Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
,';i::::
-.r,..-'-;;,r&.
--1t.
Mqon H. Jowod
Nooter Corporation St. Louis, M issouri
A Wiley-lnterscience Publicqtion
.r/C*
N*w York
Chichester
Brisbone Toronto
Singopore
Copyright
1984 by
Reproduction or transiation ()f any part oi this work hcyond that permitted by Secton 107 or 108 of ihe It)?6 linited States Copyrighl Act wrthout lhe permrssron ,,1 rlr .i't)\rfi!hl owner is unl.rwlul Requests iot | ,"' ,1,,, !,, lrrrhcr infomati,)n sbould be addrcssed lo L , , I'1 t,.,rlrjitrrl. John Wil'v & Sons, lnc '! |
', ,
| ,r,, ..,
.r
, , ,'r', , (
',|,l \ \\
|
'1,
\ Lil'rrl)r"crl
r I i, |
1",1, l,rl,lr,,fr,r|l'r., .rrrl rirtl.\ ', I ( lrcr)rcrl t,hnts lilLrrl)rrrcrn :trrl s(ri)l)lr(5 l)esirn
', 'r,
'
I lr,.rlr"rr
arrl conslroction
L Farr. James R
x
ll. lrllc
'tPr55.5.J.14
lslJN (,
lq8l 660.2'83
83 12475
.171 (lt).)07
l,riIl.rl
r!r
l09lJ/r)'il1
PREFACE
We wrote this book to serve three purposes. The first purpose is to provide structural and mechanical engineers associated with the petrochemical industry a reference book for the analysis and design of process equipment. The second is to give graduate engineering students a concise introduction to the theory of plates and shells and its industrial applications, The third purpose is to aid process engineers in understanding the background of some of the design equations in the ASME Boiler and hessure Vessel Code. Section VIII. The topics presented are separated into four parts. Part 1 is intended to familiarize the designer with some of the common "tools of the hade." Chapter I details the history ofpressure vessels and various applicable codes from around the world. Chapter 2 discusses design specifications furnished in purchasing process equipment as well as in various applicable codes. Chapter 3 establishes the strength criteria used in different codes and the theoretical background needed in developing design equations in subsequent chapters. Chapter 4 includes different materials of construction and toughness considerations. Part 2 is divided into three chapters outlining the basic theory of plates and shells. Chapter 5 develops the membrane and bending theories of cylindrical
shells. Chapter 6 discusses various approximate theories for analyzing heads and transition sections, and Chapter 7 derives the equations for circular and rectangular plates subjected to various loading and support conditions. These three chapters form the basis from which most of the design equations are derived in the other chapters. Part 3, which consists of flve chapters, details the design and analysis of components. Chapters 8 and 9 derive the design equations established by the ASME Code, VI[-l and -2, for cylindrical shells as well as heads and transition sections. Chapter 10 discusses gaskets, bolts, and flange design. Chapter ll presents openings and their reinforcement; Chapter l2 develops design equations
ftitAct
cquations for analyzing hest transfer equipment. Chapter l5 describes the theory of thick cylindrical shells in high-pressure applications. Chapter l6 discusses the stress analysis of tall vessels. Chapter 17 outlines the procedure of the ASME Code, VI[-l, for designing rectangular presswe vessels. To simplify the use of this book as a reference, each chapter is written so that it stands on its own as much as possible. Thus, each chapter with design or other mathematical equations is written using terminology frequently used in industry for that particular type of equipment or component discussed in the pertinent chapter. Accordingly, a summary of nomenclature appears at the end of most of the chapters in which mathematical expressions are given. In using this book as a textbook for plates and shells, Chapters 3, 5,6 md7 form the basis for establishing the basic theory. Instructors can select other chapters to supplement the theory according to the background and needs of the graduate engineer.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We are indebted to many people and organizations for their help in preparing this
In deriving the background of some of the equations given in the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, attention was focused on Section VIII, Divisions
1 and
ASME Code, such as the Power and Heating Boilers, no consideration is given in this book regarding other sections unless specifically stated'
MAAN JAWAD
JAMES FARR
Saint Louit, Missouri
Barberton, Ohio
September 1983
book. A special thanks is given to the Nooter Corporation for generous support rluring the preparation of the manuscript. Also a special thanks is given to the American Society of Mechanical Engineers for supplying many of the illustrations used in this book and also to the American Petroleum Institute and the Tubular Exchangers Manufacturers Association. We also give thanks to Messrs. W. D. Doty, G. Hays, G. G. Karcher, T. W. [,odes, H. S. Olinger, and R. F. O'Neill for reviewing the manuscript, and to Mr. W. H. Schawacker for supplying many of the photographs. We would also like to extend our appreciation to Mrs' Y. Batteast for typing portions of the manuscript.
M. J.
CONTENTS
PART I BACKGROUND AND BASIC CONSIDERATIONS Hisiory ond Orgonizotion of Codes
Use of Process Vessels and Equipment United History of Pressure Vessel Codes in the
States Pressure Organization of the ASME Boiler and
Chopter I
3 4
l.l
1.2 1.3
Vessel Code
for Pressure Organization of the ANSI B31 Code Piping Standards Some Other Pressure Vessel Codes and in tie United States Worldwide Pressure Vessel Codes
References
9 'r0
BibliograPhY
ll
l3
14 14
Chopter 2
2.1
l5 l5 t6
16
CONTINT!
xlll
't7
17
Allowable Tensile Stresses in the ASME Code Allowable Extemal Pressure Stress and Axial Compressive Stress in the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code
t7
l9
22 22
'l'heory ol' Brittle Fracture Hydrostatic Testing Factors Influencing Brittle Fracture Hydrogen Embrittlement Nonmetallic Vessels
References
Allowable Stresses in the ASME Code for Pressure Piping B31 2.12 Allowable Stress in Other Codes of the World
2.11
References
Bibliography
70 74 75 76 77 78 79
26
PART 2
ANAIYSIS OF COMPONENTS
Slress in Cylindricol Shells
8l
83
84 92 96 lO7
I 14
Chopter 3
3.1
Chopfer 5 29
30
5.1
5.2
3l
33 33 35 39 42
5.3
Pressure Discontinuity Analysis 5.2.1 Long Cylinders 5.2.2 Short Cylinders Buckling of Cylindrical Shells
Stress Due to Intemal
Bibliography
43
Uniform Pressure Applied to Sides Only 114 Uniform Pressure Applied to Sides and Ends 116 Pressure on Ends Only lr8
119
Thermal Stress
Chopter 4
4.1
Moteriqls of Construction
Material Selection 4,l.l Corrosion
45
46 46 49 52 53 53 3J 56 56 60
4.1.2
4.
1
Uniform Change in Temperature Gradient in Axial Direchon Gradient in Radial Direction Nomenclature
References
Strength
4.2
.3
r38
139
Bibliography
4.2.2 Copper and Copper Alloys 4.2.3 Nickel and High-Nickel Alloys 4.2,4 Titanfum and Zirconium Alloys
Ferrous Alloys Heat Treating of Steels
Chopter
6.
6
I
141
142 146
6l
63 68
r52
158
6.1.4
Buckling Strength
159
xiv
CONTENTS
CONTENTS
xv
163
Chopier 9
9.1
167
243
244
247 249
r68
169
172
9.2 9.3
Junction
Bibliography
t8t
183
184
184 193
9.4
Chopter 7
7.1
Circular Plates
Rectangular Plates
ASME Equations for Hemispherical Head Design ASME Design Equations for Ellipsoidal and Flanged and Dished Heads 9.3.1 Ellipsoidal and Torispherical Heads under External Pressure ASME Equations for Conical Head Design 9.4.1 ASME Simplification of Discontinuity Analysis due to Intemal Pressure 9.4.2 Conical Shells under External Pressure 9.4.3 ASME Simplification of Discontinuity Analysis due to External Pressure
Nomenclature
References
197
Bibliography
Bibliography
Chopter
l0
l0.l
PART 3 Chopter DESIGN OF COMPONENTS
Design of Cylindricol Shells
ASME Design Equations Evaluation of Discontinuity Stresses ASME hocedure for Extemal Pressure Design Design of Stiffening Rings Allowable Gaps in Stiffening Rings Out-of-Roundness of Cylindrical Shells under External Pressure Design for Axial Compression Nomenclature
References
Introduction
Circular Flat Plates and Heads with Uniform
Loading
270
274 276
203
205
206 208 218 226 23r 235 238 240 240
241
ro.2 r0.3
Bibliography
10.7.1 Rubber O-Rings 10.7.2 Metallic O- and C-Rings 10.7.3 Compressed Asbestos Gaskets 10.7.4 Flat Metal Gaskets 10.7.5 Spiral-Wound Gaskets
281
281
CONTENTS
CONTENTS
xvii
Jacketed Gaskets
10.7.9
I0
I0.7. l2 Gasket Design 10.8 Bolting Design 10.9 Blind Flanges 10. 10 Bolted Flanged Connections with Ring-Type
Gaskets
I I.5 I 1.6
Shells
387
1t.7
Extemal Loadings
Local Stresses in the Shell or Head I 1.7.2 Stresses in the Nozzle Nomenclature
11
.7.1
References
Bibliography
Chopter
l2
Vessel Supports
Introduction
421
422 423 434 438 442 443 449 456 456 457
Reverse Flanges
12.1
12.2
FlatFace Flange with Metal-to-Metal Contact Outside of the Bolt Circle 10.15 Spherically Dished Covers
Nomenclature References
Bibliography
Skirt and Base Ring Design 12.2.1 Anchor Chair Design Design of Support Legs Lug-SupportedVessels Ring Girders
Saddle Supports
Nomenclature
References
Bibliography
Chopter I I
335
336 338 343 346 349 359 368 379
383
ll.l
I 1.2 I 1.3
'|
PART
4 l3
THEORY
AND DESIGN OF
SPECIAL
EQUIPMENT
459
461
462 462 462 470 476 482 487 490 496 496
1.4
Theory of Reinforced Openings Reinforcement Limits I I .4. Reinforcement Rules for ASME.
Chopter
Section Section
I
VIII, Division I
13.1 13.2
l.4.3
.4.4
II I
L4.5
Reinforcement Rules for ASME, Section VIII, Division 2 Reinforcement Rules for ANSUASME 831. I Reinforcement Rules for ANSI/ASME
83 t.3
13.2.2 13.2.3
13.3 13.4
3.3.2
Compression Rings
Design Rules
xviii
CONTENTS
coNTENrs
13.5
16.4 16.5
Dynamic Analysis from Wind Effects Vessel Under Intemal Pressure Only
I
6.3.2
577
581
Chopter
14
501
502 505 508 514 519 523 523 527 533
537
16,6 Vessel Under External Pressure Only 16.7 Vessel Under External Pressure and External
Loading
References
585 588
591
l4.l
14.2
14.3
14.4
Bibliography
593 593
Chopter
17
Vessels
595
596
601 601
14.5 14.6
Openings
Section
in
l4'6'2
14'6'3
Ligament Efficiency
Openings
for
Constant Diameter
601
14.7
ExPansion Joints
Nomenclature
References BibliograPhY
537
17,6
17.7 17.8 17.9
Chopfer
15
Vessels
for High
541
541
t7.to
15.l
15.2 15.3 15.4
Basic Equations
Pres$essing of Solid Wall Vessels Layered Vessels Prestressing of Layered Vessels
543
547
Ligament Efficiency for Multidiameter Openings Subject to Membrane Stress Ligament Efficiency for Multidiameter Openings Subject to Bending Stress Design Methods and Allowable Stresses Basic Equations Equations in the ASME Code, VIII-I Design of Noncircular Vessels in Other Codes I 7. 10. I Method in Swedish Pressure Vessel
603 606 610 612 619 626 627 630 633 633
Code
Nomenclature
Biblio$aphY
I 7.
10.2
Chopter
16
Toll Vessels
DesignConsiderations Earthquake Loading
565
566
567
635
l6.l
16.2 16.3
573 573
A B Appendix C
Appendix Appendix
Codes
636
Sheet Sheet
U6
648
II
CONIENTS
D E Appendix F
Appendix Appendix Appendix
Sample of a Pressure Vessel Design Data Sheet Sample of Various Materials for Process Equipment
652 668
Required Data
Section
VIII
Code
Procedure for Providing Data for Code Charts for Extemal Pressure Design
H I J Appendix K
Appendix
Corrosion Charts Various ASME Design Equations Joint Efficiency Factors Simplified Curves for Extemal Loading on Cylindrical
Shells
PART
Conversion Tables
BACKGROUND
INDEX
AND BASIC
CONSIDERATIONS
CHAPTER
-OtD 2
iuroly
,",r,,, , ,"r,,,,r,,,1
-Y
I.I
'I'hroughout the world, the use of process equipment has expanded considerably. ln the petroleum industry, process vessels are used at all stages of processing oil. At the beginning of the cycle, they are used to store crude oil Many different types of these vessels process the crude oil into oil and gasoline for the consurner. The vessels store petroleum at tank farms after processing and, finally, scrvc to hold the gasoline in service stations fol the consumer's use. The use of Droccss vessels in the chemical business is equally extensive. Process vessels are uscd everywhere. Prcssure vessels are made in all sizes and shapes. The smaller ones may be no larger than a fraction of an inch in diameter, whereas the larger vessels may be 150 ft or more in diameter. Some are buried in the ground or deep in the occan; most are positioned on the ground or supported on platforms; and some lctually are found in storage tanks and hydraulic units in aircraft The internal pressure to which process equipment is designed is as varied as thc size and shape. Intemal pressure may be as low as I in water gage pressure to as high as 300,000 psi or more. The usual range of pressure for monoblock
construction is about 15 to about 5000 psi, although there are many vessels designed for pressures below and above that range. The ASME Boiler and Itcssure Code, Section VIII, Division t*, specifies a range of intemal pressure liom 15 psi at the bottom to no upper limit; however, at an intemal pressure abovc 3000 psi, the ASME Code, VIII-I, requires that special design considcrations may be necessary.r However, any pressure vessel that meets all the rrquircrncnts of the ASME Codc. regardless of the intemal or external design prcssuro. rnay slill bc acccptcd by thc authorized inspector and stamped by the nrlrnrllclurcr with thc ASMI'l ('rxlc syrttbol. Some other pressure equlpment, srrch as Al'l'' sl(nagc t Dks. rrriry bc dcsigned and contain no more intemal pf('ssur( llriur lhitl gcncrirlc(l l)y lllc sllllic hcird of fluid contained in the tank.
I,2
llrt(,rt1lr llr( lrlr' lS(X):, ;rrrrl lrrtlv ltX)O\. (\l)losiotls in boilers and pressure vcsscls rlcrc lr({tr{nt /\ lrrctrllx lrorlt t trplosiott tlrr thc Mississippi River :,1{rlrlx);rt .\rtlt,ttt,t.t '\1rrrl .'/ lStr5. rcsttllctl itt thc boat's sinking within 20 r,l r rrtrr,,tr,rlrlrl r.trltttttr'rl un,rl)irl( (l rrrlo tlrc clrr'ly 1900s. In 1905, a destructive , rlrl,,.r,,rr (,1 .r lr, lrlr( l!,rl(-r rrr ir sllrr'' lltellrly in Brockton, Massachusetts (Fig. I l r. l rlllrl ''Il rr ,'r'l( . rrrlrrr, rl l l / otlrcls. and did Xi400,000 in property damage
'1,' rlL, r,\r \'.Alt r,rl, \'lll l,rrrrl VIII .'. rsrrrie(l lo (lcscribc thc ASME Boilcr and I'rcsstrrc Vi....tl(,trit ,, l',," \'ftl ffl\, r'r l. /,,,'r.vt( V, rfry'.r, and l)ivisitttl2, Alk'r'ttttiK |tttll li'r /!,11r,, l,
\
\, /,
l.l Firerub boiler explosion in sho focrory in Brockron, Md!3ochuseits in 1905. (Courlesy Horrford St@m Boiler Inrpection ond Insurdn.e Co., Horrford, Cr.)
Fisure
6
irr dcalh,
].4
PIPINO
the ANSI/ASME Boiler and pressure Vessel Code have been established as the legal requirements in 47 of the 50 states in the United Str,", ,,",f in all the prwinces of Canada. Also, in many other countries of the worlti, the ASME
2, Alternatiye Rules for pressure Vessels. The ANSUASME Boiler and pressure Vessel Code is issued by the American Society of Mechanical Engineers with approval by the American'National Stan_ dards lnshtute (ANSI) as an ANSI/ASME document. One or morc sections
, sure Vessels, and another new part was issued, which was Seciion VI II, Division
Unfired Pressure Vessel Code, Section VIII. This continued until the 196g edition. At that time, the original code became Section VIII, Oivislon I pres_
vessel codes existed. In 1951, the last API_ASME Code ;as issued as a separare document.a In 1952, the two codes were consolidated into one code_the ASME
In 1911, Colonel E. D. Meier, the president of-the American Society of Mechanical Engineers, established a committee to write a set of rules tbr the design and construction of boilers and pressure vessels. On February 13, 1915, the first ASME Boiler Code was issuid. It was entitled ,,Boiler Construction Code, 1914 Edition." This was the beginning of the various sechons of the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, which ultimately became Section 1, Power Boilers.3 The first ASME Code for pressure vessels was issued as ,,Rules fbr the ^ construction ofUnfired Pressure Vessels,', Section VIII, 1925 edition. The rules applied to vessels over 6 in. in diameter, voiume ove. 1.5 ft3, and pressure over 30 psi. In December 1931, a Joint API_ASME Committee wis ibrmed to develop an unfired pressure vessel code for the petroleum indusiry. .l.he first edition was issued in 1934. For the next 17 years,iwo separate unfiied pre;sure
clrusctt$ governor directed the fbrmation of a Board of Boiler Rules. The first set of rules for the design and construction of boilers was approved in Massachusetts on August 30, l9O7 . This code was three pages long-!-
Irr l(X)(r, l'r.llre'cx;rkrsi.rr irr . rlrr)c llrel.ry i'l,yrrrr. Massirclrrtsc.s, r.cs.ltcd injrlry, a|ld cxtcnsivc propcrty darragc. Aticr this accidcnr, the Massa_
cqUipl c|l{ irrrtl ir;lrlielrliorr; olllcrs fctalc lo sl)ccilic Illillcliltls all(l tlrclll{xls l()f ()l applicatiOn rn(l cot)trol ol cclt'tiprnctrt; lnd tlthcrs rclate ttt care !lnd inspoctioll 'l'hc tirllowing sections specifically relate to boiler and installed cquipnrctrt.
pressure vessel design and constructlon:
Section Section
I.
III
Division Division
Code
Case
1. 2.
VIII
Division Division
Section
1. 2.
X.
of
Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code is used to construct boilcrs arrc pressure
vessels.
In the United States most piping systems are built to the ANSI/ASME Code P.ressure Piping B3l . There are a number of different piping couc sectrons for different types of systems. The piping section that i" ,ir".i tiu. boiiers in combination with Section I of the ASME Boiler and pressure Vcsscl (ixle is the fo1!-o1er Piping, 831.1.5 The piping secrion thar is olicn uscrt with !o09 -Cheniical Section VIII, Division I , is the code for piant and lretnricLrrrr t{clinery Piping, 831.3.6 for
A new edition of the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code is issued on July I every three years and new addenda are issued every six months on January I and July l. A new edition incorporates all the changes made by the addenda to the previous edition; it does not incorporate, however, anything new beyond that coniained in the previous addenda except for some editorial corections or a change in the numbering system. The new edition of the code becomes mandatory when it appears. The addenda are permissive at the date of issuance and become mandatory six months after that date. Code CasesT are also issued periodically after each code meeting They contain permissive rules for materials and special constructions that have not been sufficiently developed to place them in the code itself. Finally, there are the Code Interpretations8 which are issued every six months These are in the form of questions and replies that further explain items in the code that have been
misunderstood.
