OUMH1203 ENGLISH FOR WRITTEN COMMUNICATION

Topic: 1 Introduction to Written Communication: Some Basic Principles

1.1 Introduction to Communication Communication is : Defined = as giving, receiving or exchanging information, opinions or ideas Purpose = so that the message is completely understood by everybody involved. Importance of the Message in Communication Understand what your message What audience you are sending How massege will be perceived Message is successfully received and comprehended only when both the sender and the receiver perceive it in the same way.

1.2 Problems in Communication a) Status/Role b) Cultural Differences c) Choice of Communication Channels d) Length of Communication e) Use of Language f) Disabilities g) Known or Unknown Receiver h) Individual Perceptions/Attitudes/Personalities i) Atmosphere/Noise/Distraction j) Clarity of Message k) Lack of Feedback 1.3 The Communicator Behaviour 1) Be yourself, read everythings 2) Do not worry about grammar and spelling when you start out, fix it later. 3) Get your thoughts down first, talk through your topic and type the way you speak. 4) Edit and refocus the piece later. 5) Practise writing everyday 1.4 Written Communication Communication by means of written symbols that is communicated by or to or between people or groups. written communication is the presentation of ideas or essays that make a clear point supply details supporting that point and demonstrate unity coherence of thought Elements of written communication The mastery of good or standard written english Ability to comprehend Write about information acquired through reading,note-taking and listening Ways to Improve Written Communication a. Improve written communication skills

Continually practise writing in the language write with a clear purpose that meets the needs of the reader Decide what you want to say and put this in a logical and suitable sequence. b. Three important stages of written work planning stage
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writing stage editing stage c. written document should have: efficiency, equity, and effectiveness. d. Avoid four common errors
a. b. c. d. e. f. g. Confusing words that can mislead the reader Cause communication breakdown or barriers between the writer and the reader. Ambiguous Bombastic Vague Sexist Trendy Exaggerated inflated and archaic.

use of too many words overuse of words interferes with understanding interrupt the reader understanding

Solution 1. Use the familiar word to the farfetched 2. Concrete word to the abstract 3. Single word to the circumlocution 4. The short word to the long

Too much information Reader becomes overwhelmed and confused Cause frustration and cast doubts on the writer credibility.

Solution In order to produce a clear, concise and relevant written work

writing fragments instead of completesentences and writing sentences that lack unity. sentence(s) short and compact to ensure that they are correct, logical and easy to read Solution Words ave to be structured to the extent that what precedes should be in accordance with those that follow.

Reports Reports intended for readers who are external to the organisation are often written as letter reports Usually on the organisations letterhead. May present a problem, proposal, solution or reply to a request. Standard of letter report the seven basic parts of a business letter: The writers address. The date. Reader address Salutation. Body. Complimentary close. Signature block. Formal and Informal Reports To write a good report, the following three stages must be discussed Planning. Writing. Editing.

Memorandum Used for routine information. Includes information about a special issue, problem or information needed for decision - making and problem - solving within an organisation. The memorandum report format is the least formal report format. Standard of a short memorandum report includes five components: Reader name. Writer name. Date. Subject line or title. Body.

Documentation 1. Some work kept for research purposes 2. Some historical work kept for posterity 3. Some for others to know and see. 4. Used to keep abreast with on- going projects, for remembrance, acknowledgement and as a teaching-learning tool to improve
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ones writing skill. 5. As avenues to project our ideas or opinions to be shared with others as well as establish and defend our points of view.

Helping Other People Communicate with You Think carefully about all the possibilities. Consider all aspects of the communication process (interpretation, understanding, feedback). Consider the possible barriers. Consider the complexity of the subject matter and how it might be best conveyed. Ask Who? Why? What? and How? Consider whether it is going to be in the form of a letter, e-mail, memo or report Problems Other People May Have Writing to You People may not want to write to you for a variety of reasons. Some of these reasons have been stated earlier in the text, while others may appear in the following forms: Ones weaknesses as a writer (for example, language deficiencies). Too much information in the text. Too many grammatical errors and mistakes. Barriers between the sender and receiver (for example, cultural, status, role). Message not clear or precise. Wrong choice of channel/format deliverance. Past experiences (for example, treatment received). Documents not structured, messy or not well laid out. Using Questions to Overcome Problems Where did it go wrong? Why was the message not understood or interpreted by the receiver? Was the timing wrong? Did I use the correct channel to deliver the message? Are there many errors or mistakes in the document? Many other questions of this nature can shed some light on the problems faced by the communicators. Flow of Questions document is report writing, we may want to ask questions such as: What is the report about? What are you trying to say? To whom is the report addressed? Who are you writing for? Who will read the report? How is the content of the report? How long can the report be? What type of information is to be included in the report? How shall I gather and present it? What sort of language should I use?

Communication with People at All Organisational Levels To achieve a powerful effect and to ensure that your document is easy to read, make sure to provide the following: A clear indication of your purpose. Accurate and objective information. Suitable headings. A suitable order of information. Giving and Receiving Good Instructions Instructions must be clear and precise In commenting on papers, a teacher can show students precisely where their meaning is unclear pose questions designed to illuminate problems underlying the unclear communication provide models for expressing analysis more clearly. Communicating at Your Own Organisational Levels Forms and documents should be accurate, complete and clear in meaning. When Written Communication is Most Important such as Memorandum of understanding (MOU) Memorandum of agreement (MOA) Letters of agreement and appointment Job applications

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Has the report been proofread? What is the minimum length of the report? When should the report be sent?

Topic 2: Letter Writing

2.1 The Basics of Letter Writing We write letters to each other when we want to: 1) Inform others (the readers) 2) Persuade others to take action/to promote an idea. 3) Propose your ideas. 4) To contact the reader whom we cannot meet in person. 5) They allow us to structure our thought in accurately. 6) Can file or keep to and refer back when needed. Begin writing a formal letter 1) Analyse your audience. 2) Determine your purpose. 3) Gather information you want to include in your letter. 4) Create an outline. 5) Write a draft. 6) Revise it.

