Thermofluids Book

The Little Book Of Thermofluids.
Department
Of
Mechanical
Engineering.

3rd Edition
S.B.M.Beck, S.G.Blakey, M.W.Brown, S.B.Chin, F.C.G.A.Nicolleau,

N.Qin and C.W.Wilson
The Little Book of Thermofluids.
Published1
Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of
Sheffield , Sheffield, UK.2
First edition: September 2004.
Second edition: October 2005.
Reprinted: March 2006.
3,4
Third edition: October 2006 .
ISBN 1-89940- 01-2
It is with some reservation that I supply equations to this book. One of the
most common failings for engineering students is that they solve problems
through memory rather than by applying the correct methodology based
upon a fundamental understanding. This type of training does not serve the
students well when they move into industry. Thus, while I welcome you to
use this book as a quick reference and a study aid, I expect you to be able to
derive each of these equations from basic principles. Do not be content
with a shallow understanding of this subject!
CWW
Tabulated data has been generated from fitted formul to certain
accuracies. Where differences arise between other published steam tables,
these are small. This book of tables should furnish sufficient accuracy for
both student and general engineering use.
MWB
The authors wish to be forgiven for any errors and take no
responsibility at all for any disasters caused through the use of this
book.
SBMB
2
3
4
Printed in The United Kingdom by The University Print Service

Bolsover Street, Sheffield, S3 7NA
The University Of Sheffield, 2004-6
Changes in this edition were made in part by P. Mylon
Cover Illustrations Simon Beck (AlphaBeck.co.uk)
2
Table of Contents
INTRODUCTION TO THERMODYNAMICS............................ 2
Combustion Equations ................................................................. 4
Vapour mixtures ........................................................................................ 5
Formul related to combustion engines ...................................................... 7
Some Dimensionless Groups ........................................................ 8

Steam and Refrigerant Tables..................................................... 10
Saturated steam: liquid and vapour: temperature based ............................. 10
Superheated steam - enthalpy and entropy up to 300C............................. 14
Supercritical steam................................................................................... 18
Low pressure (<100 kPa) superheated steam - enthalpy and entropy.......... 19
Compressed liquid water .......................................................................... 20
Psychrometric chart.................................................................................. 22
Thermodynamic properties of dry and saturated air................................... 23
R134a saturated refrigerant: liquid and vapour.......................................... 24
R134a superheated refrigerant .................................................................. 26
P-h diagram for R134a ............................................................................. 28
Combustion Information ............................................................ 29

CO - enthalpy, internal energy and entropy at atmospheric pressure .......... 34
H2O- enthalpy, internal energy and entropy at atmospheric pressure.......... 36
N2 - enthalpy, internal energy and entropy at atmospheric pressure ........... 38
O2 - enthalpy, internal energy and entropy at atmospheric pressure ........... 40
CO2 - enthalpy, internal energy and entropy at atmospheric pressure ......... 42
H2 - enthalpy, internal energy and entropy at atmospheric pressure ........... 44
Specific heats at constant pressure ............................................................ 46
Molar Gibbs function at atmospheric pressure .......................................... 47
Heat Transfer ............................................................................. 48

Correction factors for LMTD method ....................................................... 50
Thermodynamic Properties of Gases, Liquids and Solids............ 52

Thermodynamic properties of gaseous steam and R134a, and air .............. 54
FLOW OF FLUIDS ................................................................... 56

Pressure loss coefficients.......................................................................... 58
Moody diagram........................................................................................ 59
Boundary layers ....................................................................................... 60
Equations of motion ................................................................................. 61
Turbulence............................................................................................... 63
Aerodynamics and High-Speed Flow ......................................... 64

Shock waves ............................................................................................ 65
Renewable Energy Data ............................................................. 72

GENERAL INFORMATION..................................................... 77
INTRODUCTION TO THERMODYNAMICS
Ideal gas out
here
T (C)
Critical
point
Saturated
liquid
Line
Compressed
liquid
region
Superheated
vapour region
Saturated
vapour
line
Quality v used as -illustration
v total v f
= x where x is the quality
vg v f
v total = v f + x ( v g v f )
Ideal gas behaviour
kPa
Saturated
liquid-vapour
region
kg
kJkg 1K 1 K
p V = m R T where
R=
-1
v (m3kg
Gas Phase Property Summary

Equation
of State
Internal
Energy
m3
Ru
and p1V1 = p2 V2
M
T1
T2
where RU is 8.314 kJ kmol-1 K-1.
Ideal Gas
Real Gas or Vapour
pv = RT
Proprietry equation or chart for z = pv
u = h - RT
u = h - pv
Perfect Gas
RT
Semi-Perfect Gas
Real Gas or
Vapour
cp = cp(T)
cv = cp R
= (T)
cp = cp(p,T)
cv = cv(p,T)
cp, cv , all constant

Specific
Heat
Capacities
cp =
where
R
1
cp
cv
h = h 0 + c p dT = h *
Enthalpy
h2 - h1 = cp(T2 - T1)
T2
p
R ln 2
T1
p1
(but if s2 = s1 use
pv = constant)
s 2 s1 = c p ln
Entropy
h = h(p,T)
h * h
(e.g. h0 = 0 when T0 = 25C or chart for
RTc
~
for table of h )
T0
p
= s * and
p
~s ~s = ~s ~s R ln p2
2
1
2
1
U
p1
T
dT
where ~s = ~
0 cp T
s = s o R ln
s = s(p,T)
or chart for s * s
Polytropic processes
n 1
n
Polytropic expansion pV n = constant T2 = p 2 = v 1

v
T1 p1
2
cp
For an isentropic process, n = , where =
.
cv
The first law of thermodynamics
The first law of thermodynamics for a
closed system is
Q W = U or Q W = mu
for a reversible process, Wrev = pdV
For any process the value of the integral
n 1
Work out W
is positive
Heat in Q is positive
p (MPa)
pdV is the area under the p-V graph.

1
For an ideal gas polytropic process (n 1)
2
T (C)
W = pdV =
Area
under
Graph
T (C)
n
p1V1 p 2 V2 and
Q = W
n 1
1
For an isothermal process (n = 1)
v (m3 kg-1)
V2
pdV = p V ln V
1
The steady flow energy equation for a single stream is
Q W = 1 2 m C 22 C12 + m g(z 2 z 1 ) + m(h 2 h1 )
(Be careful to use consistent units)

For an ideal gas, a solid and most liquids
h = c pT and u = c v T
Entropy and the Second Law:
In general, dS =
dQ
T
v
T
p
. For ideal gases s2 s1 = cv ln 2 + R ln 2 = c p ln 2 R ln 2
T1
v1
T1
p1
T rev
Isentropic efficiency of an expansion

h h
E = 1 2a
h1 h 2s
Isentropic efficiency of a compression

h h
C = 2s 1
h 2 a h1
:
~
Gibbs free energy:
g~ = h T~
s
Maximum efficiencies of cycles
Reversible heat engine Reversible refrigerator,
Tlow
T Tlow
COPR =
Th = high
Thigh Tlow
Thigh
3
Reversible heat pump,

COPHP = COPR + 1 =
Thigh
Thigh Tlow
Global energy conservation or Unsteady Flow Energy Equation (UFEE)

Win
m2 u 2 m1u1 = mi hi me he + W + Q
Exergy
Specific exergy (function)
Thermal exergy
Rational efficiency
or when applicable
= h T0 s
T
q = q 1 0
T
&output = 1 I = Wnet
=
&input
E& input Wmax
=
q
Wnet
i = T0 = T0 sout sin
T
G0
Combustion Equations
Combustion calculations are based on the conservation of mass principle which
states that the mass of each element is conserved during a chemical reaction. The
ratio of mass of air to mass of fuel is called the Air Fuel Ratio.
m
AFR = air
m fuel
The heating value of a fuel is defined as the amount of heat released when a fuel is
burned completely in a steady process and the reactants are returned to the initial
state. The higher heating value represents the value when water in the products is
in the liquid form.
HHV = LHV + (mh fg )H
20
Taking heat transfer to the system and work done by the system to be positive.
Conservation of energy for a chemical reacting steady flow system per unit mole of
fuel is given by:-
Qnet Wnet =
Pr oducts
[h
o
f
For a closed system this becomes
Qnet Wnet =
+ (h T h ) e
N [h
i
Pr oducts
+ (hT h ) i
Re ac tan ts
N e h f + (h T h ) Pv e
o
o
f
N i h f + (h T h ) Pv
Re ac tan ts
Vapour mixtures
For temperatures in the range about 10 to about 50C the enthalpy of the dry air is
given by
ha= [1.005 (kj kg-1)] T, with T in C, and ha in kJ kg-1.
Water / air mixtures can be treated as an ideal gas, whose pressure is the sum of
that of dry air and water vapour, P = Pa + Pv .
The saturated vapour value of the enthalpy is a function of temperature and can be
expressed as hv=hg(T) 2501.5 + 1.82T (kj kg-1), with T in C, and hv in kJ kg-1.
The absolute and relative humidity are defined by
m
P
m
P V / (RvT ) Pv / (Rv )
P
= v = v
=
= 0.622 v = v = v
m g Pg
Pa
ma PaV / (RaT ) Pa / (Ra )
The absolute and relative humidity are related by
P
and = 0.622Pg
=
(0.622 + )Pg
P Pg
Mixture Formul
The composition of a gas mixture is described by specifying either the mass
fraction mfi or the mole fraction yi of each component i.
m
N
mfi = i and yi = i
mm
Nm
The total mass of the mixture mm and the total moles of mixture Nm are defined as
k
i =1
i =1
N m = N i and mm = mi
The average molar mass and gas constant are given as

Mm =
mm mi
=
=
Nm
Nm
N M
i
Nm
k
R
= yi M i and Rm = u
Mm
i =1
To change between a mole fraction analysis and a mass fraction analysis use;
yM
mf / M i
and
mf i = k i i
yi = k i
yi M i
mf i / M i
i =1
i =1
Amagat's law of additive volumes states that the volume of a gas mixture is equal to
the sum of the volumes each gas would occupy if it existed alone at the mixture
temperature and pressure.
Amagat's law:
: V = V (T , P )
m
i
m
m
i =1
The partial pressure of component i is defined as the product of the mole fraction
and the mixture pressure according to Daltons law. For the component I,
Pi = y i Pm
Daltons law:
Pm = Pi (Tm , Vm )
i =1
The extensive properties of a gas mixture

The extensive properties of a gas mixture, in general, can be determined by
summing the contributions of each component of the mixture. The evaluation of
intensive properties of a gas mixture, however, involves averaging in terms of mass
or mole fractions:
k
i =1
k
i =1
k
i =1
k
U m = U i = mi u i = N i u i (kJ)
H m = H i = mi hi = N i h i (kJ)
i =1
k
i =1
i =1
i =1
i =1
S m = S i = mi s i = N i s i (kJ K-1)
i =1
and
k
um = mf i ui
and
hm = mf i hi
and
sm = mf i si
and
i =1
k
u m = yi u i (kJ kg-1 or kJ kmol-1)

i =1
k
i =1
k
h m = yi hi (kJ kg-1 or kJ kmol-1)

i =1
k
s m = yi s i (kJ kg-1 K-1 or kJ kmol-1 K-1)

i =1
i =1
Specific heat capacities of mixtures

k
i =1
k
i =1
k
i =1
i =1
C v ,m = mf i C v ,i and C v , m = y i C v ,i
C p , m = mf i C p ,i and C p , m = y i C p ,i
The entropy change of a mixture:
The entropy change of the mixture per mass of mixture is
2
k
Pi , 2
T2
S m
s m =
= mf i s i = mf i C p ,i ln Ri ln
mm
i =1
i =1
T1
Pi ,1
The entropy change of the mixture per mole of mixture is

2
k
Pi , 2
S m
T2
s m =
= y i s i = y i C p ,i ln Ri ln
Nm
T
P
i =1
i =1
1
i ,1
In these last two equations, remember:

Pi ,1 = y i ,1 Pm ,1 and Pi , 2 = y i , 2 Pm , 2
Formul related to combustion engines

Scavenge ratio or delivery ratio
Scavenge efficiency
sc
sc =
Charging efficiency ch
Trapping efficiency
Vt
mi
ma
ms
mi
ma
ma + mg
ma
mi
m
tr = a = ch
ms
ch =
tr
cylinder trapping volume
ideal trapped air mass = sVt
actual air mass in the cylinder
Where we use the following definition

:
mass of residual gas in the cylinder
mg
ms
mass of air supplied to the cylinder
Perfect displacement
Perfect mixing
dch = d (1 ch )
Short circuit
dch = 0
Turbine
polytropic
efficiency
Compressor polytropic
efficiency
T02
T01
ch =
p c
= 02
p01
T04
T03
p
= 04
p03
1
t
2
T04 , V5 = RT5
+1
T5 static temperature of the jet, T04 total temperature after the turbine.
thrust power
Propulsive thrust
p =
totalpower
Intake nozzle
Propelling
efficiency
nozzle
efficiency
T T
i = 01 a
T T
T01 Ta
n j = 04 5
T04 T5
Choked nozzle
T5 =
Some Dimensionless Groups

Biot number
Cauchy number
Froude number
Grashof number
(free convection)
Knudsen number
Mach. Number
Nusselt number
Peclet number
Prandtl number
Reynolds number
Stanton number
Stokes number
Strouhal number
Weber number
Force
Coefficient:
Pressure Loss
Coefficient.
Euler number
Friction
Coefficient
Bi =
h t x
k
Ca =
u
Ev
Thermal internal resistance

Surface film resistance
x = mid-plane distance
Inertia force
Compressibility force
or
3
gL
Gr =
2
Kn =
L
u
Fr =
gL
M=
u2
gL
u
a
Nu L =
PeL =
Pr =
hc L
k
cpuL
= ReL Pr
c p
k
uL uL
=
Re L =
h
Nu L
St = c =
uc p Pe L
Inertia force
Gravity force
Buoyancy force
Viscous force
Length of mean free path or
Characteri stic dimension
number of particles across dimension
Inertia force
Compressibility force
Convective heat trans fer
Conductive heat trans fer
Bulk heat trans fer
Conductive heat trans fer
Thickness of thermal boundary layer
Thickness of fluid boundary layer
Inertia force
Viscous force
Heat trans fered
Thermal capacity of fluid
Local inertial force
Viscous force
nL2 nL2
=
= Re L Sr
nL
Sr =
u
u 2 L
We L =
F
1
u 2 L2
2
Local inertial force

Inertial force
Inertia force
Surface tension force
Force
Inertial force
p
1
u 2
2
Pressure loss
Dynamic pressure
(f or c f ) =
o
1
u 2
2
(Where o is fluid shear stress at a

wall)
8
This page is intentionally left blank
Steam and Refrigerant Tables

Saturated steam: liquid and vapour: temperature based
T
C
0.01
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
75
80
85
90
95
100
110
120
130
140
150
160
170
180
190
200
220
240
260
280
300
320
340
360
374.14
P(sat)
kPa
0.6117
0.8725
1.228
1.706
2.339
3.17
4.247
5.629
7.385
9.595
12.35
15.76
19.95
25.04
31.2
38.6
47.42
57.87
70.18
84.61
101.4
143.4
198.7
270.3
361.5
476.2
618.2
792.2
1003
1255
1555
2320
3347
4692
6417
8588
11280
14600
18670
22050
vf103
m3kg-1
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.001
1.003
1.004
1.006
1.007
1.009
1.012
1.014
1.017
1.019
1.022
1.025
1.029
1.032
1.036
1.039
1.043
1.051
1.060
1.069
1.079
1.090
1.102
1.114
1.127
1.141
1.156
1.190
1.229
1.275
1.332
1.403
1.498
1.638
1.895
2.864
ug
hf
hg
sf
vg
uf
sg
-1
-1
-1
-1 -1
-1
-1
m kg
kJ kg kJ kg kJ kg kJ kg kJ kg K kJ kg-1K-1
206
0.0
2375
0
2501
0.0
9.156
147.0
21.0 2382 21.0 2510 0.07625
9.025
106.3
42.0 2389 42.0 2519
0.1511
8.900
77.89
63.0 2396 63.0 2528
0.2245
8.780
57.76
83.9 2402 83.9 2537
0.2965
8.666
43.34
105
2409
105
2547
0.3672
8.557
32.88
126
2416
126
2556
0.4368
8.452
25.20
147
2423
147
2565
0.5051
8.352
19.51
168
2429
168
2574
0.5724
8.256
15.25
188
2436
188
2582
0.6386
8.163
12.03
209
2443
209
2591
0.7038
8.075
9.564
230
2449
230
2600
0.768
7.990
7.667
251
2456
251
2609
0.8313
7.908
6.193
272
2462
272
2618
0.8937
7.830
5.040
293
2469
293
2626
0.9551
7.754
4.129
314
2475
314
2635
1.016
7.681
3.405
335
2482
335
2643
1.076
7.611
2.826
356
2488
356
2651
1.135
7.543
2.359
377
2494
377
2660
1.193
7.478
1.981
398
2500
398
2668
1.25
7.415
1.672
419
2506
419
2676
1.307
7.354
1.209
461
2518
461
2691
1.419
7.238
0.8913 504
2529
504
2706
1.528
7.129
0.6681 546
2540
546
2720
1.635
7.027
0.5085 589
2550
589
2733
1.739
6.929
0.3925 632
2559
632
2746
1.842
6.837
0.3068 675
2568
676
2757
1.943
6.749
0.2426 718
2576
719
2768
2.042
6.665
0.1938 762
2583
763
2777
2.139
6.584
0.1564 806
2589
807
2785
2.235
6.506
0.1272 851
2594
852
2792
2.331
6.430
0.08609 941
2601
944
2801
2.518
6.284
0.05971 1033 2603 1037 2803
2.702
6.142
0.04218 1129 2599 1135 2797
2.885
6.002
0.03015 1228 2586 1237 2780
3.068
5.858
0.02166 1333 2564 1345 2750
3.255
5.706
0.01547 1445 2526 1462 2701
3.449
5.537
0.01078 1571 2465 1595 2622
3.66
5.336
0.00695 1726 2352 1762 2482
3.916
5.054
0.00339 1978 2058 2041 2133
4.341
4.482
3
10
Saturated steam: liquid and vapour: up to 1 bar

P
kPa
0.6113
1.0
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.0
5.5
6.0
7.0
8.0
9.0
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
75
80
85
90
95
100
T(sat)
C
0.0
7.0
17.5
21.1
24.1
26.7
29.0
31.0
32.9
34.58
36.2
39.0
41.5
43.7
45.8
47.7
49.4
51.0
52.5
54.0
55.3
56.6
57.8
60.1
65.0
69.1
72.7
75.9
78.7
81.3
83.7
85.9
88.0
89.9
91.8
93.5
95.1
96.7
98.2
99.6
vf103
m3kg-1
1.000
1.000
1.001
1.002
1.003
1.003
1.004
1.004
1.005
1.005
1.006
1.008
1.008
1.009
1.010
1.011
1.012
1.013
1.013
1.014
1.015
1.015
1.016
1.017
1.020
1.022
1.024
1.026
1.028
1.030
1.032
1.033
1.035
1.036
1.037
1.039
1.040
1.041
1.042
1.043
vg
uf
ug
-1
-1
m kg kJ kg kJ kg-1
206.1
0
2375
129.2 29.30 2384
66.99 54.69 2399
54.24 88.42 2404
45.65 101.0 2408
39.47 111.8 2411
34.79 121.4 2415
31.13 130.0 2417
28.19 137.7 2420
25.76 144.9 2422
23.73 151.5 2424
20.52 163.3 2428
18.10 173.8 2431
16.20 183.2 2434
14.67 191.8 2437
13.41 199.6 2440
12.36 206.9 2442
11.46 213.7 2444
10.69 220.0 2446
10.02 225.9 2448
9.431 231.5 2450
8.909 236.9 2451
8.443 241.9 2453
7.648 251.4 2456
6.203 271.9 2462
5.229 289.2 2468
4.525 304.3 2472
3.993 317.6 2476
3.576 329.6 2480
3.240 340.5 2483
2.964 350.5 2486
2.732 359.8 2489
2.535 368.5 2492
2.365 376.7 2494
2.217 384.4 2496
2.087 391.6 2498
1.972 398.5 2500
1.870 405.1 2502
1.777 411.4 2504
1.694 417.4 2506
3
hf
hg
sf
sg
-1
-1
kJ kg kJ kg kJ kg-1K-1 kJ kg-1K-1
0
2501
0.000
9.156
29.30 2514
0.106
8.975
73.43 2533
0.261
8.723
88.42 2539
0.312
8.642
101.0 2545
0.354
8.576
111.8 2550
0.391
8.521
121.4 2554
0.422
8.473
130.0 2557
0.451
8.431
137.8 2561
0.476
8.394
144.9 2564
0.499
8.360
151.5 2567
0.521
8.329
163.4 2572
0.559
8.274
173.8 2576
0.593
8.227
183.3 2580
0.622
8.186
191.8 2584
0.649
8.149
199.7 2587
0.674
8.115
206.9 2590
0.696
8.085
213.7 2593
0.717
8.057
220.0 2596
0.737
8.031
225.9 2598
0.755
8.007
231.6 2601
0.772
7.985
236.9 2603
0.788
7.964
242.0 2605
0.804
7.944
251.4 2609
0.832
7.907
272.0 2617
0.893
7.830
289.3 2625
0.944
7.768
304.3 2631
0.988
7.715
317.6 2636
1.026
7.669
329.6 2641
1.060
7.629
340.5 2645
1.091
7.593
350.6 2649
1.119
7.561
359.9 2653
1.145
7.531
368.6 2656
1.170
7.504
376.8 2659
1.192
7.479
384.4 2662
1.213
7.456
391.7 2665
1.233
7.434
398.6 2668
1.252
7.414
405.2 2670
1.270
7.394
411.5 2673
1.287
7.376
417.5 2675
1.303
7.359
Note: The actual values of vf are 103 times smaller than the figures given. For
example, the specific volume of saturated liquid water at 20kPa is 0.001017 m3kg-1.
11
Saturated steam: liquid and vapour: 1 to 15 bar