I.4
83I
CODE TOR
PRESSURE PIPING
I,3
VESSET CODE
PRESSURE
The ASME Boiler ancl pressure Vessel Code is clivided into many sectrons, divisions, parts, and subparts. Some ofthese sections relat",u ro"lrti. tina of
"
In the United States the most frequently used design rules for pressure piping are the ANSI 83l Code for Pressure Piping. This code is divided into many sections for different kinds of piping applications Some sections are related to specific sections of the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel code as follows:
I.6
CODES
R!1.1.
Power Piping (which is related to Section I) F.31.2. Fuet Gas Piping (which may be related to Section VIII) 831.3. Chemical Plant an(l Petoleum Refnery Piping (which may be related to Section VIII) R31.4. Liquitl Petroleum Transporting Prping (which may be related to Section VIII) 831.5. Refrigeration Piping (which may be related to Section VIII) 831.7, Nuclear Power Piping (which has been discontinued and incorporated into Section III) B31,8. Gas Transmission and Distribution Piping Systems (which may be
related to Section
bular Exchanger Manufacturer's Association, New york. Standnrds of the Expqnsion Joint Manufacturers Associ(ltion, 4th ed. , Exoan_ sion Joint Manufacturer's Association, New york.
Tu_
I.6
VIII)
The ANSI B31 Piping Code Committee prepares and issues new editions and addenda with addenda dates that correspond with the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code and addenda. However, the issue dates and mandatory dates do not always correspond with each other.
Pressure Vessel Code, which is used worldwide, many other pressure vessel codes have been legally adopted in various countries. Difficulty often occurs when vessels are designed in one colntry, built in another country, and installed in still a different country. With this worldwide construction this is often the case. The following list is a partial summary of some of the various codes used in
different countries:
Australia.
SOME OTHER PRESSURE VESSEL CODES AND STANDARDS IN THE UNITED STATES
I.5
Australian Code for Boilers and Pressure Vessels, SAA Boiler Code (Series AS 1200): AS 1210, Unf.red Pressure Vessels and Class 1 H, pressare Vessels of Advanced Design and Constuction, Standards Association of Australia. Belgium.
Code
In addition to the ANSVASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code and the ANSI B31 Code for Pressure Piping, many other codes and standards are commonly used for the design of process vessels in the United States. Some of them are:
ANSUAPI Standard 620. "Recommended Rules for Design and Construction of Large, Welded, Low-Pressure Storage Tanks," American Petroleum Institute (API), Washington, D.C. ANSVAPI Standard 650. "Welded Steel Tanks for Oil Storage," American Petroleum Institute, Washington, D.C. ANSI-AWWA Standard D100. "Water Steel Tanks for Water Storage"' American Water Works Association (AWWA), Denver, Colorado'
for
Good Practice
for
France.
Constructton Code Calculation Rules for Unfred pressure Vessels, Syndicat National de la Chaudronnerie et de la Tuyauterie Industrie e (SNCT), paris, France. Germany.
ANSVAWWA Standard D101. "Inspecting and Repairing Steel Water Tanks, Standpipes, Reservoirs, and Elevated Tanks, for Water Storage," American Water Works Association, Denver, Colorado. ANSI 896.1. "specification for Welded Aluminum-Alloy Field Erected Storagc Tanks," American National Standards Institute, New York' lll, (A4. Standartl for Conk ner Assemblies.lor I'P-Gas, 4th ed, Underwlitcrs Laboratories. Nolthbrook, Illinois.
A.D. Merkblatt Code, Carl Heymanns Verlag KG, Koln/Berlin, Federal Republic of Germany.
haly. Itqlian Pressure Vessel Code, National Association for Combustion Control (ANCC), Milan, Iraly.
t0
BIBTIOGRAPHY
,ltpun.
Japan Associution. Tokyo, Japan. Juyuu'ts-t' Standarrl, Construction of pressure Vessels,JIS B g24j, published "- - e' 'J' Y' by the Jupan Srandards Association. Tokyo, Japan. Jap,ayle High pressure Gas Control Law, Ministry of International
ll
pressure
8.
ASME Boiler and Vessel Code, _fu terpretations, (isstred every six months), Amedcan Society of Mechanial Engineers, New york.
BIBTIOGMPHY
' Steel Tanks for
sffi
Trade
Liquid Stoege', in Steel plate Engifieerin| Data, Vol. and Sreel lnslirute, Washingron, D.C.
l,
Iron
f,:|;:#i:"*-e
Sweden.
United Kingdom.
British Code 85.5500, British Standards Institution, London, England. More complete details. discussions of factors of safety. and applications the codes mentioned are given in Section 2.7. e summ,lry
which.ar.e appticable for ihe various,.reqrl;il around the world is given in Appendix
A.
;'r#J
REFERENCES
f. 2.
l. ASME Boiler and pressure Vesset Code, Section_|, power Boileru, ANSTASME BPV_I, nlll*,*n Sociery of Mechanicat Engrneers. New york, 1983. _ Liq.uids and Gases, 5th ed., " lilHy3,::ff '.{iX::#l#f#*y:::k-!y
1951.
gmeers and American petroleum Institute, ^Pa'r:teu! New york,
"aT.:
l,
pressure Vessets,
S, 6. 7'
ol
Socicty
ASME Code for hessure pioins B3l, g!t:m:cal. ptant and petroleunt Refinery piping, 83t.3. American Siciety of Mechanical ;;C;;, ;u;;"lo.k,r,,*0. ^NSvASME A_SME Boije-r and hessure vesser code, cases, Boirers antr pre,rrrre y$dh, American
Niw-york, 73l;;"'0"'ANSL/ASME
B31
l'
American societv
19g3.
CHAPTE
l3
l4
rtlr",lrr'., nND
ALLOWABLE STRESSES
2.4
l5
2.1
SELECTION OF VTSSI
2.3
Although nrlrrly lttr l t. ,,'rrlrl,rt, 1,, llr( \( lL'clion of pressure vessels, the two basic r.r;rrirr.rrfrrt,, tlr,rt ,rll,, t tlr, ,( [.r lion are safety and economics. Many it(.Drs i||r. r rr,,rrI r,,l rr,tr,r', rrrrrtcrials' availability, corrosion resistance, lrltllrrl,, rrr, rrl,tlr r11, . .rr,l rrrrrgnitudes of loadings, location of installation rr, lr,lprl, ( rnl I,r.r,l'rt' ,"r,t r.rrr'(lrquake loading, location of fabrication_(shoD "r 1., l,lr t", rrr,,r ,,t \i.,,s(.1 installation, and availability of labor supply at the
rrt, rrr, r, ,r'.rrr1' rrsc of special pressure vessel in the petrochemical and other rl, , rtr. ;rvrilability of the proper materials is fast becomrng a maJor 1,r,,t,1,,,' I lr(. nrost usual material for vessels is carbon steel. Many other special_ r,,, l r r,rr{ rlls iLre also being used for corrosion resistance or the abilily ro conmln rrr,lrr
\l
field.
wrthout degradation of the material's properties. Substitution of materials lent and cladding and coatings are used extensively. The design engineer rrrrrst lrc in communication with the process engineer in order that all materials rrsctl will contribute to the overall integrity of the vessel. For those vessels that rctluire field assentbly in contrast to those that can be built in the shop, proper (luality assurancc must be established for acceptable welding regardless;f ihe adverse condilions under which the vessel is made_ provisions must be estab_ lished for ftrrliography, stress relieving, and other operations required in the
.r tlrrrr I
r'. I x (.vl
For thost. vcssels that will operate in climates where low temperatures are encounlcr((l r)f contain fluids operating irt low temperatures, special care must be takc rr Ir crrsure impact resistance of the materials at low timperatures. To
ohlirirr tlrs l,r()l)crty, the vessel may require a special high-alloy steel, nonferrous rrrirlcrirrl, rrr some special heat treatment.
2.?
'l lrc lrrst consideration must be whether or not there is a pressute vessel law at llrc lo( irt ion of the installation. If there is, the applicable iodes are stated in the l:rw. ll thc jurisdiction has adopted the ASME Code, Section VIII, the decision rrrly bc narowed down to selecting whether Division I or Division 2 is used. I'here are many opinions regarding the use of Division I versus Division 2, but the "bottom line" is economics. In the article ,.ASME pressure_Vessel Code: Which Division to Choose?",r the authors have listed a number of factors for consideration. Division uses approximate formulas, charts, and graphs in simple calculations. Division 2, on the other hand, uses a complex methocl of fbrmulas, charts, and design-by-analysis which must be describcd in ir stress report. Sometimes so many additional requirements are addcd lo tltc rriuirnum specifications of a Division I vessel that it might bc rnorc ccorrorrrir.rrl to supply lu I)ivision 2 vcssel and lake advantage of thc highcr itlL)rvrl)l(. strrsscs.
Currently, the only pressure vessel code, exclusive of the ASME Code, III-lNB, Nuclear Vessels, which specifically requires formal design specifications as part of the code requirements is the ASME Code, VIII-2, Alternative Rules for Pressure Vessels. This code requires a User's Design Specification to be prepared and certified by a registered professional engineer experienced in pressure vessel design. This certification by the professional engineer is given on the ASME Manufacturer's Data Report, Form A- 1. The manufacturer is responsible for retaining the User's Design Specification for five years. For other codes and standards, design specifications and design requirements are not well defined. For the ASME Code, VIII-1, there is no specific statement that any design specifications are required. The only indication of some sort of design specifications is the list of minimum loadings in UG-22 that is considered for all construction . Sectron l, Power Eoilers, is less definitive on what loadings are necessary to consider and what shall be included in a design specification or purchase order. PG-22 of Section I states that loadings that cause stresses to go higher than 107o above those stresses caused by internal design pressure shall be considered. The Manufacturer's Data Report, Form U-1 for the ASME Code, V I-1, requires many items to be listed, which means that most of the basic design information must be given in a design specification or purchase order. Although some codes help the purchaser regarding what data are needed for inclusion in the design specifications, this is usually done by mutual agreement between the purchaser and the manufacturer. "For those process vessels that do not have a "suggested" list of items in design requirements and specifications as part of code requirements, it is necessary to establish them in the purchase order or contract agreement. The contract information is supplied by the purchaser or user with the manufacturer's help as to what is needed and what shall be considered. Some design standards help the user and manufacturer by offering fill-in forms that specifically list the requirements for designing a process vessel. Design specification forms for a heat exchanger built to the standards of the Tubular Manufacturers Associationz are given in Appendix B and lor an API Srandard 650 Storage Tanki are given in Appendix C. It is always necessary to maintain a document containing design speciflcations so that a permanent record is kept for reference. Often on a large process vessel, some loadings from attached or supported equipment are not known until after the job has started.
2.4
16
l,
STRTSSES
2.9
ASMI
CODE
17
lx' *,u,.,,
will
rcqltitc(l slx\.ili(.rk.sigrr tlctaiis. Supported position, vertical or honzontat, and s[pl)oll lor.rrtiorrs rlusl bc listed as well as any iocal loads from supported crltip,rc,t rrrrtl piping. Site locatiorr is given so that wind, *o*, una lcquircntcots ctrn lre determined. Impact loads and cyclic "u.tnquut" requirements are also
inclurlcd.
r'irlcri.l uld method of protection are to be noted. The lrc t,0|llainctl, such as lethal, must be noted because ofthe
may be recertified to an SA or SB specification for an ASME certified vessel. Depending upon the contract specifications, permissible materials for construction are given in lists such as that shown in Appendix E.
2.7
thc ASME Code, VIII-2, a statement as to whether or not a tatigue according.to AD_160 is given. rf u rutilu" analysis is :::'.r,:::'.-"111r'llo cycles and rc(lurrc(t. lhe specitlc loadings will be given. In addiiion, the design
lirr
ire
2.5
(raclutl
U-2(g) or other design formulas. The pressure vessel design sheets should contain basic design and materials data and at least the basic calculations of pressure parts as given in the design formulas and procedures in the applicable onT.nd1d_fg. a simple vessel, an example of calculation sheets rs given :_od^. depicts only those calculations that are required ll ilp"yiT D. This example and for construction. for the Authorized Inspector Other vessels may requre rnuch more extensive calculations depending upon the complexity and con_
greements.
lations. These calculaiions are prepared and certified by a registered professional engrneer experienced in pressure vessel design. As with the Usir,s Design Specification, the Manufacturer's Design Report is mandatory and the certification reported on the Manufactu.".i Datu Repo.t. This is kept on file by the manufacturer for five years. - For vessels not requidng design reports, the manufacturer has available for the- Authorized Inspector's review those necessary calculations for satisfying
T:,1YE ,C"1.. .VII.2. requires a formal design report with rhe assumptions rn.the User's Design Specification incorporated in the stress analysis calcu_
When design data, such as allowable stresses, are requested for a new material, that is, one not presently in the code, extensive information must be supplied to the Code Committee for evaluation. The ASME Code Committee lists this information to develop allowable stresses, strength data, and other required properties for accepting a new material into the code. Each section of the code contains an appendix listing these requirements such as the one for the ASME Code, VIII-I, in Appendix F. The code also provides data to establish extemal pressure charts for new materials; this is given to those who want to establish new external pressure charts. The required information is given in Appendix G. It is the person's responsibility requesting the addirion to supply all the data needed to establish those properties required in the code.
2.8
FACTORS OF SAFETY
In order to provide a margin of safety between exact formulas, which are based on complex theories and various modes of failure , and the actual design formulas used for setting the minimum required thicknesses and the stress levels, a factor of safety (FS) is applied to various materials' properties that are used to set the allowable stress values. The factors of safety are directly related to the theories and modes of failure, the specific design criteria of each code, and the extent to x.hich various levels of actual stresses are determined and evaluated.
2.9
2.6
MATTRIALS' SPECIFICATIONS
As previously discussed, the basis for setting the allowable stress values or the design stress intensity values is directly related to many different factors depending upon the section of the code used. The criteria for setting allowable tensile stresses for each section of the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code
are as follows: For Section I, Power Boilers, the ASME Code, YIll-l , Pressure Vessels, and Section III, Division 1, Subsections NC, ND, and NE, except for bolting whose strength has been enhanced by heat treatment, the factors used to set the allowable tensile stresses are summarized below. At temperatures in the tensile strength and yield strength range, the least of:
All crxles itnd standards have materials, specifications and requirements de_ sclibirrg whirl rrralcrials are permissible. Those material, tirut *"i"r_rtt"O *itt ir sp(.( rli( ((xlc arc cither listed or limited to the ones that have aliowable stress vrrlrrts liivcrr. l)upcnding upon the code or standard, permitted rnatenas tor a pirrtit rrliu plxt.ss vcsscl are limited. For instan"., Jin ljll (lcsif nirrior crr bc uscd in ASME Boiler and piersir" V"rr"i-Cot an se or "rnr,_"_ SI) specifications are the same B specifi:]:lil...Y:::,:t flltlotl rr lltc ASIM ::l',t Stirrrtlirltls a On specific instances, certain materiais that Itttvc lrt'rr rr.rlrril( r'r'r(r to sonrc other spccification, such as the DIN standard..
o;i.;";;,
l:,lf
u';;;,
1. j of the specified minimum tensile strength. 2. j of the tensile strength at remperarure. 3. ! of the specified minimum yield strength.
I8
SEI.TCTION
r{
OI
AND AttOWABtE
STRESSES
2.IO
STRESS
I9
4.
ol thc yicld strength at temperature (except as noted below where 90Zo is uscd).
following: (1) | of the specified minimum yield strength and (2) j of the yield
strength at temperature.
stresses is much more simple:
At temperatures ip the creep and rupture strength range, the least of:
For Section IV, Heating Boilers, the criterion for setting the allowable (1) I /5 of the specified minimum tensile strength.
l, 2. 3.
,_
hours.
l00qa of the average stress to produce a creep rate of 0.0l per l000 hours (l7o in 105 hour). 67Ea of the average stress to produce rupture at the end of 100,000 hours. 80Vo of the rninimum stress to produce rupture at the end of 100,000
ALTOWABLE EXTERNAL PRESSURE STRESS AND AXIAL COMPRESSIVE STRESS IN THE ASME BOILER AND PRESSURE VESSEL CODE
2.IO
allowable stresses, higher allowable stresses are permitted for austenitic stainless steels and nickel-alloy materi-als where gleater deformation is not objectionable.
In the temperature range in which tensile strength or yield shength sets the
may be increased to
spicified minimum yield strength is still maintained. For the ASME Code, VIII-I, bolting material whose slrength has been en_ hanced by heat treatment or strain hardening have the addition; criteria of (l) j of the specified minimum tensile strength and (2) t of the specified minimum yield strength. For the ASME Code, VIII-2, and Section III, Division 1, Subsection NB and NC-3200 of Subsection NC, the factor used to set the design stress intensity values for all materials except bolting is the least of:
Within the ASME Boiler Code, simplified methods are given to determine the maximum allowable external pressure and the maximum allowable axial compressive stress on a cylindrical shell without having to resort to complex analytical solutions. Various geometric values are contained in the geometry chart, whereas materials' properties are used to develop the materials charts. Allowable stresses in the materials charts are based on the followine criteria For cylindrical shells under external pressure, the least of:
l. 2, 3. 4.
of the critical buckling stress with a factor of 807o for tolerance. of the specified minimum yield strength and yield strength at tem-
perature.
of the average stress to produce a creep rate of 0.01%/1000 hours (17ol 100,000 hours).
1. i of the specified minimum tensile strength. 2. ] of the tensile strength at remperarure. 3. of the specified minimum yield strength. 4. J of the yielded strength at temperature except as noted in the tbllowing
.2
OI:
IOOVo of the allowable stress in tension. For spheres and spherical portions of heads under extemal pressure, the least
paragraph.
l. 2. 3. 4. l. 2. 3. 4.
of the critical buckling stress with a factor of 607o for tolerance. 25Va of the specified minimum yield strength and yield strength at tem25Eo
perature.
design by Appendix 4 of the ASMII (ixlc. VIII_2, and by Division -l , Slbsdition NB ancl NC-32(X) ot' Sutiscc.riirn IrtC. the crilcria lirr setting bolting design stress intcnsity vitlucs urc thc lesscr of the
Sectirrn
maintained. There are two criteria for setting bolting design stress intensity values in the ASME Code, VIII-2. For design by Appendix 3, the criteria are the same as for the ASME Code, VI -1, because these values are used for the tlcsign of bolts
Higher design stress intensity values are permitted for austenitic stainless steels and nickel-alloy materils where greater deformation is not objectionable. In this_ case, the criterion of J yield strength at temperature may be increased to as high as 90Vo yield strength at temperature or any value beiween and gOVo ! yield strength at temperatue depending upon the acceptable amount of deformation. However, the factor of j specified minimum yield strength is still
ol
of the critical buckling stress with a factor of 5OVo for tolerance. of the specified minimum yield strength and yield strength at temof the average stress to produce a creep rate of 0.017o/1000 hrs
perature.
1007o
(
for flangjs.
