Determination of Plancks constant using photo-cell

Theory:
From Einsteins photoelectric equation, we know
h = h
0
+
1
2
mv
2

= h
0
+eV
s

= + eV
s

Where, = Frequency of incident light

0
= Threshold frequency
h= Plancks constant
m= Mass of electron
v= Velocity of electron
e= Charge of a electron
V
s
= Stopping potential
= h
0
=Work function

Now if we draw a graph ( Vs V
s
) then from this graph we can get a slope
s
V
u
A
A
. Therefore from
the equation we can write,


s
V
h e
u
A
=
A
.








Experimental Result:

Colour of filter Wavelength
(nm)
Frequency
(Hz)
Stopping Potential
(Volt)
Red
Yellow I
Yellow II
Green
Blue



Calculation:


Conclusion:

Precaution and discussion:

1) Since the cathode of the photo-tube is sensitive to light and so the photo-tube is not
allowed to direct light exposure. Care has been taken during the change of filters and the
light source is covered in doing so.
2) On completing the experiment the entire set up is fully covered to prevent unwanted light
exposure and dust.
3) If adequate measure be not taken, the photo-tube will persistently decrease with exposure
to light due to ageing.
4) In order to maintain the life-time of the photo-tube, the standard procedure is to use
moderate intensity source of light.




Determination of dielectric constant of a given sample

Theory:

The dielectric constant is the ratio of the capacitor using that material as the dielectric in a
capacitor to the capacitance using vacuum as dielectric. All ferromagnetic material has a
transition temperature called Curie temperature. As temperature T >T
c
the crystal does not
exhibit ferro-electricity. But for T < T
c
sometimes show the phase transition through the Curie
point. For a ferro-electric ceramic like Barium Titanium Oxide (BaTiO
3
) there is a distinct
advantage because of its Preovskite structure. Much caution can be substituted on both Barium
and Titanium side without drastically changing the oval structure.
Dielectric constant
0
C
C
=
Capacitance in vacuum (
0
C )
0
A
t
c
=
Area of the capacitor = 62.18 mm
2


Thickness of the dielectric material = 1.89 mm

Permittivity of free space
0
c = 8.854 x 10
-12
F/m

Observation:

Variation of dielectric constant with temperature

Temperature (
o
C) Capacitance (pF) Dielectric constant( c )







Graph:
A graph may be drawn by plotting Temperature in the X-axis and the Dielectric constant on the
Y-axis.



Calculation:




Conclusion:


Precaution & discussion:

1. Adequate care has been to ensure the consistency of temperature in each measurement.
2. The dielectric constant variation is systematic and the variation is quite sharp near
transition point so sufficient number of data has been generated near the peak value of
dielectric constant .This has a better effect and least error incorporated for transition
temperature measurement.
3. Care has been taken not to make or break the circuit; this will damage the experimental
set up altogether.






Determination of Stefans constant using a vacuum tube diode type
Ez-81

Theory:
In this experiment we use commercially available vacuum diode Ez-81 which has a cylindrical
cathode made of nickel. Inside the cathode there is a tungsten heater filament. Cathode is heated by
passing electric current through the tungsten heater filament. The temperature of filament can be
determined by using known resistance temperature (R-T) relationship for tungsten,
1.2
300
300
T
R T
R
| |
=
|
\ .

Where,
T
R is the resistance of tungsten filament at T K
300
R is resistance at 300K
It is possible to estimate the value of the resistance of the tungsten wire within Ez-81 at room
temperature for a very small voltage range following an extrapolation to zero volts. On the other
hand power generated by the tungsten wire is voltage multiplied by current. Neglecting other
modes of heat dissipation this is equal to the power radiated by the wire. Through the plot we can
calculate the resistance of the tungsten wire.
From Stefans Law, We get
n
P E ST o =
log log( ) log P E S n T o = +
o is Stefans constant.
P is power radiated by filament.
E is emissivity of the cathode surface = 0.24
S is the surface area of the cathode = 2.24 x 10
-4
m
2








Observation:
Resistance Temperature data:
300
T
R
R

T
1 300
4 920
6 1300
8 1645
10 1990

I-V data of the filament wire:
V
f
volt
I
f

amp
P = V
f
I
f

Watt

R
T
ohm
0.6
T
R

ohm
T
K
logP
Watt
logT
K





Graph:
1. A graph will be plotted with the supplied value of
300
T
R
R
vs T
2. A graph will be plotted between log P (along Y-axis) and log T (along X-axis).