2.1.1 Write Your Letter Persuasively Things to consider: (a) Try to anticipate the readers reaction to your letter. (b) Think of the readers benefit first, yours second. (c) Adjust language and use reader familiar terms / concepts. (d) Write with a positive attitude and show confidence. (e) Do not condescend and talk down to the reader. (f) Show humility but not too much. (g) Do not preach your ideas. (h) Be service - oriented. 2.1.2 How to Write the Introduction 1) The Letterhead or Return Address - name, address, phone number 2) The Inside Address 3) Attention Line 4) Salutations Dear Sir or Madam 5) The Subject Line - Use a concise and precise phrase 2.1.3 How to Write the Body of the Letter 1) The Introductory Paragraph - one idea per piece 2) Body/Middle of the Letter - supports that introduction idea by giving it more detail and justification 3) End The Letter conclusion, express your gratitude, add a salutary close, Yours sincerely or Sincerely

2.3 Letter Writing Activities How to Add Substance to Your Plan Sheet - transfer the sentences or ideas into a language that is more fitting for formal letter by translating the plans into more appropriate language. Making some things clear in your letter. These things include: The actual reason you are writing: Convincing someone is by making your requests clear. State the aim of your request 2.4 Formal Replies and Follow-Ups To reply to business letters, follow some basic steps. 1) Make sure you understand what your client requires. 2) Think of ways you can fulfill their request, if at all.

Follow up letter .Why? 1) Your letter may have been unnoticed 2) To make sure that your contacts have information
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3) Express your plan or ideas in clear, precise and easily understood language.

about your business 3) Give other person a chance. 4) Cheaper that getting legal council

Topic 3: Models of Writer Communication: The Elements of Good Communication Models

3.1 Claude Shannons Model Information is transmitted from an information source through a channel to a receiver 3.3 A Model Based on Ulric Neissers Work Explore our world or specific phenomenon guided by our desires, needs, ideas, images of the world and such, and this exploration gives us a perception or new information of the world. The new information, in turn, affects our needs, desires, images, and such, thus changing our perception of the world and so we begin our exploration again. This cycle goes on and on as long as we are still learning and exploring.

3.2 Roman Jakobsons Model Information is transmitted from an information source through a channel to a receiver

3.4 A Model Based on Michael Polanyis Work A person discovers meaning in an experience The person expresses the meaning he gained from his experience in writing (a poem, a novel, an essay, a letter, a journal entry, etc). Someone reads the text and discovers meaning in it. The reader may be the writer himself or herself Or a complete stranger Text does not convey the original experience to the reader. Instead, it conveys meaning to the reader.

3.5 Some Ideas About Communication Signs Anything that is used to point to/stand for something else (to representideas, experiences, images, objects, feelings, concepts and everything else.). To refer to complex things

Symbols Symbols have complex meanings in addition to the literal ones The more significant or important the symbol, the more meanings it embodies.

Metaphor It is a statement, phrase or word that stands for something else.

3.5.3 Understanding, Explanation, Meaning and Interpretation 1) Make sure reader understands your literal meaning and plainly understand your message.
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2) If he does not, you need to explain yourself. 3) You have to define your words, supply background information or supply the reader with additional information he needs to understand your text. (Interpretation)

Topic 4: Report Writing

4.1 The Process of Preparing a Report 1. Stages of Report Preparation researched, gathered, presented in a coherent and easily understood way to the relevant parties. execute a plan and carry out a project 2. Gathering the Data Tips Data Gathering Note your opinions and information relating to your opinions Make note of how you want your data presented in the report Keep progress notes Document your plan in detail 3. Analysing and Sorting the Choosing relevant data and then review your earlier opinions in relation to Results the report you want to write. Following steps: 1) Write down results and observations in no particular order 2) Note down all the opinions 3) Note down new opinions 4) Choose the ones that you need. 5) Arrange all your data in the order of their importance. 6) Sort out the data you want to put into your conclusion 7) Turn your points into illustrations 8) Outline your final report and draft it. 4. Outlining the Report A clear report is logically organised, concise, and easy to read. Natural progression from analysis and sorting. Outline should contain descriptive headings of each significant part of the report and your expanded outline a. complete scope of the report; b. relation of the various parts of the work discussed; c. amount of space to be given each part; d. order of treatment; e. places for inclusion of illustrations; f. conclusions. three levels of headings and subheadings for simplicity and clarity, stick to just Main Heading Subheading Run-in heading: This heading is indented on the same line as the first line of the paragraph. Below run-in heading: This heading is indented on the same line as the first line of the paragraph. 5. Writing the Rough Draft First draft Start writing soon after finishing your outline Keep writing; follow your flow of ideas Second draft Check for style Remember your audience (they be able to understand your draft easily or not)
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Behonest. Be tactful. Be concise and logical.

6. Revising the Rough Draft The Three Stages of Revision Stage One - Check for material Stage Two - Check for organisation, mechanics and conventions Stage Three - Check your language 4.3 Report Introduction Your introduction is important because: it guides the readers to what they will encounter in the rest of the paper. It prepares the reader to easily receive what the writer intends to present. It launches you immediately into the task of relating your readers to the subject matter of the report. 4.4 The Writing Style Use words and phrases that come naturally to you Concentrate on conveying your exact meaning Get to your point quickly. Always emphasise your main ideas. Keep your facts and opinions separate. Only add figures and tables that are valuable to your reports; never repeat something Choose to present your data in a way that is easiest for your reader to understand. If your report is multimedia, Technical films, videotapes, video clips and animations can be very informative Format 1. Arrangement of Your Report - Title, Abstract, Introduction, Method (and logistics), Results, Discussion and Conclusion. 2. Citing References 3. Content and Style Primary functions of the introduction Statement of Subject Statement of Purpose Statement of Organisation and Scope Style and Length It makes clear the precise subject to be considered, indicates the reasons for considering the subject, and lays out the organisation and scope of the report. It tells your readers what you plan to tell and why and how you will tell it. It focuses your readers attention on the subject to be treated. It should enable them to approach the body of the report naturally and intelligently.

4.2 The Report Style Style determine the success

of report Good reports are: clear; concise; flow smoothly; written from an objective point of view.

