

Many important processes involve photochemistry. The premier example is photosynthesis, in which most plants use solar energy to convert carbon dioxide and water into glucose, disposing of oxygen as a side-product. Humans rely on photochemistry for the formation of vitamin D, and vision is initiated by a photochemical reaction of rhodopsin.[11] In fireflies, an enzyme in the abdomen catalyzes a reaction that results in bioluminescence.[29] Many significant photochemical reactions, such as ozone formation, occur in the Earth atmosphere and constitute atmospheric chemistry.

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Catalysis
In catalysis, the reaction does not proceed directly, but through a third substance known as catalyst. Unlike other reagents that participate in the chemical reaction, a catalyst is not consumed by the reaction itself; however, it can be inhibited, deactivated or destroyed by secondary processes. Catalysts can be used in a different phase (heterogeneous) or in the same phase (homogenous) as the reactants. In heterogeneous catalysis, typical secondary processes include coking where the catalyst becomes covered by polymeric side products. Additionally, heterogeneous catalysts can dissolve into the solution in a solid-liquid system or evaporate in a solid-gas system. Catalysts can only speed up the reaction chemicals that slow down the reaction are called inhibitors.[30] [31] Substances that increase the activity of catalysts are called promoters, and substances that deactivate catalysts are called catalytic poisons. With a catalyst, a reaction which is kinetically inhibited by a high activation energy can take place in circumvention of this activation energy. Heterogeneous catalysts are usually solids, powdered in order to maximize their surface area. Of particular importance in heterogeneous catalysis are the platinum group metals and other transition metals, which are used in hydrogenations, catalytic reforming and in the synthesis of commodity chemicals such as nitric acid and ammonia. Acids are an example of a homogeneous catalyst, they increase the nucleophilicity of carbonyls, allowing a reaction that would not otherwise proceed with electrophiles. The advantage of homogeneous catalysts is the ease of mixing them with the reactants, but they may also be difficult to separate from the products. Therefore, heterogeneous catalysts are preferred in many industrial processes.[32]

Schematic potential energy diagram showing the effect of a catalyst in an endothermic chemical reaction. The presence of a catalyst opens a different reaction pathway (in red) with a lower activation energy. The final result and the overall thermodynamics are the same.

Solid heterogeneous catalysts are plated on meshes in ceramic catalytic converters in order to maximize their surface area. This exhaust converter is from a Peugeot 106 S2 1100

Reactions in organic chemistry

In organic chemistry, in addition to oxidation, reduction or acid-base reactions, a number of other reactions can take place which involve covalent bonds between carbon atoms or carbon and heteroatoms (such as oxygen, nitrogen, halogens, etc.). Many specific reactions in organic chemistry are name reactions designated after their discoverers.

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Substitution
In a substitution reaction, a functional group in a particular chemical compound is replaced by another group.[33] These reactions can be distinguished by the type of substituting species into a nucleophilic, electrophilic or radical substitution.

SN1 mechanism

SN2 mechanism

In the first type, a nucleophile, an atom or molecule with an excess of electrons and thus a negative charge or partial charge, replaces another atom or part of the "substrate" molecule. The electron pair from the nucleophile attacks the substrate forming a new bond, while the leaving group departs with an electron pair. The nucleophile may be electrically neutral or negatively charged, whereas the substrate is typically neutral or positively charged. Examples of nucleophiles are hydroxide ion, alkoxides, amines and halides. This type of reaction is found mainly in aliphatic hydrocarbons, and rarely in aromatic hydrocarbon. The latter have high electron density and enter nucleophilic aromatic substitution only with very strong electron withdrawing groups. Nucleophilic substitution can take place by two different mechanisms, SN1 and SN2. In their names, S stands for substitution, N for nucleophilic, and the number represents the kinetic order of the reaction, unimolecular or bimolecular.[34]

The three steps of an SN2 reaction. The nucleophile is green and the leaving group is red

SN2 reaction causes stereo inversion (Walden inversion)

The SN1 reaction proceeds in two steps. First, the leaving group is eliminated creating a carbocation. This is followed by a rapid reaction with the nucleophile.[35] In the SN2 mechanism, the nucleophile forms a transition state with the attacked molecule, and only then the leaving group is cleaved. These two mechanisms differ in the stereochemistry of the products. SN1 leads to the

Chemical reaction non-stereospecific addition and does not result in a chiral center, but rather in a set of geometric isomers (cis/trans). In contrast, a reversal (Walden inversion) of the previously existing stereochemistry is observed in the SN2 mechanism.[36] Electrophilic substitution is the counterpart of the nucleophilic substitution in that the attacking atom or molecule, an electrophile, has low electron density and thus a positive charge. Typical electrophiles are the carbon atom of carbonyl groups, carbocations or sulfur or nitronium cations. This reaction takes place almost exclusively in aromatic hydrocarbons, where it is called electrophilic aromatic substitution. The electrophile attack results in the so-called -complex, a transition state in which the aromatic system is abolished. Then, the leaving group, usually a proton, is split off and the aromaticity is restored. An alternative to aromatic substitution is electrophilic aliphatic substitution. It is similar to the nucleophilic aliphatic substitution and also has two major types, SE1 and SE2[37]

276

Mechanism of electrophilic aromatic substitution

In the third type of substitution reaction, radical substitution, the attacking particle is a radical.[33] This process usually takes the form of a chain reaction, for example in the reaction of alkanes with halogens. In the first step, light or heat disintegrates the halogen-containing molecules producing the radicals. Then the reaction proceeds as an avalanche until two radicals meet and recombine.[38]

Reactions during the chain reaction of radical substitution

Addition and elimination

The addition and its counterpart, the elimination, are reactions which change the number of substituents on the carbon atom, and form or cleave multiple bonds. Double and triple bonds can be produced by eliminating a suitable leaving group. Similar to the nucleophilic substitution, there are several possible reaction mechanisms which are named after the respective reaction order. In the E1 mechanism, the leaving group is ejected first, forming a carbocation. The next step, formation of the double bond, takes place with elimination of a proton (deprotonation). The leaving order is reversed in the E1cb mechanism, that is the proton is split off first. This mechanism requires participation of a base.[39] Because of the similar conditions, both reactions in the E1 or E1cb elimination always compete with the SN1 substitution.[40]

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E1 elimination

E1cb elimination

The E2 mechanism also requires a base, but there the attack of the base and the elimination of the leaving group proceed simultaneously and produce no ionic intermediate. In contrast to the E1 eliminations, different stereochemical configurations are possible for the reaction product in the E2 mechanism, because the attack of the base preferentially occurs in E2 elimination the anti-position with respect to the leaving group. Because of the similar conditions and reagents, the E2 elimination is always in competition with the SN2-substitution.[41] The counterpart of elimination is the addition where double or triple bonds are converted into single bonds. Similar to the substitution reactions, there are several types Electrophilic addition of hydrogen bromide of additions distinguished by the type of the attacking particle. For example, in the electrophilic addition of hydrogen bromide, an electrophile (proton) attacks the double bond forming a carbocation, which then reacts with the nucleophile (bromine). The carbocation can be formed on either side of the double bond depending on the groups attached to its ends, and the preferred configuration can be predicted with the Markovnikov's rule.[42] This rule states that "In the heterolytic addition of a polar molecule to an alkene or alkyne, the more electronegative (nucleophilic) atom (or part) of the polar molecule becomes attached to the carbon atom bearing the smaller number of hydrogen atoms."[43] If the addition of a functional group takes place at the less substituted carbon atom of the double bond, then the electrophilic substitution with acids is not possible. In this case, one has to use the hydroborationoxidation reaction, where in the first step, the boron atom acts as electrophile and adds to the less substituted carbon atom. At the second step, the nucleophilic hydroperoxide or halogen anion attacks the boron atom.[44] While the addition to the electron-rich alkenes and alkynes is mainly electrophilic, the nucleophilic addition plays an important role for the carbon-heteroatom multiple bonds, and especially its most important representative, the carbonyl group. This process is often associated with an elimination, so that after the reaction the carbonyl group is present again. It is therefore called addition-elimination reaction and may occur in carboxylic acid derivatives such as chlorides, esters or anhydrides. This reaction is often catalyzed by acids or bases, where the acids increase by the electrophilicity of the carbonyl group by binding to the oxygen atom, whereas the bases enhance the nucleophilicity of the attacking nucleophile.[45]

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Acid-catalyzed addition-elimination mechanism

Nucleophilic addition of a carbanion or another nucleophile to the double bond of an alpha, beta unsaturated carbonyl compound can proceed via the Michael reaction, which belongs to the larger class of conjugate additions. This is one of the most useful methods for the mild formation of C-C bonds.[46] [47] [48] Some additions which can not be executed with nucleophiles and electrophiles, can be succeeded with free radicals. As with the free-radical substitution, the radical addition proceeds as a chain reaction, and such reactions are the basis of the free-radical polymerization.[49]

Other organic reaction mechanisms

The Cope rearrangement of 3-methyl-1,5-hexadiene

Mechanism of a Diels-Alder reaction

Orbital overlap in a Diels-Alder reaction

In a rearrangement reaction, the carbon skeleton of a molecule is rearranged to give a structural isomer of the original molecule. These include hydride shift reactions such as the Wagner-Meerwein rearrangement, where a hydrogen, alkyl or aryl group migrates from one carbon to a neighboring carbon. Most rearrangements are associated with the breaking and formation of new carbon-carbon bonds. Other examples are sigmatropic reaction such as the Cope rearrangement.[50] Cyclic rearrangements include cycloadditions and, more generally, pericyclic reactions, wherein two or more double bond-containing molecules form a cyclic molecule. An important example of cycloaddition reaction is the DielsAlder reaction (the so-called [4+2] cycloaddition) between a conjugated diene and a substituted alkene to form a substituted cyclohexene system.[51] Whether or not a certain cycloaddition would proceed depends on the electronic orbitals of the participating species, as only orbitals with the same sign of wave function will overlap and interact constructively to form new bonds.

Chemical reaction Cycloaddition is usually assisted by light or heat. These perturbations result in different arrangement of electrons in the excited state of the involved molecules and therefore in different effects. For example, the [4+2] Diels-Alder reactions can be assisted by heat whereas the [2+2] cycloaddition is selectively induced by light.[52] Because of the orbital character, the potential for developing stereoisomeric products upon cycloaddition is limited, as described by the Woodward-Hoffmann rules.[53]

279

Biochemical reactions
Biochemical reactions are mainly controlled by enzymes. These proteins can specifically catalyze a single reaction, so that reactions can be controlled very precisely. The reaction takes place in the active site, a small part of the enzyme which is usually found in a cleft or pocket lined by amino acid residues, and the rest of the Illustration of the induced fit model of enzyme activity enzyme is used mainly for stabilization. The catalytic action of enzymes relies on several mechanisms including the molecular shape ("induced fit"), bond strain, proximity and orientation of molecules relative to the enzyme, proton donation or withdrawal (acid/base catalysis), electrostatic interactions and many others.[54] The biochemical reactions that occur in living organisms are collectively known as metabolism. Among the most important of its mechanisms is the anabolism, in which different DNA and enzyme-controlled processes result in the production of large molecules such as proteins and carbohydrates from smaller units.[55] Bioenergetics studies the sources of energy for such reactions. An important energy source is glucose, which can be produced by plants via photosynthesis or assimilated from food. All organisms use this energy to produce adenosine triphosphate (ATP), which can then be used to energize other reactions.