P
kPa
100
110
120
130
140
150
175
200
225
250
275
300
325
350
375
400
425
450
475
500
550
600
650
700
750
800
850
900
950
1000
1050
1100
1150
1200
1250
1300
1350
1400
1450
1500
T(sat)
C
99.6
102.3
104.8
107.1
109.3
111.4
116.0
120.2
124.0
127.4
130.6
133.5
136.3
138.9
141.3
143.6
145.8
147.9
149.9
151.8
155.5
158.8
162.0
165.0
167.8
170.4
173.0
175.4
177.7
179.9
182.0
184.1
186.1
188.0
189.8
191.6
193.4
195.1
196.7
198.3
vf103
m3kg-1
1.043
1.045
1.047
1.049
1.051
1.053
1.057
1.061
1.064
1.067
1.070
1.073
1.076
1.079
1.081
1.084
1.086
1.088
1.090
1.093
1.097
1.101
1.104
1.108
1.111
1.115
1.118
1.121
1.124
1.127
1.130
1.133
1.136
1.138
1.141
1.144
1.146
1.149
1.151
1.154
vg
m kg-1
1.694
1.550
1.429
1.325
1.237
1.159
1.004
0.886
0.793
0.719
0.657
0.606
0.562
0.524
0.491
0.462
0.437
0.414
0.393
0.375
0.343
0.316
0.293
0.273
0.256
0.240
0.227
0.215
0.204
0.194
0.186
0.177
0.170
0.163
0.157
0.151
0.146
0.141
0.136
0.132
3
uf
ug
-1
kJ kg kJ kg-1
417.4 2506
428.7 2509
439.2 2512
449.1 2514
458.3 2517
467.0 2519
486.8 2525
504.5 2529
520.5 2533
535.1 2537
548.6 2540
561.1 2543
572.8 2546
583.9 2549
594.3 2551
604.2 2553
613.7 2555
622.7 2557
631.3 2559
639.5 2561
655.2 2564
669.7 2567
683.4 2569
696.2 2572
708.4 2574
720.0 2576
731.0 2578
741.6 2580
751.7 2581
761.4 2583
770.7 2584
779.8 2585
788.5 2587
797.0 2588
805.2 2589
813.1 2590
820.8 2591
828.4 2592
835.7 2593
842.8 2593
12
hf
hg
sf
sg
-1
-1
kJ kg kJ kg kJ kg-1K-1 kJ kg-1K-1
417.5 2675
1.303
7.359
428.8 2679
1.333
7.327
439.4 2683
1.361
7.298
449.2 2687
1.387
7.271
458.4 2690
1.411
7.246
467.1 2693
1.434
7.223
487.0 2700
1.485
7.172
504.7 2706
1.530
7.127
520.7 2712
1.571
7.088
535.3 2717
1.607
7.053
548.9 2721
1.641
7.021
561.4 2725
1.672
6.992
573.2 2729
1.700
6.965
584.3 2732
1.727
6.940
594.7 2735
1.753
6.917
604.7 2738
1.776
6.896
614.1 2741
1.799
6.875
623.1 2743
1.820
6.856
631.8 2746
1.841
6.838
640.1 2748
1.860
6.821
655.8 2752
1.897
6.789
670.4 2756
1.931
6.759
684.1 2760
1.962
6.732
697.0 2763
1.992
6.707
709.2 2766
2.019
6.684
720.9 2768
2.046
6.662
732.0 2771
2.070
6.641
742.6 2773
2.094
6.621
752.7 2775
2.117
6.603
762.5 2777
2.138
6.585
771.9 2779
2.159
6.568
781.0 2781
2.178
6.552
789.8 2782
2.198
6.537
798.3 2784
2.216
6.522
806.6 2785
2.234
6.507
814.6 2786
2.251
6.494
822.4 2788
2.267
6.480
830.0 2789
2.284
6.467
837.3 2790
2.299
6.455
844.5 2791
2.314
6.443
Saturated steam: liquid and vapour: 15 bar to critical

P(sat)
kPa
1500
1600
1700
1800
1900
2000
2200
2400
2600
2800
3000
3500
4000
4500
5000
5500
6000
6500
7000
7500
8000
8500
9000
9500
10000
10500
11000
11500
12000
12500
13000
14000
15000
16000
17000
18000
19000
20000
21000
22060
T(sat)
C
198.3
201.4
204.3
207.1
209.8
212.4
217.3
221.8
226.1
230.1
233.9
242.6
250.4
257.5
264.0
270.0
275.6
280.9
285.9
290.6
295.0
299.3
303.4
307.3
311.0
314.6
318.1
321.5
324.7
327.9
330.9
336.7
342.2
347.4
352.3
357.0
361.5
365.8
369.9
374.0
vf103
m3kg-1
1.154
1.159
1.163
1.168
1.172
1.177
1.185
1.193
1.201
1.209
1.217
1.235
1.252
1.269
1.286
1.303
1.319
1.335
1.352
1.368
1.384
1.401
1.418
1.435
1.452
1.470
1.488
1.507
1.526
1.546
1.566
1.610
1.657
1.710
1.770
1.840
1.926
2.038
2.207
2.938
vg
m kg-1
0.132
0.124
0.117
0.110
0.105
0.100
0.091
0.083
0.077
0.071
0.067
0.057
0.050
0.044
0.039
0.036
0.032
0.030
0.027
0.025
0.024
0.022
0.020
0.019
0.018
0.017
0.016
0.015
0.014
0.013
0.0128
0.0115
0.0103
0.0093
0.0084
0.0075
0.0067
0.0058
0.0050
0.003
3
uf
kJ kg-1
842.8
856.6
869.7
882.4
894.5
906.1
928.2
949.0
968.5
987.0
1004.6
1045.4
1082.4
1116.4
1148.1
1177.8
1205.8
1232.5
1258.0
1282.5
1306.0
1328.8
1350.9
1372.4
1393.3
1413.8
1433.9
1453.6
1473.0
1492.1
1511.0
1548.4
1585.5
1622.6
1660.2
1699.1
1740.3
1785.8
1841.6
1990.1
13
ug
kJ kg-1
2593
2595
2596
2597
2598
2599
2601
2602
2602
2603
2603
2603
2602
2600
2597
2594
2590
2586
2581
2576
2570
2565
2559
2552
2545
2538
2530
2523
2514
2506
2497
2477
2456
2432
2405
2375
2339
2295
2233
2044
hf
kJ kg-1
844.5
858.4
871.7
884.5
896.7
908.5
930.8
951.8
971.6
990.4
1008.3
1049.7
1087.4
1122.1
1154.5
1184.9
1213.8
1241.2
1267.5
1292.7
1317.1
1340.7
1363.7
1386.0
1407.8
1429.2
1450.2
1470.9
1491.3
1511.4
1531.4
1571.0
1610.3
1649.9
1690.3
1732.2
1776.8
1826.6
1888.0
2054.9
hg
sf
sg
-1
kJ kg kJ kg-1K-1 kJ kg-1K-1
2791
2.314
6.443
2793
2.343
6.420
2794
2.371
6.398
2796
2.397
6.377
2797
2.423
6.358
2798
2.447
6.339
2800
2.492
6.304
2801
2.534
6.271
2802
2.574
6.241
2803
2.611
6.212
2803
2.645
6.186
2803
2.725
6.124
2801
2.797
6.070
2798
2.861
6.020
2794
2.921
5.974
2790
2.976
5.931
2785
3.027
5.890
2779
3.076
5.852
2773
3.122
5.815
2766
3.166
5.779
2759
3.208
5.745
2751
3.248
5.712
2743
3.287
5.679
2734
3.324
5.647
2725
3.36
5.616
2716
3.396
5.585
2706
3.43
5.554
2696
3.464
5.524
2685
3.496
5.494
2674
3.529
5.464
2663
3.561
5.434
2638
3.623
5.373
2611
3.685
5.311
2581
3.746
5.247
2548
3.808
5.179
2510
3.872
5.106
2466
3.94
5.026
2412
4.015
4.931
2338
4.107
4.808
2117
4.362
4.457
Superheated steam
P
kPa
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
200
250
300
350
400
500
600
700
800
900
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
4000
4500
5000
5500
6000
6500
7000
7500
8000
9000
10000
11000
12000
13000
14000
15000
16000
17000
18000
20000
- enthalpy and entropy up to 300C
Saturation
hg
sg
100C
h
s
150C
h
s
200C
h
s
250C
h
s
300C
h
s
T(sat)
C kJkg-1 kJkg-1 K 1 kJkg-1 kJkg-1 K 1 kJkg-1 kJkg-1 K 1 kJkg-1 kJkg-1 K 1 kJkg-1 kJkg-1 K 1 kJkg-1 kJkg-1 K-1
60.06
75.86
85.93
93.49
99.61
104.8
109.3
113.3
116.9
120.2
127.4
133.5
138.9
143.6
151.8
158.8
164.9
170.4
175.4
179.9
198.3
212.4
223.9
233.9
242.6
250.4
257.4
263.9
270.0
275.6
280.9
285.8
290.5
295.0
303.3
311
318.1
324.7
330.9
336.7
342.2
347.4
352.3
357.0
365.7
2609
2636
2653
2665
2675
2683
2690
2696
2701
2706
2717
2725
2732
2738
2748
2756
2763
2768
2773
2777
2791
2798
2802
2803
2803
2801
2798
2794
2790
2785
2779
2773
2766
2759
2743
2725
2706
2685
2663
2638
2611
2581
2548
2510
2412
7.907
7.669
7.531
7.434
7.359
7.298
7.246
7.201
7.162
7.127
7.053
6.992
6.940
6.896
6.821
6.759
6.707
6.662
6.621
6.585
6.443
6.339
6.256
6.186
6.124
6.070
6.020
5.974
5.931
5.890
5.852
5.815
5.779
5.745
5.679
5.616
5.554
5.494
5.434
5.373
5.311
5.247
5.179
5.106
4.931
2686
2684
2681
2678
2676
8.126
7.801
7.608
7.470
7.361
2782
2781
2780
2778
2777
2775
2774
2772
2771
2769
2765
2761
2757
2753
14
8.368
8.046
7.856
7.720
7.615
7.528
7.454
7.39
7.332
7.281
7.171
7.079
7.000
6.931
2879
2878
2877
2876
2875
2875
2874
2873
2872
2871
2868
2866
2863
2861
2856
2851
2845
2840
2834
2828
2796
8.584
8.263
8.074
7.940
7.836
7.750
7.677
7.614
7.558
7.508
7.401
7.313
7.238
7.172
7.061
6.968
6.888
6.818
6.754
6.696
6.454
2977
2976
2976
2975
2975
2974
2973
2973
2972
2971
2970
2968
2966
2964
2961
2958
2954
2950
2947
2943
2924
2903
2881
2857
2830
8.781
8.46
8.272
8.139
8.035
7.950
7.877
7.815
7.760
7.710
7.605
7.518
7.444
7.38
7.272
7.183
7.107
7.04
6.981
6.927
6.711
6.547
6.411
6.289
6.176
3077
3076
3076
3075
3075
3074
3074
3073
3073
3072
3071
3070
3068
3067
3065
3062
3059
3057
3054
3052
3038
3024
3010
2994
2978
2962
2944
2926
2906
2886
2864
2840
2814
2786
8.963
8.642
8.454
8.321
8.217
8.132
8.061
7.998
7.943
7.894
7.789
7.704
7.631
7.568
7.461
7.374
7.299
7.234
7.177
7.125
6.920
6.768
6.646
6.541
6.448
6.364
6.285
6.211
6.140
6.070
6.002
5.934
5.865
5.794
Superheated steam enthalpy and entropy 350C to 700C

350C
400C
450C
500C
600C
700C
3177
3177
3177
3176
3176
3175
3175
3175
3174
3174
3173
3172
3171
3170
3168
3166
3164
3162
3160
3158
3148
3138
3127
3116
3105
3093
3081
3069
3057
3044
3031
3017
3003
2988
2957
2924
2888
2848
2804
2753
2693
2617
9.131
8.811
8.623
8.49
8.387
8.302
8.23
8.168
8.114
8.064
7.96
7.875
7.803
7.74
7.635
7.548
7.475
7.411
7.354
7.303
7.104
6.958
6.842
6.745
6.66
6.584
6.515
6.452
6.392
6.336
6.282
6.23
6.181
6.132
6.038
5.946
5.854
5.761
5.664
5.56
5.444
5.305
3280
3279
3279
3279
3279
3278
3278
3278
3277
3277
3276
3275
3275
3274
3272
3271
3269
3268
3266
3264
3256
3248
3240
3232
3223
3214
3206
3197
3188
3178
3169
3159
3149
3139
3119
3097
3075
3052
3028
3002
2976
2948
2918
2886
2817
9.289
8.969
8.782
8.649
8.545
8.461
8.389
8.327
8.273
8.224
8.12
8.035
7.963
7.9
7.796
7.71
7.637
7.573
7.517
7.467
7.271
7.129
7.017
6.923
6.843
6.771
6.707
6.648
6.594
6.543
6.495
6.45
6.407
6.366
6.288
6.214
6.144
6.076
6.011
5.946
5.882
5.818
5.754
5.688
5.553
3384
3384
3383
3383
3383
3383
3382
3382
3382
3382
3381
3380
3380
3379
3378
3376
3375
3374
3373
3371
3365
3358
3352
3345
3338
3331
3324
3317
3310
3303
3296
3288
3281
3273
3258
3242
3226
3210
3193
3176
3158
3140
3121
3102
3062
9.438
9.118
8.931
8.798
8.695
8.610
8.539
8.477
8.422
8.373
8.270
8.185
8.113
8.051
7.947
7.861
7.789
7.726
7.670
7.620
7.426
7.287
7.177
7.086
7.007
6.939
6.877
6.821
6.770
6.722
6.677
6.635
6.596
6.558
6.487
6.422
6.361
6.303
6.248
6.195
6.143
6.094
6.045
5.998
5.904
3490
3489
3489
3489
3489
3489
3488
3488
3488
3488
3487
3487
3486
3486
3484
3483
3482
3481
3480
3479
3474
3468
3463
3457
3452
3446
3440
3435
3429
3423
3417
3411
3405
3400
3387
3375
3363
3350
3337
3324
3311
3297
3284
3270
3241
9.58
9.26
9.072
8.939
8.836
8.752
8.68
8.619
8.564
8.515
8.412
8.327
8.255
8.193
8.089
8.004
7.932
7.869
7.814
7.764
7.572
7.434
7.325
7.236
7.159
7.092
7.032
6.978
6.928
6.883
6.840
6.800
6.762
6.727
6.66
6.599
6.543
6.490
6.441
6.393
6.348
6.305
6.263
6.222
6.145
3706
3706
3706
3706
3706
3705
3705
3705
3705
3705
3704
3704
3704
3703
3702
3702
3701
3700
3699
3699
3695
3691
3687
3683
3679
3675
3671
3667
3663
3659
3655
3651
3647
3642
3634
3626
3617
3609
3600
3592
3583
3574
3566
3557
3539
9.843
9.523
9.336
9.203
9.100
9.016
8.944
8.883
8.828
8.779
8.676
8.591
8.520
8.458
8.354
8.270
8.198
8.135
8.080
8.031
7.841
7.704
7.598
7.510
7.436
7.371
7.313
7.261
7.213
7.169
7.129
7.091
7.056
7.022
6.960
6.905
6.853
6.805
6.761
6.719
6.680
6.642
6.606
6.572
6.508
3930
3930
3930
3930
3929
3929
3929
3929
3929
3929
3929
3928
3928
3928
3927
3926
3926
3925
3925
3924
3921
3918
3915
3912
3909
3906
3903
3900
3897
3894
3891
3888
3885
3882
3876
3870
3864
3858
3852
3845
3839
3833
3827
3820
3808
10.09
9.766
9.578
9.446
9.342
9.258
9.187
9.125
9.071
9.022
8.919
8.834
8.763
8.701
8.598
8.513
8.442
8.379
8.325
8.276
8.086
7.951
7.846
7.759
7.685
7.621
7.565
7.514
7.467
7.425
7.385
7.349
7.314
7.282
7.223
7.169
7.12
7.075
7.033
6.994
6.957
6.922
6.889
6.858
6.799
kJkg-1 kJkg-1 K 1 kJkg-1 kJkg-1 K 1 kJkg-1 kJkg-1 K 1 kJkg-1 kJkg-1 K 1 kJkg-1 kJkg-1 K 1 kJkg-1 kJkg-1 K-1
15
P
kPa
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
200
250
300
350
400
500
600
700
800
900
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
4000
4500
5000
5500
6000
6500
7000
7500
8000
9000
10000
11000
12000
13000
14000
15000
16000
17000
18000
20000
Superheated steaminternal energy and specific volume up to 300C

P
kPa
0.6117
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
200
250
300
350
400
500
600
700
800
900
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
4000
4500
5000
5500
6000
6500
7000
7500
8000
9000
10000
11000
12000
13000
14000
15000
16000
17000
18000
20000
Saturation
vg
T(sat) ug
C
36.6
60.1
75.9
85.9
93.5
99.6
104.8
109.3
113.3
116.9
120.2
127.4
133.5
138.9
143.6
151.8
158.8
164.9
170.4
175.4
179.9
198.3
212.4
223.9
233.9
242.6
250.4
257.4
263.9
270.0
275.6
280.9
285.8
290.5
295.0
303.3
311.0
318.1
324.7
330.9
336.7
342.2
347.4
352.3
357.0
365.7
100C
u
v
150C
u
v
200C
u
v
250C
u
v
300C
u
v
kJkg-1 m3kg-1 kJkg-1 m3kg-1 kJkg-1 m3kg-1 kJkg-1 m3kg-1 kJkg-1 m3kg-1 kJkg-1 m3kg-1
2425
2456
2476
2489
2498
2506
2512
2517
2521
2525
2529
2537
2543
2549
2553
2561
2567
2572
2576
2580
2583
2593
2599
2602
2603
2603
2602
2600
2597
2594
2590
2586
2581
2576
2570
2559
2545
2530
2514
2497
2477
2456
2432
2405
2375
2295
23.26
7.648
3.993
2.732
2.087
1.694
1.429
1.237
1.091
0.9776
0.8858
0.7187
0.6058
0.5242
0.4624
0.3748
0.3156
0.2728
0.2403
0.2149
0.1944
0.1317
0.0996
0.0800
0.0667
0.0571
0.0498
0.0441
0.0395
0.0356
0.0325
0.0297
0.0274
0.0253
0.0235
0.0205
0.0180
0.0160
0.0143
0.0128
0.0115
0.0103
0.0093
0.0084
0.0075
0.0059
2516
2515
2513
2510
2508
2506
28.07
8.586
4.280
2.845
2.127
1.696
2588
2587
2586
2585
2584
2583
2582
2581
2579
2578
2577
2574
2571
2568
2564
31.84
9.749
4.866
3.239
2.425
1.937
1.611
1.379
1.204
1.068
0.9599
0.7644
0.6340
0.5408
0.4709
16
2661
2661
2660
2660
2659
2658
2658
2657
2656
2655
2655
2653
2651
2649
2647
2643
2639
2635
2631
2627
2622
35.61
10.91
5.448
3.628
2.718
2.172
1.808
1.548
1.353
1.202
1.08
0.8621
0.7164
0.6124
0.5343
0.425
0.3521
0.3000
0.2609
0.2304
0.206
2736
2736
2735
2735
2734
2734
2733
2733
2732
2732
2731
2730
2729
2728
2726
2724
2721
2719
2716
2713
2710
2696
2680
2663
2645
2624
39.38
12.06
6.028
4.016
3.01
2.406
2.004
1.716
1.501
1.333
1.199
0.9574
0.7964
0.6815
0.5952
0.4744
0.3939
0.3364
0.2932
0.2596
0.2327
0.1520
0.1115
0.0870
0.0706
0.0587
2812
2812
2812
2811
2811
2811
2810
2810
2810
2809
2809
2808
2807
2806
2805
2803
2801
2799
2798
2796
2794
2784
2773
2762
2751
2739
2726
2713
2699
2684
2668
2652
2633
2614
2592
43.15
13.22
6.607
4.402
3.300
2.639
2.198
1.883
1.647
1.463
1.316
1.052
0.8753
0.7494
0.6549
0.5226
0.4344
0.3714
0.3242
0.2874
0.2580
0.1697
0.1255
0.09894
0.08118
0.06845
0.05887
0.05138
0.04535
0.04037
0.03619
0.03261
0.02949
0.02674
0.02428
Superheated steam internal energy and specific volume 350C to 700C