Calculation:

Conclusion:
**Standard value of o = 5.67 x 10
-8
W m
-2
K
-4




Precaution & discussion:
1. All the potentiometers are drifted initially to the lowest position before the circuit is
switched on. The electric circuit is kept for 5-7 minutes in order to attain the equilibrium
condition.
2. Due to vacuum, the loss of heat from the valve wall is very small and hence we can
assume that this is an almost black body condition.
3. The steps of reading are generated in such a way the data points are uniformly interposed
within the graph for yielding a proper value.
4. Since the main gadget of the instrument is an electronic valve so to preserve its lifetime
careful manipulation is required.























Determination of Band gap of a given semiconductor by four probe
method

Theory:
The highest filled energy band which includes electrons shared in covalent bonds or transferred in
ionic bonds in a semiconductor is known as valence band. The energy band which includes free
electrons is called conduction band. The energy gap between the top of the valence band and
bottom of the conduction band is known as band gap.
Band gap of the semiconductor (E
g
) = E
c
- E
v
E
c
= Energy of the conduction band
E
v
= Energy of the valence band
The band gap of a semiconductor can be found out by the formula
Log
e
log
2
g
e
E
A
kT
=
is the resistivity of the semiconductor.
k is the Boltzmann constant(=1.38 x 10
-23
j/k or 8.6 x 10
-5
eV/deg).
T is the absolute temperature.
A is a constant.
The resistivity of the given semiconductor is given by
0
7
( / ) G W S

=
The correction factor
7
2
( / ) log 2
e
S
G W S
W
=
Again
0
2
V
S
I
t =
Where,
V is the applied voltage.
I is the current.
W is the thickness of the crystal = 0.55mm
S is the distance between the probes = 2mm


Observation:
Current (I) =

Temp.
t
0
c
Voltage
(mv)
Temp.
T K
T
-1
x 10
-3

K
-1
0

( cm O )


( cm O )
log
e

When temp.
increases
When temp.
decreases
Avg.







Graph:
Plot a graph of log
e
(along Y-axis) vs T
-1
x 10
-3
(along X-axis). Slope will give the value of
log
1
e
T

.
Calculation:

Conclusion:
** Standard value of E
g
= 0.7eV (in case of Ge- semiconductor)

Precaution & discussion:
1. Current should be kept constant throughout the experiment.
2. The germanium crystal is very brittle; therefore only minimum pressure is required for
proper electrical contacts.
3. All the observation should be noted while the temperature is falling.



Determination of Lande g factor by using Electron spin resonance
spectrometer for a specimen DPPH

Theory:
Spin the intrinsic angular momentum, S, couples with the orbital angular momentum, L to give a
resultant angular momentum J. In present of external magnetic field, H
0
, 2J+1 magnetic sublevel
are created with equal energy difference.
0 B
E g H A =
Where,
B
is the Bohr magneton and g is a factor known as Lande g-factor, which is given by
( ) ( ) ( )
( )
1 1 1
1
2 1
J J S S L L
g
J J
+ + + + +
= +
+



















1 2 3
6 5 4
RF Oscillator
Detector
AF Amplifier
Cathode Ray
Tube
Sweep Unit Phase Shifter
Ground
S
p
e
c
i
m
e
n
Helmholtz
Coil
Electron Spin Resonance Spectrometer