III,
Ior
t)
;
ta
rrtt|tl
a\o cr \o
;6 ;5 ;6 -iA-i-l
Ed
0rt5
.9
o
o
@
ltltitll
g -g F
q,
eq
rl||tl
s3ss5ss
ii>;h\>
.o..).o.i66+
.i "i -; .-'
' =
x
tF
6E <q c!o
F:
r sgss
I
'\-j'\'\'\
(-)
.E6 !ao
o o .-o
o o
.:9
:
(/)F
-{
.\..\-\.\
|
*s
*9. d': ov.
:
.9-
3Eq
Z. a
,. i .:Y
->
.g
oo
5d 3.! az
.=9
.\.\.\.\
. o6;
.;T tE
i; =<
E;
t-.
20
:, .o
z
"
..'\fra\ot\ooo1
ao
=g+ ;.:!do0EEEE .Eo,; 4t4il 'H; i.g i-oi.lR4 H Eoo+ I.g PF i.=.=.r
E(aG6.6*d-EG?q<<<. d---o
=P E
P-+tstE333E,
!, a
Eg Et5;;'
.9ir^l$;c===-
E E= aEe
ir
eEeEg,:EiEEfEEEE
inEG*rj F3trF ctrEEEE2CCCq E I CCE E E
oo n= do
120
F>
E .i E gv v) u)
,5
qO
;d
'
CJ
,5
=r5===S=55-E=g=3
21
22
2.I
STI.TCIION
Ot
AND ALLOWABIE
STRESSES
2.12
23
PIPING 83I
Australia
The rules used for the design of boilers ald pressure vessels set by the Standards
'I'hc ullowrrblc sircsscs given in various sections of the ASME 831 Code for l\'csnulc I'ipirrg urc sinrilar to the corresponding sections of the ASME Boiler nrtl l\'cssurc Vcssel Code; however, in some sections, the basis is different. In thc (lxlc lirf Power Piping B31.l, the allowable tensile stresses are set by the srrrrrc crilcria as used for ASME Code, Section I. In the Code for Chemical plant rn(l llctrolcum Refinery Piping B31.3, the allowable tensile stresses for other th n bolting are set on a similar basis as used for ASME Section VIII, Division l, sxcept a factor of i is substituted for j on the tensile strength. The factor of i on yield strength is used in both codes. This makes 831.3 in the tensile and yield strength range is similar to Division 2 and in the creep and rupture strength range similar to Division 1.
Association of Australia are called the SAA Standards Series AS 1200. The factors of safety used to set the allowable stresses for the various sections are:
UTS
rs
1.6*
1.5
1.5
AS 1210_1977
Pressure Vessels 4
2.4
2.7
1.6 na
1.5
n n
2.12
Belgium
ALLOWABLE STRESS IN OTHER CODES OF THE WORLD
Throughout the world, various factors of safety are applied to materials' data to establish allowable shesses for the design of boilers, pressure vessels, and piping. For the temperature range to that temperature where creep or rupture sets the allowable stresses, the universal factor for setting allowable stresses is based on yield strength. In some countries, a factor is applied to sets of data that have been established from many tests; in others, the data are determined by the low yield point or the high yield point. In still other countries, the actual data for the component being designed have its yield strength determined by tests . The actual data of the part are then factored into the design formulas. Not all countries choose to use the ultimate tensile strength as a criterion for setting allowable stresses. When they do, the factor of safety between various countries rs sometimes very different. In order to show these differences, a discussion follows regarding the allowable stress basis of several different countries. The ierms, symbols, and definitions used are as follows:
The Belgian rules issued by The Belgian Standards Institute (IBN) permir a mixture of code rules from various other countries. The allowable stresses
depend usually upon the codes used. However, the basic allowable smesses are
set as follows:
UTS
ys
1.6 1.6
1.5
'
Boilers
3.2 2.7
n n n
1.8
UTS
R= C:
na
in
100,000 hours
: n:
in
Czechoslovakian rules are extensively detailed for all types of vessels with different allowable stresses used for intemal pressure as compared with extemal pressure. For the design of boilers and pressure vessels, the allowable stresses are established by the least of:
100,000 hours
*l.5
at temDerature.
24
2.I2
UTS
ys
Intemal pressure----cylinders
2.0 Extemal pressure-cylinders without stiffening rings All walls 2.0 2.0 Castings 2.5 2.5
n n
Cast Steel
l.)
2.0
1 Tested
DIN2or
DIN
DIN
n n n n n n
2.0 2.5
n
n n n n
1.5
1.5
1.5
n n
I Tested
DIN2or
Italy
1.5 1.5
F rance
The French rules for pressure vessel design establish the allowable shesses depending upon the inspection and the compliance with the SNCT (Syndicat National de la Chaudronnerie et de la Tuyauterie Industrielle) rules. The allowable stresses are established by the least of:
v,5
The Italian rules for boilers and pressure vessels establish the allowable stresses by the least of the following: UTS
1.6
Pressure
Boilers vessels
2.7
n
1.6
1.5*
1.6
1.6 1.5
1.0 1.0
2.7 2.4
1.6
1.5
Not SNCT
w/insp. Not SNCT w/o insp. Gennany The three types of pressure vessels recognized by the regulatory agencies in Germany are fixed pressure vessels, mobile pressure vessels, and boilers. The allowable stresses are established according to a specific DIN (German Industrial Standard) certificate or by testing. The allowable stresses are set by various factors of safety on the yield strength with a constant factor of safety on rupture
as
Japan
1.9 1.0
The Japanese government does not have one group to develop their design codes. Rather have several different rules for designing boilerJ and pressure vessels. Although they are published by different groups and generally written by the different groups, all codes are under the control of the Japanese government. The basis for setting allowable stresses is the least of:
UTS
rs
Boilers
Pressure vessels
follows:
UTS Steel (not cast)
1.6
2/(1.6
1.67 av.
ys
Altemative
pressure
- jI
1.0 1.0
25 min.
1.5 av.
I .25 min.
DIN
DIN2orl
Tested
n
n n
I .:)
1.5
n
n
n
vessels
<
O.7.
1.5
1.8
1.5
1.5
Ll
'whcrcT:
YS/TS
26
AND ATTOWABI.E
STRESSES
REFERENCES
27
Sweden
ANSUAPI Standard 650, Welded Steel Tanks for Oil Storage, 7th ed., American Petroleum Institute, Washington, D.C., 1980.
1982 AnnuaL Book of ASTM Standards,
Afieican Society for Testing and Materials, PhiladelHerausgegeben vom Deutschen Normeruusschu
The Swedish rules for the design of boilers and pressure vessels set the allowable stresses using only the yield strength and the rupture strength as follows:
Dll,lr,
UTS
ys
1.5 1.5
All
Unilctl Kingdom
The British rules for the design of boilers and pressure vessels are collectively called British Standards. The basis for settine the allowable stresses is the least
of:
UTS
ys
BoilersBS 1113
Pressure vessels
2.7
1.5
I _.'
BS 5500
Carbon steel
Stainless steel
2.35
2.5*
1.5 1.5
I _J
l.J
RTTTR.ENCES
l.
Srrrrlcn, A. M., and J. R. Mase, "ASME Pressure-Vessel Code: Which Division to Choose?", ('hrt\k\tl lit|ineering, January 1982.
ll,
lnrthorlt
oJ
lrrllrrrr
rl,JJ [l lcnr|t(rrlrtrr.
'Fxy
2f
l+u)
CHAPTER
i,=#n(*
r1
.,&*)
"
^J
t"
a_w
211*u;
a*aY
29
30
3.2
DESIGN
CRITERIA
3I
3.I
STRENGTH THEORIES
3.2
DESIGN CRITERIA
ln the design of process vessels and pressure equipment, two basic modes of failure may be assumed: elastic failure based on the theory of elasticity and plastic failure based on the theory of plasticity. Except for thick-walled vessels, elastic failure is usually assumed for the design of pressure vessels. It is considered to occur when the elastic limit of the material is reached. Beyond this limit, excessive deformation or rupture is expected. These limits are usually measured in terms of tensile strength, yield strength, and, to some degree, rupture
strength.
Of the many theories developed to predict elastic failure, the three most commonly used are the maximum principal stress theory, the maximum shear stress theory, and the distortion energy theory. The maximum (principal) stress theory considers failure to occur when any one of the three principal stresses has reached a stress equal to the elastic limit as determined from a uniaxial tension or compression test. The maximum shear stress theory (also called the Tresca criterion) considers failure to occur when the maximum shear stress equals the shear stress at the elastic limit as determined from a pure shear test. The maximum shear stress is defined as one-halfthe algebraic difference between the largest and smallest of the three principal stresses. The distortion energy theory (also called the maximum strain energy theory, the octahedral shear theory, and the von Mises criterion) considers failure to have occurred when the distortion energy accumulated in the pad under stress reaches the elastic limit as determined by the distortion energy in a uniaxial tension or compression test. Engineers have known for some time that the maximum shear stress theory and the distortion energy theory predict yielding and fatigue failure in ductile materials better than does the maximum stress theory.r However. the maximum stress theory is easier to apply, and with an adequate safety factor it gives satisfactory designs. But where a more exact analysis is desired, the maximum shear stress theory is used. Two basic theories of strength are used in the ASME Boiler and hessure Vessel Code. Section I,2 Section IV,3 the ASME Code, VI[-1, and Section III, Division 1, Subsections NC,4 ND,5 and NE6 use the maximum stress theory. Section III, Division l, Subsection NB7 and the optional part of NC, and the ASME Code, VtrI-2, use the maximum shear stress theory. In the two sections of the ASME/ANSI Code for Pressure Piping 83l that are used primarily with the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, both ANSI 83 l. l6 and 83 1. 3e use the maximum stress theory. 83 1.3 is unique in that it uses the maximum stress theory but permits allowable stresses to be established on the same basis as the ASME Code, VIII-2, which requires use of the maximum shear stress theory. The other sections of 831 also use the maximum stress theory. They require that in addition to the stresses caused by intemal and cxternal pressures, tiose stresses caused by thermal expansion of the piping are to he considered.
The design criteria for both Sections I and IV basically call for determining the minimum wall thickness that will keep the basic circumferential stress below an allowable stress level. Additional rules and charts are included for determining the minimum thickness of various components. However, in general, a detailed stress analysis is required only for special designs. Sections I and IV recognize that local and secondary stresses may exist in some areas of pressure vessels; design details, however, have been established to keep these stresses at a safe level with a minimum of stress analysis investigation. The design criteria of the ASME Code, VI -1, and Section III, Division l, Subsections NC except NC-3200, ND, and NE, are similar to those for Sections I and IV except that the ASME Code, VI[-I, and Section III, Division l, Subsections NC, ND, and NE require cylindrical shell thickness calculations based on both the circumferential and the longitudinal directions. The minimum required thickness may be set by stresses in either direction. In addition, the ASME Code, VIII-1, permits the combination of primary membrane stress and primary bending stress to go as high as 1.5 S at temperatures where tensile and yield strength control and 1.25 S at temperatures where creep and rupture control, where S is the allowable tensile stress values. The design criteria for the ASME Code, VIII-2, provide formulas and rules for thd?nore common configurations of shells and formed heads for temperatures when the allowable stress criteria do not exceed the yield strength and tensile strength range. Requirements include detailed evaluations of actual stresses in complex geometries and with unusual loadings, especially if a cyclic loading condition exists. These calculated stresses are assigned various categories and subcategories that have different allowable stress values as multipliers of the basic allowable stress intensity value. The various categories and subcategories
are:
Primary stresses, including general primary membrane stress, local primary membrane stress, and primary bending stress
Secondary stresses Peak stresses
Primary stress is caused by loadings that are necessary to satisfy the laws of
equilibrium between applied forces and moments. Primary stesses are not
self-limiting
.
by self-constraint of the structure. Its basic chamcteristic is that it is selfJimiting. That is, rotation and deformation or deflection take place until the forces and moments are balanced even though some pennanent geometric changes may have taken place. Lastly, peak stress is the highest stress condition in a structure and is usually
Secondary stress is developed
32
3.4
STRESS-STMIN REIATIONSHIPS
due to a stress concentration caused by an abrupt change in geometry. This stress is important in considering a fatigue failure because of cyclic load application. In general, thermal stresses are considered only in the secondary and peak categories. Thermal stresses that cause a distortion of the structure are categorized as secondary stresses; thermal stresses caused by suppression of thermal expansion, but may not cause distortion, are categorized as peak stresses. Potential failure modes and the various stress limits categories are related. Limits on primary stresses are set to prevent deformation and ductile burst. The primary plus secondary limits are set to prevent plastic deformation leading to incremental collapse and to validate using an elastic analysis to make a fatigue analysis. Finally, peak stress limits are set to prevent fatigue failure due to cyclic
3.3
DESIGN EQUATIONS
Once the allowable stresses are set, the basic design equations must be devef oped. The design of process equipment is based on the assumption that the material generally behaves elastically at the design pressure and design tem-
perature. Accordingly, most of the equations are derived from the theory of elasticity and shength of materials basis.
3.4
STRESS-STRAIN RETATIONSHIPS
loadings. The basic stress iniensity limits for various categories relating to an analysis according to the ASME Code, VIII-2, and Section III, Division 1, Subsection NB, and optional Part NC-3200 of Subsection NC are: Factor Based on
The stress-strain relationship at any point within a homogeneous, isotropic, and linearly elastic body that is subjected to a system of forces is obtained from the theory of elasticity. Referring to Fig. 3.1, the stress-strain relationship is given
by
Factor
Based on
e,:
er
1.
ELo,-
p(oy + ozl)
Allowable
Stress Intensity Category
Yield
Strength*
Value
t.
ELor-
ploz 'r
o^)J
(P,)
ks,
3s,
UKS^
Pd liks.
1(
s) s,
25,
e, -
I : ;lo,I1-
tt(o, 2(1
I o)l
1t)
(3.1)
rs ,DGE
^lv
+s,
(PM+PB+Q)
S.t/,- =
In the ASME Code, VIII-2, and Section III, Division 1, optional Part NC3200 of Subsection NC, a factor of ft is applied to various loading combinations somewhat related to whether or not the loading is sustained or transient. The laotors are k = 1.0 for sustained loads including dead loads and pressure; k - 1.2 for sustained load plus wind or earthquake loads; t = 1.25 for hydro$tiltic tcsts; and k - 1.15 for pneumatic tests. 'I'hc dcsign criteria for Section III, Division l, Subsection NB, are very sinrillr lo thoso for the ASME Code, VIII-2, except there is less use of design lirrrrrrrlrrs, culvcs, tnd tables, and greater use of design by analysis in Section IIL 'l'h(. cfllcgorics ol slrcsses and stress intensity limits are the same in both secliorrs.
+
L
1t)
i--
(r+
tt)(1
-zp.)
[e,(l
pc)
+ p,(e, + e,)]
p.(e"
(1,+p.)(1
p) +
e")l
(l + p)(1 I
| .O.
+AiiurriflI lhrt
,\,,,
Nll, n[(l thc | i',nrl pIr I {rl S (plri). url ,\,'t{ ultirrxrtc k nsil(. slfrJrgth (psi)
(lcsiSn strcss intensity valuc fbr Section III, Division l, Subsection hsr(.li()n NC, and thc ASMts Codc, VIII-2 (psi), S" = yicld strength
T,
2(l +
[,(1
- pr,)+p(e.+er)]
(3.2)
1.t)
34
3.5
STRAIN-DEFTECTION EQUATIONS
35
t2
equations reduce to
'
f1--->
@
I t4
(b)
<-f3
e,:
1. E\ox
psr) Po')
(3.3)
t"l
t. q= i\ar-
o,
---! L-p-
,1u"
* *rs
+
p'es (3.4)
I
I
o,:;\1e, tc,:0
E
lL-
Figure
',=76+ iil*
3.5
STRAIN-DEFLECTION EQUATIONS Figure 3.2 is cross section of a pressure vessel wall. It undergoes an extension in the niddle surface of o due to stretching plus extension due to bending. The original length lr at a distance z from the middle surface is given by
r, = zG;
tL)
Tn : ;:;---,----.._
EvL\r t trL)
axial strain in the.r, y, and z-directions, respectively axial stress in the .r, y, and z-directions, respeptively
shearing strain in the -r, y, and z-directions, respectively shearing stress in the.r, y, and z -directions, respectively
where
eb ey
e,:
oz
= "y,!, yr,, y- =
re,
T
oo
o,
t,=adr-1\
The final length l2 after extension is
: rz, rp :
tz:
whereas strain is given by
dstt +
.*r(r - 4) \ r./
lrl,
poisson's ratio
In most pressure vessel applications, the values of o,, rr,, and r,, are relatively small compared with o, and or. Hence, they are normally ignored and the
,":
lt
36
3.5
STRAIN.DEFTECTION
EQUATIONS
37
However, because the quantity dw fdx is smal! compared with unity, the expression above becomes
X': 77
Hence, Eq. 3.5 may be written
as
d2w
. a;to Xt =
d2w
7F
(3.6)
*=T+1^+
*.leb
peo,-,(#. - *fu)l
(3.7)
The shearing strain-displacement relationship can be obtained from Fig. 3 3. The quantity 7," is shown in Fig. 3'34 and can be expressed as
Fisure
3.2
Cross sction
"l'Y:"loq+a+P
is the shearing stress due to in-place forces and d and B are due to twisting moments. Also, from the figure, where
7qry
Substituting the values of lr and lz into the above and deleting all small terms
results in
.:
or
(t _ ,\,:_ l\ : e0,_
i)
z. x\
du dy 0a
ou
-,\4- i)
r l\
IJ-srnP= es - z' xt
and
(dD/?x)dx
d,
=A
peo!
z(y"
trt'yt)
0a
a,
(3.8)
q- ,--lvt t- lL-
ti
l"r*-
z(Xr+
PX')
From Fig. 3.30, which represents the middle surface, the rotation is given by -@w I Ai. The minus sign indicates counterclockwise rotation. As a result of this rotation, any point at a distance z from the middle surface will have a deflection of
dw dx
dx2
38
3.6
FORCE-STRESS EXPRESSIONS
39
^,
",=c("*
3.6
FORCLSTRESSEXPRESSIONS
-*#)
(3.9)
The force-stress relationship for the cross section shown in Fig' 3 4a can be
exDressed as
t,--'-,..'7 t _----,-
u..-..
-z
-\ ,/./,?| t
n"=[,"(t-i)a"
u,=1,,,\t-z)a'
(3. 10)
|_-, l-_
z
Figura
tD,
u.=
z)a" [".'lt -
3.3
Shor dolormdliom of
,, = -[ ,,'lt - 1)a"
Similarly,
D
u*=
= -Z-dy
dte
[,,",(t-4;,
In the majority of cases, the quantity z/r is small with respect to unity and can thus be dlsregarded. Also, substituting Eqs. 3.7 and 3.9 into 8q 3 10 gives
40
3.6
FORCE.STRESSEXPRESSIONS
4l
(3.1 r)
,.:&(#.#)
u,=ffi\(*tu.
,.
Eilt l2ll tL) drw lt2t ax dy
,*tu)
Example 3.1 Stresses are to be determined at the inside comer of an opening in a cylindrical shell by applying strain gages at the location. The cylindrical
shell is carbon steel with
: 29.9 x 106 psi and p : 0.3. The strain readings o from the three gages are ,: +360 x 10-6; ): +180 x l0 and e' = -230 x 10-6. What are the stresses in the three principal directions at the
E
opening?
Solutian.