Applications
Chemical reactions are central to chemical engineering where they are used for the synthesis of new compounds from natural raw materials such as petroleum and mineral ores. It is essential to make the reaction as efficient as possible, maximizing the yield and minimizing the amount of reagents, energy inputs and waste. Catalysts are especially helpful for reducing the energy required for the reaction and increasing its reaction rate.[56] [57] Some specific reactions have their niche applications. For example, the thermite reaction is used to generate light and heat in pyrotechnics and welding. Although it is less controllable than the more conventional oxy-fuel welding, arc welding and flash welding, it requires much less equipment and is still used to mend rails, especially in remote areas.[58]

Thermite reaction proceeding in railway welding. Shortly after this, the liquid iron flows into the mould around the rail gap

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Monitoring
Mechanisms of monitoring chemical reactions depend strongly on the reaction rate. Relatively slow processes can be analyzed in situ for the concentrations and identities of the individual ingredients. Important tools of real time analysis are the measurement of pH and analysis of optical absorption (color) and emission spectra. A less accessible but rather efficient method is introduction of a radioactive isotope into the reaction and monitoring how it changes over time and where it moves to; this method is often used to analyze redistribution of substances in the human body. Faster reactions are usually studied with ultrafast laser spectroscopy where utilization of femtosecond lasers allows short-lived transition states to be monitored at time scaled down to a few femtoseconds.[59]

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Chemical law
Chemical laws are those laws of nature relevant to chemistry. The most fundamental concept in chemistry is the law of conservation of mass, which states that there is no detectable change in the quantity of matter during an ordinary chemical reaction. Modern physics shows that it is actually energy that is conserved, and that energy and mass are related; a concept which becomes important in nuclear chemistry. Conservation of energy leads to the important concepts of equilibrium, thermodynamics, and kinetics. Additional laws of chemistry elaborate on the law of conservation of mass. Joseph Proust's law of definite composition says that pure chemicals are composed of elements in a definite formulation; we now know that the structural arrangement of these elements is also important. Dalton's law of multiple proportions says that these chemicals will present themselves in proportions that are small whole numbers (i.e. 1:2 O:H in water); although in many systems (notably biomacromolecules and minerals) the ratios tend to require large numbers, and are frequently represented as a fraction. Such compounds are known as non-stoichiometric compounds More modern laws of chemistry define the relationship between energy and transformations. In equilibrium, molecules exist in mixture defined by the transformations possible on the timescale of the equilibrium, and are in a ratio defined by the intrinsic energy of the moleculesthe lower the intrinsic energy, the more abundant the molecule. Transforming one structure to another requires the input of energy to cross an energy barrier; this can come from the intrinsic energy of the molecules themselves, or from an external source which will generally accelerate transformations. The higher the energy barrier, the slower the transformation occurs. There is a hypothetical intermediate, or transition structure, that corresponds to the structure at the top of the energy barrier. The Hammond-Leffler Postulate states that this structure looks most similar to the product or starting material which has intrinsic energy closest to that of the energy barrier. Stabilizing this hypothetical intermediate through chemical interaction is one way to achieve catalysis. All chemical processes are reversible (law of microscopic reversibility) although some processes have such an energy bias, they are essentially irreversible.

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Solution
In chemistry, a solution is a homogeneous mixture composed of only one phase. In such a mixture, a solute is dissolved in another substance, known as a solvent. The solvent does the dissolving.

Types of solutions
Homogenous means that the components of the mixture form a single phase. The properties of the mixture (concentration, temperature, density, etc) can be uniformly distributed through the volume but only in absence of diffusion phenomena of after their completion. Usually, the substance present in the greatest amount is considered the solvent. Solvents can be gases, liquids, or solids. One or more components present in the solution other than the solvent are called solutes. The solution has the same physical state as the solvent.

Gas
If the solvent is a gas, only gases are dissolved under any given set of conditions. An example of a gaseous solution is air (oxygen and other gases dissolved in nitrogen). Since interactions between molecules play almost no role, dilute gases form rather trivial solutions. In part of the literature, they are not even classified as solutions, but addressed as mixtures.

Making a saline water solution by dissolving table salt (NaCl) in water. The salt is the solute and the water the solvent.

Liquid
If the solvent is a liquid, then gases, liquids, and solids can be dissolved. Examples are: Gas in liquid: Oxygen in water. Carbon dioxide in water is a less simple example, because the solution is accompanied by a chemical reaction (formation of ions). Note also that the visible bubbles in carbonated water are not the dissolved gas, but only an effervescence of carbon dioxide that has come out of solution; the dissolved gas itself is not visible since it is dissolved on a molecular level. Liquid in liquid: The mixing of two or more substances of the same chemistry but different concentrations to form a constant.(Homogenization of solutions) Alcoholic beverages are basically solutions of ethanol in water. Solid in liquid: Sucrose (table sugar) in water Sodium chloride or any other salt in water forms an electrolyte: When dissolving, salt dissociates into ions. Counterexamples are provided by liquid mixtures that are not homogeneous: colloids, suspensions, emulsions are not considered solutions. Body fluids are examples for complex liquid solutions, containing many different solutes. They are electrolytes since they contain solute ions (e.g. potassium and sodium). Furthermore, they contain solute molecules like sugar and urea.

Solution Oxygen and carbon dioxide are also essential components of blood chemistry, where significant changes in their concentrations can be a sign of illness or injury.

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Solid
If the solvent is a solid, then gases, liquids, and solids can be dissolved. Gas in solid: Hydrogen dissolves rather well in metals, especially in palladium; this is studied as a means of hydrogen storage. Liquid in solid: mercury in gold, forming an amalgam Hexane in paraffin wax Solid in solid: Steel, basically a solution of carbon atoms in a crystalline matrix of iron atoms. Alloys like bronze and many others. Polymers containing plasticizers.

Solubility
The ability of one compound to dissolve in another compound is called solubility. When a liquid is able to completely dissolve in another liquid the two liquids are miscible. Two substances that can never mix to form a solution are called immiscible. All solutions have a positive entropy of mixing. The interactions between different molecules or ions may be energetically favored or not. If interactions are unfavorable, then the free energy decreases with increasing solute concentration. At some point the energy loss outweighs the entropy gain, and no more solute particles can be dissolved; the solution is said to be saturated. However, the point at which a solution can become saturated can change significantly with different environmental factors, such as temperature, pressure, and contamination. For some solute-solvent combinations a supersaturated solution can be prepared by raising the solubility (for example by increasing the temperature) to dissolve more solute, and then lowering it (for example by cooling). Usually, the greater the temperature of the solvent, the more of a given solid solute it can dissolve. However, most gases and some compounds exhibit solubilities that decrease with increased temperature. Such behavior is a result of an exothermic enthalpy of solution. Some surfactants exhibit this behaviour. The solubility of liquids in liquids is generally less temperature-sensitive than that of solids or gases.

Properties
The physical properties of compounds such as melting point and boiling point change when other compounds are added. Together they are called colligative properties. There are several ways to quantify the amount of one compound dissolved in the other compounds collectively called concentration. Examples include molarity, mole fraction, and parts per million (PPM). The properties of ideal solutions can be calculated by the linear combination of the properties of its components. If both solute and solvent exist in equal quantities (such as in a 50% ethanol, 50% water solution), the concepts of "solute" and "solvent" become less relevant, but the substance that is more often used as a solvent is normally designated as the solvent (in this example, water).

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Liquid solutions
In principle, all types of liquids can behave as solvents: liquid noble gases, molten metals, molten salts, molten covalent networheir molecules possess a permanent electric dipole moment. Another distinction is whether their molecules are able to form hydrogen bonds (protic and aprotic solvents). Water, the most commonly used solvent, is both polar and sustains hydrogen bonds. Salts dissolve in polar solvents, forming positive and negative ions that are attracted to the negative and positive ends of the solvent molecule, respectively. If the solvent is water, hydration occurs when the charged solute ions become surrounded by water molecules. A standard example is aqueous saltwater. Such solutions are called electrolytes. For non-ionic solutes, the general rule is: like dissolves like. Polar solutes dissolve in polar solvents, forming polar bonds or hydrogen bonds. As an example, all alcoholic beverages are aqueous solutions of ethanol. On the other hand, non-polar solutes dissolve better in non-polar solvents. Examples are hydrocarbons such as oil and grease that easily mix with each other, while being incompatible with water.

Water is a good solvent because the molecules are polar and capable of forming hydrogen bonds(1).

An example for the immiscibility of oil and water is a leak of petroleum from a damaged tanker, that does not dissolve in the ocean water but rather floats on the surface.

Solution preparation from constituent ingredients

It is common practice in laboratories to make a solution directly from its constituent ingredients. This requires determining the right amount of solvent/solute for specific concentration. There are three cases in practical calculation: Case 1: amount of solvent volume is given. Case 2: amount of solute mass is given. Case 3: amount of final solution volume is given. In the following equations, A is solvent, B is solute, and C is concentration. Solute volume contribution is considered through ideal solution model. Case 1: amount (ml) of solvent volume VA is given. Solute mass mB = C VA dA /(100-C/dB) Case 2: amount of solute mass mB is given. Solvent volume VA = mB (100/C-1/ dB ) Case 3: amount (ml) of final solution volume Vt is given. Solute mass mB = C Vt /100; Solvent volume VA=(100/C-1/ dB) mB Case 2: solute mass is known, VA = mB 100/C Case 3: total solution volume is know, same equation as case 1. VA=Vt; mB = C VA /100 Example: Make 2 g/100ml of NaCl solution with 1 L water Water (properties). The density of resulting solution is considered to be equal to that of water, statement holding especially for dilute solutions, so the density information is not required. mB = C VA =( 2 / 100 ) x 1000 =20 g

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References
IUPAC, Compendium of Chemical Terminology, 2nd ed. (the "Gold Book") (1997). Online corrected version: (2006) "solution [1]".
[1] http:/ / goldbook. iupac. org/ S05746. html

Acid
An acid (from the Latin acidus/acre meaning sour[1] ) is a substance which reacts with a base. Commonly, acids can be identified as tasting sour, reacting with metals such as calcium, and bases like sodium carbonate. Aqueous acids have a pH of less than 7, where an acid of lower pH is typically stronger, and turn blue litmus paper red. Chemicals or substances having the property of an acid are said to be acidic. Common examples of acids include acetic acid (in vinegar), sulfuric acid (used in car batteries), and tartaric acid (used in baking). As these Zinc, a typical metal, reacting with hydrochloric three examples show, acids can be solutions, liquids, or solids. Gases acid, a typical acid such as hydrogen chloride can be acids as well. Strong acids and some concentrated weak acids are corrosive, but there are exceptions such as carboranes and boric acid. There are three common definitions for acids: the Arrhenius definition, the Brnsted-Lowry definition, and the Lewis definition. The Arrhenius definition states that acids are substances which increase the concentration of hydronium ions (H3O+) in solution. The Brnsted-Lowry definition is an expansion: an acid is a substance which can act as a proton donor. Most acids encountered in everyday life are aqueous solutions, or can be dissolved in water, and these two definitions are most relevant. The reason why pHs of acids are less than 7 is that the concentration of hydronium ions is greater than 107 moles per liter. Since pH is defined as the negative logarithm of the concentration of hydronium ions, acids thus have pHs of less than 7. By the Brnsted-Lowry definition, any compound which can easily be deprotonated can be considered an acid. Examples include alcohols and amines which contain O-H or N-H fragments. In chemistry, the Lewis definition of acidity is frequently encountered. Lewis acids are electron-pair acceptors. Examples of Lewis acids include all metal cations, and electron-deficient molecules such as boron trifluoride and aluminium trichloride. Hydronium ions are acids according to all three definitions. Interestingly, although alcohols and amines can be Brnsted-Lowry acids as mentioned above, they can also function as Lewis bases due to the lone pairs of electrons on their oxygen and nitrogen atoms.

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Definitions and concepts

Modern definitions are concerned with the fundamental chemical reactions common to all acids.

Arrhenius acids
The Swedish chemist Svante Arrhenius attributed the properties of acidity to hydrogen in 1884. An Arrhenius acid is a substance that increases the concentration of the hydronium ion, H3O+, when dissolved in water. This definition stems from the equilibrium dissociation of water into hydronium and hydroxide (OH) ions:[2] H2O(l) + H2O(l) H3O+(aq) + OH(aq)

In pure water the majority of molecules exist as H2O, but a small number of molecules are constantly dissociating and re-associating. Pure water is neutral with respect to acidity or basicity because the concentration of hydroxide ions is always equal to the concentration of hydronium ions. An Arrhenius base is a molecule which increases the concentration of the hydroxide ion when dissolved in water. Note that chemists often write H+(aq) and refer to the hydrogen ion when describing acid-base reactions but the free hydrogen nucleus, a proton, does not exist alone in water, it exists as the hydronium ion, H3O+.