350C
u
v
kJkg-1
m3kg-1
2890
2890
2890
2889
2889
2889
2888
2888
2888
2888
2887
2887
2886
2885
2884
2883
2882
2880
2879
2877
2876
2868
2860
2853
2844
2836
2827
2819
2809
2800
2790
2780
2770
2759
2748
2725
2700
2672
2641
2607
2568
2521
2461
46.91
14.37
7.185
4.788
3.590
2.871
2.392
2.049
1.792
1.593
1.433
1.145
0.9536
0.8167
0.7140
0.5702
0.4743
0.4058
0.3544
0.3145
0.2825
0.1866
0.1386
0.1098
0.09056
0.07680
0.06647
0.05842
0.05197
0.04668
0.04225
0.03849
0.03526
0.03245
0.02997
0.02582
0.02244
0.01963
0.01722
0.01512
0.01323
0.01148
0.009766
400C
u
v
450C
u
v
500C
u
v
600C
u
v
kJkg-1 m3kg-1
kJkg-1 m3kg-1 kJkg-1 m3kg-1 kJkg-1
2969
2969
2969
2969
2969
2968
2968
2968
2968
2967
2967
2967
2966
2965
2965
2964
2963
2961
2960
2959
2958
2952
2946
2940
2934
2927
2921
2914
2907
2901
2894
2887
2879
2872
2865
2849
2833
2816
2799
2780
2761
2741
2719
2696
2672
2618
3050
3050
3050
3050
3050
3049
3049
3049
3049
3049
3048
3048
3048
3047
3047
3046
3045
3044
3043
3042
3041
3036
3031
3026
3021
3016
3011
3006
3001
2995
2990
2984
2979
2973
2968
2956
2945
2932
2920
2907
2894
2881
2867
2853
2838
2807
50.68
15.53
7.763
5.174
3.879
3.103
2.585
2.215
1.938
1.722
1.549
1.239
1.032
0.8836
0.7726
0.6173
0.5137
0.4398
0.3843
0.3411
0.3066
0.2030
0.1512
0.1201
0.09938
0.08456
0.07343
0.06477
0.05784
0.05216
0.04742
0.04340
0.03996
0.03697
0.03434
0.02996
0.02644
0.02354
0.02111
0.01903
0.01724
0.01567
0.01428
0.01304
0.01192
0.00995
54.71
16.68
8.340
5.559
4.169
3.334
2.778
2.381
2.083
1.851
1.665
1.332
1.109
0.9503
0.8311
0.6642
0.5503
0.4735
0.4139
0.3675
0.3304
0.2192
0.1635
0.1302
0.1079
0.09198
0.08004
0.07076
0.06332
0.05724
0.05217
0.04787
0.04419
0.04099
0.03819
0.03352
0.02978
0.02671
0.02415
0.02197
0.02010
0.01848
0.01705
0.01578
0.01465
0.01272
17
3133
3133
3133
3133
3132
3132
3132
3132
3132
3132
3131
3131
3131
3130
3130
3129
3128
3127
3127
3126
3125
3121
3117
3113
3109
3104
3100
3096
3092
3087
3083
3079
3074
3070
3065
3056
3047
3038
3028
3018
3008
2998
2988
2978
2967
2945
58.49
17.84
8.918
5.944
4.458
3.566
2.971
2.546
2.227
1.908
1.781
1.4250
1.187
1.017
0.8894
0.7109
0.5920
0.5070
0.4433
0.3938
0.3541
0.2352
0.1757
0.1400
0.1162
0.09919
0.08644
0.07652
0.06858
0.06209
0.05667
0.05209
0.04816
0.04475
0.04177
0.03679
0.03281
0.02955
0.02683
0.02452
0.02254
0.02083
0.01932
0.01799
0.01681
0.01479
3303
3303
3303
3303
3303
3303
3303
3303
3302
3302
3302
3302
3302
3301
3301
3300
3300
3299
3299
3298
3297
3295
3292
3289
3286
3282
3279
3276
3273
3270
3267
3264
3261
3258
3255
3248
3242
3236
3229
3223
3216
3209
3203
3196
3189
3175
700C
u
v
m3kg-1
kJkg-1
m3kg-1
66.06
20.15
10.07
6.714
5.035
4.028
3.356
2.877
2.517
2.237
2.013
1.610
1.341
1.149
1.006
0.8041
0.6698
0.5738
0.5019
0.4459
0.4011
0.2668
0.1996
0.1593
0.1324
0.1133
0.09886
0.08766
0.0787
0.07137
0.06527
0.06010
0.05567
0.05182
0.04846
0.04286
0.03838
0.03471
0.03165
0.02906
0.02684
0.02492
0.02324
0.02175
0.02043
0.01818
3481
3481
3481
3481
3480
3480
3480
3480
3480
3480
3480
3480
3479
3479
3479
3479
3478
3478
3477
3477
3476
3474
3472
3469
3467
3465
3462
3460
3458
3455
3453
3451
3448
3446
3444
3439
3434
3429
3424
3420
3415
3410
3405
3400
3395
3385
73.63
22.46
11.23
7.484
5.613
4.490
3.741
3.207
2.806
2.494
2.244
1.795
1.496
1.282
1.122
0.8970
0.7472
0.6403
0.5601
0.4977
0.4478
0.2981
0.2233
0.1783
0.1484
0.1270
0.1110
0.0985
0.08852
0.08035
0.07355
0.06779
0.06285
0.05857
0.05483
0.04859
0.04360
0.03951
0.03611
0.03323
0.03076
0.02862
0.02675
0.02510
0.02363
0.02113
kPa
0.6117
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
200
250
300
350
400
500
600
700
800
900
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
4000
4500
5000
5500
6000
6500
7000
7500
8000
9000
10000
11000
12000
13000
14000
15000
16000
17000
18000
20000
Supercritical steam
Supercritical steam - enthalpy and entropy
T (C)
P (MPa)
22
24
26
28
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
70
80
90
100
150
200
400C
600C
800C
1000C
2000C
h
s
h
s
h
s
h
s
h
s
-1
-1 -1
-1
-1 -1
-1
-1 -1
-1
-1
-1 -1
kJ kg kJkg K kJkg kJkg K kJkg kJkg K kJkg kJkg K kJkg kJkg-1K-1
2736
2637
2510
2335
2153
1989
1931
1898
1874
1857
1843
1823
1809
1799
1791
1777
1782
5.405
5.237
5.030
4.756
4.476
4.214
4.115
4.051
4.003
3.964
3.932
3.878
3.834
3.797
3.764
3.640
3.552
3521
3503
3484
3466
3447
3399
3350
3301
3253
3204
3157
3067
2988
2921
2865
2707
2645
6.447
6.391
6.337
6.286
6.237
6.123
6.017
5.918
5.825
5.736
5.653
5.500
5.367
5.254
5.158
4.848
4.673
4058
4049
4039
4030
4020
3996
3973
3949
3926
3903
3880
3836
3793
3753
3715
3566
3477
7.002
6.955
6.911
6.869
6.830
6.741
6.661
6.589
6.523
6.461
6.403
6.298
6.204
6.118
6.041
5.737
5.532
4579
4573
4567
4562
4556
4542
4527
4513
4499
4486
4472
4446
4421
4396
4373
4275
4205
7.447
7.403
7.362
7.324
7.288
7.207
7.135
7.071
7.013
6.960
6.910
6.820
6.741
6.669
6.604
6.344
6.156
7372
7371
7371
7371
7370
7369
7368
7367
7366
7365
7364
7363
7361
7360
7359
7357
7359
9.056
9.016
8.978
8.943
8.911
8.838
8.775
8.719
8.669
8.624
8.582
8.508
8.444
8.387
8.335
8.136
7.992
Supercritical steam - internal energy and specific volume

T (C)
P (MPa)
22
24
26
28
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
70
80
90
100
150
200
400C
u
v
600C
u
v
800C
u
v
1000C
u
v
2000C
u
v
kJkg-1
m3kg-1
kJkg-1
m3kg-1
kJkg-1
m3kg-1
kJkg-1
m3kg-1
kJkg-1
m3kg-1
2554
2476
2373
2227
2069
1915
1855
1817
1788
1765
1745
1713
1688
1666
1647
1577
1530
0.008256
0.006732
0.005285
0.003854
0.002798
0.002105
0.001911
0.001803
0.001731
0.001676
0.001633
0.001566
0.001516
0.001476
0.001443
0.001331
0.001262
3161
3147
3133
3118
3103
3066
3027
2987
2947
2907
2867
2789
2717
2653
2598
2412
2306
0.01635
0.01481
0.01352
0.01241
0.01144
0.009523
0.008089
0.006983
0.006108
0.005405
0.004833
0.003975
0.003384
0.002969
0.002672
0.001969
0.001697
3582
3575
3567
3559
3551
3532
3512
3492
3472
3452
3433
3394
3355
3318
3282
3125
3008
0.02162
0.01975
0.01816
0.01680
0.01563
0.01328
0.01152
0.01016
0.009072
0.008188
0.007456
0.006317
0.005477
0.004836
0.004336
0.002942
0.002343
3999
3994
3989
3984
3979
3966
3953
3940
3927
3915
3902
3877
3852
3828
3804
3694
3602
0.026350
0.024130
0.022250
0.020640
0.019240
0.016450
0.014360
0.012740
0.011440
0.010380
0.009504
0.008129
0.007105
0.006316
0.005690
0.003869
0.003017
5108
5106
5103
5101
5099
5092
5086
5080
5074
5068
5062
5050
5038
5027
5015
4961
4911
0.03744
0.03434
0.03172
0.02947
0.02752
0.02363
0.02071
0.01844
0.01663
0.01514
0.01391
0.01197
0.01052
0.00939
0.00849
0.00582
0.00450
18
Low pressure (<100 kPa) superheated steam - enthalpy and entropy

T (C)
P (kPa)
0.61
1
2
4
6
8
10
12
15
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Saturation
50C
100C
200C
400C
hg
sg
h
s
h
s
h
s
h
s
kJ kg-1 kJkg-1K-1 kJkg-1 kJkg-1K-1 kJkg-1 kJkg-1K-1 kJkg-1 kJkg-1K-1 kJkg-1 kJkg-1K-1
2504
2514
2533
2554
2567
2576
2584
2590
2598
2609
2625
2636
2645
2653
2659
2665
2670
2675
9.156
8.975
8.723
8.473
8.329
8.227
8.149
8.085
8.007
7.907
7.768
7.669
7.593
7.531
7.479
7.434
7.394
7.359
2594
2594
2594
2594
2593
2593
2592
2591
9.408
9.243
8.922
8.601
8.413
8.279
8.174
8.088
2689
2689
2688
2688
2688
2688
2687
2687
2687
2686
2685
2684
2682
2681
2680
2678
2677
2676
9.679
9.514
9.194
8.873
8.686
8.552
8.449
8.364
8.260
8.126
7.937
7.801
7.695
7.608
7.534
7.470
7.413
7.361
2880
2880
2880
2880
2880
2880
2880
2880
2879
2879
2879
2878
2878
2877
2877
2876
2876
2875
10.13
9.968
9.648
9.328
9.141
9.008
8.905
8.821
8.717
8.584
8.396
8.263
8.159
8.074
8.002
7.940
7.885
7.836
3280
3280
3280
3280
3280
3280
3280
3280
3280
3280
3280
3279
3279
3279
3279
3279
3279
3279
10.84
10.67
10.35
10.03
9.845
9.712
9.609
9.525
9.422
9.289
9.102
8.969
8.866
8.782
8.710
8.649
8.594
8.545
Low pressure (<100 kPa) superheated steam int. energy and specific volume
T (C)
P (kPa)
0.61
1
2
4
6
8
10
12
15
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Saturation
ug
vg
50C
u
100C
v
200C
v
400C
v
kJkg-1
m3 kg-1
kJkg-1
m3kg-1
kJkg-1
m3kg-1
kJkg-1
m3kg-1
2378
2384
2399
2415
2424
2431
2437
2442
2448
2456
2468
2476
2483
2489
2494
2498
2502
2506
206.1
129.2
66.99
34.79
23.73
18.10
14.67
12.36
10.02
7.648
5.229
3.993
3.240
2.732
2.365
2.087
1.870
1.694
2445
2445
2445
2445
2444
2444
2443
2443
213
149.1
74.52
37.24
24.81
18.60
14.87
12.38
2516
2516
2516
2516
2516
2516
2516
2515
2515
2515
2514
2513
2511
2510
2509
2508
2507
2506
24.06
172.2
86.08
43.03
28.68
21.50
17.20
14.33
11.46
8.586
5.715
4.280
3.419
2.845
2.434
2.127
1.887
1.696
2662
2662
2662
2662
2661
2661
2661
2661
2661
2661
2661
2660
2660
2660
2659
2659
2659
2658
311.9
218.4
109.2
54.58
36.38
27.28
21.83
18.19
14.55
10.91
7.268
5.448
4.356
3.628
3.108
2.718
2.415
2.172
19
kJkg-1
2969
2969
2969
2969
2969
2969
2969
2969
2969
2969
2969
2969
2969
2969
2969
2969
2968
2968
m3kg-1
509.3
310.7
155.3
77.66
51.77
38.83
31.06
25.89
20.71
15.53
10.35
7.763
6.209
5.174
4.434
3.879
3.448
3.103
Compressed liquid water

This table is provided for completeness.
Generally speaking, the enthalpy and internal energy of a compressed liquid are
almost equal to a saturated liquid at the same temperature.
The exception to this is that the enthalpy change after a compression in the
compressed liquid region can be defined as h = v (p 2 p 1 ) isen .
Compressed liquid water - enthalpy and entropy
T (C)
25
Psat (MPa)
0.00317
hf
sf
100
Psat (MPa)
0.101325
hf
sf
200
Psat (MPa)
1.554
hf
sf
300
Psat (MPa)
8.588
hf
sf
350
Psat (MPa)
16.54
hf
sf
kJ kg-1 kJ kg-1 K-1 kJ kg-1 kJ kg-1 K-1 kJ kg-1 kJ kg-1 K-1 kJ kg-1 kJ kg-1 K-1 kJ kg-1 kJ kg-1 K-1
P (MPa)
1
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
104.8
h
0.367
s
419.1
h
1.307 852.3 2.330

s
h
s
1345
h
3.255
s
1672
h
3.781
s
105.7
114.0
123.1
132.2
141.2
150.2
159.1
167.9
176.7
185.3
193.9
0.367
0.364
0.362
0.359
0.356
0.353
0.349
0.346
0.342
0.338
0.334
419.7
426.5
434.0
441.6
449.2
456.8
464.4
472.1
479.7
487.4
495.1
1.306
1.299
1.292
1.284
1.277
1.270
1.263
1.256
1.249
1.243
1.236
1343
1334
1329
1325
1324
1323
1323
1324
1326
1329
3.249
3.209
3.176
3.147
3.121
3.097
3.074
3.053
3.034
3.017
1647
1610
1590
1576
1566
1558
1553
1550
1551
3.731
3.645
3.588
3.542
3.501
3.465
3.434
3.407
3.385
kJ kg-1 kJ kg-1 K-1 kJ kg-1 kJ kg-1 K-1 kJ kg-1 kJ kg-1 K-1 kJ kg-1 kJ kg-1 K-1 kJ kg-1 kJ kg-1 K-1
855.9
860.4
865.2
870.2
875.4
880.7
886.2
891.8
897.6
903.5
2.318
2.303
2.289
2.276
2.263
2.251
2.239
2.227
2.216
2.205
Compressed liquid water - internal energy and specific volume*

T (C)
P (MPa)
1
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
*Note:
25
Psat (MPa)
0.00317
uf vf103
100
Psat (MPa)
0.101325
vf103
uf
200
Psat (MPa)
1.554
vf103
uf
300
Psat (MPa)
8.588
vf103
uf
350
Psat (MPa)
16.54
uf vf103
kJ kg-1 m3 kg-1
kJ kg-1
m3 kg-1
kJ kg-1
m3 kg-1
kJ kg-1
m3 kg-1 kJ kg-1 m3 kg-1
104.8 1.003
v103
u
419.0
u
1.044
1.157
kJ kg-1
v10
m3 kg-1
850.5
u
1333
u
1.404 1643 1.739

v103
u
v103
104.7
104.0
103.3
102.5
101.8
101.1
100.4
99.7
99.0
98.2
97.5
418.7
416.1
413.4
410.8
408.2
405.8
403.5
401.3
399.1
397.1
395.1
1.043
1.038
1.034
1.029
1.025
1.020
1.016
1.012
1.008
1.004
1.000
kJ kg-1 m3 kg-1
1.002
0.998
0.994
0.990
0.986
0.982
0.978
0.975
0.971
0.967
0.963
kJ kg-1
v10
m3 kg-1
kJ kg-1
m3 kg-1 kJ kg-1 m3 kg-1
844.4
837.7
831.3
825.3
819.7
814.3
809.2
804.3
799.7
795.3
1.148
1.139
1.130
1.122
1.115
1.108
1.101
1.094
1.088
1.082
1329
1307
1289
1273
1259
1247
1235
1225
1215
1207
1.399
1.361
1.332
1.307
1.287
1.269
1.253
1.239
1.226
1.215
1614
1563
1530
1504
1481
1461
1444
1430
1419
1.667
1.553
1.490
1.443
1.404
1.372
1.347
1.328
1.314
The actual values of vf and v are 103 times smaller than the figures given. For example, the
specific volume of compressed liquid water at 100C and 40 MPa is 0.001025 m3 kg-1.
20
This page is intentionally left blank
21
l. H
um
Psychrometric Chart
0.040
13 0
0.038
14 0
Re
35C
0.036
0 .8
1 20
Normal Temperatures
Barometric Pressure = 101.3 kPa
SEA LEVEL
0.034
0.032
0.6
1 10
0.030
100
0.028
30C
0.026
g
3/k
70
5m
80
k J/
(k g
d ry
0. 9
0.
4
90
ai r)
25C
0.018
2
0.
20C
0 .9
40
10C
0.008
5C
0.006
T wb=0C
0.004
v= 0
-5
0.002
.8
h =0
-0
Psychrometric chart
0.014
0.010
0 .8
10
0.016
0.012
15C
30
20
0.022
0.020
60
50
0.024
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
Dry Bulb Temperature [C]

22
50
0.000
55
Humidity Ratio, kg H20/kg dry air
P Mylon
How to use the psychrometric chart

Find the wet bulb temperature on the top, left-hand (curved) edge of the chart
which is the saturation line. Travel down the dotted line of constant wet bulb
temperature (at around 30 to the horizontal) until it intersects the vertical line
coming up from the dry bulb temperature (which is found on the horizontal axis).
The point at which the two lines meet fully describes the conditions. The humidity
ratio (or specific humidity) can be read off the vertical axis. The specific enthalpy
of the air/vapour mixture per kg of dry air can be found by travelling up the solid
lines approximately parallel to the wet bulb lines, while the specific volume of the
mixture can be found by interpolating between the lines at approximately 70 to
the horizontal.
Thermodynamic properties of dry and saturated air
Tdb (C)
-5
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
hdry
kJkg-1
-5.03
0.00
5.03
10.06
15.10
20.13
25.16
30.20
35.23
hsat
kJkg-1
1.16
9.48
18.65
29.37
42.13
57.58
76.52
100.01
129.43
vdry
kgm-3
0.76
0.77
0.79
0.80
0.82
0.83
0.84
0.86
0.87
23
vsat
kgm-3
0.76
0.78
0.80
0.81
0.83
0.85
0.87
0.90
0.92
R134a saturated refrigerant: liquid and vapour

Pressure table
P
kPa
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
200
240
280
320
360
400
500
600
700
800
900
1000
1200
1400
1600
1800
2000
2500
3000
T(sat)
C
-36.95
-31.13
-26.37
-22.32
-18.77
-15.60
-12.73
-10.09
-5.384
-1.247
2.457
5.821
8.910
15.71
21.55
26.69
31.31
35.51
39.37
46.29
52.40
57.88
62.87
67.45
77.54
86.16
vf
m kg-1
0.000710
0.000719
0.000726
0.000732
0.000738
0.000744
0.000749
0.000753
0.000762
0.000770
0.000777
0.000784
0.000791
0.000806
0.000820
0.000833
0.000846
0.000858
0.000870
0.000893
0.000917
0.000940
0.000964
0.000989
0.001057
0.001141
3
vg
m kg-1
0.3112
0.2375
0.1925
0.1621
0.1401
0.1235
0.1104
0.09987
0.08390
0.07235
0.06360
0.05674
0.05120
0.04112
0.03430
0.02936
0.02562
0.02268
0.02031
0.01672
0.01411
0.01212
0.01056
0.009288
0.006936
0.005275
3
hf
kJ kg-1
3.841
11.21
17.28
22.49
27.08
31.21
34.97
38.43
44.66
50.18
55.16
59.72
63.94
73.33
81.51
88.82
95.47
101.6
107.3
117.8
127.2
135.9
144.1
151.8
169.6
186.5
24
hg
sf
sg
-1
-1 -1
kJ kg kJ kg K kJ kg-1K-1
227.8 0.01634
0.9644
231.5 0.04711
0.9571
234.4 0.07188
0.9518
237.0 0.09275
0.9478
239.2 0.1109
0.9446
241.1 0.1269
0.9419
242.9 0.1414
0.9397
244.5 0.1546
0.9377
247.3 0.1779
0.9346
249.7 0.1983
0.9321
251.9 0.2164
0.9301
253.8 0.2327
0.9284
255.6 0.2476
0.9269
259.3 0.2802
0.9240
262.4 0.3080
0.9218
265.0 0.3323
0.9199
267.3 0.3540
0.9183
269.3 0.3738
0.9169
271.0 0.3919
0.9156
273.9 0.4244
0.9130
276.1 0.4532
0.9105
277.9 0.4791
0.9078
279.2 0.5029
0.9050
280.1 0.5251
0.9018
280.8 0.5753
0.8923
279.1 0.6212
0.8789
R134a saturated refrigerant: temperature table