AS
Using the equations given under Eq. 3.2, the stresses are determined
,/
,oq
,qq
+ +
0.3(180 0.3(360
230)l
230t1
:
=
13'630 psi
9499 O.;
-*l(180)(0.7) t r.JJ(u.+,
60
psi
Exanple
3.2.
= gt
Solution.
N. = r r-lJ' r(0r+
N, :
N,}
Using the simplified equations given under Eq. 3.4, the stresses are
as
Et
determined
/,q,
Ft
l-
lL'
1'u,Et
2(l
+ 0.3 x + 0.3 x
180)
13,6oo psi
360)
9460
psi
1t)
42
Problems
BIELIOGRAPHY
BIBTIOGRAPHY
43
3.1
Strain gages are attached to the surface of a tube subiected to internal pressure. The gages lie along the circumferential and l,ongitudinal axes. The tube is carbon steel with = 29.9 106psi, 1.r, 0.3, and the stress at the surface in the circumferential direction is 17,500 psi. What are the strain gage readings in the two directions?
Brownell, L. E., and E. H. Yoi{Irlg, Process Equipment Design, John Wiley, New york, 1959. FattWI, J, H., Engineering Design, John Wiley, New York, l9&.
Ha0ey, J. F., Theory and Design of Modern Pressure Vessels,2nd ed., Van Nostrand-Reinhold,
Princeton, N.J.
Seely, F.
Answer:
e,: i:
*498
+117
x 10-6 x 10-6
1952.
3.2
In the tube of Problem 3.1, what is the strain in the z -direction? Usins that answer and the other answers in Problem 3.1, what are the calcrilated stresses in the three directions?
Anst'er: a" =
17,500 psi
o"=o
REFERENCES Criteria of the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code for Design by At],',ltsis in Sections and VIII, Division 2, American Society of Mechanical Engineers, New york, 1969.
III
I, Power Boilers, ANSVASME BPV-I, American Society of Mechanical Engineers, New york, 1983. ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Sectionly, Heating BoiIeB, ANSVASME BPV-IV, American Society of Mechanical Enginers, New York, 1983.
ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Section III, Division l, Subsection NC, Class 2 Components, ANSUASME BPV-m-I-NC, American Society of Mechanical Engineers, New
York, 1983.
York. 1983. ASMII Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Section III, Division l, Subsection NE, Class MC (i)tnpt,nt',ttr, ANSTASME BPV- I-l-NE, American Society ofMechanical Engineers, New
7. Pressure Vessel Code, Section III, Division 1, Subsecrion NB, CIaJJ 1 ( t'ntt\'tl' t.t, ANSI/ASME BPV- I-l-NB, American Society ofMechanical Engineers, New
Y(n
III, Division Subsection ND, Crllrr.i Components, ANSL?ASME BPV-III-1-ND, American Society ofMechanical Engineers, New
l,
(.
l()8l
83l.1, Amedcan Society ol Mrrhfiri(nl li[8inccrs, New York, 1980. ASMf (irtfc lix Prcssure Piping B3l, Chemical plant and petroleum Rertnery pipin|, ANSI/AliMll ll I I L Amcr'can Soc'ety of Mechanical Engineers, New york, 19g0.
CHAPTE R
MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION
Top: Metologroph of titanium wetd. Boltom: Tonrolum_ctdd veset (Courtesy of rhe Nooter Corp., Sr. l"ouis,
44
46
MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION
4.I
MATERIAL SETECTION
The vast majoriry of vessels are constructed of ferrous and nonferrous alloys' used Ferrous alloys are defined as those having more than 50Vo iron They are 2, and include carbon and low-alloy steels' in the eSME Code, VI[-l and steels' stainless steels, cast iron, wrought iron, and quenched and tempered copper, nickel, titanium, and zirconium Nonfenous alloys include aluminum, The ASTM designates all ferrous alloys by the letter A and all nonferrous alloys the ASME by B. ASME uses the prefixes SA and SB, respectively ln most cases are identical. However, vessels built to the ASME unO eSfV specifications Code usually refer to the ASME specifications' Nonmetilic pressure vessels may also be constructed to the ASME Code' plasRecently, ASME Section X was published to include fiberglass-reinforced of construction are given in Section 46' Concrete tic (FRij vessels. Details rules are vessels are also being considered by the ASME However, no specific available at this time. and Selecting materials that are adequate for a given process is complicated factors such as corrosion, strength, and cost' depends on many
4.1.1
Corrosion
Fisure
Corrosion,whichisdefinedasthedeteriorationofmetalsbychemicalaction' A is probably the single most important consideration in selecting materials can sigstigtrt ctrange in the chemical composition of a given -environment in nifi'cantly cilange the corrosive behavior of a given metal This is illustrated on different epp""Oi* H, i,trich lists various environments and their effect
ferrous and nonferrous alloYs. In a new chemical process, it is prudent to determine the factors that affect the most the corrosion and then run tests on various materials in order to select "city suitable one. Figure 4.1 shows an example of a heat exchanger.used in and the unwater" service. The corroded tubesheet is made of carbon steel a corroded tubes are made of copper' Another example shown in Fig 4'2 is titanium lubesheet after exhibiling crevice corroslon' fn nighty corrosive environments, every phase of the pressure. vessel fabri.ution pio""r, rnurt be evaluated for corrosion' Items such as buming' forming' weldini, stress relieving, and polishing must be.considered Figure 4 3 illuswere left on trates a"Hastelloy C chu-te with corrosion in which marking Points of high stress along the break rnu,"tlut Ou.ing h"ut treatment. Conosion at points attack lines can also 6e seen. In Figure 4.4, a Carpenter 20 tube shows knifeline used in hydrofluoric acid at a plug weld (shown by arrow) in a bayonet tube
service. its The cleanliness and finish of the inside surface of a pressure vessel before in service' subsequent opcrltion ilrc vsry imPortant in preventing .c.onoslon to lts Many uscrs tcquirc spccial clcaning proccdutcs ol'the insitlc surlace Prior
4.1
Cotroded corbon sleel lubesheet. (Courl$y of the Nooter Corp., St. touis, Mo.)
Frrruro
4.2
insl;rllaliott.
4.I
MATERIAT SITECTION
49
4.1.2
Strenglh
The strength level of a material has a significant influence on its selection for a given application. This is especially true at elevated temperatures where the yield and ultimate strength are relatively low and the creep and rupture behavior may control the allowable stress values. In the ASME Code, VIII-l, the criteria for allowable stress at elevated temperatures take into account both the creep and rupture behavior as discussed in Section 2.4. In applying the ASME criteria for allowable stress as given there, the following procedures are used.
Specified Minimum Yield Stress
In obtaining the minimum yield shess of a given material, test data are plotted at vadous temperatures as shown in Fig . 4 . 5 . A smooth trend curve is then drawn though the averages of the data for individual test temperatures. The specified minimum yield stress curve is obtained by applying to the yield trend curve the ratio of the specified minimum value, as given in the material specification, to
the trend value of 80"F.
Fisure
4.3
o
Fisure
200
400
Figure
600 4.5
800
1000
1200
1400
1600
4.4
temperature,"F Crock in
48
!0
Sptcllled Mlnlnum 'l'ensile Siress
MATERIATS
OI
CONSTRUCTION
4.I
MATTRIAI. SETECTION
5l
Rupture Slrength
Test data are normally plotted as shown in Fig. 4.7. In some cases the data need to be extended to 100,000 hours and must be done with extreme care to extraD-
'fhe tensilc trend curve is determined by the same method as the yield trend curve
including_ th-e,.ratio factor. The specified minimum tensile striss is arbitrarily taken as I l07o of the tensile trend curve, as illustrated in Example 4. 1
olate accurately.
Creep Rate
In order to establish the creep rate of lVo /lffi,O}} hours, data are plotted as shown in Fig. 4.6. Interpolation and extrapolation may be needed to establish the creep rate for various temperature levels.
Example 4.1. A user is requesting code approval for a new material that has a minimum specified tensile stress of 120 ksi and a minimum specified yield stress of 60 ksi at room temperature. Tensile and yield values for various heats
and temperatures are shown in Fig. 4.5. Creep and rupture data are given in Figs. 4.6 and 4.7, respectively. What are the allowable stress values at 300 and 1200'F
in Section 2.4?
.0001
1,000
Llle llrs.
Figur
,{.6
Crep strengrh.
Figur
4.7
Rupture strengrh.
52
MATERIATS OF CONSTRUCTION
4.2
NONFERROUS ATLOYS
Solution
l.
2. 3. 4.
From Fig. 4.5, average tensile stress = 130 ksi. Tensile stress reduced to minimum : l3O x 120/140: 111 ksi. Specified minimum tensile stress : 111 x 1.10 : 122 kst. Maximum stress to be used cannot exceed 120 ksi. Allowable stress based on tensile stress : 120/4 = 30 ksi. From Fig. 4.5, average yield sffess : 60 ksi. Yield stress reduced to minimum : 60 x 60/75: 48 ksi. Allowable stress based on yield stress : 48 x 6 = 32 ksi. From Figs. 4.6 and 4.7 it is apparent that creep and rupture are not a consideration at 300'F. Therefore, maximum allowable stress at 300"F = 30 ksi
Type
Carbon steel
Dollars/lb
0.30
0.7 5
Low-alloy steel
Stainless steel
0.90-2.50
1.50
t.'7 5
Aluminum
Copper, bronze
Incoloy
Monel Inconel Hastelloys
Titanium Zirconium
Tantalum
20.00 250.00
1.
2. 3. 4. 5.
4. I
From Fig. 4.5, average tensile saess : 112 ksi. Tensile stress reduced to minimum : lI2 x 120/1,4O: 96 ksi. Specified minimum tensile stress = 96 x 1.1 : 106 ksi, which is less than maximum allowed of 120 ksi. Allowable stress based on tensile stress = 106/4 : 26.5 ksr. From Fig. 4.5, average yield shess = 54 ksi. Yield stress reduced to minimum = 52 x 6O/7t: 42 ksi. Allowable stress based on yield stress = 42 x 6 = 28 ksi. From Fig. 4.6, creep stress for 0.O1Vo rn 1000 hours = 15 ksi. Allowable stress based on creep = 15 ksi. From Fig. 4.7. stress to cause rupture at 105 hours = 22 ksi. Allowable stress based on rupture = 0.67 x 22: 14.7 ksi. Therefore, maximum allowable stress at 1200"F = 14.7 ksi. I
'As of
January 1983.
4.2
NONFERROUS ATLOYS
The 1983 ASME Section VIII Code, VI[-1, lists five nonfenous alloys for code construction: aluminum, copper, nickel, titanium, and zirconium. These alloys are normally used in corrosive environment or elevated temperatures where ferrous alloys are unsuitable. Nonferrous alloys are nonmagnetic except for commercially pure nickel which is slightly magnetic.
.3
Moteriol Cost
llt'r'rrrrsc costs of materials vary significantly, the designer must evaluate materiirl (osl vcrsus other facton such as corrosion, expected life of equipment, Ivrrilirl'ility ol material, replacement cost, and code restrictions on fabrication rrrrl rr'1ririrs. n summary of the cost of some frequently used materials is given rn l irlrlt ,l. | . With the large difference in cost, the designer should consider the lrx l(xs ltfior' 11r sclccting a given material.
54
MATERIATS OF CONSTRUCTION
NONIERROUS ATTOYS
Jf
Tqble
4.2
Toble
4.3
EXAMPLE+
C ST'TG
FLITES
(n^|?{ sElra-Ess
NE fr-Ttta
DEGREE
C@,ITF|OL OF
ffiffi6nE
Fffi'TS
DIE
TUTO
,.ffi"ffi#*EffidFJfit<,6lLlfY.
"'ffi,#P.*,fffr4ffi..ffisffi*
5.
fFEATAa-E ILLOY.
"-
a.ffiiig,rri;p:::ffi!*r
O- ARTIFICTALLY
COLD V@KEO
designation, and temper designation as shown in Tables 4.2 and 4.3. Some of the terms in the tables are defined as follows: Annealing. Consists of heating the material to a given temperature and then slowly cooling it down. The purpose is to soften the material in order to remove cold
Stain Hardening. Modification of metal structure by cold working resulting in an increase in strength with a loss in ductility.
Thermal Treating.
Temperature treatment of an alloy to produce a stable temper.
working stress.
Norm.alizing. Consists of heating rnaterial to a temperature slightly higher than the annealing temperatue and then cooling at a rate that is faster than annealing.
S o lution
4.2.2
H eat Tr eatin g.
Stahilizing.
Most copper alloys are used because of their good corrosion resistance and machinability. They are also homogeneous as compared with steel or aluminum and thus not susceptible to heat treatment' Their strength, generally speaking, may be altered only by cold working. The alioy designation system serves to identify the type of material as shown in Table 4.4. Alloys 101-199 are normally a high grade copper with very few alloys added. Alloys 201-299 normally refer b brass products that are mainly copper and zinc. Alloys 501-665 are bronze products composed of copper and elements other than zinc. Other properties of copper alkrys are also sbown in the Table.
56
MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION
Tqble
4.4
EE ra ra
A A
Eo
\o
Copper AlloYs
di\J U)
d - a': a T 5 co of co cD rq
\o-
\D \o
\O
\O @
oO
U) tan
U) u)
ca a
I I
Alloy Designation of
CoPPers
l0l-199 20tJ99
301-399 401-499
501-599
Coppers
EoS E g,.E$
dicc a\)a
\o \o
\o
5 ca u1 v u) rh e a rq...j Ecco a
z
U'
\o
701J30
B;= a. ,B t:
\o
ta)
\o
tt)
\o
+ + + a
a@ : t4
Qua(er Hard
0.9
Half hard
Three-quarte$ hard Hard Extra hard Spring Extra spring
20.7 29.4
31
\o vt(hu)l lv)aa
sf
\o
.l
>doF
IIi
<AE
v v>
ao ! Q n v 6 G
88
'r,
Most copper alloys are distinguishable by their color except for Cu-Ni alloys that tend to lose their color as the amount of Ni is increased
4.2.3
Nickel and high-nickel alloys have excellent corrosion and oxidation resistance that makes thJm ideal for high temperature applications with corrosive environments. Products are normally called by their commercial names rather than their ASME designation number as shown in Table 4 5'
Y < 6=aa-.i,:,i,9
4.2,4
2222222222 I ; r'i XEE i 9-B n^:i^ l= I -zF da 2e 2a2^::;. F v6 Vo zz z 23888A838:E;8t F z zcz44aa3z4 Z\J ZY >v
=e
JVCq9vY-ii
flSd
ccg,,-56
Titanium and zirconium alloys are used in process equipment subjected to severe environment. In the ASME Code, VIII-1, unalloyed titanium is listed for grades grades also I , 2, and 3, and alloyed titanium is listed for grade 7. Two zirconium and alloyed alloy 705' given in the Code are unalloyed alloy 702 The modulus of elasticity for both titanium and zirconium is about half that ol stccl. Also the coefficient of thermal expansion of both is about half that of stccl. I'hc dcnsity o1'zirconium is slightly less than stcel' whereas the density of lilrr|lirrrr is irlrottt 0.5ti lirttcs thltt ol stccl.
$na*$qfi ra33383nltsa
s?
&
(./t
Yq rarartl
u)all
-aEP 3-EE z
E)
$na$$qqqqq t3,38nA3nn3F^
qq s q s$3$$$$$ t83 AAEn'-n3333a3383
H5 g
al
ao
AA
n | 3
| |
|
|
F-
o- q =- *A
$ $ 3 e 3 g ? q qq| A A e n E 3 a lnl
q 3
a-
\o
* EEU
q-
s$$nHfiH$$+q nAaeBSaaSSa
r.) c.r <l iisiotidooozx .J i\ ^r
to
; g nE H
El
CJ
e&"
nl
al
R=
x ><> )<
i{
5
C)
gg
O
a^r'i=-=
EEEEtt giss!ig$gqB
622t2322222
U
O
II.
26
U
n*i
.i +t-
z
o
t!
1
!
zzz
,9,
,9
; i
.rrrr{a
ln
/\/tx X XE AH O:'
EuEt sc ig ig I5 ic kc ic Ig Ig
3g5Eg6s9lsd
59
MATERIATS OF CONSTRUCTION
4.4
HEAI TREATING OF
STEETS
6I
4.3
FERROUS ALTOYS
steels. lhese elements enhance the steel for high temperature applications and
Iron alloys with carbon content of less than 2qo arc known as steels and those
with more than 27o are known as cast iron. Steels are further divided into those with carbon content of more than 0.87o, called hypereutectoid steels, and those with carbon content of less than 0.87o, known as hypoeutectoid steels. Most steels used in pressure vessel applications have a carbon content of less than 0.47o. Steels with carbon content of over O.4Eo are very brittle and hard to weld. Cast iron used in pressure vessels dates back to the nineteenth century. However, because cast iron is very brittle and because it cannot be rolled, drawn, or welded, its use in pressure vessels presently is limited to complicated components and configurations. The ASME Code, VIII-I, also imposes limitations on the pressure and temperature ranges and the repair methods. Steel alloys can be produced with a wide variety of alloying elements. Some of the common elements and their effect on steel products are shown in Table 4.6. The ASME Code, VIII-1, divides steel alloys into the following categories: Carbon Steels.
These are widely used in pressure vessels. They have mainly silicon and manganese as the main alloying elements and are limited in temperature
This group includes type 410, which has a low chromium content of slightly above lTEo. They behave like steel, are magnetic, heat heatable, and difficult to fabricate.
Feffitic Stainless Steels. This group includes types 405 and 430. They are magnetic but not heat
treatable. Aust enitic Staink s s
Ste e ls.
This group includes all 200 and 300 series and are chromium-nickel and chromium-nickel-manganese steels. They arc nonmagnetic and not heat
heatable.
Low-Allny Steels.
These are essentially cbromium (up
4.4
Tqble
Aluminum
Chromium
The lattice structure of steel varies from one form to another as the temperature changes. This is illustrated in Fig. 4.8. Between room temperature and 1333"F, the steel consists of what is known as "ferrite and pearlite." Ferrite is a solid solution of a small amount of carbon dissolved in iron. Pearlite, which is shown in Fig. 4.9, is a mixture of ferrite and iron carbide. The carbide is very hard and
Improves oxidation
reslstance Increases hardenability Strengthens steel
MirrUlocsc
Molylrk
rrrrrrr
Titanium
of
l('l|ll)crilturc
(
illrrlcrircls tcndency
britde. In Fig. 4.8 between lines A1 Qower critical ternperature) and A3 (upper critical temperature) the carbide dissolves more readily into the lattice that is now called "ferrite and austenite." Austenite is a solid solution of carbon and iron that is denser than ferrite. Above line 43 the lattice is uniform in property, with the austenite the main structure. The actual temperature for this austenite range is a function of the carbon content of the steel as shown in Fig. 4.8. With this brief description, we can now discuss various heat treatments of
carbon steel.
Normalizing. This consists of heating the steel to about 100"F above the upper critical line Ai and tben cooling in still air. The purpose is to homogenize the steel structurc and oroduce a harder steel than the annealed condition
long heating
Vanadium
Increases hardenability Rcsists tcmpcring
62
MATERIATS
Of
CONSTRUCTION
4.5
BRITTTE FMCTURE
63
Posweld Heat TreatingIt consists of heating to a temperature below the lower critical temperature -rJilf- rft" purp;se of reducing the fabrication and welding stress and softening the weld heat-affected zones'
'ri
Quenching. important in e-stablishing The rate of cooling of steel after heat treating is very SA-517 obtain most of their high ifr" ft.an"t. of st"eel Some steels such as manY.factors such as Uy qt"*fting. The rate of cooling.depends on ,t "ttgtft medium' and size and mass of tlmperature of quenching qu"nittlng the part.