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Topic 5: The Language of Business Writing

5.1 The Language of Business Writing job-related writing it usually represents a direct communication between one person and another. 5.1.1 Process of Writing Business Letters First, establish your purpose, your reader Es needs, and your scope. Second, prepare an outline Third, write a rough draft from the outline. Fourth, set the draft aside for a coolingperiod. The cooling period is especially important in the case of a letter written in response to a problem. Fifth, revising the rough draft, go over your work carefully, checking for sense as well as grammar, spelling, and punctuation. Choice of Words and Tone In general, the active voice creates a friendlier, more courteous tone than the passive, which tends to sound impersonal and unfriendly. Polite wording, such as the use of please, also helps to create goodwill. Direct and Indirect Patterns More effective to present good news directly and bad news indirectly Bad news present directly would cause an abruptly phrased rejection early in the letter may prevent us from reestablishing an amicable relationship. Paragraph/Sentence Structure The way of writing a bad news letter is to manipulate paragraph/sentence structure. A better, general structure of writing a bad news letter is as follows: 1. Buffer - either neutral information or an explanation that makes the bad news understandable. 2. Bad news - puts the bad news in perspective or makes the bad news seem reasonable maintains. 3. Goodwill. between the writer and the reader.

5.1.2

5.1.3

5.1.4

The pattern for good news business letters should be as follows: 1. Good news. 2. Explanation or facts. 3. Goodwill.

5.2 The Format of Business Letters Punctuation Styles/Grammar Those are mechanics of writing In business, accuracy and attention to detail are equated with carefulness and reliability. The kindest conclusion a reader

Parts of a Letter/Layout Almost all business letters have at least five major parts: heading; inside address; salutation;

Block/Modified Block Layout Full block style, every line begins at the left margin and is suitable only with letterhead stationery. Modified block style, the return address, date and complimentary

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can come to about a letter containing mechanical errors is that the writer was careless. Do not give your reader cause to form such a conclusion. 5.3 Business Letters

body; complimentary close.

close are placed to the right of the centre of the page. The remaining elements are aligned at the left margin.

A good letter is better understood if Clear - clear idea Concise - the language is simple Correct - are no errors. conversationtioninalthe tone is friendly courteous convincing Tips to write a good business letter Use Plain English The Reader is Your Priority simple English 1. find the correct one, use appropriate 2. language and insert just enough facts or information to suit your audience 1. focused on the information that supports your main aim come up with a guideline or outline plan. 2. Styles may be adopted. Use contractions.(add the human touch; the close,personal and human feel to your writing) Use personal references. (use words such as I, we,you, your, my and our in your writing) Use direct questions.( direct question to get a reaction from your reader and to give your writing impact.) 1. Treat them equally and with grace 2. providing the materials or information that the perspective client has asked for

Short, Plain and Straight to the Point

Responding to Enquiries

Letter of Enquiry

(a) The Beginning

Dear Sir, Madam, Ms, Mr, Ybg.Prof/DatoE/Tan Sri (if they carry such titles). With reference to your advertisement (ad) in the Straits Times dated 14th June, Tuesday 2005 Regarding your advertisement in the Star dated 9th May, 2005 could you After the reference, add a comma and continuewould (could) you please send me
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(b) Giving Reference

(c) Requesting a Catalogue, Brochure, etc.

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(d) Requesting Further Information (e) Signature

I would like to know Could you tell me whether Yours Faithfully (very formal as you do not know the person whom you are writing to)

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Topic 6 Short Forms of Written Communication

6.1 E-mails
Electronic mail and is a method of composing, sending and receiving messages over electronic communication systems. Electronic mail has evolved from only able to send short messages to can be used to send messages and data thatcan range from pictures to animation to programmes Kinds of e-mails: 1) Personal e-mail; 2) Legitimate business e-mail; 3) Subscription (approved by recipient); 4) Unknowingly approved by recipient; 5) Spamming not approved by recipient; and 6) Virus mail (sent by infected systems). Update and protect your systems with the latest virus programmes to assured that e-mails are clean and free from any viruses ----------------------------------------------------------------------------

(c) To Forward
1. 2. Click on the message subject then click forward This will take you to a forward Message screen and you can forward the message to one or more people.

(d) To Delete Click delete button to delete one message a time when they are open. Click check box in box view to delete a selection of messages and then click delete Deleted e-mail(s) will be transferred from inbox to your trash folder ------------------------------------------------------------------6.1.3 Evaluating and Making Notes from Sources of Information
To ensure that your material is relevant and your sources are acknowledged. Forwarding e-mails is great for keeping in contact with friends and relatives Not good in the business context because they may clutter your recipients inbox, and this gives him/her more work to do to clear his/her inbox. (wasting your readers time ) Advantages 1. Get message to the readerquickly 2. They are cheap 3. They can carry massive amounts of information 4. You can send a single piece of information to several different people at once 5. They are easy to store 6. Enable you to contact your clients or business contacts easily

6.1.1 Selecting and Narrowing Topics

Select one topic per e-mail. Do one thing at a time. Not to compress everything into one e- mail. Write three separate ones with three different titles. Easy for Your reader or his secretary can read each mail and categorise them according to his/her own system and priority of tasks to be completed. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------

6.1.2 To Read, Reply, Forward and Delete E-mail (a) To Read - click on the message subject. (b) To Reply Reply
1. 2. Click on the message subject then click reply Replying message screen appear and you can write back to the sender of the message. To send a reply to the original recipients of the message. Useful tool for group communication.

reply all
1. 2.

6.2 Memorandum and Executive Summaries

The memorandum = communication in appropriate language that you send to people who work with you(your colleagues, bosses, workers and everyone else in your organisation Appropriate language = language that suits the purpose and context you are working in. Basic Appropriate language
Use Gender-neutral Language Gender specific actor, actress, chairman Chairwoman, and some terms of references that are the same mr and mrs.
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Use Slang-free Language

1. 2. 3.