Brnsted-Lowry acids
While the Arrhenius concept is useful for describing many reactions, it is also quite limited in its scope. In 1923 chemists Johannes Nicolaus Brnsted and Thomas Martin Lowry independently recognized that acid-base reactions involve the transfer of a proton. A Brnsted-Lowry acid (or simply Brnsted acid) is a species that donates a proton to a Brnsted-Lowry base.[2] Brnsted-Lowry acid-base theory has several advantages over Arrhenius theory. Consider the following reactions of acetic acid (CH3COOH), the organic acid that gives vinegar its characteristic taste:

Both theories easily describe the first reaction: CH3COOH acts as an Arrhenius acid because it acts as a source of H3O+ when dissolved in water, and it acts as a Brnsted acid by donating a proton to water. In the second example CH3COOH undergoes the same transformation, in this case donating a proton to ammonia (NH3), but cannot be described using the Arrhenius definition of an acid because the reaction does not produce hydronium. Brnsted-Lowry theory can also be used to describe molecular compounds, whereas Arrhenius acids must be ionic compounds. Hydrogen chloride (HCl) and ammonia combine under several different conditions to form ammonium chloride, NH4Cl. In aqueous solution HCl behaves as hydrochloric acid and exists as hydronium and chloride ions. The following reactions illustrate the limitations of Arrhenius's definition: 1. H3O+(aq) + Cl(aq) + NH3 Cl(aq) + NH4+(aq) 2. HCl(benzene) + NH3(benzene) NH4Cl(s) 3. HCl(g) + NH3(g) NH4Cl(s)

Acid As with the acetic acid reactions, both definitions work for the first example, where water is the solvent and hydronium ion is formed. The next two reactions do not involve the formation of ions but are still proton transfer reactions. In the second reaction hydrogen chloride and ammonia (dissolved in benzene) react to form solid ammonium chloride in a benzene solvent and in the third gaseous HCl and NH3 combine to form the solid.

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Lewis acids
A third concept was proposed in 1923 by Gilbert N. Lewis which includes reactions with acid-base characteristics that do not involve a proton transfer. A Lewis acid is a species that accepts a pair of electrons from another species; in other words, it is an electron pair acceptor.[2] Brnsted acid-base reactions are proton transfer reactions while Lewis acid-base reactions are electron pair transfers. All Brnsted acids are also Lewis acids, but not all Lewis acids are Brnsted acids. Contrast the following reactions which could be described in terms of acid-base chemistry.

In the first reaction a fluoride ion, F, gives up an electron pair to boron trifluoride to form the product tetrafluoroborate. Fluoride "loses" a pair of valence electrons because the electrons shared in the BF bond are located in the region of space between the two atomic nuclei and are therefore more distant from the fluoride nucleus than they are in the lone fluoride ion. BF3 is a Lewis acid because it accepts the electron pair from fluoride. This reaction cannot be described in terms of Brnsted theory because there is no proton transfer. The second reaction can be described using either theory. A proton is transferred from an unspecified Brnsted acid to ammonia, a Brnsted base; alternatively, ammonia acts as a Lewis base and transfers a lone pair of electrons to form a bond with a hydrogen ion. The species that gains the electron pair is the Lewis acid; for example, the oxygen atom in H3O+ gains a pair of electrons when one of the HO bonds is broken and the electrons shared in the bond become localized on oxygen. Depending on the context, a Lewis acid may also be described as an oxidizer or an electrophile. The Brnsted-Lowry definition is the most widely used definition; unless otherwise specified acid-base reactions are assumed to involve the transfer of a proton (H+) from an acid to a base.

Dissociation and equilibrium

Reactions of acids are often generalized in the form HA H+ + A, where HA represents the acid and A is the conjugate base. Acid-base conjugate pairs differ by one proton, and can be interconverted by the addition or removal of a proton (protonation and deprotonation, respectively). Note that the acid can be the charged species and the conjugate base can be neutral in which case the generalized reaction scheme could be written as HA+ H+ + A. In solution there exists an equilibrium between the acid and its conjugate base. The equilibrium constant K is an expression of the equilibrium concentrations of the molecules or the ions in solution. Brackets indicate concentration, such that [H2O] means the concentration of H2O. The acid dissociation constant Ka is generally used in the context of acid-base reactions. The numerical value of Ka is equal to the concentration of the products divided by the concentration of the reactants, where the reactant is the acid (HA) and the products are the conjugate base and H+.

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The stronger of two acids will have a higher Ka than the weaker acid; the ratio of hydrogen ions to acid will be higher for the stronger acid as the stronger acid has a greater tendency to lose its proton. Because the range of possible values for Ka spans many orders of magnitude, a more manageable constant, pKa is more frequently used, where pKa = -log10 Ka. Stronger acids have a smaller pKa than weaker acids. Experimentally determined pKa at 25C in aqueous solution are often quoted in textbooks and reference material.

Nomenclature
In the classical naming system, acids are named according to their anions. That ionic suffix is dropped and replaced with a new suffix (and sometimes prefix), according to the table below. For example, HCl has chloride as its anion, so the -ide suffix makes it take the form hydrochloric acid. In the IUPAC naming system, "aqueous" is simply added to the name of the ionic compound. Thus, for hydrogen chloride, the IUPAC name would be aqueous hydrogen chloride. The prefix "hydro-" is added only if the acid is made up of just hydrogen and one other element. Classical naming system:
Anion prefix per Anion suffix ate ate ite hypo ite ide hypo hydro Acid prefix per Acid suffix ic acid ic acid ous acid ous acid ic acid Example perchloric acid (HClO4) chloric acid (HClO3) chlorous acid (HClO2) hypochlorous acid (HClO) hydrochloric acid (HCl)

Acid strength
The strength of an acid refers to its ability or tendency to lose a proton. A strong acid is one that completely dissociates in water; in other words, one mole of a strong acid HA dissolves in water yielding one mole of H+ and one mole of the conjugate base, A, and none of the protonated acid HA. In contrast a weak acid only partially dissociates and at equilibrium both the acid and the conjugate base are in solution. Examples of strong acids are hydrochloric acid (HCl), hydroiodic acid (HI), hydrobromic acid (HBr), perchloric acid (HClO4), nitric acid (HNO3) and sulfuric acid (H2SO4). In water each of these essentially ionizes 100%. The stronger an acid is, the more easily it loses a proton, H+. Two key factors that contribute to the ease of deprotonation are the polarity of the HA bond and the size of atom A, which determines the strength of the HA bond. Acid strengths are also often discussed in terms of the stability of the conjugate base. Stronger acids have a larger Ka and a more negative pKa than weaker acids. Sulfonic acids, which are organic oxyacids, are a class of strong acids. A common example is toluenesulfonic acid (tosylic acid). Unlike sulfuric acid itself, sulfonic acids can be solids. In fact, polystyrene functionalized into polystyrene sulfonate is a solid strongly acidic plastic that is filterable. Superacids are acids stronger than 100% sulfuric acid. Examples of superacids are fluoroantimonic acid, magic acid and perchloric acid. Superacids can permanently protonate water to give ionic, crystalline hydronium "salts". They can also quantitatively stabilize carbocations.

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Polarity and the inductive effect

Polarity refers to the distribution of electrons in a bond, the region of space between two atomic nuclei where a pair of electrons is shared. When two atoms have roughly the same electronegativity (ability to attract electrons) the electrons are shared evenly and spend equal time on either end of the bond. When there is a significant difference in electronegativities of two bonded atoms, the electrons spend more time near the nucleus of the more electronegative element and an electrical dipole, or separation of charges, occurs, such that there is a partial negative charge localized on the electronegative element and a partial positive charge on the electropositive element. Hydrogen is an electropositive element and accumulates a slightly positive charge when it is bonded to an electronegative element such as oxygen or bromine. As the electron density on hydrogen decreases it is more easily abstracted, in other words, it is more acidic. Moving from left to right across a row on the periodic table elements become more electronegative (excluding the noble gases), and the strength of the binary acid formed by the element increases accordingly:
Formula HF H2O NH3 CH4 Name pKa [3]

hydrofluoric acid 3.17 water ammonia methane 15.7 38 48

The electronegative element need not be directly bonded to the acidic hydrogen to increase its acidity. An electronegative atom can pull electron density out of an acidic bond through the inductive effect. The electron-withdrawing ability diminishes quickly as the electronegative atom moves away from the acidic bond. The effect is illustrated by the following series of halogenated butanoic acids. Chlorine is more electronegative than bromine and therefore has a stronger effect. The hydrogen atom bonded to the oxygen is the acidic hydrogen. Butanoic acid is a carboxylic acid.
Structure Name pKa [4]

butanoic acid or butyric acid 4.8

4-chlorobutanoic acid

4.5

3-chlorobutanoic acid

4.0

2-bromobutanoic acid

2.93

2-chlorobutanoic acid

2.86

As the chlorine atom moves further away from the acidic OH bond, its effect diminishes. When the chlorine atom is just one carbon removed from the carboxylic acid group the acidity of the compound increases significantly, compared to butanoic acid (a.k.a. butyric acid). However, when the chlorine atom is separated by several bonds the effect is much smaller. Bromine is much more electronegative than either carbon or hydrogen, but not as

Acid electronegative as chlorine, so the pKa of 2-bromobutanoic acid is slightly greater than the pKa of 2-chlorobutanoic acid. The number of electronegative atoms adjacent an acidic bond also affects acid strength. Oxoacids have the general formula HOX where X can be any atom and may or may not share bonds to other atoms. Increasing the number of electronegative atoms or groups on atom X decreases the electron density in the acidic bond, making the loss of the proton easier. Perchloric acid is a very strong acid (pKa -8) and completely dissociates in water. Its chemical formula is HClO4 and it comprises a central chlorine atom with three chlorine-oxygen double bonds (Cl=O) and one chlorine-oxygen single bond (ClO). The singly bonded oxygen bears an extremely acidic hydrogen atom which is easily abstracted. In contrast, chloric acid (HClO3) is a weaker acid, though still quite strong (pKa = -1.0), while chlorous acid (HClO2, pKa = +2.0) and hypochlorous acid (HClO, pKa = +7.53) acids are weak acids.[5]

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Perchloric acid (HClO4) is an oxoacid and a strong acid.

Carboxylic acids are organic acids that contain an acidic hydroxyl group and a carbonyl (C=O bond). Carboxylic acids can be reduced to the corresponding alcohol; the replacement of an electronegative oxygen atom with two electropositive hydrogens yields a product which is essentially non-acidic. The reduction of acetic acid to ethanol using LiAlH4 (lithium aluminium hydride or LAH) and ether is an example of such a reaction.

The pKa for ethanol is 16, compared to 4.76 for acetic acid.[4] [6]

Atomic radius and bond strength

Another factor that contributes to the ability of an acid to lose a proton is the strength of the bond between the acidic hydrogen and the atom that bears it. This, in turn, is dependent on the size of the atoms sharing the bond. For an acid HA, as the size of atom A increases, the strength of the bond decreases, meaning that it is more easily broken, and the strength of the acid increases. Bond strength is a measure of how much energy it takes to break a bond. In other words, it takes less energy to break the bond as atom A grows larger, and the proton is more easily removed by a base. This partially explains why hydrofluoric acid is considered a weak acid while the other hydrohalic acids (HCl, HBr, HI) are strong acids. Although fluorine is more electronegative than the other halogens, its atomic radius is also much smaller, so it shares a stronger bond with hydrogen. Moving down a column on the periodic table atoms become less electronegative but also significantly larger, and the size of the atom tends to dominate its acidity when sharing a bond to hydrogen. Hydrogen sulfide, H2S, is a stronger acid than water, even though oxygen is more electronegative than sulfur. Just as with the halogens, this is because sulfur is larger than oxygen and the HS bond is more easily broken than the HO bond.

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Chemical characteristics
Monoprotic acids
Monoprotic acids are those acids that are able to donate one proton per molecule during the process of dissociation (sometimes called ionization) as shown below (symbolized by HA): HA(aq) + H2O(l) H3O+(aq) + A(aq) Ka

Common examples of monoprotic acids in mineral acids include hydrochloric acid (HCl) and nitric acid (HNO3). On the other hand, for organic acids the term mainly indicates the presence of one carboxylic acid group and sometimes these acids are known as monocarboxylic acid. Examples in organic acids include formic acid (HCOOH), acetic acid (CH3COOH) and benzoic acid (C6H5COOH).

