An introduction to Zz Computational se Dynamics aman) a=) RoR R ON ian) Method LG etd ey PALL nel eata LaLa 6 &. PrAn introduction to computational fluid dynamics The finite volume method H. K. VERSTEEG and W. MALALASEKERALongman Scientific & Technical Longman Group Limited Longman Touse, Burt Mill, Harlow Essex CM20 2JE, England and Associated Companies throughout the world Copublished in the United States with John Wiley & Sons Inc., 605 Third Avenue, New York NY 10188 © Longman Group Lid 1995 Al right reserved; no part of this publication may be reproduced, stoed in any retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, Photocopying, recording or otherwise without either the prior ‘writen permission of the Publishers or a licence permitting restricted copying in the United Kingdom issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency Ltd, 90 Tottenham Coust Road, ‘London W1P 9HE. First published 1995 British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data ‘A catalogue entry fortis title is available from the British Library, ISBN 0-582-21884-5 Library of Congress Cataloguing-in-Publication Data ‘A catalog entry for this til is available from the Library of Congress. ISBN 0-470-23515-2 (USA only) ‘Typeset by 21 in 10/12 Times Produced through Longman Malaysia, TCPContents Preface Acknowledgements 1 Introduction LL What is CFD? 1.2. How does a CFD code work? 1.3 Problem solving with CFD 1.4 Scope of this book 2 Conservation Laws of Fluid Motion and Boundary Conditions 2.1 Governing equations of fluid flow and heat transfer 2.1.1 Mass conservation in three dimensions 2.1.2. Rates of change following a fuid particle and for a fluid clement 2.13 Momentum equation in three dimensions 2.1.4 Energy equation in three dimensions 22 Equations of state 23. Navier-Stokes equations for a Newtonian fuid 24 Conservative form of the governing equations of fuid flow 2.5. Differential and integral forms ofthe general transport equations 26 Classification of physical behaviour 2.7. The role of characteristics in hyperbolic equations 28 Classification method for simple partial differential equations 29 Classification of fuid flow equations 2.10 Auxiliary conditions for viscous fluid flow equations 2.11 Problems in transonic and supersonic compressible flows 2.12 Summary 10 un 3 4 7 21 21 24 25 27 30 32 34 35 36 39vi Contents 3. Turbulence and its Modelling 3.1 What is turbulence? 3.2. Transition from laminar to turbulent flow 3.3 Effect of turbulence on time-averaged Navier-Stokes equations 3.4 Characteristics of simple turbulent flows 3.4.1 Free turbulent flows 3.4.2 Flat plate boundary layer and pipe flow 3.4.3 Summary 3.5 Turbulence models 3.5.1 Mixing length model 3.5.2 The ke model 3.5.3 Reynolds stress equation models 3.54 Algebraic stress equation models 3,55. Some recent advances, 3.6 Final remarks The Finite Volume Method for Diffusion Problems 4.1 Introduction 4.2. Finite volume method for one-dimensional steady state diffusion 4.3, Worked examples: one-dimensional steady state diffusion 44 Finite volume method for two-dimensional diffusion problems 4.5 Finite volume method for three-dimensional diffusion problems 4.6 Summary of discretised equations for diffusion problems The Finite Volume Method for Convection-Diffusion Problems 5.1 Introduction 52 Steady one-dimensional convection and diffusion 5.3 The central differencing scheme 54 Properties of discretisation schemes 54.1 Conservativeness 5.4.2. Boundedness 5.43. Transportiveness 5.5 Assessment ofthe central differencing scheme for convection- diffusion problems 56 The upwind differencing scheme 5.6.1 Assessment of the upwind differencing scheme 5.7 The hybrid differencing scheme 5.7.1 Assessment of the hybrid differencing scheme 5.7.2. Hybrid differencing scheme for mult-dimensional conveetion-diffusion 5.8 The power-law scheme 5.9 Higher order differencing schemes for convection-momentum ee — 2+ dn(n grad w) + Se ste) vaetcwny — 2etieanion)=-pdve-rdntos +45 ab Equations of state p = p(p, T) and i = i(p,T) (2.28) 2.29) Momentum source Siy and dissipation function are defined by (2.33) and (2.36) respectively. Its interesting to note that the thermodynamic equilibrium assumption of section 22 has supplemented the five flow equations (PDEs) with two further algebraic equations. The further introduction of the Newtonian model, which expresses the viscous stresses in terms of gradients of velocity components has resulted in a system of seven equations with seven unknowns, With an equal number of equations and unknown functions this system is mathematically closed, ie. it can be solved provided that suitable auxiliary conditions, initial and boundary conditions, are supplied.Differential and integral forms of the general transport equations 25 2.5 Differential and integral forms of the general transport equations itis clear fom Table 2.1 that thee are significant commonalities between the various ‘equations. If we introduce a general variable @ the conservative form of all fluid flow uations, including equations for scalar quantities such as temperature and polatant concentration ete, can usefully be writen inthe following form: 2106). ai(ad) = ai grad #) + Sp 239) In words Rate of increase Net rate of flow Rate of increase Rate of increase of gof fluid + of poutof = of @dueto + of d dueto element fluid clement diffusion sources The equation (2.39) is the so-called transport equation for property @. It clearly highlights the various transport processes: the rate of change term and the convective term on the left hand side and the diffusive term (I° =diffusion coefficient) and the