T
C
-40
-36
-32
-28
-26
-24
-22
-20
-18
-16
-12
-8
-4
0
4
8
12
16
20
24
26
28
30
32
34
36
38
40
42
44
48
52
56
60
70
80
90
100
P(sat)
kPa
51.25
62.95
76.71
92.76
101.7
111.4
121.7
132.8
144.7
157.4
185.4
217.1
252.9
293.0
337.9
387.9
443.3
504.6
572.1
646.2
685.8
727.3
770.6
815.9
863.1
912.4
963.7
1017
1073
1131
1254
1386
1529
1683
2118
2635
3247
3975
vf
m kg-1
0.000705
0.000711
0.000717
0.000723
0.000727
0.000730
0.000733
0.000736
0.000740
0.000743
0.000750
0.000757
0.000765
0.000772
0.000780
0.000789
0.000798
0.000807
0.000816
0.000826
0.000831
0.000837
0.000842
0.000848
0.000854
0.000860
0.000866
0.000872
0.000879
0.000885
0.000900
0.000915
0.000932
0.000950
0.001004
0.001077
0.001193
0.001527
3
vg
m kg-1
0.3608
0.2975
0.2471
0.2067
0.1895
0.1739
0.1600
0.1473
0.1358
0.1254
0.1074
0.09235
0.07980
0.06925
0.06034
0.05276
0.04603
0.04075
0.03597
0.03183
0.02998
0.02824
0.02662
0.02511
0.02369
0.02236
0.02112
0.01995
0.01885
0.01782
0.01594
0.01426
0.01277
0.01143
0.008642
0.006436
0.004599
0.002630
hf
kJ kg-1
0
5.037
10.10
15.20
17.76
20.33
22.91
25.49
28.09
30.69
35.92
41.19
46.50
51.86
57.25
62.69
68.18
73.73
79.32
84.98
87.83
90.69
93.58
96.48
99.40
102.3
105.3
108.3
111.3
114.3
120.4
126.6
132.9
139.4
156.1
174.2
194.8
224.8
25
hg
kJ kg-1
225.9
228.4
230.9
233.4
234.7
235.9
237.2
238.4
239.6
240.9
243.3
245.7
248.1
250.5
252.8
255.0
257.3
259.5
261.6
263.7
264.7
265.7
266.7
267.6
268.6
269.5
270.4
271.3
272.1
273.0
274.5
276.0
277.3
278.5
280.5
280.6
277.1
258.4
sf
kJ kg-1K-1
0
0.02138
0.04253
0.06344
0.07382
0.08414
0.09441
0.1046
0.1148
0.1249
0.1450
0.1650
0.1848
0.2044
0.2239
0.2432
0.2625
0.2816
0.3006
0.3196
0.3290
0.3385
0.3479
0.3573
0.3667
0.3761
0.3855
0.3949
0.4042
0.4136
0.4324
0.4513
0.4702
0.4892
0.5376
0.5880
0.6434
0.7222
sg
kJ kg-1K-1
0.9687
0.9631
0.9581
0.9536
0.9514
0.9494
0.9475
0.9456
0.9439
0.9422
0.9391
0.9363
0.9337
0.9314
0.9293
0.9273
0.9255
0.9239
0.9223
0.9209
0.9202
0.9195
0.9188
0.9181
0.9174
0.9167
0.9161
0.9154
0.9146
0.9139
0.9124
0.9107
0.9088
0.9067
0.8998
0.8891
0.8701
0.8122
R134a superheated refrigerant 60 to 400 kPa

T
C
-20
-10
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
120
-10
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
120
130
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
120
130
P=60 kPa,Tsat=-36.94C
v
h
s
3 -1
-1
m kg
kJ kg kJ kg-1K-1
0.3361 240.8
1.0170
0.3505 248.6
1.0480
0.3648 256.5
1.0770
0.3789 264.7
1.1070
0.3930 272.9
1.1350
0.4070 281.4
1.1640
0.4210 290.0
1.1920
0.4349 298.7
1.2190
0.4488 307.7
1.2460
0.4627 316.8
1.2730
0.4765 326.0
1.3000
0.4903 335.4
1.3260
0.5041 345.0
1.3520
0.5179 354.7
1.3780
0.5316 364.6
1.4030
0.1119 245.2
0.9484
0.1172 253.6
0.9798
0.1224 262.0
1.0100
0.1275 270.6
1.0400
0.1325 279.3
1.0690
0.1374 288.0
1.0980
0.1423 297.0
1.1260
0.1471 306.0
1.1530
0.1520 315.3
1.1800
0.1567 324.6
1.2070
0.1615 334.1
1.2340
0.1662 343.8
1.2600
0.1709 353.6
1.2860
0.1756 363.6
1.3120
0.1803 373.7
1.3370
0.0728 250.8
0.9362
0.0765 259.7
0.9680
0.0800 268.5
0.9987
0.0834 277.4
1.0280
0.0867 286.4
1.0580
0.0900 295.5
1.0860
0.0932 304.7
1.1140
0.0964 314.0
1.1420
0.0996 323.5
1.1690
0.1028 333.1
1.1960
0.1059 342.8
1.2220
0.1090 352.7
1.2480
0.1121 362.7
1.2740
0.1151 372.9
1.3000
v
h
s
3 -1
-1
m kg kJ kg kJ kg-1K-1
0.1984 239.5
0.9721
0.2074 247.5
1.0030
0.2163 255.6
1.0330
0.2251 263.8
1.0630
0.2337 272.2
1.0920
0.2423 280.7
1.1200
0.2509 289.3
1.1480
0.2594 298.2
1.1760
0.2678 307.1
1.2040
0.2763 316.3
1.2310
0.2847 325.5
1.2570
0.2930 335.0
1.2840
0.3014 344.6
1.3100
0.3097 354.4
1.3350
0.3180 364.3
1.3610
0.0999 244.5
0.9380
0.1048 253.1
0.9698
0.1096 261.6
1.0000
0.1142 270.2
1.0300
0.1187 278.9
1.0600
0.1232 287.7
1.0880
0.1277 296.7
1.1160
0.1321 305.8
1.1440
0.1364 315.0
1.1710
0.1407 324.4
1.1980
0.1450 333.9
1.2250
0.1493 343.6
1.2510
0.1536 353.4
1.2770
0.1578 363.4
1.3030
0.1621 373.5
1.3280
P=320 kPa,Tsat=2.46C
0.0661
0.0693
0.0723
0.0753
0.0782
0.0811
0.0840
0.0868
0.0895
0.0923
0.0950
0.0978
0.1005
258.7
267.7
276.6
285.7
294.8
304.1
313.5
323.0
332.6
342.4
352.3
362.3
372.5
26
0.9544
0.9856
1.0160
1.0450
1.0740
1.1020
1.1300
1.1570
1.1840
1.2110
1.2370
1.2630
1.2880
v
h
s
3 -1
-1
m kg
kJ kg kJ kg-1K-1
0.1461 246.4
0.9724
0.1526 254.6
1.0030
0.1591 262.9
1.0330
0.1654 271.4
1.0620
0.1717 280.0
1.0910
0.1779 288.7
1.1200
0.1841 297.6
1.1470
0.1903 306.6
1.1750
0.1964 315.8
1.2020
0.2024 325.1
1.2290
0.2085 334.6
1.2550
0.2145 344.2
1.2810
0.2205 354.0
1.3070
0.2265 363.9
1.3330
0.0862 252.0
0.9519
0.0903 260.6
0.9831
0.0942 269.4
1.0130
0.0981 278.2
1.0430
0.1019 287.1
1.0720
0.1057 296.1
1.1000
0.1094 305.2
1.1280
0.1131 314.5
1.1550
0.1168 323.9
1.1830
0.1204 333.5
1.2090
0.1240 343.2
1.2360
0.1276 353.1
1.2620
0.1311 363.1
1.2870
0.1347 373.2
1.3130
0.0515
0.0542
0.0568
0.0593
0.0617
0.0641
0.0664
0.0688
0.0710
0.0733
0.0755
0.0777
0.0799
256.6
265.9
275.1
284.3
293.6
303.0
312.4
322.0
331.7
341.6
351.5
361.6
371.9
0.9305
0.9628
0.9937
1.0240
1.0530
1.0810
1.1090
1.1370
1.1640
1.1910
1.2170
1.2430
1.2690
R134a superheated refrigerant 500 to 2000 kPa

T
C
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
120
130
140
150
160
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
120
130
140
150
160
170
180
60
70
80
90
100
110
120
130
140
150
160
170
180
v
h
s
3 -1
-1
m kg
kJ kg kJ kg-1K-1
0.0421 263.5
0.9383
0.0443 273.0
0.9703
0.0465 282.5
1.0010
0.0485 292.0
1.0310
0.0505 301.5
1.0600
0.0524 311.1
1.0880
0.0543 320.8
1.1160
0.0562 330.6
1.1440
0.0581 340.5
1.1710
0.0599 350.6
1.1970
0.0617 360.7
1.2230
0.0635 371.0
1.2490
0.0653 381.5
1.2750
0.0670 392.0
1.3000
0.0688 402.7
1.3250
0.0270 276.4
0.9480
0.0286 286.7
0.9802
0.0300 296.8
1.0110
0.0313 306.9
1.0410
0.0327 317.0
1.0700
0.0339 327.1
1.0980
0.0352 337.3
1.1260
0.0364 347.6
1.1530
0.0376 358.0
1.1800
0.0388 368.5
1.2060
0.0400 379.0
1.2320
0.0411 389.8
1.2580
0.0423 400.6
1.2830
0.0434 411.6
1.3080
0.0446 422.6
1.3330
0.0150 285.5
0.9389
0.0161 297.1
0.9733
0.0170 308.3
1.0060
0.0179 319.4
1.0360
0.0188 330.3
1.0660
0.0196 341.2
1.0950
0.0204 352.1
1.1230
0.0212 363.0
1.1500
0.0219 374.0
1.1770
0.0226 385.1
1.2040
0.0234 396.2
1.2300
0.0241 407.4
1.2550
0.0248 418.8
1.2810
v
h
s
3
-1
-1
m kg kJ kg
kJ kg-1K-1
v
h
s
3 -1
-1
m kg
kJ kg kJ kg-1K-1
0.0360 270.8
0.9499
0.0379 280.6
0.9816
0.0397 290.3
1.0120
0.0414 300.0
1.0420
0.0431 309.7
1.0710
0.0447 319.6
1.0990
0.0463 329.5
1.1260
0.0479 339.5
1.1540
0.0495 349.6
1.1800
0.0510 359.8
1.2070
0.0525 370.2
1.2330
0.0540 380.7
1.2580
0.0555 391.3
1.2840
0.0570 402.0
1.3090
0.0204 271.7
0.9179
0.0218 282.7
0.9525
0.0231 293.4
0.9850
0.0243 303.9
1.0160
0.0254 314.3
1.0460
0.0265 324.6
1.0750
0.0276 335.1
1.1030
0.0286 345.5
1.1310
0.0296 356.1
1.1580
0.0306 366.7
1.1850
0.0316 377.4
1.2110
0.0325 388.2
1.2370
0.0335 399.2
1.2620
0.0344 410.2
1.2880
0.0353 421.4
1.3120
0.0124 280.7
0.9163
0.0134 293.2
0.9535
0.0144 305.1
0.9875
0.0152 316.5
1.0190
0.0160 327.8
1.0500
0.0168 338.9
1.0790
0.0175 350.0
1.1080
0.0182 361.1
1.1360
0.0189 372.3
1.1630
0.0196 383.4
1.1900
0.0202 394.7
1.2160
0.0208 406.0
1.2420
0.0215 417.4
1.2680
0.0300 268.5
0.9313
0.0317 278.6
0.9641
0.0333 288.5
0.9954
0.0349 298.4
1.0260
0.0364 308.3
1.0550
0.0378 318.3
1.0830
0.0393 328.3
1.1110
0.0406 338.4
1.1390
0.0420 348.6
1.1660
0.0434 358.9
1.1920
0.0447 369.3
1.2190
0.0460 379.9
1.2440
0.0473 390.5
1.2700
0.0486 401.3
1.2950
P=1200 kPa, Tsat=46.29C
27
0.0172 278.3
0.9267
0.0184 289.6
0.9614
0.0195 300.6
0.9938
0.0205 311.4
1.0250
0.0215 322.1
1.0550
0.0224 332.7
1.0840
0.0234 343.4
1.1120
0.0242 354.1
1.1390
0.0251 364.9
1.1660
0.0259 375.7
1.1930
0.0268 386.7
1.2190
0.0276 397.7
1.2450
0.0284 408.8
1.2700
0.0292 420.1
1.2950
P=2000 kPa, Tsat=67.45C
0.0096
0.0105
0.0114
0.0121
0.0128
0.0134
0.0141
0.0146
0.0152
0.0158
0.0163
0.0168
283.9
297.6
310.2
322.3
334.1
345.7
357.2
368.6
380.1
391.6
403.1
414.7
0.9130
0.9524
0.9876
1.0200
1.0520
1.0810
1.1100
1.1380
1.1660
1.1930
1.2190
1.2450
P Mylon
10000
90C
80C
70C
0 .01 0
1.0
CRITICAL POINT
0 .00 5
0 .9 k
5000
J/kg-
Pressure-Enthalpy Diagram
R134a
Reference: ASHRAE Standard

Enthalpy -40C Liquid = 0 kJ/kg
Entropy -40C Liquid = 0 kJ/kg-K
60C
0 .0 20
40C
1000
0 .030
1.1
P [kPa]
50C
30C
0 .050
20C
500
1.2
10C
0 .100
0C
-10C
0.2 00
1.
-20C
100
0.3 00
-30C
0.2
0.6
0.8
0.500 m /kg
-40C
20
40
P-h diagram for R134a
60
80
1.
4
50
40
0
0.4
100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280 300 320 340 360 380 400
h [kJ/kg]
28
Combustion Information
Enthalpy of formation
Substance
Formula
Air
kJ kmol-1
28.97
Oxygen
O2
32
Nitrogen
N2
28
Carbon dioxide
CO2
44
-393,520
Carbon monoxide
CO
28
-110,530
Water (vapour)
H2O(vap)
18
-241,820
Water (liquid)
H2O(liq)
18
-285,830
Methane
CH4
16
-74,850
Acetylene
C2H2
26
+226,730
Ethane
C2H6
30
-84,680
Propane
C3H8
44
-103,850
Butane
C4H10
58
-126,150
Octane (vapour)
C8H18
114
-208,450
Dodecane
C12H26
170
-291,010
Reactions
All species are vapour unless stated otherwise. The convention here are such that it
is the heat received by the system. Enthalpy variation per mol of fuel (first species
~
on the LHS). h in J mol-1 at standard condition T=25OC.
C solid + O2 CO2
-393 520
C8 H 18 + 252 O 2 8CO 2 + 9 H 2O -5 116 180
CO + 12 O2 CO2
-282 990
CO 2 + H 2 CO + H 2 O
H 2 + 12 O 2 H 2O
-241 830
1
2
H 2 + OH H 2O
-281 540
CH 4 + 2O2 CO2 + H 2 O
-802 310
1
2
N 2 + 12 O 2 NO
90 290
41 169
C 2 H 4 + 3O2 2CO 2 + 2 H 2 O -1 323 170 H 2 O (liquid ) H 2 O
43 990
C 2 H 6 + 72 O 2 2CO 2 + 3H 2O -1 427 860 C 6 H 6 (liquid ) C 6 H 6
33 800
C 6 H 6 + 252 O 2 6CO 2 + 3H 2O -3 169 540 C8 H 18 (liquid ) C8 H 18
41 500
29
Energy values of various fuels by mass

Liquid Fuels
Petrol (or gasoline)
Fuel oil, light
Diesel oil
Fuel oil, medium
Fuel oil, heavy
Kerosine (or kerosene)
-1
LCV (MJ kg )
43.7
43.4
43.3
42.9
42.5
42.4
LCV (MJ kg-1)
Liq. Hydrogen (LH2)

Liquid Methane
Liquid Propane
Gaseous Fuels
Hydrogen gas
Natural gas (92% CH4)
Acetylene (C2H2)
Propane gas (C3H8)
Butane (C4H10)
Coal gas
Solid Fuels
Rubber
Coal
Straw
Wood pellets
Paper
Logwood (soft)
Logwood (hard)
Wood chips (soft)
Wood chips (hard)
Municipal waste
116
49
46
(kgm-3)
at 15C
737
921
836
939
952
817
(kgm-3)
at b.p.
71
424
585
LCV (MJ kg )
119.7
52.4
48.3
46.4
45.8
17.9
Boiling Point (K)

21
111
231
Notes
8% moisture (w/w)
20% moisture (w/w)
25% moisture (w/w)
30% moisture (w/w)
35% moisture (w/w)
Edmonton (1968)
LCV refers to fresh wood, as opposed to GCV for dry mass only
30
80 octane
3.5% S (w/w)
Medium grade (No. 7)
4.0% S (w/w)
3.5% S (w/w)
LCV (MJ m-3)

at 15C and 1bar
86
10
53.1
86.5
112.5
-1
LCV (MJ kg-1)

37.7
26.4
18.0
17.0
16.6
14.4
13.0
12.3
10.9
10.7
Notes
Kerosene temperature rise

Tin=300 K
600
Tin=400 K
Tin=500 K
550
Tin=600 K
Tin=700 K
500
Tin=800 K
Temperature Rise K
Tin=900 K
450
Tin=1000 K
400
350
300
250
200
150
0.004
0.005
0.006
0.007
0.008
0.009
0.010
0.011
Fuel Air Ratio
31
0.012
0.013
0.014
0.015
0.016
Kerosene temperature rise

Tin=300 K
1000
Tin=400 K
Tin=500 K
950
Tin=600 K
Tin=700 K
900
Tin=800 K
Tin=900 K
Temperature Rise K
850
Tin=1000 K
800
750
700
650
600
550
500
0.016
0.017
0.018
0.019
0.020
0.021
0.022
0.023
Fuel Air Ratio
32
0.024
0.025
0.026
0.027
0.028
Equilibrium constants
ln K
T (K)
(p )(p )
(p )(p )
H 2O
H2
298.15
300
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
1600
1800
2000
2200
2400
2600
2800
3000
3500
4000
4500
5000
5500
6000
O2
1
2
1
2
92.207
91.604
67.321
42.897
30.593
23.162
18.182
14.608
11.921
9.825
8.145
6.768
5.619
4.647
3.811
3.086
1.641
0.541
-0.313
-0.997
-1.561
-2.033
Where p = 1 bar = 105 Pa
(p )(p )
(p )(p )
CO 2
CO
O2
1
2
1
2
103.762
103.057
74.669
46.245
32.036
23.528
17.871
13.841
10.829
8.497
6.634
5.119
3.859
2.800
1.893
1.110
-0.436
-1.600
-2.491
-3.198
-3.771
-4.246
(p )(p )
(p )(p )
H 2O
H2
CO
CO 2
-11.554
-11.453
-7.348
-3.348
-1.444
-0.366
0.311
0.767
1.091
1.329
1.510
1.649
1.759
1.847
1.918
1.976
2.077
2.141
2.177
2.201
2.210
2.213
(p )(p )
(p )(p )
H 2O
OH
H2
1
2
1
2
106.329
105.626
77.360
48.956
34.670
26.063
20.307
16.181
13.086
10.673
8.741
7.161
5.844
4.730
3.774
2.945
1.299
0.051
-0.914
-1.683
-2.314
-2.839
33
(p NO )
(p ) (p )
N2
1
2
O2
1
2
-34.933
-34.707
-25.655
-16.602
-12.072
-9.353
-7.541
-6.245
-5.273
-4.518
-3.912
-3.417
-3.005
-2.657
-2.360
-2.102
-1.592
-1.207
-0.914
-0.682
-0.493
-0.338
(p )(p )
H2
(p H )
164.005
162.922
119.164
75.226
53.135
39.808
30.878
24.468
19.637
15.865
12.840
10.358
8.281
6.517
5.002
3.689
1.063
-0.934
-2.482
-3.725
-4.743
-5.590
(p )(p )
O2
(p O )
186.961
185.723
135.710
85.519
60.319
45.145
35.005
27.742
22.285
18.030
14.622
11.827
9.497
7.521
5.826
4.357
1.431
-0.796
-2.514
-3.895
-5.024
-5.963
(p )(p )
N2
1
2
(p N )2
367.479
365.126
270.329
175.356
127.753
99.128
80.012
66.329
56.055
48.051
41.645
36.391
32.011
28.304
25.117
22.358
16.849
12.660
9.414
6.807
4.666
2.865
CO - enthalpy, internal energy and entropy at atmospheric pressure

T
h
kJ kmol-1
K
0
0
220
6355
230
6657
240
6957
250
7255
260
7550
270
7845
280
8138
290
8431
298.15
8669
300
8723
310
9014
320
9306
330
9597
340
9887
350
10178
360
10470
370
10761
380
11053
390
11345
400
11637
410
11930
420
12223
430
12517
440
12811
450
13106
460
13402
470
13698
480
13995
490
14293
500
14591
510
14890
520
15190
530
15490
540
15792
550
16093
560
16396
570
16699
580
17003
590
17308
u
kJ kmol -1
s
kJ kmol -1 K-1
0
4526
4745
4961
5176
5389
5600
5810
6020
6190
6229
6437
6645
6853
7061
7268
7476
7685
7893
8102
8311
8521
8731
8942
9153
9365
9577
9791
10004
10219
10434
10650
10866
11084
11302
11520
11740
11960
12181
12403
0
188.5
189.8
191.1
192.3
193.4
194.6
195.6
196.7
197.5
197.6
198.6
199.5
200.4
201.3
202.1
202.9
203.7
204.5
205.3
206.0
206.7
207.5
208.1
208.8
209.5
210.1
210.8
211.4
212.0
212.6
213.2
213.8
214.4
214.9
215.5
216.0
216.6
217.1
217.6
T
h
u
-1
K kJ kmol kJ kmol -1
600 17614
12625
610 17920
12848
620 18227
13072
630 18535
13296
640 18843
13522
650 19152
13748
660 19462
13974
670 19772
14202
680 20084
14430
690 20396
14659
700 20708
14888
710 21022
15119
720 21336
15349
730 21651
15581
740 21966
15813
750 22282
16046
760 22599
16280
770 22916
16514
780 23234
16749
790 23553
16985
800 23872
17221
810 24192
17458
820 24513
17695
830 24834
17933
840 25156
18172
850 25479
18412
860 25802
18651
870 26126
18892
880 26450
19133
890 26775
19375
900 27100
19617
910 27426
19860
920 27753
20104
930 28080
20348
940 28408
20592
950 28736
20838
960 29065
21083
970 29395
21330
980 29725
21576
990 30055
21824
34
s
kJ kmol -1 K-1
218.1
218.6
219.1
219.6
220.1
220.6
221.1
221.5
222.0
222.4
222.9
223.3
223.8
224.2
224.6
225.1
225.5
225.9
226.3
226.7
227.1
227.5
227.9
228.3
228.7
229.1
229.4
229.8
230.2
230.6
230.9
231.3
231.6
232.0
232.3
232.7
233.0
233.4
233.7
234.0
CO - enthalpy, internal energy and entropy at atmospheric pressure