Polyprotic acids
Polyprotic acids, also known as polybasic acids, are able to donate more than one proton per acid molecule, in contrast to monoprotic acids that only donate one proton per molecule. Specific types of polyprotic acids have more specific names, such as diprotic acid (two potential protons to donate) and triprotic acid (three potential protons to donate). A diprotic acid (here symbolized by H2A) can undergo one or two dissociations depending on the pH. Each dissociation has its own dissociation constant, Ka1 and Ka2. H2A(aq) + H2O(l) HA(aq) + H2O(l) H3O+(aq) + HA(aq) Ka1 H3O+(aq) + A2(aq) Ka2

The first dissociation constant is typically greater than the second; i.e., Ka1 > Ka2. For example, sulfuric acid (H2SO4) can donate one proton to form the bisulfate anion (HSO4), for which Ka1 is very large; then it can donate a second proton to form the sulfate anion (SO42-), wherein the Ka2 is intermediate strength. The large Ka1 for the first dissociation makes sulfuric a strong acid. In a similar manner, the weak unstable carbonic acid (H2CO3) can lose one proton to form bicarbonate anion (HCO3) and lose a second to form carbonate anion (CO32-). Both Ka values are small, but Ka1 > Ka2 . A triprotic acid (H3A) can undergo one, two, or three dissociations and has three dissociation constants, where Ka1 > Ka2 > Ka3. H3A(aq) + H2O(l) H2A(aq) + H2O(l) HA2(aq) + H2O(l) H3O+(aq) + H2A(aq) Ka1 H3O+(aq) + HA2(aq) Ka2 H3O+(aq) + A3(aq) Ka3

An inorganic example of a triprotic acid is orthophosphoric acid (H3PO4), usually just called phosphoric acid. All three protons can be successively lost to yield H2PO4, then HPO42-, and finally PO43-, the orthophosphate ion, usually just called phosphate. An organic example of a triprotic acid is citric acid, which can successively lose three protons to finally form the citrate ion. Even though the positions of the protons on the original molecule may be equivalent, the successive Ka values will differ since it is energetically less favorable to lose a proton if the conjugate base is more negatively charged. Although the subsequent loss of each hydrogen ion is less favorable, all of the conjugate bases are present in solution. The fractional concentration, (alpha), for each species can be calculated. For example, a generic diprotic acid will generate 3 species in solution: H2A, HA-, and A2-. The fractional concentrations can be calculated as below when given either the pH (which can be converted to the [H+]) or the concentrations of the acid with all its conjugate bases:

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A pattern is observed in the above equations and can be expanded to the general n -protic acid that has been deprotonated i -times:

where K0 = 1 and the other K-terms are the dissociation constants for the

acid.

Neutralization
Neutralization is the reaction between an acid and a base, producing a salt and neutralized base; for example, hydrochloric acid and sodium hydroxide form sodium chloride and water: HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) H2O(l) + NaCl(aq) Neutralization is the basis of titration, where a pH indicator shows equivalence point when the equivalent number of moles of a base have been added to an acid. It is often wrongly assumed that neutralization should result in a solution with pH 7.0, which is only the case with similar acid and base strengths during a reaction. Neutralization with a base weaker than the acid results in a weakly acidic salt. An example is the weakly acidic ammonium chloride, which is produced from the strong acid hydrogen chloride and the weak base ammonia. Conversely, neutralizing a weak acid with a strong base gives a weakly basic salt, e.g. sodium fluoride from hydrogen fluoride and sodium hydroxide.

Hydrochloric acid (in beaker) reacting with ammonia fumes to produce ammonium chloride (white smoke).

Weak acid/weak base equilibria

In order to lose a proton, it is necessary that the pH of the system rise above the pKa of the protonated acid. The decreased concentration of H+ in that basic solution shifts the equilibrium towards the conjugate base form (the deprotonated form of the acid). In lower-pH (more acidic) solutions, there is a high enough H+ concentration in the solution to cause the acid to remain in its protonated form, or to protonate its conjugate base (the deprotonated form). Solutions of weak acids and salts of their conjugate bases form buffer solutions.

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Applications of acids
There are numerous uses for acids. Acids are often used to remove rust and other corrosion from metals in a process known as pickling. They may be used as an electrolyte in a wet cell battery, such as sulfuric acid in a car battery. Strong acids, sulfuric acid in particular, are widely used in mineral processing. For example, phosphate minerals react with sulfuric acid to produce phosphoric acid for the production of phosphate fertilizers, and zinc is produced by dissolving zinc oxide into sulfuric acid, purifying the solution and electrowinning. In the chemical industry, acids react in neutralization reactions to produce salts. For example, nitric acid reacts with ammonia to produce ammonium nitrate, a fertilizer. Additionally, carboxylic acids can be esterified with alcohols, to produce esters. Acids are used as additives to drinks and foods, as they alter their taste and serve as preservatives. Phosphoric acid, for example, is a component of cola drinks. Acetic acid is used in day to day life as vinegar. Carbonic acid is an important part of some cola drinks and soda. Citric acid is used as a preservative in sauces and pickles. Tartaric acid is an important component of some commonly used foods like unripened mangoes and tamarind. Natural fruits and vegetables also contain acids. Citric acid is present in oranges, lemon and other citrus fruits. Oxalic acid is present in tomatoes, spinach, and especially in carambola and rhubarb; rhubarb leaves and unripe carambolas are toxic because of high concentrations of oxalic acid. Ascorbic acid (Vitamin C) is an essential vitamin required in our body and is present in such foods as amla, lemon, citrus fruits, and guava. Certain acids are used as drugs. Acetylsalicylic acid (Aspirin) is used as a pain killer and for bringing down fevers. Acids play very important roles in the human body. The hydrochloric acid present in our stomach aids in digestion by breaking down large and complex food molecules. Amino acids are required for synthesis of proteins required for growth and repair of our body tissues. Fatty acids are also required for growth and repair of body tissues. Nucleic acids are important for the manufacturing of DNA, RNA and transmission of characters to offspring through genes. Carbonic acid is important for maintenance of pH equilibrium in the body.

Acid catalysis
Acids are used as catalysts in industrial and organic chemistry; for example, sulfuric acid is used in very large quantities in the alkylation process to produce gasoline. Strong acids, such as sulfuric, phosphoric and hydrochloric acids also effect dehydration and condensation reactions. In biochemistry, many enzymes employ acid catalysis.[7]

Biological occurrence
Many biologically important molecules are acids. Nucleic acids, which contain acidic phosphate groups, include DNA and RNA. Nucleic acids contain the genetic code that determines many of an organism's characteristics, and is passed from parents to offspring. DNA contains the chemical blueprint for the synthesis of proteins which are made up of amino acid subunits. Cell membranes contain fatty acid esters such as phospholipids. An -amino acid has a central carbon (the or alpha carbon) which is covalently bonded to a carboxyl group (thus they are carboxylic acids), an amino group, a hydrogen atom and a variable group. The variable group, also called the R group or side chain, determines the identity and

Basic structure of an amino acid.

many of the properties of a specific amino acid. In glycine, the simplest amino acid, the R group is a hydrogen atom, but in all other amino acids it is contains one or more carbon atoms bonded to hydrogens, and may contain other

Acid elements such as sulfur, oxygen or nitrogen. With the exception of glycine, naturally occurring amino acids are chiral and almost invariably occur in the L-configuration. Peptidoglycan, found in some bacterial cell walls contains some D-amino acids. At physiological pH, typically around 7, free amino acids exist in a charged form, where the acidic carboxyl group (-COOH) loses a proton (-COO) and the basic amine group (-NH2) gains a proton (-NH3+). The entire molecule has a net neutral charge and is a zwitterion, with the exception of amino acids with basic or acidic side chains. Aspartic acid, for example, possesses one protonated amine and two deprotonated carboxyl groups, for a net charge of -1 at physiological pH. Fatty acids and fatty acid derivatives are another group of carboxylic acids that play a significant role in biology. These contain long hydrocarbon chains and a carboxylic acid group on one end. The cell membrane of nearly all organisms is primarily made up of a phospholipid bilayer, a micelle of hydrophobic fatty acid esters with polar, hydrophilic phosphate "head" groups. Membranes contain additional components, some of which can participate in acid-base reactions. In humans and many other animals, hydrochloric acid is a part of the gastric acid secreted within the stomach to help hydrolyze proteins and polysaccharides, as well as converting the inactive pro-enzyme, pepsinogen into the enzyme, pepsin. Some organisms produce acids for defense; for example, ants produce formic acid. Acid-base equilibrium plays a critical role in regulating mammalian breathing. Oxygen gas (O2) drives cellular respiration, the process by which animals release the chemical potential energy stored in food, producing carbon dioxide (CO2) as a byproduct. Oxygen and carbon dioxide are exchanged in the lungs, and the body responds to changing energy demands by adjusting the rate of ventilation. For example, during periods of exertion the body rapidly breaks down stored carbohydrates and fat, releasing CO2 into the blood stream. In aqueous solutions such as blood CO2 exists in equilibrium with carbonic acid and bicarbonate ion. CO2 + H2O H2CO3 H+ + HCO3 It is the decrease in pH that signals the brain to breath faster and deeper, expelling the excess CO2 and resupplying the cells with O2. Cell membranes are generally impermeable to charged or large, polar molecules because of the lipophilic fatty acyl chains comprising their interior. Many biologically important molecules, including a number of pharmaceutical agents, are organic weak acids which can cross the membrane in their protonated, uncharged form but not in their charged form (i.e. as the conjugate base). For this reason the activity of many drugs can be enhanced or inhibited by the use of antacids or acidic foods. The charged form, however, is often more soluble in blood and cytosol, both aqueous environments. When the extracellular environment is more acidic than the neutral pH within the cell, certain Aspirin (acetylsalicylic acid) is a carboxylic acid. acids will exist in their neutral form and will be membrane soluble, allowing them to cross the phospholipid bilayer. Acids that lose a proton at the intracellular pH will exist in their soluble, charged form and are thus able to diffuse through the cytosol to their target. Ibuprofen, aspirin and penicillin are examples of drugs that are weak acids.

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Acid

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Common acids
Mineral acids (inorganic acids)
Hydrogen halides and their solutions: hydrochloric acid (HCl), hydrobromic acid (HBr), hydroiodic acid (HI) Halogen oxoacids: hypochlorous acid (HClO), chlorous acid (HClO2), chloric acid (HClO3), perchloric acid (HClO4), and corresponding compounds for bromine and iodine Sulfuric acid (H2SO4) Fluorosulfuric acid (HSO3F) Nitric acid (HNO3) Phosphoric acid (H3PO4) Fluoroantimonic acid (HSbF6) Fluoroboric acid (HBF4) Hexafluorophosphoric acid (HPF6) Chromic acid (H2CrO4) Boric acid (H3BO3)

Sulfonic acids
Methanesulfonic acid (or mesylic acid, CH3SO3H) Ethanesulfonic acid (or esylic acid, CH3CH2SO3H) Benzenesulfonic acid (or besylic acid, C6H5SO3H) p-Toluenesulfonic acid (or tosylic acid, CH3C6H4SO3H) Trifluoromethanesulfonic acid (or triflic acid, CF3SO3H) Polystyrene sulfonic acid (sulfonated polystyrene, [CH2CH(C6H4)SO3H]n)

Carboxylic acids
Acetic acid (CH3COOH) Citric acid (C6H8O7) Formic acid (HCOOH) Gluconic acid HOCH2-(CHOH)4-COOH Lactic acid (CH3-CHOH-COOH) Oxalic acid (HOOC-COOH) Tartaric acid (HOOC-CHOH-CHOH-COOH)

Vinylogous carboxylic acids

Ascorbic acid Meldrum's acid

Nucleic acids
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) Ribonucleic acid (RNA)

References
[1] Merriam-Webster's Online Dictionary: acid (http:/ / www. merriam-webster. com/ dictionary/ acid) [2] Ebbing, D.D., & Gammon, S. D. (2005). General chemistry (8th ed.). Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 0-618-51177-6 [3] pKa's of Inorganic and Oxo-Acids (http:/ / www2. lsdiv. harvard. edu/ labs/ evans/ pdf/ evans_pKa_table. pdf) [4] Section 8: Electrolytes, Electromotive forces and Chemical Equilibrium (http:/ / www. scribd. com/ doc/ 6792576/ 638478)

Acid
[5] pKa values for HClOn from Housecroft, C. E.; Sharpe, A. G. (2004). Inorganic Chemistry (2nd ed.). Prentice Hall. ISBN978-0130399137. [6] pKa Data Compiled by R. Williams (http:/ / research. chem. psu. edu/ brpgroup/ pKa_compilation. pdf) [7] Voet, Judith G.; Voet, Donald (2004). Biochemistry. New York: J. Wiley & Sons. pp.496500. ISBN9780471193500.