-iAiu.,
Tempering. they are heat Ouenched steels are very brittle. In order to increase toughness'
;;;;
il"* ;.;d
4.8
4.5
BRITTTE FRACTURE
occasionalllfail:ht-
uy incorporati4g.ufg1e fracture -coriiiderations at the dsgn ffilrir;d .;Oiiticaiion requlreO vaiies from the simplest state-offfi ffirf il::* ;;d;dTi;,rt""t"iii.o.pri*tei mathematical analvses Both extremes ;; ;i;ii;,h;;i;isure uessel'designer, and their application ^depends on the
amountofinformationavailableandtherequiredreliabiljtyolaglvencomponent.
NORI'ALIZED
PEARLITE
The Cv test is the simplest and most popular method of qualitatively determining
4.9
Parlile 3tructure.
llrrr r'orrrisls ol lreating the steel to about 50'F above the upper critical line ,4, lrrrl tlrlrr ltttttittt cortling slowly. The purpose is to refine the grain and rtrlttr'r srtllttr'ss
impact teslrn_g ASTM- A-370_-and consistf taken from a spbcifib location of a product lorm. l he speclmen ls srucK wlln a falling weighi(Fig.4.l}b) and the energy required to fracture it at various tempJratures is recorded. Figure 4.11 shows two typical plots of the temperature versus absorbed energy. The magnitude of measured energy, shape of energy curve, and appearance of the cross section of tested specimens are all significant in evaluating material toughness.
4.5
BRITTTE FRACTURE
ffil
|
fn',n | '-*nn
(b) resr ann*rormeu
--.r-o"ttgm;f"@Slt as sho_wnin_Curve,4 qf Fig. 4 1 l. @ -. as-sharu!_!J_ rfrrvx g-rn-\E:-.4.1t. This slight increase in toughness makes the Cv test impractical to use in high strength steels. The of dull and areas in the cross section of tested (Fig. 4.10c).
spc'men.
The magnitude of energy level at a given temperature varies with different steels, as shown in ASTM 4-593. An energy level of 15 ft-lb is considered adequate for 4-283 steel at room temperature. However, such a level is exceedingly low for .4-387 steels. Recognizing this fact is imperative in specifying energy requirements for various steels at different temperatures. The slope of the energy curve in Fig. 4.11 gives the rate of change of steel toughness with increasing temperature. At the bottom shelf of the curve, the steel is very brittle as indicated by the cleavage appearance of the tested speci men. Failure is normally abrupt. At the upper shelf, material fails in shear and the cross section has a dull area. Failure bicurs after excessive yielding. [ow] W,q sharp increase in toughness as the temperaiure increases,
Fig'rre
nil ductility temperature. The nil ductility transition (NDT) temperature shown in Fig. 4.11 is of significant importance when considering low strength steels. This temperature is below which the fracture appearance of steel changes from part shear to complete cleavage. Thus, this temperature is below which vessels with low strength steel must not operate without a detailed fracture evaluation.
The Cv tests give a good qualitative indication of fracture hends. TlpylQlot, however. eive anv coffelation between enersv and stress levels. Such information G-neeh wriirJ i-strisianaiviii is ftooila. roitrti.-iJ*n. other methods were devised such as the drop weight test {DWT) established by the U.S. Naval
Research. Laboratory
.
=
I
s
z
cuRvi(A)
4.ll
64
-/
66
MATERIATS OF CONSTRUCTION
4.5
BRITTIT
FRACTURE
67
the minimum in engineering analysis. A simplified version of the diagram for low strength steels is shown in Fig. 4.12 and indicates the types of tests required to construct the diagram. Point A is obtained from the DWT and it establishes the location of the NDT temperature with respect to yield stress. The crack arrest temperature (CAT) curve, developed by the Naval Research Laboratory is obtained by running explosive tests on sample plates at various temperatures and observing the crack pattem. From such tests the fracture tear elastic (FTE) point is determined at the temperature at which the crack pattem changes from bulge and fracture to bulge and partial fracture, as shown in Fig. 4.12. The fracture tear plastic (FTP) point is obtained when the crack pattem changes from bulge and partial fracture to bulge and shear tears. The FTE point also locates the yield stress with respect to temperature, whereas the FTP point locates the ultimate stress. Below point A in Fig. 4.12, fracture does not propagate regardless of the temperatue as long as the stress is below 5-8 ksi. Between points A and other stress lines are drawn to correlate various stress levels. These lines are obtained from the Roberson test, which consists of impact testing a specimen that is
to a certain level and heated from one side to create a temperature gradient as shown in Fig. 4.13. Figure 4.14 shows the complete fracture analysis diagram. The range of flow sizes at various stress levels has been obtained from experiments as well as experience. The experiments consisted of using large spheres of good impact material and replacing portions of them with a notched brittle material. The spheres were then pressurized to a given stress level at the NDT temperature of the brittle material. The size of the notch was varied with different stress levels to obtain the range in the figure.
stressed
mpAcT
ERiP
Figure
4.13
Diosrom of specimen
urd
0{DT+60"F) (
TEMP+
DT+120'F)
YIELD
srnEss
"
FLAT"
M
BULGE
lKl
&
L_________J
,BULGE' & PARTIAL
FRACTURE
tet
lft\ tL)
"BuLGE"
&
SHEAR
ls lz T ll
FRACTIJRE
FRACTURE
TEABS
=
Fisuro
riloT
4.14
(NI'I+3o'F)
TEMe-.-
(NDT+60'F)
(NDT+r20'F)
Figurc
4.12
MATERIATS OF CONSTRUCTION
4,5
BRITTLE FRACTURE
69
1. 2.
It applies only to low carbon steels. It is valid for thicknesses of less than 2 in. Larger
thicknesses require special evaluation and it has been proposed that the FTE temperature for thicknesses over 6 in. should be taken as NDT + 120"F rather than 210"F instead of NDT + 60'F. The FfP temperature should be NDT NDT + 120'F. This indicates that for thick sections, Fig. 4.14 is on the unconservative side and the safe operating temperature should be greater than those indicated by the figure.
60 50
":l Cl
-l ul Ft
,4O
30 20
10
Example 4.2. A low-carbon steel material with NDT temperature of 15"F is used in a pressure vessel. What is the rninimum safe operating temperature for
such material?
El El 4l
o
-1o
-20 -30
_40
Solution.
Because no stress level is given, the minimum stress is assumed at yield. Entering Fig. 4.14 at yield stress, the CAT curve is intersected at the FTE point. Moving vertically, a temperature of NDT + 60"F is obtained. Thus, the minimum safe opemting temperature is 75'F. If stress concentrations are assumed in the vessel and the stress level is beyond yield at some areas, then a conservative design is at the FTP point. In this case, the safe operating temperature is NDT + 120'F, or 135'F.
-50 -60
or11+22+3
THICKNESS
GRoUP
A: 8:
Nonnallzed SA-442 over 1,0 ln. orinrl ized 5A-516 And sA-662
SA-442 over 1.0 In. I'lhen l{ot Nonnallzed 5A-516 Up To 1,5 In. Thick
GRoUP
Example 4.3. A low-carbon steel vessel with an NDT temperature of -20oF is to have a start-up temperature of 0'F and a stress level of one-half yield. Is
the start-up iemperature safe?
C: SA-442 Up To 1.0 In, Thlck GRoUP D: All Carbon And Loll Alloy Steels
GRoUP
Figure,l.l5
lmpdci test exemption curvos for some corbon sreels. (Co'rrte.y of the Americon Society of
Mhonicol Ensineers.)
Solution. From the CAT curve in Fig. 4. 14 the minimum safe temperature is at NDT + 30" or 1ffF for a stress of one-half yield. Thus, start-up temperature is on the unsafe side because it is less than 10'F. If start-up temperature is critical, the shess will have to be decreased or a better impact material selected. I
The above approach, although different from the FAD concept, is a practical tool for preventing brittle fracture without requiring elaborate analysis; it is
based on test data.
4.5.1
The ASME Code, VIII, uses a different approach for preventing brittle fracture in pressure vessels with carbon steel construction. Division 1 prohibits the use of some carbon steels below -20'F and requires impact testing of all others that are subjected to temperatures below -20"F, with some minor exceptions. Division 2 uses a more refined approach that takes into account the effect of material type, thickness, and temperature. Figure 4.15 is a simplified version of the code approach. It exempts some tough materials of a given thickness from impact testing when the service temperature is above a specific value given in
The FAD and ASME criteria are applicable to low-carbon steels where the effect of temperature is prominent. Toughness of higher strength steels or materials such as stainless steels, aluminum, or titanium is independent of temperature. Thus, a different approach based on the mathematical theory of fracture toughness is used in establishing adequate toughness.
the filure.
4.4. A 3.O-in.-thick pressure vessel is made of SA-533 Gr. B material with an NDT temperature of 0'F. The design temperature is 50"F and the design membrane sffess is three-fourths of yield. What are the code fracture requirements of this vessel if it is constructed in accordance with (a) Division I of Section VIII, (b) Division 2 of Section VIIL
Example
MATTRIALS
Of
CONSTRUCTION
4.5
BRITTTE TRACTURE
7l
Solulian. (a)
tory. I 4.5.2
Because the temperature is over -20"F, Division I does not require any analysis. (b) From curveD ofFig. 4.15, the minimum temperature that exempts impact requirements for a 3.0-in.thick vessel is 120'F. Thus a Cy test is manda-
&=oF
where F
(4.l)
Basically the brittle fracture theory assumes that stress at the vicinity of a crack (Fig. 4. 16) due to a load applied perpendicular to the direction of crack is given by the following expressions:
Unstable crack propagation occurs when the value of K1 reaches a critical value K1c, which is a function of the properties of the material. Temperature variation could have a drastic effect on the value of K1c. as is the case with low strength carbon steels. Some published K/c values are given in Table 4.7. Experimental determination of the Krc factors is described in ASMT E-399 and is rather costly to
establish. Values for the crack shape factor F are normally obtained from the theory of elasticity. Because of the complexity of such analysis, only a few cases are suited for practical use. Some of them are shown in Table 4.8. Materials in general lose their toughness as the yield strength increases. One measure of toughness is the ratio K16 f or. Ratios larger than I .5 indicate tough materials, whereas lower ratios indicate more brittle materials. A study ofK16/o, and Eq. 4.1 reveals that the defect factor F has to be very small when o" is high and K1q is low. In other words, very small defects in high strength materials can lead to catastrophic failures.
,, -/
K,
3a\
= r, 0 =
7ry
Kt :
tft
Fracture theory is one the most accurate methods presently available for evaluating maximum tolerable defect size. The main drawback is the difficult task of obtaining I</c factors for different materials. Economics might dictate a simplified approach like FAD or the ASME criteria with a small permissible defect size rather than a fracture theory approach that might allow a larger tolerable defect.
Relatiaiship Between
K1g
and Cy
Determination of K1c values is tedious and expensive especially for low strength Toble
4.7
Some Approximofe
K7a
Volues
JK/c
(ksi\-inJ
Material A302-Gr. B
,A.5l7-Gr. F
300"F
25 34 38 35
55
-200'F
34
100"F 48
7'7
44
50
83
4.16
tip of
A.533 Gr. B
40
46
78
HV-80
Tqble
4.8
Tqble
Case
4.8
case
l:
Flovl
l"
3t . If
F=V
ra
( Ref. 2, p. 49
E-'g_ E_ 6 E-
.a2
Rer' axl
s
l,ihere
La
is the maior
se 5 : Singl e
notcn.
I
I
Case 2:
terna
ci rcul
wi dth
F=CVir.a
Itl lll
to
c=1i1'iF+o227+ roa(i)'-zasz(if
r F=Fr.L#
o
Clse 3:
tan @wl
l1'2
+4272
t+l
\4
\r /
(
XET
328
case
( Ref. 2,
a
s0
thick
pl
ate.
F=
F=zVT
where
where
o.ztzo2f or2
5
"a" is radlus'of
crack
Ref.
3, P. 39 )
"2c" is cra ck length' "a" is crack depth, o ls actual ( Ref. materlal stress, and oy ls yleld stress.
31
73
74
MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION
4.5
BRITTTE FRACTURE
75
steels. Various methods relating the,K/c factor to the relatively inexpensive Cy test have been suggested. One empirical method proposed by Rolfer and Barsom consisted of preparing two equations for correlation purposes. One equation relates the Cy and K1s values at the transition temperature region, whereas the other equation is applicable at the upper shelf region. Thus, for the hansition region,6
4.5.4
Krc:155Cvtl2
whereas for the upper shelf range,
(4.2)
(4.3)
Many factors such as torch cutting, arc strikes, and cold forming affect the britde fracture behavior of metals and should be considered in fabricating pressure vessels. Torch cutting or beveling of the plate edges may lead to hard and brittle areas. In cases where this condition is underdesirable the plate should be heated to minimize this effect. Grinding the edges eliminates the hard surfaces. Arc strikes can create failure by brittle fracture especially if the strike is made over a repaired area. It is desirable to grind and repair all arc strikes before hydrotesting, especially at low temperatures. Cold forming of thick plates may lead to fracture in areas with stress raisers or plate scratches. All stress raisers should be ground off to minimize their effect. Hot-forming substantially improves the situation because it increases the NDT temperature and thus prevents brittle fracture.
where Cv is in ft-lb, o" in ksi, and K1g in ksivG. Equations 4.2 and 4.3 are for medium strength steels such as 4.517 Gr. F and 4302 Gr. B.
Hydroslotic Testing
Hydrostatic testing of a pressure vessel is the best available method for determining maximum tolerable defect size. Thus, if a thick pressure vessel is
hydrotested at a pressure that is 50% greater than the design pressure, the critical
K1 is given by
4.5, A titanium pipe (ASTM 8265 Gr. 5) with a 2.375-in. outer diameter and a 0.154-in. wall thickness has an actual stress of 30 ksi. a vield stress of 120 ksi, and K1q 40 ksiVin at a given temperature. The pipe contains a flow of depth 0.05 in. and length 0.25 in., which is similar to case 6 of Table 4.8. What is the maximum internal pressure the pipe can hold?
Example
Eq. 4.1
as
= oF
Assuming an intemal defect represented by case 3 of Table 4.8, the maximum K16 immediately after hydrotesting is
'^
a\Rl - Rl) Rl - Ri
120(1.88'z
r.88r
1.034':)
r.034,
Krc:
Maximum defect size
t.5
r.(r\/;J
(,
/ I;\
Krc
F
From case 6 in Table 4.8,
"',('fu)
or
"
-l 1f/
1.12\4;Xo.o5)
0.359
- - t t<^
Hence,
40/0.359
111.4 ksi
Hence, a crack that is discovered after hydrotesting can grow 2.25 times its original size before causing failure. This fact illustrates the importance ofhydrotesting and is based on a hydrostatic temperature that is the same as the lowest
operating temperature of the vessel.
14Jl(sl
design.
76
Examnle
MATERIAIS OF CONSTRUCTION
NONMETATTIC VESSEIS
77
is to 4'6. An A302-B material with a yield stress of 50 ksiof the be used percent an examination The Cv value is 15 ftlb and irl ".!*"* "".r"1....,i* of tested specimens indicate a temperature in the #"i^il;; .rott
plarc uncovered an elliptical transition range. Ultrasomc examination of the long and 0 25 in deep How safe is il;;;;d. fit" surface that is 0.375 in the vessel if the operating stress is I yield?
K1g
15(15)0
= t9 ksiVin1C;-Yr Mo Stccl
F=
;ts+l;ts,,oI25/orus" - "-"
o-: 19/0'46:
\/;ajzr
x So = r: 41 ksi Actual stress : 'l Therefore' operation of the vessel i.fl*fit"rt it l_es's,rtan the critical brittle stress is safe unless the defect grows in size l
Hence, from Eq' 4'1,
4.6
are:
HYDROGENEMBRITTLEMENT
can embrittle steels Essentially, the two different methods by which hydrogen
l.
penetrates the steel Hydrogen decarburization' In this case hydrogen (Fig' 4 8) to form methand combines with the carbides in the structure the original carbide and ane gas. This gas accumulates in the space of This process normally acceler;;il;t ;p p;";t" that leads to cracking' One ates with an increase rn temperature ind in operating -pressure' is by using Cr-Mo steels' Here method of minimizing hydrogen attack do not readily combine the carbides are in solution wiih ttre cr or Mo and to be used in a givn combination *ittt th" hyd.og"n. The type of steel the Nelson chart of te-perutu."hd p,"ttot" it normally determined by in Fig. 4.17.
Hydrogen
Fisure
4.17
2. -'
Hydrogen
Researchers have observed that hydrogen attacks of a pressure vessel at temperatures below 200'F when "Jatuin"r"gions hardniss zones in the range o1200 Brinelland higher' The they have-high believed that the hydroexact mechanism is not known exactly, but it is with higher stressed zones. Accordingly, een is attracted to hard regions soft h;-affected zones with a Brinell hardness below 200 to avoid hydrogen attacks at low temperatures'
attock.
4.7
iIONMETALLIC VESSETS
;;;;;;;q-t"
Rules for fiberglass-reinforced plastic (FRP) pressure vessels are covered in Section X of the ASME pressure vessel code. Construction of FPR vessels is divided into four classes: the contact molding, bag molding, centrifugal casting,
MATERIATS OF CONSTRUCTION
BIBTIOGRAPHY
and fi lament-winding Processes. In the contact-mol,cling process reinforcements and resins are placed in a cast mold and cured at room temperature. Vessels constructed by this process are limited to a design pressure of 150 psi. In the bag-molding process a pressurized bag is used to compress Prerolled and heads preforms against an outer heated mold The fiberglass "!hnd".t by this process are also limited to 150 psi pressure' uessels conjtructed In the centrifugal casting process, the cylindrical sections are formed from chopped fiberglasi strands and a resin system in a mandrel, which is spun to oroduce a suitible laminate and heated to cure the resin system Pressure vessels constructed by this method are also limited to 150 psi design pressure' In the filamenrwinding process, filaments of glass and resin are wound in a systematic manner to form various components. The ASME code limits the pressure range to 1500 psi for filament-wound vessels with cut filaments and to i000 psi for filament-wound vessels with uncut filaments' FRi' vessels normally operate at low temperatres. The ASME Code, Section X, limits the temperature iange between a minimum of -65oF and a maximum of 150'F. Also, because the modulus of elasticity is about 1 103 ksi, special care must be exercised in designing various components Because of this and because different fabrication processes produce different strength vessels, the ASME Code states that in order for a given vessel to be adequate, a prototype must be cycled 100,000 times between zero and design pressure and then burst at a Dressure not less than six times the design pressure'
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Aluminum Standards
aM Data, Alrmin'um Association, Washington, D.C., 19'19. Alner, S. H.,Introduction to Phlsical Metallurgy, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1964.
t91l
.
Nichols, R. W -, Pressule Vessel Engineering TechnologJ, Applied Science Publisherc, England, Thielsch, H., Defects and Failures in Pressure Vessels akd PipinS, R. E. Krieger, New York,
1965.
REFERENCES
Pellini, W. S., "Principles of Fracture Safe Design-Part l" ln Pressure Vessels and Piping: New York' 1972 Design and A'',,lysis, Vol. l, American Society of Mechanical Engineers'
Tetelman.
A. S.,
and
York,
1967.