T
K
1000
1020
1040
1060
1080
1100
1120
1140
1160
1180
1200
1220
1240
1260
1280
1300
1320
1340
1360
1380
1400
1420
1440
1460
1480
1500
1520
1540
1560
1580
1600
1620
1640
1660
1680
1700
1720
1740
1760
1780
h
kJ kmol-1
u
kJ kmol -1
s
kJ kmol -1 K-1
30386
31050
31717
32383
33052
33724
34397
35072
35749
36428
37108
37790
38474
39159
39846
40534
41224
41915
42608
43302
43998
44695
45393
46092
46793
47495
48198
48902
49608
50314
51022
51731
52441
53151
53863
54576
55290
56005
56720
57437
22072
22569
23069
23569
24073
24578
25085
25594
26104
26617
27131
27647
28164
28683
29203
29726
30249
30774
31301
31828
32358
32888
33420
33953
34488
35023
35560
36098
36637
37178
37719
38261
38805
39349
39895
40442
40989
41537
42087
42637
234.4
235.0
235.7
236.3
236.9
237.6
238.2
238.8
239.4
239.9
240.5
241.1
241.6
242.2
242.7
243.2
243.8
244.3
244.8
245.3
245.8
246.3
246.8
247.3
247.8
248.2
248.7
249.1
249.6
250.1
250.5
250.9
251.4
251.8
252.2
252.7
253.1
253.5
253.9
254.3
T
K
1800
1820
1840
1860
1880
1900
1920
1940
1960
1980
2000
2050
2100
2150
2200
2250
2300
2350
2400
2450
2500
2550
2600
2650
2700
2750
2800
2850
2900
2950
3000
3050
3100
3150
3200
3250
h
kJ kmol-1
u
kJ kmol -1
s
kJ kmol -1 K-1
58154
58872
59591
60311
61033
61754
62476
63199
63923
64647
65373
67189
69009
70832
72660
74491
76325
78162
80002
81844
83689
85536
87386
89237
91091
92946
94802
96660
98520
100380
102242
104105
105969
107833
109698
106497
43188
43740
44293
44847
45402
45956
46512
47069
47627
48185
48744
50144
51548
52956
54368
55783
57202
58623
60047
61474
62903
64335
65768
67204
68642
70081
71522
72964
74408
75853
77299
78746
80194
81643
83093
79476
254.7
255.1
255.5
255.9
256.1
256.3
256.6
257.0
257.4
257.8
258.1
258.5
259.4
260.3
261.1
262.0
262.8
263.6
264.4
265.2
265.9
266.7
267.4
268.1
268.8
269.5
270.2
270.9
271.5
272.2
272.8
273.4
274.1
274.7
275.3
275.8
For low pressures, h and u are virtually

independent of pressure. If sa is given at
atmospheric pressure, then:
P
s = s a R 0 ln
Pa
35
H2O- enthalpy, internal energy and entropy at atmospheric pressure

T
h
kJ kmol-1
K
0
0
220
7259
230
7600
240
7939
250
8278
260
8616
270
8954
280
9292
290
9629
298.15
9904
300
9966
310
10304
320
10641
330
10979
340
11317
350
11656
360
11995
370
12334
380
12674
390
13015
400
13357
410
13699
420
14042
430
14386
440
14731
450
15077
460
15423
470
15771
480
16120
490
16470
500
16820
510
17172
520
17525
530
17879
540
18235
550
18591
560
18949
570
19308
580
19667
590
20029
u
kJ kmol -1
s
kJ kmol -1 K-1
0
5430
5687
5944
6200
6455
6709
6964
7218
7425
7472
7726
7981
8235
8490
8746
9001
9258
9515
9772
10031
10290
10550
10811
11073
11335
11599
11863
12129
12396
12663
12932
13202
13473
13745
14018
14293
14568
14845
15123
0
178.3
179.9
181.3
182.7
184.0
185.3
186.5
187.7
188.6
188.8
190.0
191.0
192.1
193.1
194.1
195.0
195.9
196.8
197.7
198.6
199.4
200.3
201.1
201.9
202.6
203.4
204.2
204.9
205.6
206.3
207.0
207.7
208.4
209.0
209.7
210.3
211.0
211.6
212.2
T
h
u
K kJ kmol-1 kJ kmol -1
600 20391
15402
610 20755
15683
620 21119
15964
630 21486
16247
640 21853
16532
650 22221
16817
660 22591
17104
670 22962
17392
680 23335
17681
690 23708
17971
700 24083
18263
710 24459
18556
720 24837
18850
730 25216
19146
740 25596
19443
750 25977
19741
760 26360
20041
770 26743
20341
780 27129
20643
790 27515
20947
800 27903
21251
810 28292
21557
820 28682
21864
830 29074
22173
840 29467
22482
850 29861
22793
860 30256
23106
870 30653
23419
880 31051
23734
890 31450
24050
900 31850
24367
910 32252
24686
920 32655
25006
930 33060
25327
940 33465
25649
950 33872
25973
960 34280
26298
970 34689
26624
980 35100
26951
990 35511
27280
36
s
kJ kmol -1 K-1
212.8
213.4
214.0
214.6
215.2
215.8
216.3
216.9
217.4
218.0
218.5
219.1
219.6
220.1
220.6
221.1
221.6
222.1
222.6
223.1
223.6
224.1
224.6
225.1
225.5
226.0
226.5
226.9
227.4
227.8
228.3
228.7
229.1
229.6
230.0
230.4
230.9
231.3
231.7
232.1
H2O - enthalpy, internal energy and entropy at atmospheric pressure

T
h
u
kJ kmol-1 kJ kmol -1
K
1000 35924
27610
1020 36754
28273
1040 37588
28941
1060 38428
29614
1080 39272
30292
1100 40121
30975
1120 40974
31662
1140 41832
32354
1160 42695
33050
1180 43563
33752
1200 44435
34457
1220 45311
35168
1240 46192
35882
1260 47078
36602
1280 47968
37325
1300 48862
38053
1320 49760
38785
1340 50663
39522
1360 51570
40262
1380 52481
41007
1400 53396
41756
1420 54315
42509
1440 55239
43266
1460 56166
44027
1480 57097
44792
1500 58032
45561
1520 58972
46334
1540 59914
47110
1560 60861
47890
1580 61811
48675
1600 62765
49462
1620 63723
50254
1640 64684
51049
1660 65649
51847
1680 66617
52649
1700 67589
53455
1720 68564
54263
1740 69543
55076
1760 70525
55891
1780 71510
56710
s
kJ kmol -1 K-1
232.6
233.4
234.2
235
235.8
236.6
237.3
238.1
238.8
239.6
240.3
241.0
241.7
242.5
243.2
243.8
244.5
245.2
245.9
246.6
247.2
247.9
248.5
249.1
249.8
250.4
251.0
251.6
252.3
252.9
253.5
254.1
254.6
255.2
255.8
256.4
257.0
257.5
258.1
258.6
T
K
1800
1820
1840
1860
1880
1900
1920
1940
1960
1980
2000
2050
2100
2150
2200
2250
2300
2350
2400
2450
2500
2550
2600
2650
2700
2750
2800
2850
2900
2950
3000
3050
3100
3150
3200
3250
37
h
kJ kmol-1
u
kJ kmol -1
s
kJ kmol -1 K-1
72498
73490
74485
75483
76484
77488
78495
79505
80518
81534
82553
85111
87687
90280
92887
95511
98148
100800
103465
106143
108833
111535
114248
116972
119707
122451
125204
127966
130737
133515
136300
139093
141892
144697
147507
106497
57532
58358
59186
60018
60853
61691
62531
63375
64222
65071
65924
68067
70227
72404
74596
76803
79025
81261
83510
85772
88047
90333
92631
94939
97258
99586
101924
104270
106625
108987
111357
113734
116117
118506
120901
79476
259.2
259.7
260.3
260.8
261.4
261.9
262.4
262.9
263.5
264.0
264.5
265.8
267.0
268.2
269.4
270.6
271.7
272.9
274.0
275.1
276.2
277.3
278.3
279.4
280.4
281.4
282.4
283.4
284.3
285.3
286.2
287.1
288.0
288.9
289.8
205.8
N2 - enthalpy, internal energy and entropy at atmospheric pressure

T
h
kJ kmol-1
K
0
0
220
6446
230
6716
240
6993
250
7276
260
7562
270
7850
280
8140
290
8431
298.15
8669
300
8723
310
9015
320
9307
330
9599
340
9891
350
10183
360
10474
370
10766
380
11058
390
11349
400
11641
410
11933
420
12225
430
12518
440
12810
450
13103
460
13396
470
13690
480
13984
490
14279
500
14574
510
14870
520
15166
530
15463
540
15760
550
16058
560
16357
570
16656
580
16956
590
17257
u
kJ kmol -1
s
kJ kmol -1 K-1
0
4617
4803
4997
5197
5400
5605
5812
6020
6190
6229
6437
6646
6855
7064
7272
7481
7690
7898
8107
8315
8524
8733
8942
9152
9362
9572
9782
9993
10205
10417
10629
10842
11056
11270
11485
11701
11917
12134
12351
0
182.8
184.0
185.2
186.3
187.4
188.5
189.6
190.6
191.4
191.6
192.6
193.5
194.4
195.3
196.1
196.9
197.7
198.5
199.3
200.0
200.7
201.4
202.1
202.8
203.4
204.1
204.7
205.3
205.9
206.5
207.1
207.7
208.3
208.8
209.4
209.9
210.4
211.0
211.5
T
h
u
600 17558
12570
610 17860
12788
620 18163
13008
630 18466
13228
640 18771
13449
650 19075
13671
660 19381
13893
670 19687
14116
680 19994
14340
690 20302
14565
700 20610
14790
710 20919
15016
720 21229
15243
730 21539
15470
740 21851
15698
750 22162
15927
760 22475
16156
770 22788
16386
780 23102
16617
790 23417
16848
800 23732
17080
810 24048
17313
820 24364
17546
830 24682
17781
840 24999
18015
850 25318
18251
860 25637
18487
870 25957
18723
880 26277
18960
890 26598
19198
900 26920
19437
910 27242
19676
920 27564
19915
930 27888
20155
940 28212
20396
950 28536
20637
960 28861
20879
970 29187
21122
980 29513
21365
990 29840
21608
38
s
kJ kmol -1 K-1
212.0
212.5
213.0
213.5
213.9
214.4
214.9
215.3
215.8
216.2
216.7
217.1
217.6
218.0
218.4
218.8
219.2
219.6
220.1
220.5
220.8
221.2
221.6
222.0
222.4
222.8
223.1
223.5
223.9
224.2
224.6
225.0
225.3
225.7
226.0
226.3
226.7
227.0
227.4
227.7
N2 - enthalpy, internal energy and entropy at atmospheric pressure

T
h
kJ kmol-1
K
1000 30167
1020 30823
1040 31481
1060 32141
1080 32803
1100 33468
1120 34134
1140 34801
1160 35471
1180 36142
1200 36816
1220 37490
1240 38167
1260 38845
1280 39525
1300 40206
1320 40888
1340 41572
1360 42258
1380 42945
1400 43633
1420 44322
1440 45013
1460 45705
1480 46399
1500 47093
1520 47789
1540 48486
1560 49184
1580 49883
1600 50583
1620 51285
1640 51987
1660 52690
1680 53395
1700 54100
1720 54806
1740 55513
1760 56221
1780 56930
u
kJ kmol -1
s
kJ kmol -1 K-1
21852
22342
22834
23328
23824
24322
24821
25323
25826
26331
26838
27347
27857
28369
28882
29397
29913
30431
30950
31471
31993
32516
33041
33566
34093
34622
35151
35682
36214
36746
37280
37815
38351
38888
39426
39965
40505
41046
41588
42131
228.0
228.7
229.3
229.9
230.6
231.2
231.8
232.4
232.9
233.5
234.1
234.6
235.2
235.7
236.3
236.8
237.3
237.8
238.3
238.8
239.3
239.8
240.3
240.8
241.3
241.7
242.2
242.6
243.1
243.5
244.0
244.4
244.8
245.3
245.7
246.1
246.5
246.9
247.3
247.7
T
h
kJ kmol-1
K
1800 57640
1820 58351
1840 59063
1860 59776
1880 60488
1900 61202
1920 61917
1940 62633
1960 63349
1980 64066
2000 64784
2050 66581
2100 68383
2150 70189
2200 71998
2250 73812
2300 75628
2350 77449
2400 79272
2450 81099
2500 82928
2550 84761
2600 86596
2650 88434
2700 90275
2750 92118
2800 93963
2850 95810
2900 97660
2950 99512
3000 101366
3050 103222
3100 105080
3150 106940
3200 108802
39
u
s
kJ kmol -1 kJ kmol -1 K-1
42674
43219
43764
44311
44857
45405
45953
46503
47053
47603
48155
49537
50923
52313
53707
55104
56505
57910
59318
60729
62142
63559
64979
66401
67826
69253
70683
72115
73549
74985
76423
77864
79306
80750
82196
248.1
248.5
248.9
249.3
249.7
250.1
250.4
250.8
251.2
251.5
251.9
252.8
253.6
254.5
255.3
256.1
256.9
257.7
258.5
259.2
260.0
260.7
261.4
262.1
262.8
263.5
264.2
264.8
265.5
266.1
266.7
267.3
267.9
268.5
269.1
O2 - enthalpy, internal energy and entropy at atmospheric pressure

T
h
kJ kmol-1
K
0
0
220
6323
230
6637
240
6945
250
7249
260
7550
270
7849
280
8146
290
8441
298.15
8682
300
8737
310
9031
320
9326
330
9621
340
9917
350
10213
360
10509
370
10807
380
11105
390
11404
400
11704
410
12006
420
12308
430
12612
440
12916
450
13222
460
13528
470
13836
480
14145
490
14455
500
14766
510
15078
520
15391
530
15706
540
16021
550
16337
560
16654
570
16973
580
17292
590
17612
u
kJ kmol -1
s
kJ kmol -1 K-1
0
4494
4724
4950
5171
5388
5604
5818
6030
6203
6242
6454
6665
6877
7090
7302
7516
7730
7945
8162
8379
8597
8816
9036
9258
9480
9704
9928
10154
10381
10609
10838
11068
11299
11531
11764
11998
12233
12470
12707
0
195.8
197.2
198.5
199.7
200.9
202.0
203.1
204.1
205.0
205.1
206.1
207.0
207.9
208.8
209.7
210.5
211.3
212.1
212.9
213.7
214.4
215.1
215.9
216.6
217.2
217.9
218.6
219.2
219.9
220.5
221.1
221.7
222.3
222.9
223.5
224.1
224.6
225.2
225.7
T
h
u
600 17933
12945
610 18255
13183
620 18578
13423
630 18902
13664
640 19227
13905
650 19552
14148
660 19879
14391
670 20206
14635
680 20534
14880
690 20863
15126
700 21192
15372
710 21523
15619
720 21854
15867
730 22185
16116
740 22518
16365
750 22851
16615
760 23185
16866
770 23520
17118
780 23855
17370
790 24191
17623
800 24528
17876
810 24865
18130
820 25203
18385
830 25542
18641
840 25881
18897
850 26220
19153
860 26561
19410
870 26902
19668
880 27243
19926
890 27585
20185
900 27928
20445
910 28271
20705
920 28615
20965
930 28959
21226
940 29303
21488
950 29649
21750
960 29994
22013
970 30341
22276
980 30687
22539
990 31035
22803
40
s
kJ kmol -1 K-1
226.3
226.8
227.3
227.8
228.4
228.9
229.4
229.8
230.3
230.8
231.3
231.8
232.2
232.7
233.1
233.6
234.0
234.5
234.9
235.3
235.7
236.2
236.6
237.0
237.4
237.8
238.2
238.6
239.0
239.4
239.7
240.1
240.5
240.9
241.2
241.6
242.0
242.3
242.7
243.0
O2 - enthalpy, internal energy and entropy at atmospheric pressure

T
h
kJ kmol-1
K
1000 31382
1020 32079
1040 32777
1060 33478
1080 34180
1100 34884
1120 35589
1140 36296
1160 37004
1180 37715
1200 38426
1220 39139
1240 39854
1260 40570
1280 41287
1300 42006
1320 42726
1340 43447
1360 44169
1380 44893
1400 45618
1420 46345
1440 47072
1460 47801
1480 48531
1500 49262
1520 49994
1540 50727
1560 51462
1580 52197
1600 52934
1620 53671
1640 54410
1660 55149
1680 55890
1700 56632
1720 57375
1740 58119
1760 58863
1780 59609
u
kJ kmol -1
s
kJ kmol -1 K-1
23068
23598
24130
24664
25200
25738
26277
26818
27360
27904
28449
28996
29544
30094
30645
31197
31751
32306
32862
33419
33978
34538
35099
35662
36225
36790
37356
37923
38491
39060
39630
40202
40774
41348
41922
42498
43074
43651
44230
44809
243.4
244.1
244.8
245.4
246.1
246.7
247.4
248.0
248.6
249.2
249.8
250.4
251.0
251.5
252.1
252.7
253.2
253.8
254.3
254.8
255.3
255.9
256.4
256.9
257.4
257.9
258.3
258.8
259.3
259.8
260.2
260.7
261.1
261.6
262.0
262.5
262.9
263.3
263.8
264.2
T
h
kJ kmol-1
K
1800 60356
1820 61103
1840 61852
1860 62602
1880 63352
1900 64104
1920 64856
1940 65609
1960 66364
1980 67119
2000 67875
2050 69769
2100 71669
2150 73574
2200 75484
2250 77400
2300 79321
2350 81248
2400 83180
2450 85117
2500 87059
2550 89006
2600 90959
2650 92916
2700 94879
2750 96847
2800 98820
2850 100798
2900 102780
2950 104768
3000 106762
3050 108760
3100 110763
3150 112771
3200 114784
41
u
s
45390
45971
46554
47138
47721
48306
48892
49479
50067
50656
51246
52724
54208
55698
57193
58693
60198
61709
63225
64747
66273
67805
69341
70883
72430
73982
75539
77102
78669
80241
81818
83401
84988
86581
88178
264.6
265.0
265.4
265.8
266.2
266.6
267.0
267.4
267.8
268.2
268.6
269.5
270.4
271.3
272.2
273.0
273.9
274.7
275.5
276.3
277.1
277.9
278.6
279.4
280.1
280.8
281.6
282.3
282.9
283.6
284.3
285.0
285.6
286.3
286.9
CO2 - enthalpy, internal energy and entropy at atmospheric pressure

T
h
kJ kmol-1
K
0
0
220
6637
230
6967
240
7302
250
7644
260
7991
270
8343
280
8701
290
9064
298.15
9364
300
9432
310
9805
320
10183
330
10565
340
10952
350
11343
360
11738
370
12137
380
12541
390
12948
400
13359
410
13774
420
14192
430
14614
440
15040
450
15469
460
15901
470
16336
480
16775
490
17216
500
17661
510
18109
520
18559
530
19013
540
19469
550
19928
560
20389
570
20853
580
21320
590
21790
u
kJ kmol -1
s
kJ kmol -1 K-1
0
4808
5055
5307
5565
5829
6099
6373
6653
6885
6938
7228
7522
7821
8125
8433
8745
9061
9381
9705
10033
10365
10700
11039
11381
11727
12076
12428
12784
13142
13504
13868
14236
14606
14979
15355
15733
16114
16498
16884
0
203.0
204.5
205.9
207.3
208.7
210.0
211.3
212.6
213.6
213.8
215.1
216.3
217.4
218.6
219.7
220.8
221.9
223.0
224.1
225.1
226.1
227.1
228.1
229.1
230.1
231.0
232.0
232.9
233.8
234.7
235.6
236.4
237.3
238.2
239.0
239.8
240.7
241.5
242.3
T
h
u
600 22261
17273
610 22735
17664
620 23212
18057
630 23691
18453
640 24172
18851
650 24655
19251
660 25141
19653
670 25629
20058
680 26118
20465
690 26610
20873
700 27104
21284
710 27600
21697
720 28098
22112
730 28598
22529
740 29100
22947
750 29604
23368
760 30109
23790
770 30616
24214
780 31125
24640
790 31636
25068
800 32149
25497
810 32663
25928
820 33179
26361
830 33696
26795
840 34215
27231
850 34736
27669
860 35258
28108
870 35782
28548
880 36307
28990
890 36834
29434
900 37362
29879
910 37891
30325
920 38422
30773
930 38954
31222
940 39488
31672
950 40023
32124
960 40559
32577
970 41097
33032
980 41636
33488
990 42176
33944
42
s
kJ kmol -1 K-1
243.1
243.8
244.6
245.4
246.1
246.9
247.6
248.4
249.1
249.8
250.5
251.2
251.9
252.6
253.3
254.0
254.6
255.3
256.0
256.6
257.3
257.9
258.5
259.2
259.8
260.4
261.0
261.6
262.2
262.8
263.4
264.0
264.6
265.1
265.7
266.3
266.8
267.4
267.9
268.5
CO2 - enthalpy, internal energy and entropy at atmospheric pressure