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Listing of strengths of common acids and bases (http://www.csudh.edu/oliver/chemdata/data-ka.htm) Zumdahl, Chemistry, 4th Edition. Ebbing, D.D., & Gammon, S. D. (2005). General chemistry (8th ed.). Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 0-618-51177-6 Pavia, D.L., Lampman, G.M., & Kriz, G.S. (2004). Organic chemistry volume 1: Organic chemistry 351. Mason, OH: Cenage Learning. ISBN 9780759342724

External links
Science Aid: Acids and Bases (http://scienceaid.co.uk/chemistry/physical/acidbases.html) Information for High School students Curtipot (http://www2.iq.usp.br/docente/gutz/Curtipot_.html): Acid-Base equilibria diagrams, pH calculation and titration curves simulation and analysis - freeware A summary of the Properties of Acids for the beginning chemistry student (http://canadaconnects.ca/chemistry/ 10081/) The UN ECE Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution (http://www.unece.org/env/lrtap/) Chem 106 - Acidity Concepts (http://isites.harvard.edu/fs/docs/icb.topic776365.files/lecture 17.pdf)

Reductionoxidation
Redox (portmanteau for reduction-oxidation) reactions describe all chemical reactions in which atoms have their oxidation number (oxidation state) changed. This can be either a simple redox process, such as the oxidation of carbon to yield carbon dioxide (CO2) or the reduction of carbon by hydrogen to yield methane (CH4), or a complex process such as the oxidation of sugar (C6H12O6) in the human body through a series of complex electron transfer processes.

Illustration of a redox reaction

Redox reactions, or oxidation-reduction reactions, have a number of similarities to acid-base reactions. Fundamentally, redox reactions are a family of reactions that are concerned with the transfer of electrons between species. Like acid-base reactions, redox reactions are a matched set, that is there cannot be an oxidation reaction without a reduction reaction happening simultaneously. Oxidation refers to the loss of electrons, while reduction refers to the gain of electrons. Each reaction by itself is called a "half-reaction", simply because there must be two half-reactions to form a whole reaction. Thus in notating redox reactions, chemists typically write out the electrons explicitly: The term comes from the two concepts of reduction and oxidation. It can be explained in simple terms: Oxidation is the loss of electrons or an increase in oxidation state by a molecule, atom, or ion. Reduction is the gain of electrons or a decrease in oxidation state by a molecule, atom, or ion. Though sufficient for many purposes, these descriptions are not precisely correct. Oxidation and reduction properly refer to a change in oxidation number the actual transfer of electrons may never occur. Thus, oxidation is better

Reductionoxidation defined as an increase in oxidation number, and reduction as a decrease in oxidation number. In practice, the transfer of electrons will always cause a change in oxidation number, but there are many reactions that are classed as "redox" even though no electron transfer occurs (such as those involving covalent bonds). Non-redox reactions, which do not involve changes in formal charge, are known as metathesis reactions.

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Oxidizing and reducing agents

In redox processes the reductant transfers electrons to the oxidant. Thus, in the reaction, the reductant or reducing agent loses electrons and is oxidized, and the oxidant or oxidizing agent gains electrons and is reduced. The pair of an oxidizing and reducing agent that are involved in a particular reaction is called a redox pair.

The two parts of a redox reaction

Oxidizers
Substances that have the ability to oxidize other substances are said to be oxidative or oxidizing and are known as oxidizing agents, oxidants, or oxidizers. Put another way, the oxidant (oxidizing agent) removes electrons from another substance i.e. it oxidizes other substances, and is thus itself reduced. And, because it "accepts" electrons, it is also called an electron acceptor. Oxidants are usually chemical elements or substances with elements in high oxidation numbers (e.g., H2O2, MnO, CrO3, Cr2O, OsO4) or highly electronegative substances/elements that can gain one or two extra electrons by oxidizing an element or substance (O, F, Cl, Br).

Rusting iron

Reducers
Substances that have the ability to reduce other substances are said to be reductive or A bonfire. Combustion consists of redox reactions involving free reducing and are known as reducing agents, radicals. reductants, or reducers. The reductant (reducing agent) transfers electrons to another substance i.e. it reduces others, and is thus itself oxidized. And, because it "donates" electrons, it is also called an electron donor. Electron donors can also form charge transfer complexes with electron acceptors.

Reductionoxidation Reductants in chemistry are very diverse. Electropositive elemental metals, such as lithium, sodium, magnesium, iron, zinc, and aluminium, are good reducing agents. These metals donate or give away electrons readily. Hydride transfer reagents, such as NaBH4 and LiAlH4, are widely used in organic chemistry,[1] [2] primarily in the reduction of carbonyl compounds to alcohols. Another method of reduction involves the use of hydrogen gas (H2) with a palladium, platinum, or nickel catalyst. These catalytic reductions are used primarily in the reduction of carbon-carbon double or triple bonds.

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Standard Reduction Potential

Reduction potential is used to calculate the standard electrode potential (Eocell). This is the equation most commonly seen in textbooks: Eocell = Eored + Eoox . where: Eocell is the standard electrode potential (in volts). Eored is standard reduction potential of the reducing agent. Eoox (standard oxidation potential) is negative of the standard reduction potential of the oxidizing agent. though the following equation is generally more useful as one is usually only given reduction potentials, not oxidation potentials: Eocell = Eored - Eoox . or equivalently: Eocell = Eocathode - Eoanode where: Eocell is the standard electrode potential (in volts). Eored (Eocathode) is standard reduction potential of the reducing agent. Eoox (Eoanode) is the standard reduction potential of the oxidizing agent.

Examples of redox reactions

A good example is the reaction between hydrogen and fluorine in which hydrogen is being oxidized and fluorine is being reduced: H2 + F2 2 HF We can write this overall reaction as two half-reactions: the oxidation reaction: H2 2 H+ + 2 e and the reduction reaction: F2 + 2 e 2 F Analyzing each half-reaction in isolation can often make the overall chemical process clearer. Because there is no net change in charge during a redox reaction, the number of electrons in excess in the oxidation reaction must equal the number consumed by the reduction reaction (as shown above). Elements, even in molecular form, always have an oxidation number of zero. In the first half-reaction, hydrogen is oxidized from an oxidation number of zero to an oxidation number of +1. In the second half-reaction, fluorine is reduced from an oxidation number of zero to an oxidation number of 1. When adding the reactions together the electrons cancel:

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H2 F2 + 2 e H2 + F2

2 H+ + 2 e 2 F 2 H+ + 2 F

And the ions combine to form hydrogen fluoride: H2 + F2 2 H+ + 2 F 2 HF

Displacement reactions
Redox occurs in single displacement reactions or substitution reactions. The redox component of these types of reactions is the change of oxidation state (charge) on certain atoms, not the actual exchange of atoms in the compounds. For example, in the reaction between iron and copper(II) sulfate solution: Fe + CuSO4 FeSO4 + Cu The ionic equation for this reaction is: Fe + Cu2+ Fe2+ + Cu As two half-equations, it is seen that the iron is oxidized: Fe Fe2+ + 2 e And the copper is reduced: Cu2+ + 2 e Cu

Other examples
The oxidation of iron(II) to iron(III) by hydrogen peroxide in the presence of an acid: Fe2+ Fe3+ + e H2O2 + 2 e 2 OH Overall equation: 2 Fe2+ + H2O2 + 2 H+ 2 Fe3+ + 2 H2O The reduction of nitrate to nitrogen in the presence of an acid (denitrification): 2 NO3 + 10 e + 12 H+ N2 + 6 H2O Oxidation of elemental iron to iron(III) oxide by oxygen (commonly known as rusting, which is similar to tarnishing): 4 Fe + 3 O2 2 Fe2O3 The combustion of hydrocarbons, such as in an internal combustion engine, which produces water, carbon dioxide, some partially oxidized forms such as carbon monoxide, and heat energy. Complete oxidation of materials containing carbon produces carbon dioxide. In organic chemistry, the stepwise oxidation of a hydrocarbon by oxygen produces water and, successively, an alcohol, an aldehyde or a ketone, a carboxylic acid, and then a peroxide.
Iron rusting in pyrite cubes

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Redox reactions in industry

The primary process of reducing ore to produce metals is discussed in the article on Smelting. Oxidation is used in a wide variety of industries such as in the production of cleaning products and oxidizing ammonia to produce nitric acid, which is used in most fertilizers. Redox reactions are the foundation of electrochemical cells. The process of electroplating uses redox reactions to coat objects with a thin layer of a material, as in chrome plated automotive parts, silver plating cutlery, and gold-plated jewelry. The production of compact discs depends on a redox reaction, which coats the disc with a thin layer of metal film.

Redox reactions in biology

Top: ascorbic acid (reduced form of Vitamin C) Bottom: dehydroascorbic acid (oxidized form of Vitamin C)

Many important biological processes involve redox reactions. Cellular respiration, for instance, is the oxidation of glucose (C6H12O6) to CO2 and the reduction of oxygen to water. The summary equation for cell respiration is: The process of cell respiration also depends heavily on the reduction of NAD+ to NADH and the reverse reaction (the oxidation of NADH to NAD+). Photosynthesis and Cellular respiration are complementary but photosynthesis is not the reverse of the redox reaction in cell respiration: 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + light energy C6H12O6 + 6 O2 Biological energy is frequently stored and released by means of redox reactions. Photosynthesis involves the reduction of carbon dioxide into sugars and the oxidation of water into molecular oxygen. The reverse reaction, respiration, oxidizes sugars to produce carbon dioxide and water. As intermediate steps, the reduced carbon compounds are used to reduce nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+), which then contributes to the creation of a proton gradient, which drives the synthesis of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and is maintained by the reduction of oxygen. In animal cells, mitochondria perform similar functions. See Membrane potential article. Free radical reactions are redox reactions that occur as a part of homeostasis and killing microorganisms, where an electron detaches from a molecule and then reattaches almost instantaneously. Free radicals are a part of redox molecules and can become harmful to the human body if they do not reattach to the redox molecule or an antioxidant. Unsatisfied free radicals can spur the mutation of cells they encounter and are thus causes of cancer. The term redox state is often used to describe the balance of NAD+/NADH and NADP+/NADPH in a biological system such as a cell or organ. The redox state is reflected in the balance of several sets of metabolites (e.g., lactate and pyruvate, beta-hydroxybutyrate and acetoacetate), whose interconversion is dependent on these ratios. An abnormal redox state can develop in a variety of deleterious situations, such as hypoxia, shock, and sepsis. Redox signaling involves the control of cellular processes by redox processes. Redox proteins and their genes must be co-located for redox regulation according to the CoRR hypothesis for the function of DNA in mitochondria and chloroplasts. C6H12O6 + 6 O2 6 CO2 + 6 H2O

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Redox cycling
A wide variety of aromatic compounds are enzymatically reduced to form free radicals that contain one more electron than their parent compounds. In general, the electron donor is any of a wide variety of flavoenzymes and their coenzymes. Once formed, these anion free radicals reduce molecular oxygen to superoxide, and regenerate the unchanged parent compound. The net reaction is the oxidation of the flavoenzyme's coenzymes and the reduction of molecular oxygen to form superoxide. This catalytic behavior has been described as futile cycle or redox cycling. Examples of redox cycling-inducing molecules are the herbicide paraquat and other viologens and quinones such as menadione.[3]

Redox reactions in geology

In geology, redox is important to both the formation of minerals, mobilization of minerals, and in some depositional environments. In general, the redox state of most rocks can be seen in the color of the rock. Red is associated with oxidizing conditions of formation, and green is typically associated with reducing conditions. White (bleached rock) can also be associated with reducing conditions. Famous examples of redox conditions affecting geological processes include uranium deposits and Moqui marbles.

Balancing redox reactions

Describing the overall electrochemical reaction for a redox process requires a balancing of the component half-reactions for oxidation and reduction. For reactions in aqueous solution, this generally involves adding H+, OH, H2O, and electrons to compensate for the oxidation changes.

A uranium mine, near Moab, Utah. Note alternating red and white/green sandstone. This corresponds to oxidized and reduced conditions in groundwater redox chemistry. The rock forms in oxidizing conditions, and is then "bleached" to the white/green state when a reducing fluid passes through the rock. The reduced fluid can also carry uranium-bearing minerals.