N.J.,
Water Reactor Riccardella, P. C., and T. R. Mager, "Farigue Crack Growth in hessunzed Society of Vessels" in Pressare ye ssels and Piping: Disigtl and Analysis, Vol l, American New York, 1972. Mechanical Engineers, Wessel, E. T., andT.
R Magel, "Fracture Mechanics Technology as Applied toThick-Walled Vessels" in Pressure vessels and PipitlS: DesiSn and Analysis' vol l' American Society of Mechanical Engineers' New York, 1972 Newton, "lnterpretive Repoft on Small-Scale-Test Conelations with f''
ttu"t"- pa".*,"
Roberts, R., and
PART2
ANALYSIS OF COMPONENTS
8l
CHAPTER
Atr'0|t|h,t|.otcy|lndr|co|lh!|hinochomicolP|on|'(cour|g,yofE.|.dUPontdaNomoursondco.)
83
11
3,I
85
5.I
TO INTERNAL PRESSURE
Thc classic equation for determining stress in a thin cylindrical shell subjected to pressur-is obtained from Fig. 5.1. Summation of forces perpendicular to plane ABCD gives
PL.2r:ZoeLt
Figur 5,2
ot= Pr
(s.1)
Also,
dw
ar
(s.3)
cvllnoers
the.radj4 deflection of a cylindncal shell subjected to internal pressure is obtained by subsdrudng rhe quantity e6: osf E in6 Eq. 5.i. ilnce for thin
(s.4) is defined
as
where
E = modulus of elasticity
Equations 5.1 and 5.4 give accurate results when r/r 10. As r// decreases, however, a more accurate expression is needed because the stress distribution through the thickness is not uniform. Recourse is then made to the,.thick shell,, theory' first developed by Lame. The derived equations are based on the forces and stresses shown in Fig. 5.3. The theory assumes that all shearing stresses are zero due to symmetry and thal a plane section that is normal to thjongitudinal
>
0=
2t(rIw)-2rr
z1fr
---;w
(s.2)
pressure is applied remains plane after pressurization. In other -betore words, e1 is constant at any cross section. A relationship between oi and_o1 can be obtained by taking a free_body _. diagram of ring dr as shown in Fig. 5.30. Summing ior"", ii the vertical direction and neglecting higher-order tdrms, we then h-ave
axls
ae-
o,
= dr
do,
(5.5)
as
\.
o,
(l + rr)(1 - 2*rl+(t -
1t)
p,(e,
+ e)l
I
I
86
5.I
w
STRESS DUE
TO INTERNAT PRISSURE
87
(5.8)
Once w is obtained, the values of o6 and d; are determined from Eqs. 5.2, and 5.3, and 5.6 and expressed for thick cylinders as
_ aa
_ pr? =
p,r? + (pt
----4rZ
4:i,-"
p")(r7r3/r2)
(5.9)
nrl + (n - n)blrl/rz)
la'
Fisuro
- ,l
5.3
Cro5s
hoop stress
o!
(l + p)(1
(1
[er(l-p)+pr(e,+e)]
.r.^ [r(l
(s.6)
p, = intemal pressure
+pXl-
p,
: 4:
Substituting Eqs. 5.2 and 5.3 into the first two expressions substituting the result into Eq. 5.5 results in
r, = r=
The distribution given by Eq. 5.9 of the shesses through the thickness of a cylinder due to iniernal and extemal pressues is shown in Figs. 5.4 and 5.5, respectively. A comparison between Eqs. 5.1 and 5.9 is shown in Fig. 5.6. The figure illustrates the adequacy of Eq. 5. I for r,/4 ratios of less than or equal to 1.1 (or, conversely, rt/t > lO). The longitudinal stress in a thick cylinder is obtained by substituting Eqs. 5.2, 5.3, and 5.8 into tle last expression of Eqs. 5.6 to give
.B
(s.7)
whcre A and B are constants of integration and are determined by first substituting Eq. 5.7 into the first one of Eq. 5.6 and then applying the boundary conditkrns
o,: -Pi
rnd
at
r=
ri
o,
= _p,
4r?
,2_.?
P"r'z.
(5.10)
With or known, Eq. 5.8 for the deflection of a cylinder can be expressed
as
"'=-++r(#)
Ar Inne.
surr.ce
+=t+
)=-t
Ourer
surraco
.Ai
+="#
ft=o
o rfiick cytirder du. to inrornol prcrlur.
Figurc
5.4
Slrca! dishibdion in
Fi9ur6
5.6
o cylindricol
5hcll.
,,=#e#)
At
fnnersurtace
"r=ffi
ft=o
aroorersurfaca
"r-#ifl
9=_r.o P"pr.3sur.
Figuro
5,5
88
90
STRESS tN CYr"tNDRtCAt
SHtrrs
(5. 1 1)
5.I
STRESS DUE
TO INTTRNAI PRESSURT
9l
l(Ptri
P,,r!,)lt
rt)
ot
The deflection pattem for external and intemal pressures is shown in Fig. 5.8.
_rl+ P rl, = /l
"\ /
r?
r!
loe + p --------=
5.1. The inside radius of a hydraulic cylinder is 12.0 in. What is the 7500 psi and a6 = 20,000 psi? required thickness if P
Example
Solulinn.
:
7500
5.80 in.
t=-:
Pr oo
12
20,000
22Eo.
I
1
= 4.50 in.
Example psi,
5.2. A cylinder
0.3, and E = 30
: 1.r
,000
10o Psi?
lnternal Pressur
Solution. From
*=!"il+##tdl
From Eq. 5.4,
50x72 :
15,000
0.24 rn.
x 722 30x106x0.24
50
0.0360 in.
as
w.=E:tfl2:lll 'E(ro"-r;")
Using the thick shell theory, we obtain the required thickness from Fig. 5.4
External Pressure
and from Fig. 5.8,
:
*=-& . t 'tr'(r - zr) * r,"(r *,., )I e.r (r;- r,')
')
O.24 in.
':
=
w,=-B:dJiJ2:t)
EGTil
5.8
Rodiol deflftrion du
lo
Examples 5.1 and 5.2 indicate that Eq. 5.1 is adequate when the ratio sreater than 10.
rlft
is
5.2
OISCONTINUITYANAIYSIS
93
Problcms
dx
+ 4!!.|i ax
Answer:
t:6.33
in.
dox -?t
dx
5.2
A cylinder has an inside diameter of 12 in. and an outside diameter of 18 in. Determine the maximum intemal pressure that can be applied if the
maxirnum allowable stress is 20.000 psi.
Answer: p1 =
7690 psi
5.3
A cylinder is subjected to an external pressure of 5000 psi and an internal If 11 = 15 in. and rz = 19 in., what is the maximum circumferential, longitudinal, and radial stresses? At what location do they
pressure of 2000 psi.
occur?
l{o
dx
Answer:
o6:
o,
at
= -5000
5.2
DISCONTINUITY ANALYSIS
All the previous equations were based on the assumption that the cylinder is free to deform under pressure. In practical applications, the cylinder is attached to end closures that reshain its deformation. Other items such as stiffenirg rings and internal bulkheads affect the cylinder deformation and introduce local stesses. These local shesses can be evaluated by a dicontinuity-type analysis using the general bending theory of thin cylindrical shells. The theory assumes that the loads are symmetric around the circumference and that the thickness of the shell is small compared with its radius. It is also assumed that the in-plane shearing forces and moments are zero. The problem then reduces to that of solving the forces shown in Fig. 5.9. The relationship between these forces can be obtained from statics. Hence, from Fig. 5.9,
N,:0
Also,
>4=0
d?'+at=r
dxr
Similarly,
(s.12)
>4:0
ff*,ar=o
2M,=o
94
5.2
DISCONTINUITYANAIYSIS
95
or
*-a.=o
ax Deleting Q, from F4s. 5.12 and 5.13 gives
(s.l3)
ee=
-i
(5.18b)
Substituting expressions 5.18a and 5.18b into Eq. 3.11 gives (5.14)
expressed This equation has two unknowns, N6 and M,' Both unknowns can be given by Eq' in t".-, of,h" O"flection w. The relationship between M' and w is
3.1I
as
-'(#..?)
Et'
Ns:7r-p- ,\es+
(s'15)
Et
Pe)
D,= rro=E
Because the rate of change of deflection in symmetry, the above two equations reduce to
(5.19)
".=
and
-r(**)
(s. 16)
u4*r(*\:-,
r'
\dx+
",:
_*(#)
= FM,
(s.17)
Defining
no:
(s.20)
Me
'l'hc cxprcssion for No is derived from the axial and hoop strains' In refening to liil, 5.9, thc uxitl strain is given by
ffi*oon*=-+
where p is a function of .r.
(5.21)
du
(5.l8a)
ax
96
tN CYUNDRTCAT SHlrtg
5,2
and
DISCONTINUIIY ANAIYSIS
i7
5.2.1
One of the most practical applications of Bq. 5.21 is for long cylinders subjected io end shears and moments as shown in Fig. 5.10. The force and deformation distribution at any point r along the cylinder due to O0 and M0 can be obtained
a.l._,= n"=
Hence,
-,(#)1."
= 0. Hence,
;i+4p.w:o
A solution of this equation can be expressed
as
aw
.'.'*-"".--",
-l ct=;;7i(Qo + ^ _
LP tl
Bmsli
;
'Ms
L-L.
'
'"-
p*t + -
y-tc-'-e$
w=
Ca sin
]6rl?tvtobin
Bx
cos Fx].
;i = e-tu(q cos B, a
(s.22)
By defining
M.
.=o=
Mo=
-'e;1.="
= = Cs = Ds =
{* !*
e-e(cos Br e-&(cos Br
pr)
(s.23)
, :;fu<oro"*
+ escp)
S.AP)
(s.24)
#=
*1roU""ctu+
t:=$aor"os+zeoD,,)
#
Figur.5.l0 are represented by
jour,De'-
enBB,)
Values of Ap,, BB,, CB,, ar]d Dg, are given in Table 5.1. Using the terminology of Eqs . 5 .23 and 5 .24 , the expressions for M, arfi Q,
98
5,2
DISCONTINUITYANATYSIS
99
Tqblr
B,
5.f
Toble
DB,
5.2
Cp"
1.0000
0
0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.55 0.60 0.80 l_00 1.20 1.40 1.60
1.80
0.0000 0.0475 0.0903 0.1286 o.1627 0.2189 0.2610 0.2908 0.3016 0.3099 o.3223 0.3096 0.2807
qo
0 Qo t4^ e
0.9976
0.9907
0.9'19'7
,F;
-
ilo
Qq
2
B3A 0
0
0.9651 0.926'7
0.8024
0.707'7
tlo ---F
2Bz,D
0
0.8784 0.8231
0.6174
0.5323
o.2415
0.1903 0.1431
zB2.o.to
Qo
28. D. eo
0
0.7934 0.7628
0.6354 0.5083 0.3899 0.2849 0.1959
o.4919
0.4530 0.3131 0.1988
0.1091
Ne
-2 oB2.t
26.
r.
E.t.Ao
46 3. 0, A0
-0.0093 -0.1108
282 .D.e o
0.0419
0.2430
0.2018 0.1610 0.1231
0.0491
0
,F.o
E;r'-
-llo
8o"
""
0o
28'D
C-
Ao(2Cax-8Bx)
? ttu'-tu''
eo {ABr(
?$ D'ed
0.1234
0.0667
-0.0059 -0.0376
-0.0563 -0.0658 -0.0493 -0.0283
t4o C^ b"
-0.r794
-0.1149 -0.0563 -o.0177
0.0019 0.0084
0.0031
iPo
q9
-0o
^p,
DFX
z8do ( ABx
cBr)
2CBx)
-0.0166
-0.0423
-0.0389 -0.0258 -0.0045
0.0017 0.0013
0.0070
B
Ne
zB2.o,t4lrr -cr,
DB, -aB")
-0.0120
0.0019
0.0024
0.0007
zlioB2.r.Br,
-26.
tito ,
28. r.
Qo. CBx
!1.
ao ( 2ce
Qx
DBx
Q6. Bgx
4B3D,aJ
B6x-
tB2. D.
oo ( 2DBr+B
B)(
't.o
'clockwise moments and lotation arc positive at point 0. Outward forces and deflections arc
positive at point 0. Me
0.0001
= tir|..
M"=
_r(+\ =
\ax-
fi<zou,ea
2eoDB,)
(5.25)
7Vo
of Mp
Q,=QBMnDy-QoB*)
The relationship between M,, tions is shown in Table 5.2.
M"
Bx or
2.00
2
Exarnple 5.3. A long cylindrical shell is subjected to end moment M0. Plot the value of M, from F, : 0 to p, : 4.0. Also, determine the distance .r at which thc moment is abort 7Vo of the original applied moment M0.
e
and
Solution. From Eq. 5.25, M,: MoAs. The values of Ak are obtained from Table
.r:
5. 1 and a
1.56\G
(l)
It shows
plot of M, is shown in
r00
=
3TR!35 lN CYllNORlCAL
Sl{llts
5.2
DISCONTINUITYANATYSIS
't0l
that 0 momcnt epplicd at thc cnd dissipatewery rapidly and reduces as much as l.56Vrt. This indicates that any other force 94% ofthe original momcnt atr applied ot that distance x can be analyzed without regard to the applied moment
To find the maximum moment M,, the above equation can be differentiated with respect to r and equated to zero. Hence,
Mo'
5.4. A long cylinder is subjected to end shear ps. Plot the value of M, as a function of C0 from Fx : 0 to Fx = 4.0 and derive the location of the maximum value of M,.
Example
*,
3.e-&
sinA
sin
Solutinn,
ff
=o=
ftr-Ou*
Bx
Be-tu
cos Bx)
,'=*o^
Referring to Table 5. 1 for values of D p,, a plot of M,/ (Qo/B) can be constructed as shown in Fis. 5.11.
and maximum moment is given by
,
Example
_ o.34Qo
5.5. Determine the expression for the deflection of a long cylinder with end closures due to intemal pressure p.
Solutinn.
For intemal pressrre p, the axial force force is Ne = pr. Also from Eqs. 3.11 and 5.18,
it
7'1,
PrEtlw\
and
ur,\
q
'ry
Figura
''Et2
and
Pr
(l -
2tt)
5.1I
'#('- t)
(l) I
t02
5.2
DISCONTINUITYANATYSIS
still'cning ring is pllced anrund u cylinder at a distance rcmoved from the ends us shown in Fig. 5. 12. The cylinder has a radius of 50.0 in., a thickness of 0.25 in., and is subjected to an intemal pressure of 100 psi. Assuming E : 30 x 106 psi and & = 0.3, find trlxomple
5.6. A
-+rrtr
"I
r03
oo
oi poini 0,
{odo
clockwiss 0 ond i4"
(a) (b)
The discontinuity stress in the shell with the ring assumed to have infinite rigidity . The discontinuity stress in the shell and ring if the ring has a thickness of 0.375 in. and a depth of 4.0 in.
Figuro
5.13
Sign conv6ntion
ore + ,
outword w dnd Q.
oro -
Solution.
D=
and from Eq. 5.20,
0.00143 E
A free-body diagram of the shell-to-ring junction is shown in Fig. 5.13. Because the ring is assumed to have infinite rigidity, the deflection due to pressure must be brought back to zero by a force pq. Also, because the slope at the shell-to-ring junction is zero (due to symmetry), a moment M0 must be
applied at the junction to reduce the slope created by force Qs to zero . From Fig
5. 13,
.
(a)
B=03636
Hence the deflection compatibility equation becomes
Modeflection due to P
2'75OQo= -321'39
(1)
deflection due to Qe
deflection due to Mo
The deflection due to P is obtained from Eq. I in Example 5.5, whereas the deflections due to M0 and Qs are obtained from Eq. 5.24. Hence
rotation due to Me
Qo-ZBUo:g
Solving Eqs.
e)
and 2 gives
Mo
321'4 in.Jb/in'
.=N.ry
=
40,900 psi
as
Me
96.4 in.-lb/in.
l0.l
Tho hoop force Nc is glvcn by Eq. 5.19 as
tTRttt
tN cruNDRrcat
sHttls
!.2
DISCONTINUITY AI,IATYSIE
t0t
Due to 00,
-, "r
But because w
Etw
2Qor(r + 2)
bdE
*:T*,",
O)
The shell deformations are expressed as follows: Due to R
",
?Y'oo'
L'=o
*-*--
i)
wp
,i( - t) Sirnilarly,
wQo*
,*]"' - ,o + *roof^"
#. #=,*#!".'3e#2
Mo
- 4.0@o: -296'8
9al"t. = lflp + ilMo
(3)
f0, +
Due to Mo,
ilao-
0oJn*
':t9o
-Mo @
The ring deformations are expressed as follows: Due to p,
and
Mn
2BMs-20=g
Solving Eqs. 3 and 4 yields
(4)
n=-
pr(r + d/2\
dE
Mo
Oo
0=0
t06
STRESS tN CYUNDRTCAT.
SHfttS
5.2
DISCONTINUITYANATYsIS
t07
is
pr
oe:::20'000Psi
Problams
Pr
8620 psi
5.4
O'=
Pr . ---A6Mn
zt I2x
A long cylindrical shell is welded at one end to a rigid bulkhead such that the deflection and rotation due to applied pressure are zero. If r = 36 in., I = 0.5 in., p : 240 psi. lt: 0.3, and E = 29 x 10" psi, what is the maximum lonsitudinal stress?
:
Hoop force at discontinuity is
0.25
p2)
24,600 psi
40,015 psi
The shell in Problem 5.4 is welded to a thin bulkhead such that only the deflection is zero due to applied pressure. What is the maximum
discontinuity stress?
where
Answeri w=lt,p-wgo*wyo
Q, *
uo
= 5.2.2
Short Cylinders
18,740 psi
It was shown in Eq. 1 of Example 5.3 that the applied edge forces in a long cylinder dissipate to a small value within a distance of l.56Vrr. This basic
behavior enables the designer to discard the interaction between applied loads when they are far apart. As the cylinder gets shorter, the assumption of long cylinders does not apply and constants C1 and C2 in Eq. 5.8 must be considered. Consequently, Eqs. 5.23 and 5.24 have to be modified to include the effect of all four constants. Equation 5.8 may be rewritten in a different form as
w = Ar sin Bx sinh Bx * 42 sin Pt cosh Bx *A3 cos Bx sinh pt + A4 cos Br cosh B-r
6.26)
, 0.25
6(0.3
rsz)
0.252
13,300 psi
and a solution obtained for various boundary conditions. The most ftequent application of this solution is in the case of edge forces and deformations as shown in Table 5.3. Many practical problems can be solved with the aid of Table 5.3 by itself or in conjunction with Table 5.2
1.2
otscot{TtNutTY
ANALYS|S
t09
5 ,Tlri
-:-
Example 5.7. Derive Np for the case of applied bending moment M6 at edge r = 0 for a short cylinder of length l.
