~ Configurational definition of the term constituent: " A set of words forms a constituent of category Z if the terminal nodes carrying them are all dominated by the same Z node, and if there are no other terminal nodes dominated by the relevant Z node." 7 Complementhood: A constituent X is the complement of a head H (and, by extension, of any H -bar or HP constituent which is a projection of H) if X and H are sisters, and the mother of X is a projection of H Specifierhood: A constituent ¥ is the specifier of a head H (and, by extension, of any H bar or HP constituent into which H_ projects) if ¥ 1s the sister of Hebar and the daughter of HP. > Floating quantifier: « quantifier which does rot immediately precede the expression which it quantifies Constituent testing structure: See photocopy ‘C-command: + C-command is @ structural relation between two categories, A constituent X c-commands a constituent ¥, if the mother of X dominates Y, and X and Y, are disconnected, C-command condition on polarity expressions: A polarity expression must be ¢-commanded «Polarity expression: A word or phrase which has an inherent affective polarity, and is restricted to occurring within the ‘scope of en affective constituent, (Polarity items: Any, ever, care a damm, lifta finger. Affective constituents: neg, words: no-nobody-not: interrogatives: if, whether and interrogatives in general; if in conditionals and too as an adverb ). c4 Nike wi soyanttia, SOE, Om \\ ‘C-command condition on binding: A bound constituent must be c-commanded by an apprapriate antecedent ‘Anaphors (neflexives and reciprecals) fulfil this condition because they have the property thot they can’t be used to refer divectly to an entity in the outside world, so must be bound by an antecedent eisewhere in the same phrase ar sentence. Chapter 4 All constituents in a given structure are overt. However, syntactic structures may also contain empty categories: =covert=null) categories which have no overt phonetic form, and hence which are inaudible or silent PRO Subjects English is not @ null subject language although it allows infinitives 10 have uli subjects, Subjectless infinitive clauses contain an understood null subject called PRO. T+ has the same grammatical properties as pronouns, that's why it's called PRO. Ina sentence such as: "We would like PRO to stay." The null subject PRO is controlled by (refers back to) the subject we of the matrix (=containing:next highest) clause or equivalently, we 1s the controller or antecedent of PRO. Verbs (such as /ike) which allow an infinitive complement with a PRO subject are said to function as control predicates. ‘Semantic Evidence of the existence of PRO. In traditional grammar it is claimed that subjectless infinitive clauses have an understood or implicit subject-and positing 2 PRO subject in such clauses is one way of capturing the relevant intuition. The implicit subject becomes explicit if the relevant clauses ane paraphrased by a finite clause: 1) a- Tam sorry {to have kept you waiting] be Tam sorry [I have kept you waiting] 2) a- Tt is important [to carry your pessport with you] bb Tt is important [you should carry your passport with you] 3) a Dumbo has promised (to come to my party] b- Dumbo has promised [he will come ta my perty] (covert PRO subject)