Acidic media
In acidic media, H+ ions and water are added to half reactions to balance the overall reaction. For example, when manganese(II) reacts with sodium bismuthate:
Unbalanced reaction: Mn2+(aq) + NaBiO (s) Bi3+(aq) + MnO (aq) 3 4 Oxidation: Reduction: 4 H2O(l) + Mn2+(aq) MnO(aq) + 8 H+(aq) + 5 e 2 e + 6 H+ + BiO(s) Bi3+(aq) + 3 H2O(l)

The reaction is balanced by scaling the two half-cell reactions to involve the same number of electrons (multiplying the oxidation reaction by the number of electrons in the reduction step and vice versa): 8 H2O(l) + 2 Mn2+(aq) 2 MnO(aq) + 16 H+(aq) + 10 e 10 e + 30 H+ + 5 BiO(s) 5 Bi3+(aq) + 15 H2O(l) Adding these two reactions eliminates the electrons terms and yields the balanced reaction: 14 H+(aq) + 2 Mn2+(aq) + 5 NaBiO3(s) 7 H2O(l) + 2 MnO(aq) + 5 Bi3+(aq) + 5 Na+(aq)

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Basic media
In basic media, OH ions and water are added to half reactions to balance the overall reaction. For example, in the reaction between potassium permanganate and sodium sulfite:
Unbalanced reaction: KMnO4 + Na2SO3 + H2O MnO2 + Na2SO4 + KOH Reduction: Oxidation: 3 e + 2 H2O + MnO4 MnO2 + 4 OH 2 OH + SO32 SO42 + H2O + 2 e

Balancing the number of electrons in the two half-cell reactions gives: 6 e + 4 H2O + 2 MnO4 2 MnO2 + 8 OH 6 OH + 3 SO32 3 SO42 + 3 H2O + 6 e Adding these two half-cell reactions together gives the balanced equation: 2 KMnO4 + 3 Na2SO3 + H2O 2 MnO2 + 3 Na2SO4 + 2 KOH

Memory aids
The key terms involved in redox are often confusing to students.[4] [5] For example, an element that is oxidized loses electrons; however, that element is referred to as the reducing agent. Likewise, an element that is reduced gains electrons and is referred to as the oxidizing agent.[6] Acronyms or mnemonics are commonly used[7] to help remember what is happening: "LEO the lion says GER" Loss of Electrons is Oxidation, Gain of Electrons is Reduction.[4] [5] [7] [6] "LEORA says GEROA" Loss of Electrons is Oxidation (Reducing Agent) and Gain of Electrons is Reduced (Oxidizing Agent).[6] Another commonly used memory aid is: "OIL RIG"Oxidation Is Loss of electrons, Reduction Is Gain of electrons.[4] [5] [7] [6]

References
[1] [2] [3] [4] Hudlick, Milo (1996). Reductions in Organic Chemistry. Washington, D.C.: American Chemical Society. pp.429. ISBN0-8412-3344-6. Hudlick, Milo (1990). Oxidations in Organic Chemistry. Washington, D.C.: American Chemical Society. pp.456. ISBN0-8412-1780-7. "gutier.doc" (http:/ / www. bioscience. org/ 2000/ v5/ d/ gutier/ gutier. pdf). . Retrieved 2008-06-30.PDF(2.76MiB) Robertson, William (2010). More Chemistry Basics (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=hIzuarlXtH4C& pg=PA82& dq=confusing). National Science Teachers Association. p.82. ISBN978-1-936137-74-9. . [5] Phillips, John; Strozak, Victor; Wistrom, Cheryl (2000). Chemistry: Concepts and Applications. Glencoe McGraw-Hill. p.558. ISBN978-0028282107. "Students often are confused when associating reduction with the gain of electrons." [6] Rodgers, Glen (2012). Descriptive Inorganic, Coordination, and Solid-State Chemistry (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=g_ybia0hGw8C& pg=PA330). Brooks/Cole, Cengage Learning. p.330. ISBN978-0-8400-6846-0. . [7] Zumdahl, Steven; Zumdahl, Susan (2009). Chemistry (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=IdhYqXy37KIC& pg=PA160). Houghton Mifflin. p.160. ISBN978-0-547-05405-6. .

Schring, J., Schulz, H. D., Fischer, W. R., Bttcher, J., Duijnisveld, W. H. (editors)(1999). Redox: Fundamentals, Processes and Applications, Springer-Verlag, Heidelberg, 246 pp.ISBN 978-3-540-66528-1 (pdf 3,6 MB) (http://hdl.handle.net/10013/epic.31694.d001)

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External links
Chemical Equation Balancer (http://www.berkeleychurchill.com/software/chembal.php) - An open source chemical equation balancer that handles redox reactions. Video - Synthesis of Copper(II) Acetate (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rF1ls-v7puQ) 20 Feb. 2009 Redox reactions calculator (http://www.shodor.org/UNChem/advanced/redox/redoxcalc.html) Redox reactions at Chemguide (http://www.chemguide.co.uk/inorganic/redox/definitions.html#top) Online redox reaction equation balancer, balances equations of any half-cell and full reactions (http://www. webqc.org/balance.php)

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Miscellaneous
Etymology
In the history of science, the etymology of the word chemistry is a debatable issue. It is agreed that the word derives from the word alchemy, which is a European one, derived from the Arabic al-km ( .)The Arabic term is derived from the Greek or .[1] [2] However, the ultimate origin of the root word, chem, is uncertain.[3] According to the Oxford English Dictionary, the majority theory is that al-km is derived from , which is derived from the ancient Egyptian name of Egypt (khem, khame, or khmi, meaning "black earth", contrasting with the surrounding desert.) Therefore, alchemy is the "Egyptian art".[1] However, it is also possible that al-km was derived from , meaning "cast together".[4] Traditionally, the science of alchemy was once considered to have sprung from great Egyptian figure named by the Greeks "Hermes Trismegistus" (the "thrice-great" Hermes, celebrated as priest, king, and scholar), who is thought to have been the founder of the art.[5] Reputed to have lived about 1900 B.C., he was highly celebrated for his wisdom and skill in the operations of nature. In 1614 Isaac Casaubon demonstrated that the works attributed to Hermes the so-called "Hermetic corpus" were actually written pseudonymously during the first three centuries of the Common Era.

Overview
The first documents written in ancient Greek date from around 800 B.C.[6] more than 1,000 years after literary Egyptian; so Greek alchemists may have adopted Egyptian terminology.[7] Other possible sources include the Old Persian word "Kimiya" meaning gold. The alchemical theories associated with Hermes Trismegistus, is the syncretism of the Greek god Hermes and the Egyptian Thoth.[8] Moreover, it is known that "[t]he four chemical gods of the Egyptians, the female-male original principle of Osiris (male Sun) and the corresponding Isis (Wife-sister, female Moon), as well as Mercury and Vulcan, became eight gods and finally twelve gods, who were later taken over by the Greeks."[9] This origin theory, in chemistry, was generally known as the "pyramid of composition" and was utilized in the writing of Michael Maier, who in turn influenced Isaac Newton in his alchemical writings in the 1680s. Hence, the ancient "Egypt" word kme (3000 B. C.), which stands for earth, is a possible root word of chemistry; this later became "khmia", or transmutation, by 300 AD, and then al-khemia in the Arabic world, then alchemia in the Dark Ages, then chymistry in 1661 with Boyles publication, and now chemistry. In Alexandria alchemy began to flourish in the Hellenistic period; simultaneously, a school of alchemy was developing in China. The writings of some of the early Greek philosophers might be considered to contain the first chemical theories; and the theory advanced in the 5th century B. C. by Empedocles that all things are composed of air, earth, fire, and water was influential in alchemy.[10] J. R. Partington in his four-volume work History of Chemistry (1969) [11] says that the earliest applications of chemical processes were concerned with the extraction and working of metals and the manufacture of pottery, which were forms of crafts practiced many centuries before the Bronze Age cultures of Egypt and Mesopotamia. Thus, according to Partington, alchemy preceded Egypt and Mesopotamia.[12] There are two main views on the derivation of the word, which agree in holding that it has an Arabic descent, the prefix al being the Arabic article. But according to one, the second part of the word comes from the Greek , pouring, infusion, used in connexion with the study of the juices of plants, and thence extended to chemical manipulations in general; this derivation accounts for the old-fashioned spellings "chymist" and "chymistry". The other view traces it to khem or khame, hieroglyph khmi, which denotes black earth as opposed to barren sand, and

Etymology occurs in Plutarch as ; on this derivation alchemy is explained as meaning the "Egyptian art". The first occurrence of the word is said to be in a treatise of Julius Firmicus, an astrological writer of the 4th century, but the prefix al there must be the addition of a later copyist. In English, Piers Plowman (1362) contains the phrase "experimentis of alconomye", with variants "alkenemye" and " alknamye". The prefix al began to be dropped about the middle of the 16th century (further details of which are given below).[13]

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Egyptian origin
According to the Egyptologist Wallis Budge, the Arabic word al-kmiya actually means "the Egyptian [science]", borrowing from the Coptic word for "Egypt", kme (or its equivalent in the Mediaeval Bohairic dialect of Coptic, khme). This Coptic word derives from Demotic km, itself from ancient Egyptian kmt. The ancient Egyptian word referred to both the country and the colour "black" (Egypt was the "Black Land", by contrast with the "Red Land", the surrounding desert); so this etymology could also explain the nickname "Egyptian black arts". However, according to Mahn, this theory may be an example of folk etymology.[14] Assuming an Egyptian origin, chemistry is defined as follows: Chemistry, from the ancient Egyptian word "khmia" meaning transmutation of earth, is the science of matter at the atomic to molecular scale, dealing primarily with collections of atoms, such as molecules, crystals, and metals. Thus, according to Budge and others, chemistry derives from an Egyptian word khemein or khmia, "preparation of black powder", ultimately derived from the name khem, Egypt. A decree of Diocletian, written about 300 AD in Greek, speaks against "the ancient writings of the Egyptians, which treat of the khmia transmutation of gold and silver".[15]

Greek origin
Arabic al-kmiya or al-khmiya ( or ,)according to some, is thought to derive from the late Greek word khymeia () meaning "the art of alloying metals, alchemy"; in the manuscripts, this word is also written khmeia () or kheimeia (),[16] which is the probable basis of the Arabic form. According to Mann, the Greek word khumeia originally meant "pouring together", "casting together", "weld", "alloy", etc. (cf. Gk. kheein () "to pour"; khuma(), "that which is poured out, an ingot").[14] Assuming a Greek origin, chemistry is defined as follows: Chemistry, from the Greek word (khmeia) meaning "cast together" or "pour together", is the science of matter at the atomic to molecular scale, dealing primarily with collections of atoms, such as molecules, crystals, and metals.

From Alchemy to Chemistry

It was the mineralogist and humanist Georg Agricola who first dropped the Arabic definite article and began, in his Latin works from 1530 on, to write "chymia" and "chymista" instead of the earlier "alchymia" and "alchymista". As a humanist, Agricola was intent on purifying words and returning them to their classical roots. He had no intent to make a distinction between a rational and practical science of "chymia" and the occult "alchymia", for he used the first of these words to apply to both kinds of activities. The modern denotational distinction arose only in the early eighteenth century. During the rest of the sixteenth century Agricola's new coinage slowly propagated. It seems to have been adopted in most of the vernacular European languages following Conrad Gessner's adoption of it in his extremely popular pseudonymous work, De remediis secretis: Liber physicus, medicus, et partim etiam chymicus (Zurich 1552). This work was frequently re-published in the second half of the sixteenth century, and the earliest known occurrences of forms of the French "chimie," the German "Chemie," the Italian "chimica," and the English "chemistry" are found in

Etymology early translations.