Solution:
66aa ".A.E.E k k,al ,5 l+ri
At.r:0
dld
5d
:E $16
_,(*\
\ax-,/
+<' <
t>. :s,1,
(a,
-i=._,
1. i<'F s
=,"
=
o
--:- --r
-,(*\ / \dx'
atx:
I
iiifriEEE E5r!666a
ltltllllllllllll
'-i- dl6 r >' s ",- dlu + riltiril6 * + f, ru, i -i- ..i.. >- dld
lcq
5ss>":lss:s
-,(*\:/ \ax_,(*\:o
\ax'/
Ec:i
R $l* i
=
I
0
o
's":ss)s dl6 dl6 dl6 dl6 -:| + + | u'16 ys:gvr dl6 sl6 dl6 dl6 ;s | + | | dl6 :ss)9;S+ dlu dlu dlu d'lu L--;-,!t,: s, , -l-F.ils o,l$ l-l$ 'dl.q P '"'", R d
r-li- r"-r
=
ca cc-
jj :
Z|tte,
cos Bx cosh Bx
- A3 sin pr cosh pr
(l)
ca
ac, ,1J
Aa sin Bx sinh
pr)
aa
+
|
u,
Z!3lAr(cos px sinh
pr
sin
pt
cosh Bx)
c
3
tI
----T
,rl
t_,Y
"--l
(t
-9 .o q F
108
s I s 6le --i dlu if | + -Hlu+9lri>-ss "i rJlr.r 51s | | dl.: s :g r---'J,v."T.. v, t l-. tTlri ' dt6, E s sls =;+slS-EI
S r--=-'1 t>-r-rS+
.-=-
.= .E aa cq ,,99
ail I = a
.' 'da6daa
ltlillllllll .: .l ,i .1 ,1 rt
. Substituting Eq.
-sin pr sinh pr) A(sin pr sinh pr + cos pt cosh pr) .A+(sin pr cosh Bx * cos F-r sinh pv)l
A2(cos Bx cosh Bx
(2)
. q,
_M^
2D
B,
ht
Az: At
and from the third and fourth boundary conditions the relationships
il0
A3
I.2
DISCONTINUITY ANAI.YSIS
ltl
Dtr
Mo
\--GF7t:;tnT--M"
zaB,
/ sin2 61
and
e^ =
are obtained.
\.l"[tB,
-]t"t}
sinh'? B/
N,
Et* r
Ft
= 1(Ar
+
sin
ft
sinh
ft * Az sin Fx cosh Fr
A+ cos
(
(3)
A3 cos
A3,
Br sinh Bx +
Fr cosh Fr)
"r
l_* t(b)
Figure 5.1,1
,,
N, =
c, t'r f
C"
Bx cosh Bx
or
C,
frcos
Fx cosh Pr
I
Cr = O.2028 Cz Ct = 1.5444 Cr
C5
1.1164
0.5481
n, =
ZrMoF'( -v, \
* !v, ct
!v,\ Lt
,/
Example 5.8. Determine the maximum shess at point A of the thin cylinder in Fig. 5.lzla. I*t p' = 9.3.
free-body diagram of junction a is shown in Fig. 5.140. The deflection at point A in the thick cylinder due to P is obtained from Table 5.3 by letting Br equal to Bl. Hence,
Solution. A
w: toolrn
The deflection compatibility equation at point A is
=6,
or from Tables 5.2 and 5.3 with
r:
0,
tt2
5.2
DISCONTINUITY ANALYSIS
t3
and with B2
1.0495
nd
D2
"
=ry
144'O2P
288'S2Qo
2983OQo
313 'O7Mo
or
5 '2O6Mo
= drI" =
0.08 P
4'M7Qo: -P
as
(1)
^ A= "P
or
-- Etw we= _T
=
4
r
{wo^ 'to
wroy
=*n';t'
OO
84.53)
2.53 P
-t:
_
t')=o =
Hence,
t'
0.25
.,
6(0.08_P)
0.25'
17.80 P
429.33P -{or
a1a aa P
Mo lrct\| - Qo (cs *co\ -Mo , Qo -, zp,o,\c, )'- zB?o'\cr' cr,/ = v6, E -9244
-l
Probbms
5.6
Find the discontinuity stess in the figure shown due to an inlemal pressure of 375 psi. I*t E 29 x lff psi and p = 9.3.
T
which reduces to
896.45M0
436.5980
= -657.r3Mo +
3l3.wQo
l2'58M0
Qo
-3J '48 P
(2)
Solvlng Eqs.
and 2 yields
Mo
-0.27 P
P
Probbm 5.6
0o
= -0.08
l4
BUCKTING OT CYLINDRICAL SHELLS
STRESS IN CYTINDRICAT
SHEtts
5,3
5.3
as dead Most cylindrical shells are subjected to various compressive forces such The behavior of cylindrical shells weight, wind loads, earthquakis, and vacuum. undlr ih"se compressive iorces is different from those under intemal pressure' In most instancei, the difference is due to the buckling phenomena that render cylindrical shells weaker in compression than in tension'
rvr6" +
aSoe
Sturm3 used the system of fbrces in Fig. 5.15 to establish the buckling forces' characteristics of cylindrical shells subjected to extemal comp-ressive between strains and deflections Using From the figure he derived a relationship relates this relatioiship and Eq. 3. 1 l, he obtained a system of equations .that
r"re
+affoo
re+affae
forces and moments to deflections. These equations together with the equilibrium equations determined from Fig. 5.15 result in the four basic differential
equations for the buckling of cylindrical shells' a
lrx +
*$oe
r.r"=+
So'
rvp"
+$ae
@o"
5.3.
Sox
Ne=-Pr+f(x'0)
where/(x, g) is a function of
and 0, which expresses the variation ofN0 from tt" an".uge uutue. Wtten the deflection w of the shell is very small,/(x, d) is also u.ry ,-u- . Similarly, the axial and shear stresses are expressed by
.x
N,:0+g(ir'0)
Ne':O+h(x'0) N'p=0+i(x'0)
Substituting these expressions into the four basic differential equations for the buckling oi cylindrical shells, and using boundary conditions for simply supoorted J.rds. tire solution for the elastic buckling of a simply supported cylindrical shell due to uniform pressure applied to sides only is given by
Fisuro 5.15
n.
c.: rB(!\
where P., = buckling
E
Pressure
6.27a) where N
L2
.,2 :
modulus of elasticitY
n'r' ,
N2
L2
,
N2L2 E-r-
K=KtI
"'(?)
poisson's ratio
l6
5.3
tt7
$d \J/
,1,
fi"T
/nl
0r4
0.6
4610
20
40 60 100 m0
edses 3impry supporred;
Fisure
5.r7
corop,e
c..n"""" *
Symm.rd.ol Ahour C
c
Figur. 5.16
Symnrri.ol Aboul
Eds6
rird
-*o.il'Ji'i;
r,.",,,.".",,r.,.nry,
F=N2-r*l-t-----L d- Aa rlt
{N'?[l +
buckling of cylindrical shells, and using boundary conditions for simply supported ends, the solution for the elastic buckling of a simply supported cylindrical shell due to uniform pressure applied to sides and ends is given by
1tzlt)ta
n
I + a + 1 + p}
)
only)
E t
r\
t
moment of inertia
: 4 12
where
A plot of the ( value in Eq. 5.27a based on the first two terms of expression F is shown in Fig. 5.17.
"=
": ",.
&(Dj)
*(;l
(s.27b)
5.3.2
The values of No, N,e, and N6 are the same as those for pressure applied to sides
^::
'
^tF
ll7rl2L\
F
*^=+rge.ol
Substituting those expressions into the four basic differential equations for the
A4 : A?;---------;;--F
+ (n'r'/2Lt)
A plot of the K value in Eq. 5.27b using the first two terms of expression F is shown in Fig. 5.18.
l8
STRESS IN CYLINDRICAT
SHEtts
5.4
THERMAT STRESS
l9
K-
P". P".
r6)(2e,ooo,r*,(q#)
= ll3 psi
5.4
If
r l-r
THERMAL STRESS
0* 06 I
of round
4610
vatues of
ttl
20 I
ttr
,10 60
r00
200
a cylinder is subjected to a uniform change in temperature and is allowed to deform freely, no thermal stress is produced. Any restraint that prevents free deformation produces thermal stress. The amount of restraint affects the stress level. Figure 5.19 illustrates bar restrained in one and then in two directions. In Fig. 5.19a the bar is fixed in the.r-direction only and is subjected to an increase in temperature. To determine thermal stress, the restraint is first removed and the bar allowed to deform due to change in temperature. A force F is then applied to produce the same but opposite deformation. The thermal stress in the bar can be calculated from the compatibility equation
5.3.3
&:5o
Ne=0+f(x'0) N" = -t' + g(x' 0)
No'=O+ h(x' 0) N'o = 0 +i(x' 0)
where 6r
: 6r :
values and the four differential equations are solved for the value of P", For small can be expressed as of tfr, the critical compressive longitudinal stress or
and
E7
o,:n': 't\r/
f,xample
o.6oE(t)
(5.28)
o=
-q LTE
case
(5.29a)
cntl.. il L :
Solttlirtlt
A cylindrical shell with r : 30 in is simply supported at the l0 ft and t : A315 in., find the critical buckling pressure for a : 29 x 10" psi' runilirlrr applictl pressure to sides and ends. Let E
5.9.
where o =
: AI :
d
tr
E = modulus of elasticity
q.o
2: t
roo
If the same bar is restrained in two directions as shown in Fig. 5.19, the (lcli)nnations due to 4 and 4, are calculated in the same manner as the uniaxial tlolirrmation. The two compatibility equations then become
t20
5.4
THERMAT STRESS
l2l
H .lN
+&r
\N
\F
\
T----l
il----------'1--1
ti
L-,,
(")
l--|
l.,l
\____J.i
'l*-'-l
]--t i { li-'
fI
Lro)
p,rr,)
L,.
6t o.llE
l---lr lll-
is obtained.
'r t
rl+
llt
Figur.5.r9
L_J
l*1,*'
triaxial case, the thermal stress can be determined easily from the theory e: a LT in the first three expressions of Eq. 3.1 results in
a
In
of elasticity. Substituting
(b) d = coeff. ol .rp.hsjon dr- ch.nse 1n tenp. (positlve Hhen tenp. lncre.s.s) T = Polssot's rrtlo
o;- -
o,: ct =
Example
",
ATE = -a Zl" |_
(5.29c)
&-6r'+/'6"r=0 &+p8r,-6"r=0
where
= proisson's ratio 6i", = deformation due to force 4
g,
6p,
5.10. An intemal stainless steel rod is welded to the inside of a carbon steel vessel as shown in Fig. 5.20. If the coefficient of thermal expansion is9.5 10 6 in./in.'F for the rod and 6.7 10-6 in.iin."F for the vessel, what is the stress in weldA due to a temperature increase of400'F? Use E = 28 106
psr.
0:
E La AT
109(9.s
= (28 x
:
(5.29b)
31,400
psi
6.7)(10 9(400)
a
A comparison between Eqs.
LTE
tL
1-
5.29b indicates that a higher stress level is obtained when the number of restraints are increased Hence, for a bar with r.r. - 0.3. a stress increase of 437o results when the number of restraints 5 29b incrcasus lirrrn one to two. Another interesting feature of Eqs' 5 '29a and of thickness and length' is tlrrl thc thormal stress is independent lirlualion 5.29b oan also be obtained from the theory of elasticity Hence, if c rv AT is substituted into the first two expressions ofEq (3'3), the fo owing
5 -29a
nd
tcsttlls:
Fisure 5.20
122
g.5
5,4
THERMAL STRESS
l.)xumple5.ll.Anintcrnu|stuinlcsstrayiswcltlctllrrthcinsitlctr|.acarbtln stccl vcssel as shown in l'ig 5 2la. ll'the coeflicicnt ol'thermal exprnsion is
Fl
x l0 6 in./in."F for the tray and 6.7 x l0 r' in./in.'F fbr the vessel, what : 28 x 106 is the stress in the weld due to temperatunj increase of 400"F? Use E psi and pr : 0.3.
Solution. A conservative
answer can be obtained by assuming the tray attachment to be rigid. Because the weld is subjected to both hoop and axial stresses' it can be treited as a biaxial condition Hence, from Eq' 5 29b
:
(a,,)(AD(r)
-l 4
Mo
(a,,)(An(r)
as
rrn- tifi
F,
{t)
Ft
Mo
(2)
6.7X10-1(400)
:
If
_44.800 psi
From Eq. From Eq. From Eq.
(3) (4)
a more accurate result is desired, then a discontinuity-type analysis can be performed. In referring nFig.5.2lb, and due to symmetry, the equations of compatibility and equilibrium can be written as
4,
^l#.
E
#]
or o: :
1a",
a,,)(Af(r)
(5)
as
Assuming the thickness of the cylinder is values, the value of { from Eq. 5 is
I=
-618 lb/in.
The value of618 psi is significantly lower than the conservative value of44,800 psi obtained from Eq. 5.29b because of the ffexibility of the cylinder. If the 3.0 in., then Eq. (5) gives thickness of the cylinder is r
This value indicates that as the cylinder gets thicker, the stress approaches that of Eq. 5.29b. In fact, if the cylinder is taken as infinitely rigid, then Eq. (1)
becomes
i,o
(a,,XAO(r)
and the equation yields
@l
(b)
Fisure 5.21
* H<t -
p.)
(a-XA?.)(r)
4:
5.29b.
t24
5.4
THTRMAI. STRESS
t25
5.4.1
M0 can be obtained tiom the second compatibility equation whereby the skrpc in F\g. 5.22a at the interface is equal to the slope in (b). Or
A unitbrm change of temPerature in a component usually results in a thermal stress both at and adjacent to the component. The magnitude of the stress is a
function of many factors such as geometry, degree of restriction and temperature variation. The stress can normally be determined from a free-body diagram of the various components. The following examples illustrates this point
__!,
Hs
2B'D
0. and Mo The circumferential force in the pipe due to I1o is obtained from Eqs. 5. 19 and
5.24:
at 10'F is partly filled with liquid at 40"F and gas at 250"F as shown in Fig. 5.22a. What is the maximum thermal stress if a = 6.5 x 10 6in./in.'F, E = 30 x 106psi, and p = 0.3? Example
5.12. A pipe
Solution. A solution can be obtained by taking a free-body diagram at the gas-liquid boundary as shown in Fig. 5.22b. Compatibility at the interface
requires that the deflection in (a) equals the deflection in (D). Hence' from Eq.
N.:
Also
2565
lb/in.
at interface
\)L
(axA7i)(r)
from which
Hn
ffi* ffi=
H"
M^
t")tAl'ttn *
rp'o* ,Bo
and
HN
Mo
M":
Max
o:
psi
The maximum bending moment due to I{0 was derived in Example 5.4
as
144
lb./in.
= r/4
is psi
6M o':v:vx(o'34H0\ = l2,ooo p/
6 Deflection due to flq zt Bx
,=$
'|
i-li
( 2 )Liquid ll
= n/4 is obtained
o.322Ho
as
"o
2B"D
Hence,
Figwe 5.22
Ne
827
lblin.
t26
end circumfcrcntial $trcss is
5.4
THERAAAT
STRESS
127
ln the
^ 0.3
second compatibility equation the deflection due to temperature plus moment plus shear is equal to zero. Or
oo=
827 #+
12.000
10,200Psi
o.$s +
psi. I
#_#:o
(42.e30)
and
Example 5.13. Determine the bending stress in a cylinder fixed at one edge (Fig. 5.23a) due to a uniform rise in temperature of 200"F.
c = 6.5 x
10-6
in./in..F
E:30xl06psi p=o'3
Solution. Radial deflection of cylinder if
w
ends are free is
6M :+ = 70,800 psi I
5.4.2 Grsdient
in Axiol Direction
: :
(a)(Afl(r)
0.039 in.
The stress in a cylinder due to a thermal gradient f, in the axial direption can be obtained by first subdividing the cylinder into infinitesimal rings of length dr. Hence, the radial thermal expansion due to 4 in each ring is given by (c)(4)(r). This expansion can be eliminated by applying an external force such that
From Fig. 5.23a the rotation at the end is zero because the cylinder is fixed. Hence
deflection due to P,
deflection due to
M"
O^
BD
Qo
zB,D
E=
2PMo Hence
",r,
p, = Etan
/1\lMo
and
Hs
-Pr ae: -l
P, used
-taT.
(5.30a)
it, the extemal force to reduce the deflection to zero must be eliminated by applying an equal and opposite force in the cylinder. Hence, Eq. 5.21 becomes
Because the cylinder does not have any applied loads on
(b)
Fisur 5.23
{! * aB'*:EJ$ tlxfl,)
(5.30b)
Itt
Example
5.4
THIR
'tAt
STRISS
129
Thc total strcss in thc cylindcr is dctcrmincd from Eqs. 5.30a and 5.30b.
n-T r =rx
and the circumferential stress due to ring action obtained from Eq. 5.30a is
5.14. A vessel that operates at 800oF is supported by an insulated skirt. The thermal distribution in the skirt is shown in Fig.5.24a.Ifthe top and bottom of the skirt are assumed fixed with respect to rotation, what is the maximum stress due to temperature gradient? d = 7 x 10-o in./in.'F, p = 0.3,8= 30 x 106psi.
Solutian, The equation for linear
temperature gradient is
,,= -u"(T),
E4uation 5.30b gives
(l)
T,:4+4 iT*
The temperature change can be expressed as
onfu
* o.o* =";;(*),
.="u$(Lf),*",
aodF
t-
t,=#
and w reduces to
and cr=9
w=rq.
Tb=
2odF
{a)
e").
(2)
T
x
'lr
A
t\
",=+:*(T)
Adding Eqs.
and 2 results in
t\
J_/
(d
rv=(EJ,
)x=-sx
oe= 0
which means that for a linear distribution the thermal stress along the skirt is zeto. The slope due to axial gradient is given by
Fhut. 5.21
rt0
to reduce 0 to zero. From Eq. 5 24
I.4
THIRMAT 3TRI33
|lr
p do, t_*to,trdr-oo)
(s.35)
be applied at the ends Bccausc thc cnds arc fixcd against rotation, a momcnt mu$t
'"\ , )= B,
lr,
- r^
-Mo
. (r-J",' .
^,(#)
a
u,= -oolff)<n- n
Since B
In Section 5. I it was shown that the equilibrium of an element in 5.3) can be expressed by the equation
cylinder (Fig'
0.2142,
D=
2.74'1
x
=
106
'
",- ''='(*\
in'-lblin'
Solving Eqs. 5.35 and 5.36 for a gives
(5.36)
Mo
and
742
o=
,1450 psi
(s'37)
Direciion
Solving the above differential equation and applying the boundary conditions
radial direction Thermal stress in a cylinder due to a temperature gradierrt in-the Hence, Eq' 3 can be written as can be obtaned from ttre theory of elasticity'
tL(oo+
c)f + ar
(5.31)
4l=0
gives
i="
32)
(5.33)
r?
[' - J,,rrar\ /
temperature is symwhere aT is the suain due to temPerature change' If the *i,tt respect to 0, all shearing stresses are zero and the radial and hoop
oa= t
E<x r +
- ttz I \rj-
u'
""'
[' J,,"
rra,
- rr\ /
(s.38)
',=6 "=i
or
dww
ot = -
e,:
ee
I de9\ r\a,
(5.34)
t32
5.4
THERMAI STRESS
t33
Cav
Llnear'l'hcnnul l)islrihulion
[,irr thin vcssels, a stcady-state condition produces linear thermal dishibution through the thickness that can be expressed as
rwhere d
r'L-J
2r,, + r, l ov= o,- -EaT,f l, . .l | - pLJtr. -f ritl EaT f r"+ 2rt1 ue=u,=. | - p l-l -f riJ l LJtro
- EaTt = C, = ,r,l _
!\r
Substituting
rt-:
tL)
EaT, f (r2 r\zrt + r.) 2(r3-rl)-3r"(r2-r!) ' r'(l - 1t\ | -6(ri'r r") 6(ri - r") EeT f (r2 + r?)(2rt + r") 2\r3 - rl) - 3r"(r'z - r!)l nr-
2.