T
h
kJ kmol-1
K
1000 42717
1020 43803
1040 44894
1060 45990
1080 47089
1100 48193
1120 49302
1140 50414
1160 51530
1180 52650
1200 53773
1220 54900
1240 56031
1260 57165
1280 58302
1300 59442
1320 60585
1340 61731
1360 62880
1380 64032
1400 65186
1420 66343
1440 67503
1460 68665
1480 69829
1500 70996
1520 72165
1540 73336
1560 74510
1580 75685
1600 76863
1620 78042
1640 79223
1660 80406
1680 81591
1700 82778
1720 83966
1740 85156
1760 86348
1780 87541
u
kJ kmol -1
s
kJ kmol -1 K-1
34403
35323
36247
37176
38110
39048
39990
40935
41885
42839
43796
44757
45721
46688
47659
48633
49610
50590
51572
52558
53546
54537
55530
56526
57524
58525
59527
60532
61539
62548
63560
64573
65588
66604
67623
68643
69665
70689
71714
72741
269.0
270.1
271.2
272.2
273.2
274.3
275.3
276.2
277.2
278.2
279.1
280.0
281.0
281.9
282.8
283.6
284.5
285.4
286.2
287.1
287.9
288.7
289.5
290.3
291.1
291.9
292.7
293.5
294.2
295.0
295.7
296.4
297.2
297.9
298.6
299.3
300.0
300.7
301.3
302.0
T
h
kJ kmol-1
K
1800 88735
1820 89931
1840 91129
1860 92329
1880 93528
1900 94730
1920 95932
1940 97136
1960 98342
1980 99548
2000 100756
2050 103779
2100 106809
2150 109846
2200 112888
2250 115935
2300 118988
2350 122045
2400 125107
2450 128173
2500 131243
2550 134318
2600 137396
2650 140478
2700 143563
2750 146652
2800 149745
2850 152841
2900 155940
2950 159043
3000 162149
3050 165258
3100 168371
3150 171487
3200 174607
43
u
s
73770
74799
75830
76864
77897
78932
79969
81006
82045
83086
84127
86735
89349
91970
94596
97228
99864
102506
105152
107803
110457
113116
115779
118445
121115
123788
126465
129145
131829
134515
137206
139900
142597
145297
148001
302.7
303.4
304.0
304.7
305.3
305.9
306.6
307.2
307.8
308.4
309.0
310.5
312.0
313.4
314.8
316.2
317.5
318.8
320.1
321.4
322.6
323.8
325.0
326.2
327.4
328.5
329.6
330.7
331.8
332.8
333.9
334.9
335.9
336.9
337.9
H2 - enthalpy, internal energy and entropy at atmospheric pressure

T
h
kJ kmol-1
K
0
0
220
6329
230
6585
240
6849
250
7118
260
7393
270
7671
280
7952
290
8235
298.15
8468
300
8521
310
8808
320
9097
330
9386
340
9676
350
9967
360
10258
370
10550
380
10842
390
11134
400
11426
410
11718
420
12010
430
12302
440
12594
450
12886
460
13178
470
13470
480
13762
490
14054
500
14346
510
14638
520
14930
530
15222
540
15514
550
15805
560
16097
570
16389
580
16681
590
16973
u
kJ kmol -1
s
kJ kmol -1 K-1
0
4500
4673
4853
5040
5231
5426
5624
5824
5989
6027
6231
6436
6642
6849
7057
7265
7473
7682
7891
8100
8309
8518
8727
8936
9145
9354
9563
9771
9980
10189
10398
10606
10815
11024
11232
11441
11650
11859
12068
0
122.3
123.4
124.6
125.7
126.7
127.8
128.8
129.8
130.6
130.8
131.7
132.6
133.5
134.4
135.2
136.1
136.9
137.6
138.4
139.1
139.9
140.6
141.2
141.9
142.6
143.2
143.8
144.5
145.1
145.6
146.2
146.8
147.3
147.9
148.4
149.0
149.5
150.0
150.5
T
h
u
600 17265
12276
610 17557
12485
620 17850
12695
630 18142
12904
640 18435
13113
650 18727
13323
660 19020
13532
670 19313
13742
680 19606
13952
690 19899
14163
700 20193
14373
710 20487
14584
720 20781
14794
730 21075
15005
740 21369
15217
750 21664
15428
760 21959
15640
770 22254
15852
780 22550
16064
790 22845
16277
800 23141
16490
810 23438
16703
820 23734
16917
830 24031
17130
840 24329
17344
850 24626
17559
860 24924
17774
870 25222
17989
880 25521
18204
890 25820
18420
900 26119
18636
910 26418
18852
920 26718
19069
930 27019
19286
940 27319
19504
950 27620
19722
960 27922
19940
970 28223
20158
980 28526
20377
990 28828
20597
44
s
kJ kmol -1 K-1
151.0
151.5
151.9
152.4
152.9
153.3
153.8
154.2
154.6
155.1
155.5
155.9
156.3
156.7
157.1
157.5
157.9
158.3
158.7
159.0
159.4
159.8
160.2
160.5
160.9
161.2
161.6
161.9
162.3
162.6
162.9
163.3
163.6
163.9
164.2
164.5
164.9
165.2
165.5
165.8
H2 - enthalpy, internal energy and entropy at atmospheric pressure

T
h
kJ kmol-1
K
1000 29131
1020 29738
1040 30346
1060 30956
1080 31568
1100 32181
1120 32796
1140 33412
1160 34030
1180 34650
1200 35271
1220 35894
1240 36519
1260 37145
1280 37773
1300 38402
1320 39033
1340 39666
1360 40300
1380 40936
1400 41574
1420 42213
1440 42854
1460 43496
1480 44140
1500 44786
1520 45433
1540 46082
1560 46732
1580 47384
1600 48038
1620 48693
1640 49349
1660 50008
1680 50667
1700 51328
1720 51991
1740 52655
1760 53321
1780 53988
u
kJ kmol -1
s
kJ kmol -1 K-1
20817
21257
21699
22143
22588
23035
23484
23934
24386
24839
25294
25751
26209
26669
27130
27593
28058
28525
28993
29462
29934
30407
30881
31357
31835
32314
32795
33278
33762
34248
34735
35224
35714
36206
36699
37194
37690
38188
38688
39189
166.1
166.7
167.3
167.9
168.4
169
169.6
170.1
170.6
171.2
171.7
172.2
172.7
173.2
173.7
174.2
174.7
175.2
175.6
176.1
176.6
177
177.5
177.9
178.3
178.8
179.2
179.6
180.0
180.5
180.9
181.3
181.7
182.1
182.5
182.9
183.2
183.6
184.0
184.4
T
h
kJ kmol-1
K
1800 54657
1820 55327
1840 55999
1860 56673
1880 57346
1900 58022
1920 58699
1940 59378
1960 60058
1980 60740
2000 61423
2050 63136
2100 64858
2150 66588
2200 68326
2250 70072
2300 71827
2350 73589
2400 75358
2450 77135
2500 78920
2550 80712
2600 82511
2650 84317
2700 86130
2750 87949
2800 89776
2850 91609
2900 93448
2950 95294
3000 97146
3050 99005
3100 100869
3150 102739
3200 104615
45
u
s
39691
40195
40700
41208
41715
42225
42736
43248
43762
44277
44794
46091
47397
48712
50034
51365
52704
54050
55404
56765
58134
59510
60893
62284
63681
65085
66496
67913
69337
70767
72203
73646
75094
76549
78009
184.8
185.1
185.5
185.9
186.2
186.6
186.9
187.3
187.6
188.0
188.3
189.2
190.0
190.8
191.6
192.4
193.2
193.9
194.7
195.4
196.1
196.8
197.5
198.2
198.9
199.6
200.2
200.9
201.5
202.1
202.8
203.4
204.0
204.6
205.2
Specific heats at constant pressure

cp (kJkg-1K-1)
H2
H2O
T (K)
CH4
CO2
CO
N2
O2
220
2.251
0.742
1.084
12.500
1.894
0.946
0.991
230
240
250
260
2.230
2.216
2.210
2.210
0.756
0.769
0.782
0.795
1.074
1.066
1.059
1.054
12.900
13.230
13.490
13.700
1.888
1.883
1.879
1.876
0.978
1.001
1.016
1.026
0.972
0.956
0.945
0.936
270
280
2.215
2.224
0.807
0.819
1.049
1.046
13.870
14.010
1.874
1.873
1.033
1.038
0.930
0.926
290
2.237
0.831
1.043
14.120
1.872
1.040
0.923
298
2.250
0.840
1.042
14.190
1.872
1.041
0.922
300
320
340
360
380
2.253
2.295
2.345
2.402
2.464
0.842
0.863
0.884
0.903
0.921
1.041
1.039
1.039
1.040
1.042
14.210
14.330
14.410
14.460
14.480
1.872
1.874
1.878
1.883
1.890
1.042
1.042
1.042
1.041
1.041
0.922
0.921
0.924
0.928
0.934
400
2.531
0.938
1.045
14.490
1.898
1.042
0.940
420
440
460
2.600
2.671
2.743
0.955
0.971
0.986
1.048
1.052
1.057
14.490
14.490
14.490
1.907
1.917
1.927
1.043
1.045
1.048
0.947
0.953
0.960
480
500
2.816
2.890
1.000
1.014
1.061
1.066
14.480
14.480
1.939
1.950
1.051
1.054
0.967
0.974
550
600
650
700
750
3.074
3.255
3.431
3.601
3.763
1.046
1.075
1.101
1.125
1.146
1.079
1.092
1.105
1.118
1.130
14.480
14.490
14.520
14.570
14.620
1.982
2.015
2.049
2.085
2.120
1.065
1.077
1.089
1.102
1.114
0.990
1.005
1.019
1.031
1.043
800
900
1000
3.918
4.207
4.466
1.166
1.202
1.231
1.141
1.163
1.183
14.690
14.850
15.030
2.156
2.226
2.296
1.126
1.149
1.169
1.053
1.071
1.087
1100
1200
1300
1400
1500
1600
1700
4.698
4.905
5.089
5.252
5.396
5.521
5.631
1.257
1.278
1.297
1.313
1.327
1.339
1.349
1.200
1.216
1.230
1.243
1.254
1.264
1.273
15.230
15.430
15.630
15.830
16.030
16.230
16.420
2.362
2.426
2.488
2.546
2.601
2.653
2.702
1.187
1.203
1.217
1.230
1.241
1.251
1.260
1.101
1.113
1.124
1.134
1.143
1.152
1.160
46
Molar Gibbs function at atmospheric pressure

g~ (kJkmol-1)
T (K)
220
250
CH4
-31354
-36686
C2H4
-38311
-44611
CO
-35122
-40837
CO2
-38047
-44206
H2
-20597
-24319
H2O
-31995
-37415
N2
-33786
-39326
NO
-37519
-43623
O2
-36762
-42698
298.15
-45507
-55023
-50228
-54346
-30495
-46363
-48427
-53646
-52449
300
400
500
600
700
-45852
-65063
-85297
-106460
-128494
-55430
-78139
-102174
-127455
-153911
-50594
-70805
-91757
-113309
-135373
-54742
-76713
-99722
-123627
-148321
-30737
-44260
-58519
-73366
-88703
-46712
-66115
-86382
-107355
-128937
-48782
-68390
-88736
-109678
-131124
-54036
-75581
-97882
-120799
-144240
-52828
-73795
-95522
-117876
-140767
800
900
1000
-151355
-175001
-199398
-181476
-210088
-239690
-157885
-180798
-204074
-173724
-199769
-226403
-104461
-120589
-137051
-151056
-173661
-196713
-153013
-175296
-197938
-168142
-192454
-217137
-164131
-187917
-212084
47
Heat Transfer
Fouriers Law
dT
Q& = kA
dx
Newtons Law
Q& Conv = hAs (Ts T )
Radiation heat transfer
Q Emit = AsTs4
1-D heat conduction equation
1 n T
T ,
r k
+ g& = C
n
r
r r
t
where n = 0 for a flat wall, n = 1 cylinder and n = 3 sphere

Radiative heat transfer coefficient
2
hRad = (Ts2 + TSurr
)(Ts + TSurr )
Thermal resistance
Resistors in series
R1
R2
R3
Rn
Rtotal = R1 + R2 + R3 + ... + R n
R1
Resistors in parallel
1
1
1
1
1
=
+
+
+ ... +
Rtotal
R1 R 2 R 3
Rn
R2
R3
Rn
Resistance for 1D heat flow through a cylinder

Rtotal =
1
ln(r2 / r1 )
1
+
+
(2r1 L )h1 2Lk (2r2 L)h2
r2
Resistance for 1D heat flow through a sphere

Rtotal =
r2 r1
1
1
+
+
2
2
4r1 h1 4r1r2 k 4r2 h2
Heat flow in multilayered cylinders and spheres

Ti T j
between any two interfaces i and j
Q& =
Rtotal ,i j
48
r1
Heat exchangers
Heat transfer in a well insulated heat exchanger is given by the heat transfer from
the hot or to the cold fluids
Q& = Cc (Tc,out Tc ,in ) = Ch (Th,in Th ,out ) .
It can also be determined using the Log Mean Temperature Difference (LMTD)
from Q& = UATlm where
Tlm,CF =
T1 T2 and
T1 = Th , in Tc , out ; T2 = Th , out Tc , in
ln(T1 / T2 )
Number of Transfer Units,
NTU =
Heat exchanger effectiveness
where
Qmax = Cmin (Th ,in Tc ,in )
Q& ,
Qmax
Heat exchanger approach temperature

so = 1
hAs
m& C p
Ta = Th ,in Tc ,out
Ta
.
Th ,in Th ,out
Finned surfaces
Fin heat transfer
Q Long
Fin
= hpkA c (Tb T ) ,
Qinsulated tip = hpkAc (Tb T ) tanh aL
Fin effectiveness
Fin efficiency
49
Q& fin
Q no fin
Q& fin
Q fin max
kP ,
hAc
Correction factors for LMTD method

Shell-and-tube heat exchanger with one shell pass and 2n tube passes (n=1,2,3,..)
1.0
R=
Th,in Th,out
Tc,out Tc,in
0.9
0.8
6.0
4.0 3.0
2.0
1.5
0.6
1.0 0.8
0.4
0.2
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
P=
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
Tc,out Tc,in
Th,in Tc,in
Shell-and-tube heat exchanger with two shell passes and 4n tube passes (n=1,2,3,..)
1.0
R=
Th,in Th,out
Tc,out Tc,in
0.9
0.8
6.0
4.0
3.0
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
F
0.7
0.6
0.5
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
P=
0.5
0.6
Tc, out Tc,in

Th, in Tc,in
50
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
NTU-effectiveness
Shell-and-tube heat exchanger with one shell pass and 2n tube passes (n=1,2,3,..)
1
0
0.25
0.8
0.50
0.75
0.6
Cmin / Cmax = 1.00
0.4
0.2
NTU
Shell-and-tube heat exchanger with two shell passes and 4n tube passes (n=1,2,3,..)
1
0.25
0.50
0.75
0.8
Cmin / Cmax = 1.00
0.6
0.4
0.2
NTU
51
Thermodynamic Properties of Gases, Liquids and Solids

Properties of various gases (100 kPa and 300K)
Molar Mass
Cv
-1
kg kmol kJkg-1K-1
Air
28.97
0.7197
Ammonia
17.03
1.661
Argon
39.95
0.3124
Carbon Dioxide
44.01
0.6593
Helium
4.003
3.116
Hydrogen
2.016
10.19
Methane
16.04
1.713
Isobutane
58.12
1.701
Nitrogen
28.01
0.7441
Oxygen
32.00
0.6581
Propane
44.10
1.698
Steam
18.02
-
Cp
kJkg-1K-1
1.007
2.180
0.5215
0.8525
5.193
14.31
2.236
1.541
1.042
0.9193
1.496
-
1.399
1.313
1.669
1.293
1.667
1.405
1.305
1.104
1.401
1.397
1.135
-
k
Wm-1K-1
0.02565
0.02486
0.01787
0.01677
0.1572
0.1779
0.03438
0.01712
0.02588
0.02669
0.01852
0.01867
Pc
Tc
105
-1 -1
MPa
kgm s
K
1.857
3.786 132.5
1.031
11.30 405.4
2.285
4.863 150.7
1.502
7.377 304.1
2.027 0.2275 5.195
0.9093 1.315 33.19
1.125
4.599 190.6
0.7561 36.40 407.8
1.823
3.398 126.2
2.099
5.043 154.6
0.8295 42.47 369.8
0.9815 22.06 647.1
Note: the actual values of are 105 times smaller than the figures given e.g. air = 0.00001857 kgm-1s-1.
Transport properties of various liquids

Name
Temp
(C)
Density
kg m-3
Cv
kJkg-1K-1
k
Wm-1K-1
Water
Glycerine
Engine Oil-SAE60
Engine Oil-SAE60
Mercury
Sodium
R134a (1MPa)
n-butane (2MPa)
10
10
10
100
10
400
0
10
1000
1270
893.7
840
13571
846.5
1298
592.7
4.182
2.319
1.839
2.22
0.14
1.293
0.8787
1.669
0.5672
0.2846
0.1443
0.1367
8.313
70.18
0.09522
0.1123
kgm-1s-1
0.001312
4.293
1.819
0.01718
0.001627
0.0002637
0.0002686
0.0001886
Thermodynamic properties of various metals at 300K (unless stated)

Name
Aluminium
Carbon steel
Copper
Gold
Iron and steel
Lead
Magnesium
Stainless steel
Titanium
kg m-3
2702
7854
8933
19300
7870
11340
1740
8053
4500
Cv
kJkg-1K-1
0.903
0.434
0.385
0.129
0.447
0.129
1.024
0.4815
0.522
k
Wm-1K-1
237
60.5
401
317
80.2
35.3
156
15.2
21.9
52
(polished)
Wm-2K-4
0.07
0.066
0.03
0.07
0.3
0.28 (grey)
0.55
0.17
0.12
(oxidised)
W m-2 K-4
0.82 (anodised)
0.90
0.50 (600K)
0.025
0.61 (rusted)
0.63
0.20
0.33 (800K)
0.49 (800K)
Thermodynamic properties of various solids at 300K

Name
Al-silica blanket
Brick-common
Cement mortar
Concrete and stone mix
Glass fibre duct liner
Glass-soda lime
Gypsum plaster
Hardwoods (oak, maple)
Ice (<273K)
Particle board-high density
Polyethylene
Polystyrene moulded beads
PVC (poly vinyl chloride)
Rock-granite
Rock-limestone
Rockwool Loosely packed
Rubber-vulcanized soft
Silicon Carbide
Softwoods (fir, pine)
Soil
Urethane (two part, rigid)
Vermiculite flakes
kg m-3
64
1920
1860
2100
32
2500
1440
720
920
1000
960
16
1700
2630
2320
64
1100
3150
510
2050
70
120
Cv
kJkg-1K-1
0.903
0.4593
0.78
0.88
0.835
0.75
0.85
1.255
2.168
1.3
2.1
1.21
1.1
0.775
0.81
2.01
0.68
1.38
1.84
1.04
0.065
Emissivities of various surfaces at 300K

Name
Aluminium paint
Asphalt
Enamel (white)
Paint (black)
Paint (white)
Paper (white)
Snow (<273K)
Zinc (galvanised surface)
W m-2 K-4
0.50
0.88
0.90
0.98
0.90
0.95
0.86
0.23
53
k
Wm-1K-1
0.003
0.72
0.72
1.38
0.038
1.4
0.48
0.16
1.678
0.17
0.33
0.04
0.09
2.79
2.15
0.067
0.13
490
0.12
0.52
0.026
900
W m-2 K-4
0.40
0.95
0.90
0.90
0.90
0.91
0.82
0.96
0.88
0.95
0.87
0.92
0.95
-
Thermodynamic properties of gaseous steam and R134a, and air

Gaseous R134a at low pressure
Gaseous steam at low pressure
0
20
40
60
80
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
450
500
600
700
Cp
kJkg-1K-1
1.858
1.866
1.874
1.882
1.891
1.900
1.924
1.950
1.977
2.005
2.035
2.065
2.097
2.129
2.196
2.264
800
2.331
T (C)
k
Wm-1K-1
0.01707
0.01823
0.01960
0.02119
0.02301
0.02508
0.02886
0.03328
0.03817
0.04342
0.04897
0.05476
0.06077
0.06698
0.07990
0.09338
105
kgm-1s-1
0.9216
0.9727
1.031
1.093
1.159
1.227
1.418
1.618
1.822
2.029
2.237
2.445
2.652
2.857
3.262
3.655
Pr
T (C)
Cp
kJkg-1K-1
0.6703
0.7006
0.7324
0.7654
0.7995
0.8349
0.8712
0.9089
0.9478
0.9879
1.0287
1.0719
1.1159
1.1611
k
105
Wm-1K-1 kgm-1s-1
0.008113 0.9335
0.009131 0.9727
0.01009
1.012
0.011000 1.051
0.01188
1.089
0.01273
1.128
0.01354
1.166
0.01432
1.205
0.01507
1.243
0.01579
1.281
0.01647
1.319
0.01712
1.357
0.01774
1.395
0.01832
1.433
1.003
-40
0.771
0.995
-30
0.746
0.986
-20
0.735
0.971
-10
0.731
0.953
0
0.733
0.930
10
0.740
0.945
20
0.750
0.948
30
0.765
0.944
40
0.782
0.937
50
0.801
0.929
60
0.824
0.922
70
0.850
0.915
80
0.877
0.908
90
0.908
5
0.896 Note: the actual values of are 10 times smaller than the
0.886 figures given. For example, the viscosity of gaseous R134a at
0.10730 4.038 0.877
0C is 0.00001089 kgm-1s-1.
Air tables (100 kPa, but usable for most pressures)