Now if the particle is subjected to a perturbation by an alternating magnetic field with frequency
1
u such that the quantum
1
hu is exactly the same as E A given in equation and if the direction of
the alternating field is perpendicular to the static magnetic field then there will be transition
between neighboring sublevels according to selection rule 1
J
m A = . Therefore, at the resonance
0 1 B
E g H h u A = =
If I is the current flowing through the Helmholtz coil with n no of turns in each coil and radius
a then the peak to peak magnetic field is produced.
Magnetic field( )
32
2 2
10 125
n
H I
a
t
= , which produces P division of deflection in the X-direction
of the CRO screen and if distance between the two absorption peaks is 2Q division on the same
screen then
0
Q
H H
P
=
So,
( )
1 1
0
10 125
2 2 32
B B
h h P a
g
H QI n
u u
t
= = =
k
QI


Where,
( )
1
10 125
2 2 32
B
h P a
k
n
u
t
=
Planck constant (h) = 6.625 x 10
-34
J-S
1
u = 10 M Hz
a = 7.7 cm
n = 500
B
= .927 x 10
-20
C.G.S unit








Observation:









Graph:
Plot
1
I
along X-axis and Q along Y-axis. The value of IQ is estimated from the slope of the
graph.
Calculation:

Conclusion:

**g = 2 for free electron

Precaution & discussion:
1. Copious amounts of unpaired electrons are present in the DPPH specimen and hence, the
experiment is an ideal one.
2. When set of a particular frequency the pot is not disturbed during the measurement. This
may cause erratic behavior in data taking event.
3. BNC connection is checked before the start of the experiment otherwise the signal to
noise ratio may reduced the quality of the end data.
4. The graphical picture proves the linearity in the data evaluation and also proves the ideal
nature of unpaired electron under ESR.
Current(I)
mA

1
I

P 2Q Q
80
100
120
140
160
180




Determination of e/m by J.J. Thomsons method
Theory:
If l is the length of the deflecting plate and v is the velocity of the electron in horizontal
direction as emerging from the gun then the vertical velocity of the electron after emerging from
the deflecting plate is
y
e V l
v
m d v
=
Here V is the deflecting voltage, e is the charge of an electron and m is the mass of the
electron. Separation between the deflecting plates is d.
After emerging from the deflecting plates if this electron traverses L distance horizontally to
reach the screen then the vertical deflection is given by
e V l L
D
m d v v
=
Where, l << L
If two bar magnets are placed on the east-west arm and can nullify the deflection produced by
the electric field then
V
e evB
d
=
Now we get
2
e V
m B
lLd
D
=
| |
|
\ .

If u is the deflection angle of the compass needle produced by the same magnetic field which
nullified the deflection of the electron beam then the magnetic field (B) = B
H
tanu ,where, B
H
is
the horizontal component of earths magnetic field.
l = 1.5cm
L = 20cm
d = 2cm
B
H
= 0.38 x 10
-4
tesla




Observation:
Applied voltage
Volt
D
m
u B
T
2
B
D

T
2
/m






Graph: A graph may be drawn by plotting
2
B
D
in the Y-axis and the voltage V along X-axis.
Slope of the curve may be used in the working formula to estimate
e
m
.
Calculation:
Conclusion:

**
e
m
= 0.1758 x 10
12
c/kg














Precaution and discussion:

1) The axis of the cathode ray tube is adjusted to be strictly along the magnetic meridian.
2) The green spot on the screen is adjusted to minimum visible brightness level in order to
prevent the screen from burning.
3) The oscillation of the magnetic needle should be of small amplitude.
4) Care has been taken to check that low magnetic material is initiate vicinity of the
experiment set up.
5) The potentiometer control is always brought to minimum potential before switching on or
off the power supply.
6) It is imperative to keep the bar magnets inside the box by placing appropriate ke

