307

References
[1] "alchemy", entry in The Oxford English Dictionary, J. A. Simpson and E. S. C. Weiner, vol. 1, 2nd ed., 1989, ISBN 0-19-861213-3. [2] p. 854, "Arabic alchemy", Georges C. Anawati, pp. 853-885 in Encyclopedia of the history of Arabic science, eds. Roshdi Rashed and Rgis Morelon, London: Routledge, 1996, vol. 3, ISBN 0415124123. [3] Encyclopedia Britannica, 2002 Edition, CD-ROM [4] Weekley, Ernest (1967). Etymological Dictionary of Modern English. New York: Dover Publications. ISBN 0486218732 [5] History of Alchemy from Ancient Egypt to Modern Times (http:/ / www. alchemylab. com/ history_of_alchemy. htm) the AlchemyLab.com [6] Not including the Linear B tablets from 1300-1100BCE, which are more inventory lists than anything else [7] Cunliffe, Barry (2001). Atlas of World History. Barnes & Noble. ISBN0760727104. [8] (Budge The Gods of the Egyptians Vol. 1 p. 415) [9] Cohen, Bernard, I.; Smith, George, E. (2002). The Cambridge Companion to Newton. Cambridge University Press. ISBN0521656966. [10] the Alchemists Corner (http:/ / groups. msn. com/ TheAlchemistsCorner/ alchemy. msnw) (this ref is dodgy and doesn't even work for me). [11] Brock, William, .H. (1992). The Chemical Tree A History of Chemistry. New York: W.W. Norton & Company. ISBN00393320685. [12] Partington, James, R. (1937). A Short History of Chemistry. New York: Dover Publications, Inc.,. ISBN0486659771. [13] Encyclopedia Britannica (http:/ / www. 1911encyclopedia. org/ Alchemy) 1911 Edition. [14] Harper, Douglas. "alchemy" (http:/ / www. etymonline. com/ index. php?term=alchemy). Online Etymology Dictionary. . [15] Oxford English Dictionary Online, s.v. alchemy [16] Cf. Liddell-Scott-Jones s.v. .

External links
History of Alchemy (http://www.alchemywebsite.com/timelin2.html) Timeline

Chemical industry
The chemical industry comprises the companies that produce industrial chemicals. Central to the modern world economy, it converts raw materials (oil, natural gas, air, water, metals, and minerals) into more than 70,000 different products.

Products
Polymers and plastics, especially polyethylene, polypropylene, polyvinyl chloride, polyethylene terephthalate, polystyrene and Oil refinery in Louisiana - an example of chemical industry polycarbonate comprise about 80% of the industrys output worldwide. Chemicals are used to make a wide variety of consumer goods, as well as thousands inputs to agriculture, manufacturing, construction, and service industries. The chemical industry itself consumes 26 percent of its own output. Major industrial customers include rubber and plastic products, textiles, apparel, petroleum refining, pulp and paper, and primary metals. Chemicals is nearly a $3 trillion global enterprise, and the EU and U.S. chemical companies are the world's largest producers.

Chemical industry

308

Product category breakdown

Sales of the chemical business can be divided into a few broad categories, including basic chemicals (about 35 to 37 percent of the dollar output), life sciences (30 percent), specialty chemicals (20 to 25 percent) and consumer products (about 10 percent).

Basic chemicals
Basic chemicals, or "commodity chemicals" are a broad chemical category including polymers, bulk petrochemicals and intermediates, other derivatives and basic industrials, inorganic chemicals, and fertilizers. Typical growth rates for basic chemicals are about 0.5 to 0.7 times GDP. Product prices are generally less than fifty cents per pound. Polymers, the largest revenue segment at about 33 percent of the basic chemicals dollar value, includes all categories of plastics and man-made fibers. The major markets for plastics are packaging, followed by home construction, containers, appliances, pipe, transportation, toys, and games. The largest-volume polymer product, polyethylene (PE), is used mainly in packaging films and other markets such as milk bottles, containers, and pipe.
1928 Future war and the German chemical industry

Polyvinyl chloride (PVC), another large-volume product, is principally used to make pipe for construction markets as well as siding and, to a much smaller extent, transportation and packaging materials. Polypropylene (PP), similar in volume to PVC, is used in markets ranging from packaging, appliances, and containers to clothing and carpeting. Polystyrene (PS), another large-volume plastic, is used principally for appliances and packaging as well as toys and recreation. The leading man-made fibers include polyester, nylon, polypropylene, and acrylics, with applications including apparel, home furnishings, and other industrial and consumer use. The principal raw materials for polymers are bulk petrochemicals. Chemicals in the bulk petrochemicals and intermediates are primarily made from liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), natural gas, and crude oil. Their sales volume is close to 30 percent of overall basic chemicals. Typical large-volume products include ethylene, propylene, benzene, toluene, xylenes, methanol, vinyl chloride monomer (VCM), styrene, butadiene, and ethylene oxide. These chemicals are the starting points for most polymers and other organic chemicals as well as much of the specialty chemicals category. Other derivatives and basic industrials include synthetic rubber, surfactants, dyes and pigments, turpentine, resins, carbon black, explosives, and rubber products and contribute about 20 percent of the basic chemicals' external sales. Inorganic chemicals (about 12 percent of the revenue output) make up the oldest of the chemical categories. Products include salt, chlorine, caustic soda, soda ash, acids (such as nitric acid, phosphoric acid, and sulfuric acid), titanium dioxide, and hydrogen peroxide. Fertilizers are the smallest category (about 6 percent) and include phosphates, ammonia, and potash chemicals.

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309

Life sciences
Life sciences (about 30 percent of the dollar output of the chemistry business) include differentiated chemical and biological substances, pharmaceuticals, diagnostics, animal health products, vitamins, and pesticides. While much smaller in volume than other chemical sectors, their products tend to have very high pricesover ten dollars per poundgrowth rates of 1.5 to 6 times GDP, and research and development spending at 15 to 25 percent of sales. Life science products are usually produced with very high specifications and are closely scrutinized by government agencies such as the Food and Drug Administration. Pesticides, also called "crop protection chemicals", are about 10 percent of this category and include herbicides, insecticides, and fungicides.

Specialty chemicals
Specialty chemicals are a category of relatively high valued, rapidly growing chemicals with diverse end product markets. Typical growth rates are one to three times GDP with prices over a dollar per pound. They are generally characterized by their innovative aspects. Products are sold for what they can do rather than for what chemicals they contain. Products include electronic chemicals, industrial gases, adhesives and sealants as well as coatings, industrial and institutional cleaning chemicals, and catalysts. Coatings make up about 15 percent of specialty chemicals sales, with other products ranging from 10 to 13 percent. Specialty Chemicals are sometimes referred to as "fine chemicals"

Consumer products
Consumer products include direct product sale of chemicals such as soaps, detergents, and cosmetics. Typical growth rates are 0.8 to 1.0 times GDP. Every year, the American Chemistry Council tabulates the U.S. production volume of the top 100 basic chemicals. In 2000, the aggregate production volume of the top 100 chemicals totalled 502 million tons, up from 397 million tons in 1990. Inorganic chemicals tend to be the largest volume, though much smaller in dollar revenue terms due to their low prices. The top 11 of the 100 chemicals in 2000 were sulfuric acid (44 million tons), nitrogen (34), ethylene (28), oxygen (27), lime (22), ammonia (17), propylene (16), polyethylene (15), chlorine (13), phosphoric acid (13) and diammonium phosphates (12).

Companies
The largest corporate producers worldwide, each with plants in numerous countries, include BASF, Bayer, Braskem, Celanese/Ticona, Degussa, Dow, DuPont, Eastman Chemical Company, ExxonMobil, INEOS, Mitsubishi, PPG Industries, SABIC and Shell, along with thousands of smaller firms. In the U.S. there are 170 major chemical companies. They operate internationally with more than 2,800 facilities outside the U.S. and 1,700 foreign subsidiaries or affiliates operating. The U.S. chemical output is $400 billion a year. The U.S. industry records large trade surpluses and employs more than a million people in the United States alone. The chemical industry is also the second largest consumer of energy in manufacturing and spends over $5 billion annually on pollution abatement. In Europe, especially Germany, the chemical, plastics and rubber sectors are among the largest industrial sectors. Together they generate about 3.2 million jobs in more than 60,000 companies. Since 2000 the chemical sector alone has represented 2/3 of the entire manufacturing trade surplus of the EU. The chemical sector accounts for 12% of the EU manufacturing industry's added value. The chemical industry has shown rapid growth for more than fifty years. The fastest-growing areas have involved the manufacture of synthetic organic polymers used as plastics, fibres and elastomers. Historically and presently the chemical industry has been concentrated in three areas of the world, Western Europe, North America and Japan (the Triad). The European Community remains the largest producer area followed by the USA and Japan.

Chemical industry The traditional dominance of chemical production by the Triad countries is being challenged by changes in feedstock availability and price, labour cost, energy cost, differential rates of economic growth and environmental pressures. Instrumental in the changing structure of the global chemical industry has been the growth in China, India, Korea, the Middle East, South East Asia, Nigeria, and Brazil.

310

Technology
As accepted by chemical engineers, the chemical industry involves the use of chemical processes such as chemical reactions and refining methods to produce a wide variety of solid, liquid, and gaseous materials. Most of these products are used in manufacture of other items, although a smaller number are used directly by consumers. Solvents, pesticides, lye, washing soda, and portland cement are a few examples of product used by consumers. The industry includes manufacturers of inorganic- and organic-industrial chemicals, ceramic products, petrochemicals, agrochemicals, polymers and rubber (elastomers), oleochemicals (oils, fats, and waxes), explosives, fragrances and flavors. Examples of these products are shown in the Table below.

This is a process diagram of a turbine generator. Knowing how to design a sustainable process in which the system can withstand or manipulate process halting conditions such as; heat, fiction, pressure, emissions, contaminants, is essential for engineers working to produce a sustainable process for use in the chemical industry.

Product Type inorganic industrial organic industrial ceramic products petrochemicals agrochemicals polymers elastomers oleochemicals explosives

Examples ammonia, nitrogen, sodium hydroxide, sulfuric acid, nitric acid acrylonitrile, phenol, ethylene oxide, urea silica brick, frit ethylene, propylene, benzene, styrene fertilizers, insecticides, herbicides polyethylene, Bakelite, polyester polyisoprene, neoprene, polyurethane lard, soybean oil, stearic acid nitroglycerin, ammonium nitrate, nitrocellulose

fragrances and flavors benzyl benzoate, coumarin, vanillin

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Although the pharmaceutical industry is often considered a chemical industry , it has many different characteristics that puts it in a separate category. Other closely related industries include petroleum, glass, paint, ink, sealant, adhesive, and food processing manufacturers. Chemical processes such as chemical reactions are used in chemical plants to form new substances in various types of reaction vessels. In many cases the reactions are conducted in special corrosion resistant equipment at elevated temperatures and pressures with the use of catalysts. The products of these reactions are separated using a variety of techniques including distillation especially fractional distillation, precipitation, crystallization, adsorption, filtration, sublimation, and drying. The processes and product or products are usually tested during and after manufacture by dedicated instruments and on-site quality control laboratories to ensure safe operation and to assure that the product will The novel chemical reactor reduces the amount of solvents used from 1000 litres to just 4 litres. meet required specifications. The products are packaged and delivered by many methods, including pipelines, tank-cars, and tank-trucks (for both solids and liquids), cylinders, drums, bottles, and boxes. Chemical companies often have a research and development laboratory for developing and testing products and processes. These facilities may include pilot plants, and such research facilities may be located at a site separate from the production plant(s).

History
Chandler (2005) argues the relative success or failure of American and European chemical companies is explained with reference to three themes: "barriers to entry," "strategic boundaries," and "limits to growth." He says successful chemical firms followed definite "paths of learning" whereby first movers and close followers created entry barriers to would-be rivals by building "integrated learning bases" (or organizational capabilities) which enabled them to develop, produce, distribute, and sell in local and then worldwide markets. Also they followed a "virtuous strategy" of reinvestment of retained earnings and growth through diversification, particularly to utilize "dynamic" scale and scope economies relating to new learning in launching "next generation" products.

Companies in the 21st century

The chemical industry includes large, medium, and small companies located worldwide. Companies with sales of chemical products greater than $10 billion dollars in fiscal year 2007 appear listed below. For some of these companies the chemical sales might represent only a portion of their total sales; (for example ExxonMobil's chemical sales covered only 8.7 percent of their total sales in 2005).