Try to use language that does not differentiate or discriminate between the sexes Slang is a local variation of a language Working in a company consisting of a multinational workforce - avoid using too much Manglish Try to use the standard adopted by our school system when write memos Firstly, courteous to fellow workers for able to be sincerely courteous to people outside your organisation. Secondly, memo is a record of the communication with fellow workers for us in future to refer to this piece of writing, and bring it up in a meeting or report. (avoid embarrassment) Thirdly, get support and approval from people in organisation, impressing the people in your organisation with proofread your memos for style, mechanics and content before send them. (Never send embarrassing memos to create a positive image with your colleague) Share drafts with your colleagues and get their comments to improve your writing Sure that they will understand what you wish to convey Helps your colleagues as writing is not an easy thing to do for many people and often an also helping each other to start Make yourself important to your colleagues, because provided them with reference or a source of valuable information not need an address,but to know where the memo is from indicate your department position and project code when sending memos to people outside your department

Professional/ Formal Tone

Feedback

Format

Executive Summaries
1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) To provide a condensed version of the content of a longer report. Are written for someone who most likely DOES NOT have time to read the original. Be called an abstract when it accompanies a scholarly document. An abstract is a shortened form of a work that retains the general sense and unity of the original. An abstract is basically a miniature version of the original and it looks like the original. An executive summary let the reader in on What the real significance of the report is What is the reader expected to respond to? The reader is a decision - maker who will have the responsibility of deciding on some issue(s) related to the report. 7) The executive summary Must not longer than 10% of the original document. Can be 110 pages depending on the length of the report. They are self- contained, stand-alone documents. Accuracy is essential because decisions made by people based summary and who have not read the original -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------(a) Functions of an Executive Summary Gives readers essential contents of document in 1-10 pages. (b) Processes of Writing an Executive Summary Write after research is finished. Try to: 1) Scan research to determine content, structure and length of report 2) Highlight key points; determine purpose/central theme of the report. 3) Review research and determine what the key ideas or concepts 4) Group ideas in a logical fashion and prepare a pointform outline of the summary. 5) Edit the outline to eliminate secondary or minor points (keep the summary concise) 6) Determine subtitles, bullets, selective bolding of organisational structure to the clarity to summary. 7) Write the summary in your own words, using professional style. 8) Read aloud or record yourself reading your summary. -------------------------------------------------------------------------

(c) Elements of an Executive Summary You should choose the elements depend on the 1) Purpose and nature of your document purpose and scope of document 2) Methods 3) Results
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Previews the main points to enable readers to build a mental framework for organising and understanding the detailed information Helps readers determine the key results and recommendations reported.

4) Conclusion 5) Recommendations
6)

Other supportive information

Topic 7 Persuasive Writing

7.2 Type of Persuasive Writing
Reasons for and Purposes of Persuasive Writing
1) 2) Assertion
when the writer asserts a certain opinion to the reader state the problem or controversy and may appear clearly and succinctly. expressed in the thesis statement

Concession/ Rebuttal
writer does not exaggerate or distort the opponents view do not defend the opposing side but fairly and reasonably state what these views are

Proof
presents the evidence for the assertion using a series of facts, examples, instances and observations to support the argument compelling restatement of the assertion.

To influence or change an audiences thoughts or actions. Want people to believe us, remember what we have written and will take the necessary action based on our written work.

Types of Reasoning Processes

Deduction Mode Induction Mode begins with a general principle or premise and draws a specific conclusion from it. supports a general conclusion by examining specific facts or cases. The process itself Appeal to Reason argument is an appeal to persons sense of reason its a measured, logical way of trying to persuade others to agree with you choose one side of an issue clearly in an effort to persuade others Appeal to Emotion evoking emotion in our reader is to use vivid images. Appeal to Good Personality/Character The appeal to our good behaviour or our ethics

Element for good Arguments (a) Element Evidence

In order to convince the reader to agree with you. You must ensure that your evidence is convincing & satisfy the following questions: Evidence must Enough evidence? valid,reliable, The evidence trustworthy? Reliable? sufficient, trustworthy Informed, valid sources? and can be verified Evidence verifiable?

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(B) Element Appeal To Authority To clear the uneasiness authoritative, we must consider the following elements. They are: Do people question your authority on a particular subject? Is your expert opinion current or up to date? Do your peers accept and respect your opinion? Is your expert advice free of bias?

(C) Element Improper Evaluation Of Statistics

Use them ethically, accurately & as objective as possible. Have samples which are pool representative and unbiased. Have statistics accurately tabulated and see that the statistics are not taken out of context

can occur at one or more of the following levels in any argument: Are you a reasonable person? (Are you willing to listen, compromise and concede points?) Can someone reason with you? (Are you ready to listen?) Are you authoritative? (Do you have the mandate or power to stand by your decisions?) Are you an ethical/moral person? Are you concerned for the well-being of your audience? (Do you have them at heart?)

7.2 Persuasive Strategies

Possible persuasive strategies include:

1. Emphasising Readers Benefits 2. Addressing Readers Concerns 3. Showing Sound Reasoning 4. Presenting Reliable Evidence

explains to readers how they will benefit from performing the action/taking the position/purchasing the product recommended readers are members of organisation, stress organisational objectives and growth needs predict what thereaders responses. to counteract any negative thoughts or arguments that arise in readers minds. writer needs to persuade readers that the decisions or actions recommended will actually bring about benefits and explain why o readers are willing to accept Reliable evidence depending on the field. o A writer needs to use common sense to determine what type of evidence is needed.

7.3 The Reasoning Process ( 2 basic types or reasoning processes: deduction and induction refer to 7.2 )
In order to have confidence in the writer, readers must understand the: (a) Writers Claim (b) Evidence (c) Line of Reasoning
The claim is the position the writer wants readers to accept. The evidence consists of observations, facts and other information provided in support of the claim. The line of reasoning is the connecting link between the claim and the evidence the reasons given for believing that the evidence proves the claim.

7.4 Direct and Indirect Patterns of Organisation

(a) Organising to Create a Positive Response carefully choose the organisational pattern which best suits your purpose. Ensure that all the parts of your persuasive piece fit together tightly. (b) Direct Pattern Organisation o In a direct pattern of organisation, the writers main point is started first. o Evidence and other related information are given afterwards. o The direct organisational pattern works well when the readers initial response is all important (c) Indirect Pattern of Organisation Indirect pattern of organisation postpones the bottomline statement until all the evidence and related information have been presented. You first discuss the situation, then make your recommendations after presenting your arguments. The writer can prepare readers for the recommendations about to be made Indirect pattern is particularly useful when you convey information which your readers might view as threatening. The indirect pattern avoids of inciting the readers initial negative reactions.
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you recommend a course of action or presenting an analysis which you expect your readers to view favourably.