T (K)
150
200
250
260
280
300
320
340
350
400
450
500
600
700
800
1000
1200
1400
1600
1800
2000
2500
3000
Cp
kJkg-1K-1
0.9432
0.9882
1.005
1.006
1.006
1.007
1.007
1.007
1.008
1.012
1.019
1.028
1.051
1.075
1.099
1.140
1.173
1.199
1.220
1.236
1.249
1.274
1.291
Cv
kJkg-1K-1
0.6562
0.7012
0.7176
0.7185
0.7194
0.7197
0.7199
0.7203
0.7207
0.7246
0.7316
0.7409
0.7636
0.7880
0.8117
0.8532
0.8863
0.9122
0.9326
0.9489
0.9621
0.9866
1.004
Pr
1.437
1.409
1.400
1.399
1.399
1.399
1.399
1.398
1.398
1.396
1.392
1.387
1.376
1.364
1.354
1.336
1.324
1.315
1.308
1.302
1.298
1.291
1.286
k
Wm-1K-1
0.01393
0.01797
0.02187
0.02264
0.02415
0.02565
0.02712
0.02858
0.02930
0.03283
0.03625
0.03955
0.04582
0.05168
0.05716
0.06706
0.07576
0.08347
0.09042
0.09682
0.1029
0.1182
0.1364
54
105
kgm-1s-1
1.045
1.346
1.614
1.664
1.763
1.857
1.949
2.038
2.082
2.292
2.489
2.676
3.024
3.344
3.641
4.180
4.662
5.098
5.497
5.865
6.204
6.953
7.582
Pr
0.7076
0.7406
0.7414
0.7394
0.7345
0.7290
0.7236
0.7185
0.7161
0.7062
0.6996
0.6956
0.6935
0.6956
0.6999
0.7108
0.7220
0.7325
0.7415
0.7486
0.7531
0.7491
0.7177
International standard atmosphere
z
m
-2500
-2000
-1500
-1000
-500
p
kPa
135.21
127.78
120.70
113.93
107.48
K
kg m-3
304.4 1.5473
301.2 1.4782
297.9 1.4114
294.7 1.3470
291.4 1.2849
m
10500
11000
11500
12000
12500
kPa
1.2250
1.1673
1.1117
1.0582
1.0066
0.9570
0.9093
0.8634
0.8194
0.7770
0.7365
13000
13500
14000
14500
15000
15500
16000
16500
17000
17500
18000
16.58
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
4000
4500
5000
101.33
95.46
89.88
84.56
79.50
74.69
70.12
65.78
61.66
57.75
54.05
288.2
284.9
281.7
278.4
275.2
271.9
268.7
265.4
262.2
258.9
255.7
5500
6000
6500
7000
7500
50.54
47.22
44.08
41.11
38.30
252.4
249.2
245.9
242.7
239.5
0.6975
0.6602
0.6243
0.5901
0.5573
8000
8500
9000
9500
10000
35.65
33.15
30.80
28.58
26.50
236.2
233.0
229.7
226.5
223.3
0.5258
0.4958
0.4671
0.4397
0.4136
24.54
22.70
20.98
19.40
17.93
K
kg m-3
220.0 0.3886
216.8 0.3648
216.7 0.3375
216.7 0.3119
216.7 0.2884
15.33
14.17
13.10
12.11
11.20
10.35
9.57
8.85
8.18
7.57
216.7
216.7
216.7
216.7
216.7
216.7
216.7
216.7
216.7
216.7
216.7
0.2666
0.2465
0.2279
0.2107
0.1948
0.1801
0.1665
0.1539
0.1423
0.1316
0.1216
18500
19000
19500
20000
22000
7.00
6.47
5.98
5.53
4.05
216.7
216.7
216.7
216.7
218.6
0.1125
0.1040
0.0962
0.0889
0.0645
24000
26000
28000
30000
32000
2.97
2.19
1.62
1.20
0.89
220.6
222.5
224.5
226.5
228.5
0.0469
0.0343
0.0251
0.0184
0.0136
Temperature lapse rates are based on the US standard atmosphere 1976.
55
FLOW OF FLUIDS
Nomenclature
b
c
C
Cf
D
D
f
g
l
L
Le
P
q
Q&
Q
r
R
R
Re
S
u, v, w
U
V
W&
x
z
*
wingspan
speed of sound
velocity
skin friction coefficient
diameter
drag force (p. 62)
force, body force
gravity
reference length (usually mean chord)
lift force
flow development length
pressure
dynamic pressure
heat transfer rate (heat in)
volume flow rate
radial distance
radius
gas constant
Reynolds number
reference area (usually wing area)
velocity components in the x, y, z directions, respectively
free stream velocity
1D velocity
power (work out)
axial distance
elevation from a datum
displacement thickness
ratio of specific heats
aspect ratio
dynamic viscosity
momentum thickness
density
shear stress
kinematic viscosity
conditions at the wall
free stream conditions
56
m
ms-1
ms-1
m
N
N
ms-2
m
N
m
Nm-2
Nm-2
W
m3s-1
m
m
kJkg-1k -1
m2
ms-1
ms-1
ms-1
W
m
m
m
Pas
m
m3kg-1
Nm-2
Nms-1
Bernoulli's equation
P + 12 C2 + gz = constant
Bernoulli's equation with losses

1
2
(C 22 C12 ) + g (z 2 z1 ) + P2 P1 + Ploss = 0
Steady flow energy equation

1
2
C22 C12 + g (z 2 z1 ) + Ploss =
& W
& W
&
&
Q
Q
=
Q
C1A1
Newtons law of viscosity

=
du
dy
Laminar flow
For a horizontal tube (Poiseuille Flow )
dP 1
u=
( R2 r 2 );
dx 4
d 4 P
dP R 4 R 4 P
Q=
=
=
dx 8
8l
128l
For flow between parallel plates:

Q=
Mean hydraulic diameter
dP bc 3 bc 3P
=
dx 12
12l
4 Area
Perimeter
Force momentum equation (FME) about axis x
Fx = ( m& C)out- ( m& C)in
Torque momentum equation (TME)

General
1D
T =( O&
&
O
in A
& = ArC 2 )
& =m
where O
& rC (for a liquid O
TA = m& (rout C out rin C in )
A
out
Speed of sound (in a perfect gas)
a = RT
57
Pressure loss coefficients

Pressure loss coefficient in circular pipes P = 1 C2 4fl
2
d
f is taken from the Moody Diagram (page 59) or:

Laminar flow
Colebrook-White (implicit)
16
1.255
1

f=
= log10
+
Re
f
3.7d Re f
Swami and Jaine (explicit)

0.25
f =
5.745

log10
+
0.9
3.7d Re
Pressure losses in expansions and contractions: k = loss coefficient

Sudden expansion
Sudden contraction P = k 12 C22
P = k 12 C12
where
A
k = 1 1
A2
d 2 d1
k
0
0.50
0.2
0.45
0.4
0.38
0.6
0.28
0.8
0.14
1.0
0
Pressure loss coefficient of conical diffuser

1.4
1.2
1
A2/A1 = 9
0.8
0.6
2.2
0.4
0.2
0
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
Angle 2 between sides of pipe
Loss coefficients for pipe fittings (smooth pipe). Tees assume equal flows.
90 Elbow (Sharp)
1.0
90 Elbow (Gradual)
45 Elbow (Sharp)
0.3
45 Elbow (Gradual)
90 Combining Tee (line flow) 0.5
90 Combining Tee (branch flow)
45 Combining Tee (line flow) 0.15
45 Combining Tee (branch flow)
90 Dividing Tee (line flow)
0.0
90 Dividing Tee (branch flow)
45 Dividing Tee (line flow)
0.0
45 Dividing Tee (branch flow)
58
0.2
0.1
0.5
0.15
0.85
0.45
Moody diagram
Laminar flow
f =16/Red
0.05
P = 21 C2
Pipe roughness /d
0.1
4fl
d
Friction factor f
Transition
Complete
turbulence
0.02
0.05
0.04
0.02
0.015
0.01
0.005
0.01
0.005
0.002
Material
Concrete, coarse
Concrete, new smooth
Drawn tubing
Glass, plastic, Perspex
Iron, cast
Sewers, old
Steel, mortar lined
Steel, rusted
Steel, structural or forged
Water mains, old
0.001
Moody diagram
1.E+02
102
1.E+03
103
(mm)
0.25
0.025
0.0025
0.0025
0.15
3.0
0.1
0.5
0.025
1.0
0.002
0.001
-4
510
-4
210
-4
10
-5
510
-5
10
-6
510
-6
10
0
Smooth
Pipe
1.E+04
104
1.E+05
105
1.E+06
106
Reynolds
number
59
1.E+07
107 Cd
Re =
1.E+08
108
Boundary layers
Boundary layer on a flat-plate with zero pressure gradient
Boundary conditions
y=0: u=v=0
y = : u = U
Blasius solution
= y
U
x
f' =
u
U
U
x
= y
f''
f' =
u
U
f''
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
0
0.00664
0.02656
0.05974
0.10611
0
0.06641
0.13277
0.19894
0.26471
0.33206
0.33199
0.33147
0.33008
0.32739
4.6
4.8
5.0
5.2
5.4
2.88826
3.08534
3.28329
3.48189
3.68094
0.98269
0.98779
0.99155
0.99425
0.99616
0.02948
0.02187
0.01591
0.01134
0.00793
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
0.16557
0.23795
0.32298
0.42032
0.52952
0.32979
0.39378
0.45627
0.51676
0.57477
0.32301
0.31659
0.30787
0.29667
0.28293
5.6
5.8
6.0
6.2
6.4
3.88031
4.07990
4.27964
4.47946
4.67938
0.99748
0.99838
0.99898
0.99937
0.99961
0.00543
0.00365
0.00240
0.00155
0.00098
2.0
2.2
2.4
2.6
2.8
0.65003
0.78120
0.92230
1.07252
1.23099
0.62977
0.68132
0.72899
0.77246
0.81152
0.26675
0.24835
0.22809
0.20646
0.18401
6.6
6.8
7.0
7.2
7.4
4.87931
5.07928
5.27926
5.47925
5.67924
0.99977
0.99987
0.99992
0.99996
0.99998
0.00061
0.00037
0.00022
0.00013
0.00007
3.0
3.2
3.4
3.6
3.8
1.39682
1.56911
1.74696
1.92954
2.11605
0.84605
0.87609
0.90177
0.92333
0.94112
0.16136
0.13913
0.11788
0.09809
0.08013
7.6
7.8
8.0
8.2
8.4
5.87924
6.07923
6.27923
6.47923
6.67923
0.99999
1.00000
1.00000
1.00000
1.00000
0.00004
0.00002
0.00001
0.00001
0.00000
4.0
4.2
4.4
2.30576
2.49806
2.69238
0.95552
0.96696
0.97587
0.06424
0.05052
0.03897
8.6
8.8
6.87923 1.00000
7.07923 1.00000
0.00000
0.00000
Displacement thickness:
* = 1.7208
Momentum thickness:
= 0.664
Skin friction coefficient:
Cf =
Flow development length

Laminar flow :
Turbulent flow :
x
U
ux
U
1 U 2
0.664
Re x
Le /D = 0.06 ReD
Le /D = 4.4 (ReD)1/6
60
=2
d
dx
Equations of motion
In Cartesian coordinates
Local energy conservation equation
r
r
r
r
r
( u )
+ div pu .V = div p .V + g .V + div .V div(q ) + q& prod
t
( ) ( )
( )
Continuity equation
( u ) ( v ) ( w )
= 0
+
+
+
t
y
z
x
Navier Stokes equations

x-direction : velocity component u
u ( u )u ( v )u ( w )u
+
+
+
=
z
t
x
y
r
u 2
x x 3
) + y vx + uy + z wx + uz Px + f x
y-direction : velocity component v

v ( u ) v ( v ) v ( w ) v
+
+
+
=
t
x
y
z
r
v u v 2
+ + 2 V
x x y y y 3
) + z wy + vz Py + f y
z-direction : velocity component w

w ( u ) ( v )w ( w )w
+
+
+
=
t
x
y
z
r
w u w v w 2
+
+
2
V
x x z y y z z z 3
Divergence of a vector in Cartesian coordinates:

r A
A A
divA = x + z + z
z
x
y
61
) Pz + f z
Equations of motion
In cylindrical coordinates
Continuity equation
1 v r 1 v v z
+
+
+
=0
t r dr r d
dz
Navier Stokes equation
r-direction : velocity component vr
vr
vr
v v r
vr
v2
+ vr
+
+ vz
=
t
r
r
z
r
`
1 v r 1 2 v r 2 v r v r
r
1
2 v 1 P
+ fr
V +
+
r
+ 2
2
2
2
2
3 r
r
r
r
r
r
r
z
-direction : velocity component v
v r v
v
v
vr
v v
+ vr
+
+ vz
+
=
t
r
z
r
r
1 v 1 2 v 2 v v
r
1
2 vr 1 P
+ f
+
+
V +
r
2
2
2
2
2
3 r
r
r
r
r
z
r
r
z-direction : velocity component vz
vz
vz
+ vr
t
r
1 v
r
1
V +
r z
3 z
r r r
v v z
v z
+
+ vz
=
r
z
2
2
1 v z v r 1 P + f
+
+
z
2
2
2
r
z
z
Divergence of a vector in cylindrical coordinates.

In cylindrical (polar) coordinates a vector,
by its components Ar , A/ , Az such that:
r
A , is known
r
r
r
r
A = Ar er + A/ e/ + Az e z
In this system of coordinates but the divergence of a

r
vector is: divA = 1 (rA ) + 1 (A ) + ( A )
r
z
r r
r / / z
Divergence of a vector in spherical
coordinates
r
In spherical coordinates a vector, A , is known
by its components ( Ar , A/ , A ) such that
r
r
r
r
A = Ar er + A/ e/ + A e
And divA =
1 2
1
(
)
(sin A )
r
A
+
A
+
r
/
r sin /
r sin
r 2 r
62
Turbulence
3
L=
4
Integral length scale (m):
Kolmogorov length scale (m):

-1
Kolmogorov velocity (ms ):

2 -3
Turbulence dissipation (m s ):
Reynolds number:
E(k)k dk
E(k)dk
1
1
4

1
4
3
4
vk
1
4
u'3
L
Re L =
u' L L
=
4
3
where
vk
=
=
=
energy spectrum (m3s-2)

rms value of the turbulence velocity fluctuation (ms-1)
Kolmogorov velocity (ms-1)
kinematic viscosity (m2s-1)
E(k)
u'
so that Re =
v k
=1
63
Aerodynamics and High-Speed Flow

Also see Some Dimensionless Groups (page 8).
3D coefficients for wings
Pressure coefficient:
Cp =
p p
q
Skin friction coefficient:
Cf =
Lift coefficient:
CL =
L
q S
Drag coefficient:
CD =
D
q S
Moment coefficient:
CM =
M
q Sl
2
Induced drag coefficient:
CDi
C
= L
1
b2
2
where q = V and =
2
S
Velocity potential
Velocity potential function:
Laplace equation for velocity potential:

2
2
x
2
y
64
2
z
=0
Shock waves
Dynamic relations for gas
e = cvT
c p cv = R
h = c pT
cp
cv
Isentropic flow properties
( - 1)/2
(+1)/2(-1)
=
=
=
o 1 2
= 1+
M

2
T
o = 1 + 1 M 2
T
2
1.400
0.200
3
+1
1 2 2( 1)
A
1 1 + 2 M
=
A* M 1 + 1
2
1
1
P
o = 1 + 1 M 2 1
P
2
Normal shock properties
=
( - 1)/2 =
2/( -1) =
2/( -1) =
/( -1) =
P2 1 + M12
=
P1 1 + M 22
1.400
0.200
5.000
7.000
3.5
1
2 M1 +
=
1 M 2 1 +
1 2
M2
2
1 2
M1
2
0.5
1 2
M1
T2
2
=
T1 1 + 1M 2
2
2
1+
M 1, v 1, h 1
p1, T 1, 1
M2, v 2, h 2
p2, T 2, 2
1 2
Po 2 P2 1 + 2 M 2
=
Po1 P1 1 + 1 M 2
1
Po 2 Po 2 Po1
=
P1
Po1 P1
Normal shock
65
Isentropic flow properties for = 1.4

M A/A* Po/P To/T / M A/A* Po/P To/T / M A/A* Po/P To/T /
0.02 28.942 1.000 1.000 1.000 0.62 1.166 1.296 1.077 1.203 1.22 1.037 2.489 1.298 1.918
0.04 14.481 1.001 1.000 1.001 0.64 1.145 1.317 1.082 1.218 1.24 1.043 2.556 1.308 1.955
0.06 9.666 1.003 1.001 1.002 0.66 1.127 1.340 1.087 1.232 1.26 1.050 2.625 1.318 1.992
0.08 7.262 1.004 1.001 1.003 0.68 1.110 1.363 1.092 1.247 1.28 1.058 2.697 1.328 2.031
0.10 5.822 1.007 1.002 1.005 0.70 1.094 1.387 1.098 1.263 1.30 1.066 2.771 1.338 2.071
0.12 4.864 1.010 1.003 1.007 0.72 1.081 1.412 1.104 1.280 1.32 1.075 2.847 1.348 2.112
0.14 4.182 1.014 1.004 1.010 0.74 1.068 1.439 1.110 1.297 1.34 1.084 2.927 1.359 2.153
0.16 3.673 1.018 1.005 1.013 0.76 1.057 1.466 1.116 1.314 1.36 1.094 3.009 1.370 2.197
0.18 3.278 1.023 1.006 1.016 0.78 1.047 1.495 1.122 1.333 1.38 1.104 3.094 1.381 2.241
0.20 2.964 1.028 1.008 1.020 0.80 1.038 1.524 1.128 1.351 1.40 1.115 3.182 1.392 2.286
0.22 2.708 1.034 1.010 1.024 0.82 1.030 1.555 1.134 1.371 1.42 1.126 3.273 1.403 2.333
0.24 2.496 1.041 1.012 1.029 0.84 1.024 1.587 1.141 1.391 1.44 1.138 3.368 1.415 2.381
0.26 2.317 1.048 1.014 1.034 0.86 1.018 1.621 1.148 1.412 1.46 1.150 3.465 1.426 2.430
0.28 2.166 1.056 1.016 1.040 0.88 1.013 1.655 1.155 1.433 1.48 1.163 3.566 1.438 2.480
0.30 2.035 1.064 1.018 1.046 0.90 1.009 1.691 1.162 1.456 1.50 1.176 3.671 1.450 2.532
0.32 1.922 1.074 1.020 1.052 0.92 1.006 1.729 1.169 1.478 1.52 1.190 3.779 1.462 2.585
0.34 1.823 1.083 1.023 1.059 0.94 1.003 1.767 1.177 1.502 1.54 1.204 3.891 1.474 2.639
0.36 1.736 1.094 1.026 1.066 0.96 1.001 1.808 1.184 1.526 1.56 1.219 4.007 1.487 2.695
0.38 1.659 1.105 1.029 1.074 0.98 1.000 1.850 1.192 1.552 1.58 1.234 4.127 1.499 2.752
0.40 1.590 1.117 1.032 1.082 1.00 1.000 1.893 1.200 1.577 1.60 1.250 4.250 1.512 2.811
0.42 1.529 1.129 1.035 1.091 1.02 1.000 1.938 1.208 1.604 1.62 1.267 4.378 1.525 2.871
0.44 1.474 1.142 1.039 1.100 1.04 1.001 1.985 1.216 1.632 1.64 1.284 4.511 1.538 2.933
0.46 1.425 1.156 1.042 1.109 1.06 1.003 2.033 1.225 1.660 1.66 1.301 4.648 1.551 2.996
0.48 1.380 1.171 1.046 1.119 1.08 1.005 2.083 1.233 1.689 1.68 1.319 4.790 1.564 3.061
0.50 1.340 1.186 1.050 1.130 1.10 1.008 2.135 1.242 1.719 1.70 1.338 4.936 1.578 3.128
0.52 1.303 1.202 1.054 1.141 1.12 1.011 2.189 1.251 1.750 1.72 1.357 5.087 1.592 3.196
0.54 1.270 1.219 1.058 1.152 1.14 1.015 2.245 1.260 1.782 1.74 1.376 5.244 1.606 3.266
0.56 1.240 1.237 1.063 1.164 1.16 1.020 2.303 1.269 1.814 1.76 1.397 5.406 1.620 3.338
0.58 1.213 1.256 1.067 1.177 1.18 1.025 2.363 1.278 1.848 1.78 1.418 5.573 1.634 3.411
0.60 1.188 1.276 1.072 1.190 1.20 1.030 2.425 1.288 1.883 1.80 1.439 5.746 1.648 3.487
66
Isentropic flow properties for = 1.4