Determination of Hall co efficient of a semiconductor

Theory:
We know the static magnetic field has no effect on the charges unless they are in motion. When
charges flow, a magnetic field directed perpendicular to the direction of flux produced a
mutually perpendicular force on the charges. When this happens, electrons and holes will be
separated by opposite forces. They will in turn produce an electric field (E
n
) which depends on
the cross product of magnetic intensity (H) and the current density (J).
( )
n
E R J H =
R is called Hall coefficient. Now we consider a bar semiconductor having dimension x, y and
z. Let J be directed along x and H along z, then E
n
will be along y axis.
In general Hall voltage is not a linear function of applied magnetic field, that is the Hall
coefficient is not generally constant, but a function of the applied magnetic field.
The working formula is
h
h
V t
R
I H
=
I is current flowing through the semiconductor.
t is the thickness of the semiconductor.
V
h
is Hall voltage.
t = 0.5 mm














Observation:
Calibration curve data table
Distance between the poles =










Hall current- Hall voltage data at constant magnetic field
Magnetic field = Gauss







Graph:
1. Draw a graph of Magnetizing current (along X axis) vs Magnetic field (along Y-axis).
2. Draw a graph hall current (along X axis) vs hall voltage (along Y axis). Determine the
slope.


Calculation:
Magnetizing current
amp
Magnetic field
Gauss






Magnetizing current Magnetic field (H) Hall current(I
h
) Hall voltage(V
h
)









Conclusion:

Precaution & discussion:

1) Hall probe connections are made in such a way and it is imperative not to touch or adjust
the connections, otherwise the entire experiment will become meaningless.
2) The sample is very brittle and hence careful handling is maintained.
3) The Hall probe is properly centered and oriented in the magnetic field such that
maximum Hall-voltage is generated
4) The initial Hall-voltage without magnetic field is continuously monitor throughout the
experiment and has been subtracted from the actual Hall-voltage reading.
5) The sample current is not exceeded beyond the prescribed stipulation.
6) The movable pole pieces of the electromagnet are symmetrically moved in order to avoid
asymmetric in the magnetic field.
7) Magnetic field is varied gradually in steps to avoid damage the electromagnetic coils.





















Verification of Bohrs atomic orbital theory through Frank-Hertz
experiment
Theory:
From Bohrs postulation we know that the internal energies of an electron of an atom are
quantized. We can directly prove this postulation by this experiment.

















In this experiment set up there is a tetrode tube filled with argon vapour. Electrons
emitted by heated filament are accelerated by the potential V
G2K
(applied between cathode and
grid 2). At first some electron reach to the plate A provided that their K.E. is sufficient to
overcome the retarding potential V
G1K
(applied between cathode and grid 1). So, initially we see
that the plate current increases with increase of V
G2K
. But as the voltage further increases, the
electron energy reaches to the threshold value to excite the atom in its first excited state, the
current abruptly drops. When the V
G2K
is increased further, again the current starts to increase
and when V
G2K
reaches to a value twice that of first excitation potential again we get the current
drops. This way, we get that the current drops 4-5 times at certain voltage range. This
observation proves that the energies of the atom are quantized.


A
Nanometer
G
2
G
1
K
V
G2K
V
G2A

V
G1K




Observation:
V
G1K
= 1.5 V, V
G2A
= 7.5 V

Plate current(I)
amp
V
G2K

Volt









Measure the excitation potential from graph



Graph:

Draw a graph between I (along Y axis) and V
G2K
along (X-axis)
Calculation:



Conclusion:

Distance between the peaks
Volt
Average excitation potential
eV







Precaution & discussion:

1) The system is initially not on. All the pots are brought to zero (0) value. Then the system
is on.
2) Wait at least for 5 to 10 min. for maintaining equilibrium. The filament is fed with a
potential to commence emanation of carriers.
3) Wait for 2 to 3 minutes. Then plot the bias voltage as prescribed.
4) The switch is in zero position and the current scale is set at 10
-7
position.
5) Care has been taken to change the V
G2K
with slow variation and wait at least 2 to 4 min.
for all measurements.
6) The bias voltage is changed by small range. Repeat the experiment for more
measurements.
7) Care has been maintained to switch off the apparatus by bringing all the pots to the zero
(0) values. And then turned off the switch. This is very important.