It can frustrate the reader who wants to know the abottom line first.

7.5 Voice and Credibility

Be a credible and can be trusted writer 1) Consider the Reasoning Process and Types of Reasoning - to think and consider how he reasons out his writing 2) Choosing an Appropriate Voice 3) Establishing Credibility
Belief your readers have regarding whether you are a good source of information and ideas When people believe you are credible, they are more likely to accept the things you say. If people do not find you credible, they may refuse to consider your ideas seriously

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Topic 8 Writing and Presenting Proposals

8.1 Definitions of Terms: Proposals and Feasibility Studies
Proposals are informative and persuasive writing because they attempt to educate the reader and to convince that reader to do something. a research proposal should contain all the key elements involved in the research process and include sufficient information for the readers to evaluate the proposed study. All research proposals must address the following questions: 1. What do you want to do? 2. What do you plan to accomplish? 3. Why do you want to do it? 4. How are you going to do it? 5. What is the subject of the proposal? 6. For whom the proposal intended?
2) The Good proposal should 1) have sufficient information to convince your readers to research idea, good grasp of the relevant literature and major issues and methodology is sound. The quality of your research proposal depends on the quality of proposed project and proposal writing.

8.2 Writing a Proposal

b) Recognition of Critical Factors in Proposal Assessment A clearly outlined evaluation process can help to clarify goals, define objectives and refine procedures during the initial development of the proposal Evaluation serves a number of useful purposes Assessment assists everyone in understanding what made the project successful and why and what hindered its success. Ask a few questions yourself

c) Problems in Proposal Writing and Getting a Proposal Together 1. Problem to get the right title
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2. Problems keep on cropping up 3. Tough time in organising documents 4. What should or should not be included. 5. Cannot organise their material in a logical way.

Major points that a researcher has to address. 1) The filtration process for writing a thesis proposal. 2) Keep on filtering, redefine your title and content so that it becomes a doable project. 3) Talk to yourself keep on selling your ideas to your friends or supervisor. Talking assists in clarifying your ideas. 4) Write a brief note about your idea in one or two pages, especially on your area of interest. Try to read through and put it aside for a moment (as if to forget about it), come back to it and think whether you have done a good job. 5) Keep on reading spend time in the library, read through various texts and 6) Attend to your areas of interest. Take notes (never forget to reference the texts). 7) Mull through the write-up because you might find some things to change. 8) Discipline, which is sorting out the various topics so that they are in order. 9) Referencing so that you acknowledge other peoples work.

---------------------------------------------------------------8.3 Proposal Writing to Fit the Needs of Organisation or Clients

a) Main Concerns of Proposal Writing people who will carry out the work of the proposal who could be your tutor or supervisor the supervisor or whoever you are dealing with is reputable and will be able to fulfill that contract the people in the institution submitting the proposal

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8.4 Informal and Formal Proposals

A formal proposal is usually submitted by or through an organisation such as a school, college, university, non-profit organisation or museum to an organisation such as a foundation, funding agency or corporation. A proposal often begins with a person acting upon a wholehearted desire to fulfill a need, to do something for ones own benefit and for the benefit of others. Motivated by deep personal convictions, people experiencing this strong desire often recognise that solving a pressing problem, performing critically important research or achieving a particular goal, can make the world a better place. The researcher will go all out and is willing to devote his or her personal time and energy to satisfy this burning desire.

8.5 Funding of Proposals

Internal funding from his/her own employer If done outside ones institution, he/she has to look for external sponsors. Sponsorship/funding may come from
Ones own employer Business establishment Multinational companie External sources (such as ford foundation, rockefeller foundation or other renowned sponsors)

8.6 Feasibility Studies And Reports

feasibility means
capable of being done, executed or effected

8.4.1 Nature of Formal/Informal Proposal (Differentiate)

Formal Proposal
1. to be written in a formal business-like manner 2. means you have your to right and clear 3. present it to the board or to whoever it is for 4. from the beginning, to the methods and the instruments.

Feasibilitys 3 parts meaning

1. The degree to given alternative mode, management strategy, design or location is economically justified.

Informal Proposal
1. written neatly and structured like the formal one, it may be done on a smaller scale and normally carries less weight compared with a formal proposal 2. it consumes almost the same amount of time 3. the informal proposal is prepared not to seek funding or for an academic degree 4. done to undertake a small research project on something 5. can be completed sooner than a formal one.

capable of being managed, utilised or dealt with successfully reasonable, likely

2. The degree to an alternative is considered preferable from an environmental or social perspective. 3. The degree to construction and operation of such an alternative can be financed and managed

8.4.2 Business Proposal

Proposal writing is a lengthy process and costs time and money every time you are not awarded the contract/tender It takes researchers a long time to set up Present business proposal in well laid-out, looks highly professional and is compelling Lay out specific terms within the law to prevent being taken for a ride With the right proposal, you will be assured of winning the contract Business proposals are developed for two possible reasons (June Campbell, 2002) Your proposal must stand 1. A business company has out among possibly dozens called for tenders or has of submissions. invited you to submit an RFP Goal is to be shortlisted (Request for Proposal). No competitive bidding 2. You have an idea, concept process or project that you want to Make a favourable propose to someone with the impression and explain all goal of gaining support, aspects of your proposed funding or an alliance.
concept clearly and quickly.