M A/A* Po/P To/T / M A/A* Po/P To/T / M A/A* Po/P To/T /
1.82 1.461 5.924 1.662 3.564 2.42 2.448 15.08 2.171 6.947 3.05 4.441 39.59 2.861 13.84
1.84 1.484 6.109 1.677 3.643 2.44 2.494 15.56 2.191 7.103 3.10 4.657 42.65 2.922 14.59
1.86 1.507 6.300 1.692 3.723 2.46 2.540 16.05 2.210 7.263 3.15 4.884 45.93 2.985 15.39
1.88 1.531 6.497 1.707 3.806 2.48 2.588 16.56 2.230 7.427 3.20 5.121 49.44 3.048 16.22
1.90 1.555 6.701 1.722 3.891 2.50 2.637 17.09 2.250 7.594 3.25 5.369 53.20 3.113 17.09
1.92 1.580 6.911 1.737 3.978 2.52 2.686 17.63 2.270 7.764 3.30 5.629 57.22 3.178 18.00
1.94 1.606 7.128 1.753 4.067 2.54 2.737 18.18 2.290 7.939 3.35 5.900 61.52 3.245 18.96
1.96 1.633 7.353 1.768 4.158 2.56 2.789 18.75 2.311 8.116 3.40 6.184 66.12 3.312 19.96
1.98 1.660 7.585 1.784 4.251 2.58 2.842 19.35 2.331 8.298 3.45 6.480 71.03 3.381 21.01
2.00 1.688 7.824 1.800 4.347 2.60 2.896 19.95 2.352 8.484 3.50 6.790 76.27 3.450 22.11
2.02 1.716 8.072 1.816 4.445 2.62 2.951 20.58 2.373 8.673 3.60 7.450 87.84 3.592 24.45
2.04 1.745 8.327 1.832 4.545 2.64 3.007 21.23 2.394 8.867 3.70 8.169 101.0 3.738 27.01
2.06 1.775 8.591 1.849 4.647 2.66 3.065 21.89 2.415 9.065 3.80 8.951 115.9 3.888 29.81
2.08 1.806 8.863 1.865 4.752 2.68 3.123 22.58 2.436 9.266 3.90 9.799 132.8 4.042 32.85
2.10 1.837 9.145 1.882 4.859 2.70 3.183 23.28 2.458 9.472 4.00 10.72 151.8 4.200 36.15
2.12 1.869 9.435 1.899 4.969 2.72 3.244 24.01 2.480 9.683 4.10 11.71 173.3 4.362 39.74
2.14 1.902 9.735 1.916 5.081 2.74 3.306 24.76 2.502 9.897 4.20 12.79 197.5 4.528 43.63
2.16 1.935 10.04 1.933 5.196 2.76 3.370 25.53 2.524 10.12 4.30 13.95 224.7 4.698 47.84
2.18 1.970 10.36 1.950 5.313 2.78 3.434 26.32 2.546 10.34 4.40 15.21 255.3 4.872 52.39
2.20 2.005 10.69 1.968 5.433 2.80 3.500 27.14 2.568 10.57 4.50 16.56 289.4 5.050 57.31
2.22 2.041 11.03 1.986 5.556 2.82 3.567 27.98 2.590 10.80 4.75 20.41 393.3 5.513 71.35
2.24 2.078 11.38 2.004 5.682 2.84 3.636 28.84 2.613 11.04 5.00 25.00 529.1 6.000 88.18
2.26 2.115 11.75 2.022 5.810 2.86 3.706 29.73 2.636 11.28 5.25 30.45 704.9 6.513 108.2
2.28 2.154 12.12 2.040 5.942 2.88 3.777 30.65 2.659 11.53 5.50 36.87 930.4 7.050 132.0
2.30 2.193 12.50 2.058 6.076 2.90 3.850 31.59 2.682 11.78 5.75 44.40 1217 7.613 159.9
2.32 2.233 12.90 2.076 6.213 2.92 3.924 32.56 2.705 12.04 6.00 53.18 1579 8.200 192.5
2.34 2.274 13.31 2.095 6.354 2.94 3.999 33.56 2.729 12.30 6.25 63.37 2032 8.813 230.5
2.36 2.316 13.73 2.114 6.497 2.96 4.076 34.59 2.752 12.57 6.50 75.13 2594 9.450 274.5
2.38 2.359 14.17 2.133 6.644 2.98 4.155 35.65 2.776 12.84 6.75 88.66 3289 10.11 325.2
2.40 2.403 14.62 2.152 6.794 3.00 4.235 36.73 2.800 13.12 7.00 104.1 4140 10.80 383.3
67

M1 P2/P1 2/1 T2/T1 Po2/Po1 Po2/P1 M2 M1 P2/P1 2/1 T2/T1 Po2/Po1 Po2/P1 M2
1.00 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.893 1.000 1.60 2.820 2.032 1.388 0.895 3.805 0.668
1.02 1.047 1.033 1.013 1.000 1.938 0.981 1.62 2.895 2.065 1.402 0.888 3.887 0.663
1.04 1.095 1.067 1.026 1.000 1.984 0.962 1.64 2.971 2.099 1.416 0.880 3.969 0.657
1.06 1.144 1.101 1.039 1.000 2.032 0.944 1.66 3.048 2.132 1.430 0.872 4.053 0.651
1.08 1.194 1.135 1.052 0.999 2.082 0.928 1.68 3.126 2.165 1.444 0.864 4.138 0.646
1.10 1.245 1.169 1.065 0.999 2.133 0.912 1.70 3.205 2.198 1.458 0.856 4.224 0.641
1.12 1.297 1.203 1.078 0.998 2.185 0.897 1.72 3.285 2.230 1.473 0.847 4.311 0.635
1.14 1.350 1.238 1.090 0.997 2.239 0.882 1.74 3.366 2.263 1.487 0.839 4.399 0.631
1.16 1.403 1.272 1.103 0.996 2.294 0.868 1.76 3.447 2.295 1.502 0.830 4.488 0.626
1.18 1.458 1.307 1.115 0.995 2.350 0.855 1.78 3.530 2.327 1.517 0.822 4.578 0.621
1.20 1.513 1.342 1.128 0.993 2.408 0.842 1.80 3.613 2.359 1.532 0.813 4.670 0.617
1.22 1.570 1.376 1.141 0.991 2.466 0.830 1.82 3.698 2.391 1.547 0.804 4.762 0.612
1.24 1.627 1.411 1.153 0.988 2.526 0.818 1.84 3.783 2.422 1.562 0.795 4.855 0.608
1.26 1.686 1.446 1.166 0.986 2.588 0.807 1.86 3.870 2.454 1.577 0.786 4.950 0.604
1.28 1.745 1.481 1.178 0.983 2.650 0.796 1.88 3.957 2.485 1.592 0.777 5.045 0.600
1.30 1.805 1.516 1.191 0.979 2.714 0.786 1.90 4.045 2.516 1.608 0.767 5.142 0.596
1.32 1.866 1.551 1.204 0.976 2.778 0.776 1.92 4.134 2.546 1.624 0.758 5.239 0.592
1.34 1.928 1.585 1.216 0.972 2.844 0.766 1.94 4.224 2.577 1.639 0.749 5.338 0.588
1.36 1.991 1.620 1.229 0.968 2.912 0.757 1.96 4.315 2.607 1.655 0.740 5.438 0.584
1.38 2.055 1.655 1.242 0.963 2.980 0.748 1.98 4.407 2.637 1.671 0.730 5.539 0.581
1.40 2.120 1.690 1.255 0.958 3.049 0.740 2.00 4.500 2.667 1.688 0.721 5.640 0.577
1.42 2.186 1.724 1.268 0.953 3.120 0.731 2.05 4.736 2.740 1.729 0.698 5.900 0.569
1.44 2.253 1.759 1.281 0.948 3.191 0.723 2.10 4.978 2.812 1.770 0.674 6.165 0.561
1.46 2.320 1.793 1.294 0.942 3.264 0.716 2.15 5.226 2.882 1.813 0.651 6.438 0.554
1.48 2.389 1.828 1.307 0.936 3.338 0.708 2.20 5.480 2.951 1.857 0.628 6.716 0.547
1.50 2.458 1.862 1.320 0.930 3.413 0.701 2.25 5.740 3.019 1.901 0.606 7.002 0.541
1.52 2.529 1.896 1.334 0.923 3.489 0.694 2.30 6.005 3.085 1.947 0.583 7.294 0.534
1.54 2.600 1.930 1.347 0.917 3.567 0.687 2.35 6.276 3.149 1.993 0.561 7.592 0.529
1.56 2.673 1.964 1.361 0.910 3.645 0.681 2.40 6.553 3.212 2.040 0.540 7.897 0.523
1.58 2.746 1.998 1.374 0.903 3.724 0.675 2.45 6.836 3.273 2.088 0.519 8.208 0.518
68

M1 P2/P1 2/1 T2/T1 Po2/Po1 Po2/P1 M2
M1 P2/P1 2/1 T2/T1 Po2/Po1 Po2/P1 M2
2.50 7.125 3.333 2.138 0.499 8.526 0.513 4.00 18.50 4.571 4.047 0.139 21.07 0.435
2.55 7.420 3.392 2.187 0.479 8.850 0.508 4.10 19.45 4.624 4.205 0.128 22.11 0.432
2.60 7.720 3.449 2.238 0.460 9.181 0.504 4.20 20.41 4.675 4.367 0.117 23.18 0.430
2.65 8.026 3.505 2.290 0.442 9.519 0.500 4.30 21.41 4.723 4.532 0.108 24.27 0.428
2.70 8.338 3.559 2.343 0.424 9.862 0.496 4.40 22.42 4.768 4.702 0.099 25.39 0.426
2.75 8.656 3.612 2.397 0.406 10.21 0.492 4.50 23.46 4.812 4.875 0.092 26.54 0.424
2.80 8.980 3.664 2.451 0.389 10.57 0.488 4.60 24.52 4.853 5.052 0.085 27.71 0.422
2.85 9.310 3.714 2.507 0.373 10.93 0.485 4.70 25.61 4.893 5.233 0.078 28.91 0.420
2.90 9.645 3.763 2.563 0.358 11.30 0.481 4.80 26.71 4.930 5.418 0.072 30.13 0.418
2.95 9.986 3.811 2.621 0.343 11.68 0.478 4.90 27.85 4.966 5.607 0.067 31.38 0.417
3.00 10.33 3.857 2.679 0.328 12.06 0.475 5.00 29.00 5.000 5.800 0.062 32.65 0.415
3.05 10.69 3.902 2.738 0.315 12.45 0.472 5.10 30.18 5.033 5.997 0.057 33.95 0.414
3.10 11.05 3.947 2.799 0.301 12.85 0.470 5.20 31.38 5.064 6.197 0.053 35.28 0.413
3.15 11.41 3.990 2.860 0.288 13.25 0.467 5.30 32.61 5.093 6.401 0.049 36.63 0.411
3.20 11.78 4.031 2.922 0.276 13.66 0.464 5.40 33.85 5.122 6.610 0.046 38.01 0.410
3.25 12.16 4.072 2.985 0.265 14.07 0.462 5.50 35.13 5.149 6.822 0.042 39.41 0.409
3.30 12.54 4.112 3.049 0.253 14.49 0.460 5.60 36.42 5.175 7.038 0.039 40.84 0.408
3.35 12.93 4.151 3.114 0.243 14.92 0.457 5.70 37.74 5.200 7.258 0.037 42.30 0.407
3.40 13.32 4.188 3.180 0.232 15.35 0.455 5.80 39.08 5.224 7.481 0.034 43.78 0.406
3.45 13.72 4.225 3.247 0.222 15.79 0.453 5.90 40.45 5.246 7.709 0.032 45.28 0.405
3.50 14.13 4.261 3.315 0.213 16.24 0.451 6.00 41.83 5.268 7.941 0.030 46.82 0.404
3.55 14.54 4.296 3.384 0.204 16.70 0.449 6.10 43.25 5.289 8.176 0.028 48.37 0.403
3.60 14.95 4.330 3.454 0.195 17.16 0.447 6.20 44.68 5.309 8.415 0.026 49.96 0.403
3.65 15.38 4.363 3.525 0.187 17.62 0.446 6.30 46.14 5.329 8.658 0.024 51.57 0.402
3.70 15.81 4.395 3.596 0.179 18.10 0.444 6.40 47.62 5.347 8.905 0.023 53.20 0.401
3.75 16.24 4.426 3.669 0.172 18.57 0.442 6.50 49.13 5.365 9.156 0.021 54.86 0.400
3.80 16.68 4.457 3.743 0.164 19.06 0.441 6.60 50.65 5.382 9.411 0.020 56.55 0.400
3.85 17.13 4.487 3.817 0.158 19.55 0.439 6.70 52.21 5.399 9.670 0.019 58.26 0.399
3.90 17.58 4.516 3.893 0.151 20.05 0.438 6.80 53.78 5.415 9.933 0.017 60.00 0.398
3.95 18.04 4.544 3.969 0.145 20.56 0.436 6.90 55.38 5.430 10.20 0.016 61.76 0.398
7.00 57.00 5.444 10.47 0.015 63.55 0.397
69
Oblique shocks
Flow can be decomposed into normal and
tangential components.
The tangential velocity component is
constant across a oblique shock (tangential
momentum equation), w1=w2.
The three equations for the normal
component are the same as the normal shock
case.
The normal shock relations are therefore
applicable to the normal component of the
velocity.
Normal shock is a special case for =/2.
Oblique shock
u1, Mn,1
w1,, Mt,1
u2, Mn,2
w2, Mt,2
v2, M,2
v1, M,1
: deflection angle
: oblique shock angle
sin =
u1
v1
sin( ) =
u2
v2
Oblique shock relations

Flow downstream of a oblique shock is defined by M1 and .
Mach number downstream of shock can be either supersonic(mostly) or subsonic
You can use the normal shock table for Mn1.
w 2 = w1
M n1 = M1 sin
2
( + 1 )M 2n1
=
1 2 + ( 1 )M n21
2
( + 1 )M 2n1
=
1 2 + ( 1 )M n21
T2 h 2 p2 1
2
2 + ( 1 )M 2n1
(
=
=
= 1 +
M 2n1 1)
2
T1 h1 p1 2 + 1
( + 1 )M n1
M 2n 2 =
1 + [( 1 ) / 2]M 2n1
M 2n1 ( 1 ) / 2
M2 =
Mn2
sin( )
Angle of oblique shock for --M chart

There is a maximum deflection for a given Mach number. There is no straight
oblique shock solution for larger dynamic pressures, because the shock wave has
become detached.
M 2 sin 2 1
tan = 2 cot 2 1
M1 ( + cos 2 ) + 2
For a given dynamic pressure, there is both a weak and a strong shock solution.
The weaker one is naturally favoured as this flow is generally supersonic.
When the dynamic pressure is zero, there is either a normal shock or a Mach wave.
70
Shock wave angle , degrees
Oblique shock --M chart
90
85
80
75
70
65
60
55
50
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
Line of max
M=3 M=4
M=2.5
M=1.5
M=
M=2
M=10
M=5
10
15
20
25
30
35
Deflection angle , degrees

71
40
45
50
Renewable Energy Data

Flat plate collector efficiency
G A F' ( ) A U' t
AG
(t cout + t cin ) (t 3)
t
=
o
2
&
Q
Heat rise across plate:
T =
& Cv
m
Assume environmental temperature = to 3
Hydroelectricity
v = 2gH = 2ghh , and Q = v A

Ideal energy flow rate
Power = Q h g (W)
With energy losses and the 'effective' head.
Power
h
f
h
v
A
Q
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
( g h f ) (A v) h
head
turbine efficiency
efficiency
fluid velocity
cross sectional area
volume flow rate
Tidal power
Available Energy:
AR 2 g
2
72
(W)
(m)
(m s-1)
(m2)
(m3 s-1)
Ground source heat pumps

kW Work (electricity) required per kW heat
1
COPR + 1
Calculations for vertical coils

Heat Evaporator Capacity (W)
Specific Heat Extraction Rate (W/m)
Typical values of SHER range between 40-70 W/m
Length (m) =
Or from ASHRAEs GSHP Engineering Manual.

0.05506 Annual energy rejected to the ground (MJ)
Length( m ) =
Deep ground temp. (C) Maximum entering liquid temp. (C)
Calculations for horizontal coils
Area (m2 ) =
Evaporator capacity (W)

Average solar energy (W/m2 )
Wind power
Weibull Distribution (H = hours/year during which V is exceeded):
V k
H = 8760 exp
C
Total energy in wind per m2 per year
E = 0.043 V503 (GJm-2yr -1)
Power coefficient
CP =
Tip speed ratio
P
P
=
E&
AV 3
Speed of blade tip

R
=
Wind speed
V
Solidity
A
Total blade area
= b
Flow area swept by rotor
A
73
SLR/SSF Graph
1
0.9
Direct
gain
0.8
0.7
Indirect
gain
SSF
0.6
Attached
Sunspace
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0.1
0.2
0.5
SLR
74
10
f Chart
( )
FR 1
A
Y = FR .( )n .
.
.H T .N D .
FR ( )n
L
FR1
A
X = FR .U .
Tref Ta .N s .
FR
L
1
f=0.9
2.5
f=0.8
f=0.7
f=0.6
f=0.5
1.5
f=0.4
1
f=0.3
f=0.2
0.5
0
0
8
75
12
16
Sources
Alternative Fuels, E.M. Goodger, Macmillan Press Ltd., 1980.
Austrian Energy Agency
http://www.bioheat.info/pdf/kpn_wood_fuels_at.pdf
CODATA recommended values of the fundamental physical constants, P. J.
Mohr, B. N. Taylor,: 1998, Rev. Mod. Phys., 72, 351, 2000.
Energy Efficiency for Engineers and Technologists, T.D. Eastop, and D.R.
Croft, Longman, Harlow, 1990.
Explicit Equations for Pipe-Flow Problems, P.K. Swami, and A.K. Jaine,
Journal of the Hydraulics Division, Proceedings of the ASCE, May 1976.
F-Chart Software EES, W. Beckman and S. Klein, Box 44042 Madison, WI
53744.
Fundamentals of fluid mechanics, B.R. Munson, D.F. Young, and T.H. Okiishi,
3rd ed, John Wiley and sons, 1998.
Gas Turbine Combustion, A. H. Lefebvre, Taylor and Francis, 1983.
Gas Turbine Fuels and Their Influence on Combustion, J. Odgers and D.
Kretschmer, Abacus Press, 1986.
Ground-Source Heat Pumps - Design of Geothermal Systems for Commercial
and Institutional Buildings, S.P. Kavanaugh; K. Rafferty ASHRAE, 1997.
Internal flow systems, Miller, D.S., 2nd edition, BHRA, Cranfield, 1990.
MechEng Calculators
http://www.mechengcalculations.com/index.html
Oak Ridge National Laboratory
http://www.ornl.gov/~wlj/hpdm/MARK_V_Initial_Doc_w_Refs.pdf
Thermodynamic and transport properties of fluids, G.F.C Rogers and Y.R.
Mayhew, Basil Blackwell, Oxford, 1980.
Thermophysical Properties of Matter, Y.S. Touloukian, et al. Vols. 3 and 11
IFI/Plenun, NY, 1970.
76
GENERAL INFORMATION
Useful data
Acceleration due to gravity
9.81 m s-2
Avogadro constant
Na
6.0221026 kmol-1
Boltzmanns constant:
1.381 10-23 JK-1
Charge on electron:
-1.602 10-19 C
Molar gas constant
Ru
8.314 kJ kmol-1 K-1
Molar volume of ideal gas (273.15 K, 100 kPa)
Vm
22.4 m3 mol-1
Plancks constant:
6.626 10-34 Js
Speed of light in vacuum
2.998 108 m s-1
Stefan-Boltzmann constant
56.710-9 W m-2 K-4
Standard atmospheric pressure
pa
101.325 kPa
Composition of air by volume

Nitrogen
N2
78.084 %
Oxygen
O2
20.9476 %
Argon
Ar
0.934 %
Carbon Dioxide CO2 0.0314 %
77
Just when you thought it was safe to get back into the
compressed liquid water along comes this extremely
useful book of thermodynamic and fluid mechanics
tables, formul and other vital information.
This compact tome will form a great companion for
the rest of your engineering career.
Some comments on the first edition of this
publication:
What a lot of numbers
It made me laugh; it made me cry come to think of it, I didnt
really laugh that much
A unique publication of its exact type
Before getting this, I used to lie awake worrying about the
enthalpy of superheated R134a refrigerant - it has cured my
insomnia
I cant wait for the sequel
Just the right thickness to
stop my desk rattling
An A5 book of tables
If you enjoyed The DaVinci
Code, you will love this; if you
didnt, you will still love it
This third edition promises to be still more exciting

as it contains even more stuff. Big sections on oblique
shock waves and solar and wind energy make this even
better value.
Price: To you, two quid.
78

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The Little Book Of Thermofluids.

The Little Book Of Thermofluids.

S.B.M.Beck, S.G.Blakey, M.W.Brown, S.B.Chin, F.C.G.A.Nicolleau,

The Little Book of Thermofluids.

Printed in The United Kingdom by The University Print Service

The Little Book Of Thermofluids.

Some Dimensionless Groups ........................................................ 8

Combustion Information ............................................................ 29

Heat Transfer ............................................................................. 48

Thermodynamic Properties of Gases, Liquids and Solids............ 52

FLOW OF FLUIDS ................................................................... 56

Aerodynamics and High-Speed Flow ......................................... 64

Renewable Energy Data ............................................................. 72

The Little Book of Thermofluids.

Quality v used as -illustration

Gas Phase Property Summary

where RU is 8.314 kJ kmol-1 K-1.

Real Gas or Vapour

Proprietry equation or chart for z = pv

cp, cv , all constant

The Little Book of Thermofluids.

Polytropic expansion pV n = constant T2 = p 2 = v 1

For any process the value of the integral

pdV is the area under the p-V graph.

For an ideal gas polytropic process (n 1)

For an isothermal process (n = 1)

The steady flow energy equation for a single stream is

Q W = 1 2 m C 22 C12 + m g(z 2 z 1 ) + m(h 2 h1 )

(Be careful to use consistent units)

Isentropic efficiency of an expansion

Isentropic efficiency of a compression

Reversible heat pump,

The Little Book of Thermofluids.

Global energy conservation or Unsteady Flow Energy Equation (UFEE)

For a closed system this becomes

The Little Book of Thermofluids.

The average molar mass and gas constant are given as

The Little Book of Thermofluids.

The extensive properties of a gas mixture

u m = yi u i (kJ kg-1 or kJ kmol-1)

h m = yi hi (kJ kg-1 or kJ kmol-1)

s m = yi s i (kJ kg-1 K-1 or kJ kmol-1 K-1)

Specific heat capacities of mixtures

The entropy change of the mixture per mole of mixture is

In these last two equations, remember:

The Little Book of Thermofluids.

Formul related to combustion engines

cylinder trapping volume

ideal trapped air mass = sVt

actual air mass in the cylinder

Where we use the following definition

mass of air supplied to the cylinder

The Little Book of Thermofluids.

Some Dimensionless Groups

Thermal internal resistance

Local inertial force

(Where o is fluid shear stress at a

The Little Book of Thermofluids.

This page is intentionally left blank

The Little Book of Thermofluids.

Steam and Refrigerant Tables

The Little Book of Thermofluids.

Saturated steam: liquid and vapour: up to 1 bar