source term respectively on the right hand side. In order to bring ‘out the common features we have, of course, had to ide the terms that are not shared ‘between the equations in the source terms, Note that equations (2.39) can be made to work for the internal energy equation by changing i into T by means of an equation of state The equation (2.39) is used as the starting point for computational procedures in the finite volume method. By setting ¢ equal 10 1, u, x; w and i (or T of fo) and selecting appropriate values for the diffusion coefficient [” and source terms we ‘obtain special forms of Table 2.1 foreach of the five partial differential equations for ‘mass, momentum and energy conservation. The key step of the finite volume method, which is to be developed from Chapter 4 onwards, is the integration of (2.39) over a three-dimensional control volume CV yielding [Mier | aioonar= favre ors [sar ow ew ev o (2.40) The volume integrals in the second term on the left hand side, the convective term, and in the first term on the right hand side, the diffusive term, are re-written as integrals over the entire bounding surface of the control volume by using Gauss’ divergence theorem. For a vector a this theorem states | aevaar = [ aac (at) The physical interpretation of wa isthe component of vector ain the direction ofthe vector n normal to surface element d4. Thus the integral of the divergence of a vector a over a volume is equal to the component of in the direction normal to the26 Conservation laws of fluid motion and boundary coneitions. surface which bounds the volume summed (integrated) over the entire bounding surface A. Applying Gauss’ divergence theorem, equation (2.40) can be written as follows: 2( | ow) + fesoonae= [tent | sar Sia i a ‘The order of integration and differentiation has been changed in the first term on the Jeft hand side of 2,42) 10 illustrate its physical meaning, This term signifies the rate of change of the total amount of fluid property in the control volume. The product n. (pu) expresses the flux component of property due to fluid flow along the outward normal vector n, so the second term on the left hand side of (2.42), the convective term, is therefore the net rate of decrease of fluid property ¢ of the fluid element dive to convection A diffusive flux is positive in the direction of a negative gradient of the fluid property 4, ie. along direction ~grad ¢. For instance, heat is conducted in the direction of negative temperature gradients. Thus, the product m.(-T° grad ¢)is the component of diffusion flux along the outward normal vector, and so out ofthe uid clement, Similarly, the product m.(U grad ¢), which is also equal to P'(-m.(-grad 2), can be interpreted as a positive diffusion fux in the direction of the inward normal vector, i. into the fluid element, The first term on the right hand side of (2.42), the diffusive term, is thus associated with a flux into the element and represents the net rate of increase of fluid property ¢ of the fluid element due to diffusion, The final term on the right hand side ofthis equation gives the rate of increase of property ¢ as a result of sources inside the fluid element. In words, relationship (2.42) for the fluid in the control volume can be expressed as follows: — Net rate of Rate of increase Rate of decrease of due to _ of dueto Netra of increase of @ * convection across ~ diffusion across ~ creation of the boundaries the boundaries This discussion clarifies that integration of the partial differential equation generates a statement of the conservation of a fluid property for a finite size (macroscopic) control volume. In steady state problems the rate of change term of (2.42) is equal to zero. This leads to the integrated form of the steady transport equation —— | fo (pouyda = [a (P grad 6)d4 + | SydV (2.43) 4 i o In time-dependent problems it is also necessary to integrate with respect to time 1 ‘over a small interval Ar from, say, ¢ until ¢+ Af. This yields the most generalintegrated form of the transport equation: | [2( war )ae J fn (pou)da dt | “ a Bea = i Jn (Py grad bad de J | SyaV dt (2.44) aa acy 2.6 Classification of physical behaviour Fig. 2.6 Steady state temperature distribution of an insulated rod ‘Now that we have derived the conservation equations of fluid flows the time has ‘come to turn our attention to the issue of the initial and boundary conditions which are needed in conjunction with the equations to construct a well-posed mathematical model of a fluid flow, First we distinguish two principal categories of physical behaviour: ‘© Equilibrium problems © Marching problems Equilibrium problems ‘The problems in the first category are steady state situations, e.g. the steady state distribution of temperature in a rod of solid material, the equilibrium stress distribution of a solid object under a given applied load as well as many steady fluid flows. These and many other steady state problems are governed by elliptic equations. The prototype elliptic equation is Laplace's equation which describes the irrotational flow of an incompressible fluid and steady state conductive heat transfer. In two dimensions we have (2.45) ‘Avery simple example of an equilibrium problem is the steady state heat conduction (where @ = T in equation (2.45)) in an insulated rod of metal whose ends at x = 0 and x = L are kept at constant, but different, temperatures Za and T, (Figure 2.6). This problem is one-dimensional and governed by the equation Ad®T’/dx? = 0. Under the given boundary conditions the temperature distribution in the x-direction Problem specication Sotaion Heat fox ¢ =0