(a) There are two general types of feasibility study reports 1. Interim reports document findings and if appropriate, general interest reports made during the course of feasibility studies. 2. Final reports should contain an executive summary or should briefly define the study approach, briefly summarise the types of analysis methods used, summarise the results and state a conclusion (b) Problems in feasibility report 1. Write a good introduction situation, audience, overview 2. State requirements - factors that influence the decision 3. Indicate how option being compared 4. Organise the comparison - using the point-by-point approach 5. state the best choice of each comparative section 6. include a key data summary in table form and provide technical background 7. Discuss the background of the problem or opportunity 8. Include sections of definitions, descriptions 9. Include a conclusion section 10. Include a recommendation section

Business proposal guidelines

Clarity Strive to communicate not to impress Error free Print and bind Layout Visual elements Title page Be politically correct Jargon free Technology

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8.6.1 What is a Feasibility Study

1. Designed to provide an overview of the primary issues related to a business idea 2. To identify any make or break issues that would prevent your business from being successful in the marketplace 3. Be considered a brief formal analysis of a prospective business idea 4. To give the entrepreneur a clear evaluation of the potential for sales and profit of a particular idea 5. Provides a lot of information necessary for a business plan 6. A feasibility study looks at three major areas Market Issues
Market analysis begins by asking: 1. What precisely is the market? 2. The more specific you can be, the better it is. 3. Is the market growing, shrinking or staying the same? 4. Is it worth your while? 5. Is the market enough to make it worth the time? The cost and availability of technology may be of critical importance to the feasibility of a project Key issues to answer include: 1. What technology needed? 2. What other equipment needed? 3. Where to obtain this technology & equipment? 4. When can acquire it? 5. How much equipment & technology cost?

Organisational/Technical Issues
Key questions to answer include: 1. What organisational structure is right for your project? 2. Who will manage the business? 3. What qualifications needed to manage business? 4. Who will sit on the board of directors? What are their qualifications Start-up costs Operating costs Revenue projections Source of financing Profitability analysis

Financial Issues
Third and final step of a feasibility analysis is to take a look at key financial issues.

Costs incurred at start of new business

Ongoing costs, such as rent, utilities, wages How will you price goods and services?

Need to borrow money

Will the business bring enough revenue? Will it break even, lose money or make a profit?

8.6.2 Benefits of Feasibility Studies

8.6.3 The Feasibility Study

Benefit cost analysis developed during a feasibility study may well attract more attention and produce more controversy than any other product of the study.

Benefit cost analysis is generally considered the most objective and credible product of such studies. Implementing feasibility studies can: 1. Map out for lenders your proposals strengths and potential. 2. Realistically analyse the impact of expansion. 3. Show you the pros and cons 4. Analyse the business data.

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Topic 9 The Fundamentals of Writing A Research Paper

9.1 Researching for a Paper
Research Papers Students search for and use outside sources to support their main argument. Sources are cited within the paper Publication information about each source or reference is included at the end of the paper in a a works cited page. Documented Essays Student uses quotes from one or more sources that he or she has read in a class.

9.2 What is a Research Paper

1. An extended essay that summarises information about a particular subject in order to prove a point. 2. 3. A sustained inquiry about a particular subject Research paper not an english assignment

4. A tool for the student to use as he explores one of the

content areas of the curriculum something he is interested in.

9.3 Choosing a Topic

Generally Read the assignment very carefully and select a topic or a thesis that fits within the assignment Choose topic that you are interested & capable of adequately pursuing in the space you have Avoid topics that too broad or too narrow. Better to do something more narrowly focused

Key feature of successful research. You need to choose a topic that 1. Fulfills the course requirements; and 2. Is doable. 3. Has available resources in the library or on the internet Is not too extensive and, in actuality, is several topics in one, so that it is manageable in the time available

Ask Question (1) have a strong opinion? (2) read a newspaper article that tested your curiosity? (3) have a personal issue, problem? (4) have a research paper due in a class this current? (5) Is there an aspect of one of your courses that you are interested in learning about more? Write down any words or phrases that may be of interest to you. Be aware of certain overused topic ideas. Read a general encyclopedia article on the top two or three topics you are considering.

Limit a topicgeographic region;culture,time frame, discipline and population group. Topic more difficult if itlocally confined, recent, broadly interdisciplinary & popular If uncertainties discuss topic with your tutor/instructor & librarian. Keep track of the words that are used to describe your topic. words that best describe your topic. synonyms, broader and narrower terms to expand your search capabilities. Keep a list of these words modify research topic during the research process.

develop a more focused interest in an aspect of something relating to that word and then begin to have questions about the topic

Use the key words, need some research and reading before you select your final topic

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OUMH1203 ENGLISH FOR WRITTEN COMMUNICATION The title should clearly convey the focus, purpose and meaning of your research.

Remember to discuss and follow any specific instructions from your instructor.

9.4 Research and Analysis

1. Reason = to provide evidence to prove your thesis. 2. Ways to research or analyse = methodology
3. Research Include looking up other research on the same or similar topic To find out what other people have said about it. Can help you prove your thesis, clarify your methodology or even find contrary opinions you need to disprove Methodology include laboratory research, surveys, close textual analysis and psychoanalytic search.

Research Suggestions. Start Out by Reading a General Study or Two on Your Subject Treat Research Like a Detective Story Look at the Most Recent Books and Journal Articles First Photocopy Important Material

9.5 Research Sources

1) Reference Works materials in the reference room are valuable resources for beginning to structure the basic outline or your topic. Language encyclopedias and dictionaries are one of the many resources 2) Books OUM Virtual System (VLS) Headings for ways to crossreference your search for books 3) Scholarly Journal Articles sources of new information and analysis 4) Government Publications a report of a government agency, hearing or reports of a parliamentary committee, the PAC (Public Accounts Committee), the transcript of the proceedings of Parliament or a document from a government printer 9) Thesis Statement A thesis statement in an essay is a sentence that explicitly identifies the purpose of the paper or previews its main ideas. important to lets the reader know: There is one main point rather than several main points; Your position on a particular issue What exactly you are trying to prove or substantiate. The supporting paragraphs should all work to support the thesis statement. Its can Clarify your position on an issue; Provide key definitions related to the topic; Discuss the how and why aspect of the thesis statement Discuss patterns or inconsistencies in development. 5) News magazines and Newspapers not good sources of analysis check with tutor to ensure that these are considered acceptable sources 6) World Wide Web (WWW) Electronic Resources Government bureaucracies. Network government resources. Malaysian government links. Included data references: Author of the web page; Date of the web page; Title of the web page; and complete url. 7) Miscellaneous Sources References to sources that are not found in your library 8) External Sources Conduct an interview with a decision-maker or some other relevant person Thesis Statement: 1) Makes an argumentative assertion about a topic; 2) States the conclusions that you have reached about your topic; 3) Makes a promise to the reader about the scope, purpose and direction of your paper; 4) Is focused and specific enough to be proved within the boundaries of your paper; 5) Is generally located at the end of the introduction; 6) Is expressed in several sentences or in an entire paragraph; and 7) Identifies the relationships between the pieces of evidence that you are using to support your argument