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COMPANY, HEADQUARTERS BASF SE, Ludwigshafen, Germany Dow Chemical, Midland, Michigan, USA INEOS, Lyndhurst, UK LyondellBasell, Houston, Texas, USA Formosa Plastics, Taiwan DuPont, Wilmington, Delaware, USA Saudi Basic Industries Corporation, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia Bayer, AG, Leverkusen, Germany Mitsubishi Chemical, Tokyo, Japan

[1] Rank Country 2007 Chemical Sales, billions $65.3 $53.5 $43.6 $42.8 $31.9 $28.5 $26.4 $24.2 $22.2 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

Akzo Nobel/Imperial Chemical Industries(ICI), Amsterdam/London $19.9 Air Liquide, Paris, France Sumitomo Chemical, Tokyo, Japan Evonik Industries, AG, Essen, Germany Mitsui Chemicals, Tokyo, Japan Asahi Kasei, Tokyo, Japan Toray Industries, Tokyo, Japan Chevron Phillips, The Woodlands, Texas, USA DSM NV, Heerlen, Netherlands PPG Industries, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA Shin-Etsu Chemical Co., Ltd., Tokyo, Japan $16.3 $15.2 $15.0 $14.3 $13.8 $13.1 $12.5 $12.1 $11.2 $11.1

Global Chemical Shipments by Country/Region [2] (billions of dollars) United States of America Canada Mexico North America Brazil Other Latin America France Germany Italy United Kingdom Belgium Ireland Netherlands

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

2008

2009

416.7 21.1 19.1 456.9 46.5 59.2 105.7 79.1 124.9 63.9 70.3 27.1 16.9 29.7

420.3 21.8 21.0 463.1 40.0 58.1 98.1 78.5 123.2 64.6 70.1 27.0 20.1 29.4

449.2 25.0 23.8 498.0 45.7 60.8 106.5 76.5 118.9 59.5 66.8 27.5 22.6 31.3

438.4 24.8 24.4 487.6 41.5 63.4 104.9 76.8 116.1 58.6 66.4 27.1 22.9 30.6

462.5 25.8 24.3 512.6 39.6 58.6 98.2 80.5 120.1 64.5 69.9 28.7 29.1 32.2

487.7 30.5 23.5 541.7 47.4 62.9 110.3 99.6 148.1 75.8 77.3 36.1 32.3 40.1

540.9 36.2 25.6 602.7 60.2 69.9 130.0 111.1 168.6 86.6 91.3 41.8 33.9 49.0

610.9 40.2 29.2 680.3 71.1 77.2 148.3 117.5 178.6 89.8 95.2 43.5 34.9 52.7

657.7 43.7 32.0 733.4 82.8 84.6 167.4 121.3 192.5 95.3 107.8 46.9 37.5 59.2

664.1 45.4 33.4 742.8 96.4 89.5 185.9 138.4 229.5 105.9 118.2 51.6 46.0 67.9

689.3 47.4 37.8 774.6 126.7 102.1 228.8 158.9 263.2 122.9 123.4 62.6 54.8 81.7

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31.0 11.1 22.1 27.1 503.1 23.8 22.3 46.1 52.7 193.8 215.2 80.9 30.7 11.3 39.3 6.3 21.9 24.8 409.0 30.8 11.4 22.2 26.8 504.0 24.6 20.3 44.9 53.2 220.4 241.9 87.8 35.3 12.1 45.5 8.5 23.7 29.1 462.3 30.8 11.2 19.4 25.9 490.4 27.4 21.9 49.3 59.2 239.7 276.1 103.6 35.3 11.2 56.3 9.5 29.2 30.9 515.7 31.9 11.0 21.1 26.4 488.8 29.1 23.4 52.5 57.4 208.3 271.5 111.0 32.5 10.8 50.4 9.4 26.8 30.8 479.7 33.4 12.5 25.5 27.9 524.4 30.3 25.3 55.6 60.4 197.2 300.5 126.5 33.5 11.3 54.9 12.5 28.4 33.3 497.7 42.0 15.9 30.3 33.5 630.9 33.4 31.4 64.8 73.0 218.8 369.1 159.9 40.8 14.9 64.4 16.1 34.3 38.8 587.8 48.9 18.2 33.8 38.6 721.9 37.5 39.6 77.1 86.4 243.6 463.9 205.0 53.3 17.0 78.7 20.0 44.5 45.5 707.5 52.7 19.3 35.4 42.9 762.7 40.9 46.2 87.1 99.3 251.3 567.5 269.0 63.6 18.7 91.9 22.0 49.5 52.9 818.8 56.7 21.2 37.8 46.2 822.4 53.1 55.0 108.0 109.6 248.5 668.8 331.4 72.5 19.1 103.4 25.8 53.8 62.9 917.3 63.7 21.2 42.7 50.3 935.4 63.0 68.4 131.3 124.2 245.4 795.5 406.4 91.1 22.8 116.7 28.9 57.4 72.2 74.8 22.6 53.1 58.9 1,076.8 77.6 87.5 165.1 160.4 298.0 993.2 549.4 98.2 27.1 133.2 31.6 62.9 90.8

Spain Sweden Switzerland Other Western Europe Russia Other Central/Eastern Europe Africa & Middle East Japan Asia-Pacific excluding Japan China India Australia Korea Singapore Taiwan Other Asia/Pacific Asia/Pacific Total world shipments

1041.0 1291.2

1573.5 1625.5 1719.0 1670.9 1748.8 2008.5 2325.6 2596.4 2858.1 3160.7 3696.8

Just as companies emerge as the main producers of the chemical industry, we can also look on a more global scale to how industrialized countries rank, with regards to the billions of dollars worth of production a country or region could export. Though the business of chemistry is worldwide in scope, the bulk of the worlds $3.7 trillion chemical output is accounted for by only a handful of industrialized nations. The United States alone produced $689 billion, 18.6 percent of the total world chemical output in 2008.[2]

References
[1] "INEOS_Gassmaks09_Trondheim_Final" (http:/ / www. forskningsradet. no/ servlet/ Satellite?blobcol=urldata& blobheader=application/ pdf& blobheadername1=Content-Disposition:& blobheadervalue1=+ attachment;+ filename=INEOSSteinarKvisleGassmaks09TrondheimFinal. pdf& blobkey=id& blobtable=MungoBlobs& blobwhere=1243463935690& ssbinary=true). . Retrieved 2009-06-06. [2] Global (http:/ / www. americanchemistry. com/ s_acc/ sec_directory. asp?CID=292& DID=747)

Fred Aftalion A History of the International Chemical Industry. University of Pennsylvania Press. 1991. online version (http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=10894619) E. N. Brandt. Growth Company: Dow Chemical's First Century. Michigan State University Press. xxii+ 650 pp. Appendices, Select bibliography and index. ISBN 0-87013-426-4. online review (http://eh.net/bookreviews/ library/0207.shtml) Alfred D. Chandler. Shaping the Industrial Century: The Remarkable Story of the Evolution of the Modern Chemical and Pharmaceutical Industries. Harvard University Press, 2005. 366 pp.ISBN 0-674-01720-X. chapters 3-6 deal with DuPont, Dow Chemicals, Monsanto, American Cyanamid, Union Carbide, and Allied in USA; and European chemical producers, Bayer, Farben, and ICI.

Chemical industry Micheal McCoy, et al., "Facts & Figures of the Chemical Industry", Chemical & Engineering News, 84(29), July 10, 2006, pp.3572. Shreve, R. Norris, and Joseph A. Brink Jr. The Chemical Process Industries. 4th ed. New York: McGraw Hill, 1977.

314

Article Sources and Contributors

315

Article Sources and Contributors

Alchemy Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=445764318 Contributors: +u3)u!^ 7!3N, - ), .:Debil:., 19.162, 1ForTheMoney, 23skidoo, 2wingo, 999, A Macedonian, ABF, ACHKC, AIM1796, AJR, Aarktica, Aaron Brenneman, Abb615, Abbiejoice, Abramul, Acroterion, Act Up, Active Banana, Adam Field, AdamBMorgan, Adashiel, Addshore, AdjustShift, Aeirom1, AeliusHadrianus, Aethralis, AgadaUrbanit, Aintsemic, Akamad, Aksi great, Alabaster Crow, Alansohn, AlchemicPaladin, Alchemist Jack, Alchemy999, Alchemyalchemy, Alcumista, Alethiophile, Alex '05, AlexTheMartian, Alienlifeformz, Allstarecho, Alnokta, AmontonarPapeles, Amt1018, Anakata, Anaxial, Andraiw, Andre Engels, Andreas Gro, Angela, Angelcook, Angrysockhop, Animum, Annbrepols, AnnekeBart, Anoot7, Antandrus, Anthony Appleyard, Anton H, Anville, Anyep, Apepch7, Archangels9, Aro888, Artemis-Arethusa, Asdfv, Ashami, Astrochemist, Atomcoeur, Aurumsolis, Avani patel, Avenue, Axem Titanium, B9 hummingbird hovering, BF, BHenry1969, Bacchiad, Baghermolavi, Bakabaka, Balloonguy, Barkert89, Barticus88, Beatnik Party, Benjwong, Benten, Bfigura's puppy, Bidwoud, Bidwoud13, Big Bob the Finder, Bihzad, Billaknz43, Bishonen, Bisqwit, Bitethesilverbullet, Blainster, Blaze Flame, Bletch, Bloodsorr0w, Blueinc123, Bobblewik, Bodnotbod, Bogey97, Bomac, Bomkia, Bonadea, Bongwarrior, Boocah305, Boss1000, Bradeos Graphon, Brandmeister (old), Bremerenator, Brian0918, Brighterorange, Brina700, Brogersoc, Bryan Derksen, BryceHarrington, Btre2007, BuickCenturyDriver, Buleleader, C0nsumer, CO, Caffeinepuppy, Calabraxthis, Calcinations, Call Me K, Caltas, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Capricorn42, Captainmighty, Car Henkel, CardinalDan, Casper2k3, Centralplexus, Chairboy, Chairman S., Chameleon, Charles Matthews, Cheese Sandwich, ChemGardener, Chevellefan11, Chickenpower, Chiramabi, Chowbok, Chris Capoccia, Chris the speller, Chrislk02, Chrism, Christian75, Christopher Parham, Chromancer, CinderAlchemist, Cinnamon42, Citicat, Cjwright79, CliffC, Codex Sinaiticus, Colinjl, Comrade42, Conversion script, Cozmo131, Creatatron, Creepy geek, Crucis, Crux Ansata, Crystallina, Csarami, Cuchullain, Curious Blue, Cyanidethistles, CyberSkull, D J L, D. 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File:Raimundus Lullus alchemic page.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Raimundus_Lullus_alchemic_page.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Ramon Llull Image:Alchemy-Digby-RareSecrets.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Alchemy-Digby-RareSecrets.png License: Public Domain Contributors: Hersfold, Liftarn, MattGiuca, Samuel Grant, Solipsist, 2 anonymous edits Image:Zosimosapparat.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Zosimosapparat.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Original uploader was Adragoor at sv.wikipedia Image:Jabir ibn Hayyan.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Jabir_ibn_Hayyan.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: AndreasPraefcke, Copydays, Halfdan, Sailko, 1 anonymous edits Image:JosephWright-Alchemist-1.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:JosephWright-Alchemist-1.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Stefi Image:flamel-figures.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flamel-figures.png License: Public Domain Contributors: Campani, Mu Image:Alchemik Sedziwoj Matejko.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Alchemik_Sedziwoj_Matejko.JPG License: Public Domain Contributors: AndreasPraefcke, BurgererSF, Foroa, Kevyn, Martin H., Nk, Piotrus, Plindenbaum, 2 anonymous edits Image:Esoteric Taijitu.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Esoteric_Taijitu.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Kenny Shen Image:Chemicals in flasks.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Chemicals_in_flasks.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0 Contributors: Benjah-bmm27, Fjmustak, ITurtle, Ida Shaw, Karelj, Meisam, 1 anonymous edits File:String theory.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:String_theory.svg License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Contributors: MissMJ Image:VysokePece1.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:VysokePece1.jpg License: Attribution Contributors: Al Silonov, Darwinek, Ies, Mbdortmund, Siebrand, J Image:Lab bench.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Lab_bench.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 1.0 Generic Contributors: Magnus Manske Image:Epicurus Louvre.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Epicurus_Louvre.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5 Contributors: User:Sting, User:Sting Image:Antoine lavoisier color.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Antoine_lavoisier_color.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Louis Jean Desire Delaistre, after Boilly Image:Taxol.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Taxol.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Calvero. 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Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors

File:Fraunhofer lines.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Fraunhofer_lines.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Fraunhofer_lines.jpg: nl:Gebruiker:MaureenV Spectrum-sRGB.svg: Phrood Fraunhofer_lines_DE.svg: *Fraunhofer_lines.jpg: Saperaud 19:26, 5. 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File:MountRedoubtEruption.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:MountRedoubtEruption.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: R. 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