10) Outlining and Organisation

Introduction establish your topic and state your thesis; Move to the body of paper in a clear, logical manner Prove your thesis, step by step and convince your reader End with a conclusion

11) Argument
convince your. organise your thoughts, logically and provide evidence Look for gaps in your own argument and try to fill those in Avoid errors in reasoning (stereotypes, invalid assumptions, hasty generalisations or appeals to the emotions)
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12) Writing

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1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6)

Not to write in a colloquial style unless it is necessary; Avoid lots of choppy short sentences and paragraphs Each paragraph has a central idea and that paragraphs are Clearly connected Avoid using the same words repeatedly Double check your paper for grammatical, punctuation, spelling and other errors

13) Citation
a) To cite is to point to evidence, authority or proof. b) need to collect and assemble details of where your information came from and note this in your text. c) Citing to protect ourselves against charges of plagiarism. It is also vital to: prove that our work has a substantial, factual basis; show the research we have done reaches our conclusions allow our readers to identify and retrieve the references for their own use. d) There are two main styles of citing Harvard Is a type of author-date style; Requires only the name of the author(s) and the year of publication (with no punctuation between the two items) Requires citations to be placed at the end of a sentence (before the concluding punctuation). Example: adnin (1990: 564) has argued that Vancouver A footnote/endnote style References are numbered in the order in which they are cited in the text. e) For Notes, Footnotes and Endnotes Make your argument coherent and sound Since they provide the reader with the sources/evidence to back your argument. Indicating thoughts and ideas of a secondary nature. Explain or to make a comment on something Footnotes(little notes) found on the same page Endnotes (little longer notes ) found on back pages For Bibliography presents them in a way that permits a prospective reader to see how you did your research

9.6 Looking for a Paper

1. Means that you as a writer have to do some background reading, think hard and speak with your tutor or instructor in order to identify a good topic. 2. Begin by reading in the field 3. Read a few books or articles on topics you find of interest. 4. Follow up by reading on the course syllabus or the footnotes or bibliographies of the texts you are reading for the course. 5. Speak to your tutor or instructor about some of your general ideas and the possible research directions you are thinking about pursuing. Typical Structure 1) Start with a paragraph that summarises the key results in the context of the question (s) you asked in the introduction 2) Compare and contrast with others in the literature. 3) List the limitations might resolve them. 4) Discuss implications in other fields such as culture and religion. 5) Hypothesise and speculate on the data. (provide a model)

9.7 Looking for Materials

Materials for research can be divided into three categories: (a) Background Information - brief and to the point that a summary either: Explains why the topic that you chose is significant Provides a brief history of your chosen topic. (b) Supporting Information Drive your argument forward. Validates your opinion.(more believable and plausible) (c) Opposing Information Its useful to strengthen your position on an issue. Include opposing information Useful tactic to persuade the reader to take your side.

f)

9.8 The Craft of Note-Taking

One note card should be used for each major point Information incidentbe written in a corner of the note card (name of book or article, place and year published and published company. process of note-taking. (a) Examine the Books and Articles Skim sources, locating useful material, then make good notes of it,. (icluding quotes & nformation for footnotes. ) Make these notes on separate cards for each author. (b) Take Care in Note-taking Be accurate and honest.(not distort the authors meaning.) do not want to collect only those things that will support your thesis while ignoring other facts or opinions.
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Author (One Only)/ Title /Place Published Company/Year.

14) Presentation
a) b) c) d) e) writing it clearly sentences need also be clear and concise checked for syntax, punctuation and style. paragraphs and sentences should flow easily paper is cleanly typed or printed without any missing pages or errors figures or illustrations are clearly labelled.

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(c) Get the Right Kind of Material Get facts, not just opinions. Compare the facts with the authors: deas, opinions.Deliberations.Quotations.Closure, conclusions.

9.8.1 How to Take Research Notes

1) Write down all the bibliographical information (authors name, publisher, date & place of publication) on a 3-by-5 index card source card 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 8) Number all your source cards. Skim each source for information on your subject. Write down the information you wish to note on an information card. (using a direct quote, a paraphrase) Jot down the page number of the source from information card. Number each information card to refer back to the source. Organise your information cards according to subject matter.

9.9 Writing a Research Paper

Clarity in writing Be written in the third person

Good writing can be divided into three parts:

effort, style considerations and technical matters

9.10 Looking at Different Sets of Research Papers

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Steps to Ensure a Good Research Paper

Step 1 Step 2

Choose a Topic Find Information

Step 3 Step 4 Step 5

State Your Thesis Make a Tentative Outline Organise Your Notes

Select a subject you can manage. Avoid subjects that are too technical, learned or specialised, very narrow range of source materials. a) evaluate web sites critically and to search effectively on the Internet b) Use Search Engines to search in the Net for general or background information, check out useful URLs, general information online, almanacs or encyclopedias online c) check out materials available in your own universityEs library or in other libraries d) jot down full bibliographical information Do some critical thinking and write your thesis statement in one sentence. INTRODUCTION, a BODY and a CONCLUSION a) b) c) d) Organise according to your outline and critically analyse your research data Check for accuracy and verify that the information is factual, up to date and correct Effectively communicate your thoughts, ideas, insights and research findings to others through written words or through spoken words as in an oral or multimedia presentation with audio-visual aids. Jot down detailed bibliographical information for each cited paragraph and have it ready to transfer to your word cited page. Use a technique that suits you to Summarise, paraphrase or quote directly for each idea you plan to use in your paper. Put all your note cards or paper in order of your outline well-organised research paper completed exactly as outlined Read your paper for any errors in content. Arrange and rearrange ideas to follow your outline. Reorganise your outline if necessary, but always keep the purpose of your paper and your readers in mind. Re-read your paper for grammatical errors Correct all spoted errors and improve the overall quality of the paper. Ringkasan Nota Modul daripada FKC Kumpulan 3 (2009)

Step 6

Write Your First Draft Revise Your Outline and Draft

a) b) c) a) b) c) d) e)

Step 7

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Step 8

Type Final Paper

f) a) b) c) d)

Get someone else to read it over be type-written using a word processor or in a rare case, a typewriter Read the assignment sheet again Proof read your final paper carefully for spelling, punctuation, missing or duplicated words ensure that your final paper is clean, tidy, neat and attractive.

9.11 Writing Your Research Paper in Four Steps

Step 1 Step 2 Step 3 Select a Paper Topic Locate Relevant Academic Literature Make an Argument
Topic which is of interest to you Consult your course instructor or tutor you are writing the paper for before you see the advisor. Deepen the understanding of your chosen topic Reviewing the existing literature Organise your thoughts, present them logically and provide evidence to back them up. Be detailed and cite sources and specific things you have found to clearly ground your argument Anticipate counter- arguments or counter-evidence and to argue against those in your paper Avoid errors in generalisations or appeals to emotions. Good argument is only as good as the evidence that supports it Library research advisor can assist you Examples of evidence to support an argument = transcripts of interviews and speeches by officials, Legislative acts, court decisions, internal memos and other official documents

Step 4

Support Your Argument with Evidence

9.12 Referencing and Editing

Referencing Show evidence of what an author has said; Avoid misrepresentation through restatement Save unnecessary writing when ideas have been wellexpressed by the original author Editing 1) Editing is the process of refining a piece of writing so that it suits a particular purpose. It gets your document ready to do its job (Bandy, 2004). 2) To reveal hidden mistakes and will ensure that your best possible work is being submitted. 3) Find and eliminate all common mistakes from the document as previously stated 4) Proper editing cures inconsistent statements, ambiguities, poorly written sentences and weak word choices. Three types of editing: 1. Substantive Editing- deal primarily with the content and message of the copy. 2. Stylistic Editing - focuses on matters specifically related to the actual writing, such as clarity, flow, sentence length and word selection. 3. Copyediting - focus on grammar, internal inconsistencies, headline writing and spelling. According to Bandy, once you have finished writing the document, you can take the following steps: 1) Run spell-check. 2) Let it rest, then read for sense and tone. 3) Reread backwards for the following common mistakes (invalid sentences, non-parallel constructions, bad apostrophes and wrong words). 4) Run spell-check again

Topic 10 Writing Collaboratively

10.1 Stages in Collaborative Writing (Three stages)
The Invention Stage Learners are engaged in preliminary discussions of ideas and approaches using Note sharing Brainstorm about the topics first then trade notes and materials with the others Preliminary debating Prepare a debate/idea on a topic Group members gather support for their positions, which then becomes shared materials for papers. Three models Chunk mode - divides the writing of a project into sections. Good everyone involved Bad-result in an incoherent paper Blended model-learners be present in the same place and discuss every aspect of the paper Compiler model-each group member does the whole assignment, final best product be selected to create the final draft.

Andrew Booth (2002) divides collaboration into two types

The Drafting Stage

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OUMH1203 ENGLISH FOR WRITTEN COMMUNICATION The Revision Stage Group members have to revise the paper 1) The group members can revise one anothers drafts. 2) The best writer of the group can become the chief editor of the draft. 3) Other group members can give comments or suggestions.

10.2 Team Communication

Effective writing teams know what they intend to accomplish. They know their responsibilities, resources, strengths and weaknesses and know how to communicate well. But such problems can include: 1) unsatisfactory negotiations; 2) non-acknowledgement of ideas/opinions; 3) over-zealous editing; 4) missed deadlines/non-delivery; and 5) non-understanding of subject matter

10.5 Management of Time/Writing/Documents

# # Time - deadlines affect group writing tasks constantly Writing - bulletin board to show the writing cpmpleting progress, using a type of story-board format to post sections of the work Itself. Document - an outline of the steps that will occur in the writing process

When all done, they must make decisions 1) Group versus Individual Work
decide activities to be done by group and by individual group members Each group member have an equal amount of work complete the job as quickly as possible and will ensure fairness Match up individual skills with a job that utilises those skills. If group members are comfortable with each other, they will be less hesitant to state their own strengths and weaknesses.

2)

Equivalency of a Task

3)

Best Use of Individual Skills

10.6 Managing Collaborative Writing Projects

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10.7 Practice in Writing Step-By-Step Instructions

# # Develop a style and format guide at the very beginning of the writing project. questions to consider 1) What style guide? Which spelling conventions? 2) What size for font type, margins and headings ? 3) Will abbreviations be allowed and which ones? 4) Which technical terms necessary to define? 5) Will processes be explained in point form or paragraph form?

10.3 Team Building

Practising democracy is another aspect of team building. Every member needs to be given the chance to speak and respect must be shown for each persons ideas or opinions. More creative energy as well as better quality product will emerge as a result of team- work. Students working as a team will maximise use of resources and improve their profile.

10.4 Analysis of Task

The group must analyse the task to be done so that each member has the same interpretation. They must consider the major questions to be answered concerning the writing project.

10.8 Conflict Management

Groups need to face these conflicts with patience, understanding and respond to them directly Take steps to resolve the conflict as soon as they become aware that it exists Process Find the source of the problem

10.12 Writing as a Group

Writing collaboratively tends to take a bit more time than writing alone. Each writer might have different ideas on what to write, how to write and how much to write. Group should lay out a detailed series of deadlines and dates for meeting in order to eliminate as much of the last-

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What is the issue Where did it come from Who started it

minute rush as possible. Collaborative writing also has the potential to be far superior to individual writing, because The weaknesses and inadequacies of individuals are checked upon by one another Tips for The strengths of the individuals are pooled together.

10.9 Collaborative Writing Practice

Group members need to know what they are supposed to do following is an example of a group project Get students to work as a team to brainstorm, research, outline, draft and revise the material which will be submitted to the tourism board

10.10 Preparing Manuals and Other Forms of Team Writing

# # Guidelines in the manual should be clear, straightforward and easy to understand Guidelines to be considered when preparing a manual: 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 8) Purpose Amount of detail Heading Format Inclusion of diagram Level of language User friendliness Other appriopriate consideration

9)

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