'
-l r-\t - pl L otrr r ro, LAIi I zrt+ ro r"-rl (l - pll3(r1 + r,) r"- r,l
^ o\r,
- ro)
Figure 5.25 is a typical plot of o,, ae, and cz. The plot indicates that o, is relatively small compared with o6 and o,. For all practical purposes, o6 and o.
are equal.
The maximum values of op and ol occur at the inner and outer surfaces. From
8c.5.39.
2(l
#cr.l'-'^?
r1, - p,ntro/nL -
"/ffi
u?T:,,
*('.
\r, /
'(;)l
#)'(;)]
\/,/l
(s.42)
z(r
2Lnk-,t'i,,n/tr)l r ri-r;
Again disregarding or as being small compared with o6 and o", Eqs. 5.42
have a maximum value
of
2(r z(r
16
- ri 2,1 .
t34
5.4
THERMAI. STRTSS
t35
tft:
oe:
(r:
,zt<l
I')tt'li _ tl
From Eq. 5.38 it can be seen that cr, can also be expressed by Eq. 5.46.
o,
= Z\l _ lD
EqT
5.15, A thin cylindrical vessel is heated by ajacket from the outside such that the temperature distribution is as shown in Fig. 5.26.1f E 27 106 psi, a 9.5 10-b in./in.'F, and p, 0.28, determine (a) maximum thermal stress using Eq. 5.40 and (b) maximum thermal stress using Eq. 5.41.
Example
3.
Solution. (a)
Complex Thermal Distribution
4:
ln many instances such as transient and upset conditions the temperature distribution through the wall of a vessel cannot be represented by a mathematical expression. In this case a graphical solution can be obtained from the thermal stress. From Eq. 5.38
- 700 = -300'F. Hence at inside surface -(27 x t01(9.5 x tO-ox-300)/2(lJ) - t0\ (t - 0.28) \3(13 - tO)i
400
55,800 psi
oe: --
l- *l-rz, r, 1, -
eq lt-rr,lf.'t'z[,.rrar-!f ,ror-r] r-
J,,
u=
(27
106)(9.5
For a cylinder where the thickness is small compared to the radius, the first expression in the brackets can be expressed as
--
(l-028, ,1 _ 92s1
10 6)(-300)
= -51,000 psi
(b) For inside surface
Ji: Trdr
ntr; - ril
temperature
(5.44)
'':
:
and
(-27 x
109(9.5
x l0 6)(-300)
or2s)
2(r
53,400 psi
= -53,400 psi. I
as
2n fiTrdr ---':
27Tr
5.16. A pressure vessel operating at 300'F is subjected to a short excursion temperature of 600'F. At a given time, the temperature distribution in
Example /5 45\
, -
one half the mean value of the temperature distribution from the axis of the vessel to r
However, because the temperature distribution from the axis to | 15 ZrO, cxpression 5.45 for all practical purposes can be neglected. Hence, oo can be
cxoressed as
.^ I) oo: --\1n I- IL
wncrc 4n
Ea
(5.46)
: f:
Fisure 5.26
It6
Lct rr
3TR!!t
tN CYUNORICAI sHEtLs
NOMIIiICTATURI
t37
thc wall is shown ln Fic..3.27 . Find thc msximum thcrmal stress at that instance.
= 0.3, E = 3dx
106
psi, and
a = 6.0 x
10-6 in./in."F
Solutlon. This problem can be visualized as a biaxial case where the inner surfacs heats quickly while the rest of the wall remains at 300'F' Using Eq.
5.29b results in
106)
-77,100 psi
which is extremely high and is based on very limiting assumptions. A more realistic approach is that based on Eq. 5.46. The mean temperature is obtained from Fie. 5.27 and tabulated as follows:
Locations as Ratios of Thickness 0 0.1
Temperature
Area
tisur' 5.27
sness occurs at the surface only. Thus at one-tenth of the thickness inside the surface, the stress is
0.6
0.7
(30
0.8 0.9
1.0 And = 356"F. From Eq. 5.46, at inner surface,
30.0 30.0
= -26,700 psi
The high stress at the inner surface indicates that local yielding
>355.6
will occur.
I'
NOMENCTATURE
(30
106)(6.0
10-6)/?56
600)
l'l "
Fl3
-62.700 psi
D, = outside diameter
(30 ., _ "
196x6:0_x 10-6)(356
l-0.3
3oo)
14,2100 psi
rtt
Mp
ETRI'I
IN CYTINDRICAT SHTTT!
IIIIIOORAPHY
t39
'
2. 3.
p = pressure
P", = buckling pressure
American Society of Mechanical Engineers Boiler ond Prcssure vessel Code, Sdct/.rn Rules for Constructiotr of Pressure Vessels, Division 1, ANSI/ASME BVP-VI -l,NewYork,
1980 Edition.
yrrl-
Strum, R. G.,
P/ = internal pressure
Po = extemal pressure
BIBI-IOGRAPHY
The Amedcan Society of Mechanical Engineers, Ptessure Vessel and PipinS DesiSn-Colkcted Papers 197-1959, New York, 1960. Baker, E. H., L. Kovalevsky, F. L. Rich, Stn ctarulAnalysis ofShells, Mccraw-Hill, New York, 1912.
O, =
shearing force
r : 4 :
ro = outside
W., Stesses in Shells, Springer-Verlag, New York, 1960. Gibron, J. E., Linear Elasrtc Theory oJ Thin SherrJ, Pergamon hess, New York, 1965. Hefey,I. F -, Theory and Design of Moder PresJrt? y?JtetJ, Van Nostrand-Reinhold, Princton,
Flugge,
N.J.,
1959.
1974.
4r1d Shelrs,
p = deflection c = coefficient
B
6
t t
e0
of thermal expansion
= =
0
lL
o
Ot
:
= =
stress
longitudinal stess
radial shess hoop sftess
or
Oe
REFERENCES
l.
Murphy, G.,
ll4-t2t.
'anced
CHAPTER
sEcTtoNs
Con|co|hrodconsistingof|woeccgn|liccones.(co',rtesyoftheNoolrcorPorgtion,sr.LoUi!,Mlo.)
t4l
r40
142 6,I
6.I
eo:
1...
ELt
HEMISPHERICATHIADS
t43
HEMISPHERICALHEADS
t-
lL)1o4,
pa,)
(6.3)
The required thickness of hemispherical heads is determined from a free-body diagram as shown in Fig. 6.1. Hence
Pm2 = Zmo
The strain displacement relationship is the same as that derived from cylindrical shells: w
'f
',
where
-2t
Pri
(6.1)
and
dw
a= P:
r= t=
membrane stress
pressure
radius thickness
(t
QfrQo6)
- vfiWS -
o,
21t'o6
-- o
(6.4)
This equation which assumes uniform stress distribution through the thickness, is adequate for relatively thin heads. As the thickness increases with respect to the radius, this assumption becomes invalid. Hence, a more accurate formulation is needed, which is obtained from the "thick head" equations. From symmetry, it can be demonstrated that at any point in a hemihead subjected to uniform pressure,
Figure 6.2 shows an inflnitesimal segment of a spherical head Summation forces in the radial direction gives
of
,",= -l(fi)<,'"t
Solving Eqs. 6.4 and 6.5, we obtain
(6.s)
e,
= E\ot
I.
i12
(6.6)
o,= -n al r:
and
ri
a,: -n at r:ro
FisiJr 6.1
Solving the boundary conditions forA and B and substituting into Eqs. 6.5 and 6.6, we obtain
l.l{
SICTIONS
6.I
HIMISPHERICATI{TAD3
[6.-dor \ '
\ ' d. /
Figure 6.2
Jo/f
I
06:
",:f+('-*)-*('-*/ rl\
r?P' oo= -:ll r; - ri
fisurs 6,3
-l zr'/
r3P -;l=lt\ r; - /i
(6.7a\
1.
Soltttion.
o.=
=
_e or:
atr=ri
| :?.'?r* Lzlr; -
,:+
at
max oo Case 2,
')r,]n ri)l
r = ri
(6.7b)
=
From Eq. 6.7,
(4000x1s)
2(23,000) 1.30 in.
maxot= rnrxa6=
atr=ri
(6.7c)
rln
l.
6.I
I{EMISPHERICAIHEADS
147
16.31
1.31 in.
6.1.1
Occasionally, hemispherical heads are subjected to a variety of loadings such as wind forces, snow and dead loads, and agitator and equipment reactions. The membrane stresses induced by such loads usually are obtained from "thin shell" membrane theory that assumes that the loads are carried by membrane action rather than bending moments. When referring to Fig. 6.4a, the middle surface of a shell is taken as a surface of revolution. This is generated by the rotation of a plane curve about an axis in its plane. This generating curve is called a meridian. An arbitrary point on the middle surface of the shell is specified by the particular meridian on which it is found and by giving the value of a second coordinate that varies along the meridian and is constant on a circle around the shell's axis. Because these circles are parallel to one another, they are called the "paralled circles." The definition of r, n, 12, and @ are shown in Fig. 6 4a. The radius 11 is mcasuretl from point 0, which is the center of curvature of the meridian; 12 is mcasurctl fiom the z-axis and is normal to the meridian. The parallel circle is dolincd by r. lirrrrr lrig. 6.4a,
r'r6e+
ffi
de
dQ
N@+tl
Noo +
do
*F
++
Figure 6.4
do
j6<,N*l
-,,(#*
rlNep cos
* r,',) :0
(6.9)
r= ds =
12 sin
r, d.6
lrigruc (r.4/r is a free-body diagram of a section of a surface of revolution. Srrrrrrrrirrg lirrces parallel to the tangent at the meridian and simplifying by th.lctirg lt:rrns of higher order, we obtain -!, gN,pt t4l,
For the majority of pressure vessel applications, the loads are symmetric with respect to the axis of revolution. Hence, all derivatives with respect to 0 in expression 6.8 and 6.9 can be deleted. Shearing stresses due to torsion are small comDared with other stresses. Thus expression 6.9 can be deleted completely' Tire last equation of equilibrium is obtained by summing the forces in Fig' 6.4b perpendicular to the middle surface:
- r,(q# \ do
-r,Npcos d +
16',) = g
/
(6.8)
,i \12rt
a:*Ut=n
(6.10)
I4g
6,I
'fhc change in r,, is given by
HEMISPHERICAT
HEADS
I49
Substituting oxprcssi()n 6.
l0 into 6.tl
givcs
Pasin Q)s\nQdQ
Cl I
(6.11)
Ar' =
and the strain is expressed as
Dcos A
-:= @ srn
The right-hand side of Eq. 6.11 is equal to the sum of all the N6 forces around a circle of angle d. Therefore we can solve Nd at any given location { by summing all forces in the {-direction. Once N6 is obtained, Nd can be determined from expression 6. 10. For a spherical shell, 11 = 12 = r. Hence, expressions 6.10 and 6.11 can be
,r=!1ucos@-wsin@)
Substituting ro
(6.14)
simplified as follows: N5
12 sin
N6= P,r
No
P6 sin @) sln
$ d$ + C I
I I
(6 12)
(6.15)
lt:ucotO6 .5 .
h.__
The
EtlNe
f"Na)
u:4ra6 - w d6t aQ
The strain is therefore
Equations 6.15 can be solved for the deflections once N, and Nc are established from Eqs. 6. 12. Table 6.1 shows the solution of Eqs. 6. 12 and 6. 15 for various loading conditions.
Example
6.2.
w\
rr./
(6.13)
Solutian.
-- -P"
cos2 Q
P:P,cosdsind
From Eq. 6.12
N^ = '
)(-
+-l q)LJ "os' S - P" sin2@ cos @) sin A dQ + Cl f(-p, slnI I -p"rf r =,.'i' ;l l(cos' d + sin'z d) sin 6 cos 0 dO + C
qlJ -a -P", lt. ",1 ^l :rtt}Lts'n-@l+c.l
sm-
rl
./vr :
id0
Fisurs 6.5
-P.r2
-
4rC
sin 0
As 4 approaches zero, the second expression of Nd approaches infinity unless C is set to zero.
!l a oo-l
!l dl
;.t'
e
o
o.
r-;-1
-l '1
-l +
!l
*il
! '6
o
.lN '.t
.
+
!l
!te .tr f---l
rl
.t
q.
r^r
le
c
o
o o o! o
+
.f;|*
+ +
-i, +
! + |= |
<f
,9,/
--,{
..l+
+k!
-lc
\j/
{t
.trrr
I
o
-o
NI
@e
l5l
r50
152
6.1
HtMllpHlRlcAt
l'llAol ltl
complicated numbr the comDatibility equations are taken into consideration, a equations result' The solution of these equations is Oifierential symmetric P. imoracticat. however, withouisome simplifications. By assuming only, the differential equations for a spherical shell reduce to
"i.i*oii-*ut
forces
#r.#*rQand
o(cotz
O+
tD=
-#
(6.16)
#**Affi-o<""eQ-
rt)=Eto
(6.17)
Figor 6.6
Thus, for C
-P.;
From Eq. 6.12,
rle: -r.r
cos'
q+
\
L)
EilBRAI{E
FORCES
Yr=
-P.r(cos2 Q
= -4cosz|
6,
L2
DiscontinuitY AnolYsis
'l'hc rnctnbrane analysis discussed in the previous section fails to Sive adequate is attached rcrult$ whon the loais are localized or when the hemispherical section loads' In these cases the to lnothcr shell that acts differently under certain that hcnding moments must be considered in the analysis' In Figure 6'7 it is seen and the bending moments can be lix u givcn krading condition, the membrane
con$id;rcd us shoin. Proceeding as before where both the free-body forces and
6.7
lla
Af{Al,Ygl
ot fotMrD
6.t
0
(6.18)
HEITATSPHERICAI
HIADI ll!
slope
^ a ldw r raQ
| /d'zo\ EVG)
w
:
I
radial deflection
By a rigorous analysis Gibsont has shown that in Eqs. 6' 16 and 6.17 only the higher-order terms are significant in most usual pressure vessel applications. Accordingly, the equations reduce to
F;lt\
r .., e
luYA)
do'
d2
The solution of Eq. 6.23 for various common loading conditions is given in
_ -Qrz
D
(6.1e)
Table 6.2.
Example 6.3, Calculate the head discontinuity forces of the head-to-shell junction shown in Fig. 6.8a. Let p : 3gg psi and /, = 0.3.
(6.20)
(e: dE'
",,
6o
:
_
P12
=(l
,r) sin
ffi++*o=o
where
(6.2r)
(300x50)'?rl
E(0.50)
'-
_o?l
1,050,000
,\a=3(l-r1l;/
The solution of Eq. 6.21 can be expressed as
,\2
(6.22)
Tqble
6.2
g:
g^o(c1cos A0
+ c, sin,\@ +
e-^o(ct cos,\d
c4 sin
ld)
a
Hoftflff)--xo '<l"L/
-f
e-rYsln4ocos
(
,//-r-\
I
rr+"/+)no
?I
"-rtrtn(rr)ru
"-^t"o,
(
Once the value of O is determined for a given loading and boundary conditbns, the other quantities can be obtained from
lO
z16.f.
rr*nrl)no
ry)ro
-?1 e-11cotosi
n (
Nr- -Qcot0
N"
= --9 -do
lr
6
L-rYsi to
n0osi
(ry
) Ho
lto
ry+r/a)
M^:2(+\ r \dQ/
Mo
f""-rt"t tT(
lzre-
ry
I-,6- rs tiocos{
-+ucos0sinrYl,l
pMo
ro rT
/-1r,3
\--
"-rt.o"rr\ /
It6
6.r
HlMrsPHtRtcat
HtADs lt7
I of
:ffi,,-0.,r,
_
637,500
B=
=
0.1818 E/
n\3
u,":,--#4r"
Figirr 6.8
eo"
8nd
aEEm
6rr=yM,
12.038
O.3)(lqoJ
0,"=gfMo
total deflection of head
6,:Wl^
ouo=-2f4
r.r+4pq *
OT
q# Tr" Y*"
*
=
ryH"
Yr,
(1)
8Ho+Mo=-995.17
I58
ANAI.YSIS
OI
6.I
symrnetry, expressed
as
HEMISPHIRICAIHEADS
159
rotation of shell
-579.65.. ._-t uo -
2t9.tt
.. E *o: - -E-nrt
= -0
818 Mo
165.15..
60.05..
--iwo
ZEa r,.^,, f -,,\ tt - p)r'\r; - ri ,, ,, / r"-,, 06: ao: tt- Eu l2r3+rl I Tr.dr + f,^,, - r.Tl .. | Tr.dr ,-\ ^l p)r- \r;-ri J,, J\ / lr'-r| O,:-l-ltr-Ar-ltr-Arl
Example
(6.24a)
\6.24b)
rlo
and from Eq. 1,
6.4. Determine the circumferential thermal stress on the inside surface of a hemispherical head subjected to an inside temperature of 600'F and varying linearly to a temperature of 400"F at the outside surface. Let 11 :30in., 12 40 in.,E 30 106psi, o 7.0 10-6in./in.'F, and g, 6.3.
Mo
and
179'4 lb-in'/in
Ilo =
146.8 lb/in. or
r=6oo_
Lg_rs
N.:
2tH" +':::-M^ +
)A2
pr
-2
T=1200-2Or
z(r2.o3s)(-146."
?g?qg@-' !9P
7500
f;
r,,a, =
=
J*
trzoor,
- zor3tdr
6.O50.000
The second integral is zero because the limits of integration at the inner surface are both ri. Hence Eq. 6.24b gives
y^=A=7500
Mo
and
lb/in.
(30
x
(1
106)(7
x l0 6)
: :
179.4
lb-in'lin.
0.3X30t
Me
53
'8
lb/in'
I
6.1.4
= -32,800 psi
Buckling Strength
tffi
6.1,3
Thermol Sfress
'l'hc dcrivation of thermal stress in a spherical segment due to radial distribution ol ternpcrature can be derived similarly to cylindrical shells (see Section 5.4.3). Thc meridional and circumferential stresses in a sphere are the same due to
The buckling equations developed by Von Karman and Tsien2 are the basis of the design equations developed by ASME. Von Karman's equations, which are substantiated by tests, give a more accurate prediction of buckling strength of
160
6.I
HTMISPHERICAI.HEADS
t6l
splrcricul sccli(nls tlurl thosc dcvclopcd carlicr by l.luggc, Timoshenko, and others. Von Karrnan antl 'l'sicn took the out-ot-roundness imperfections into consideration. 'l'hey also used the energy equations as a basis for derivation.
Refering to Fig. 6.9, it can be shown that the strain energy due to the extension of the sphere is given by
(6.2s)
,, _ -_,/,\ (p -., ,fcos0 _ ,\') U7: Lr"l-l; T I srn Ql--- d0-ll+l , /sin 0 \r/ tz Jo @d@
lcos
\srn A --tlld6 /
.\,1 .,
|
6.26)
Such an expression can be written as
Figure 6.9
p is given by
U1: Prit I JO
-rB
P sin'?dcan 0
tan O) cos Q
dg
(6.27)
o:alr-c,1"-4)l L \ p'/l
where 0 is the slope and is related to the deflection by
(6.30)
The total energy of the system is the sum of Eqs. 6.25, 6.26, and 6.27 . Hence
U=Ut+U2+Ur
a: , fu @ - o) dO
JO
(6.31)
(6.28)
of higher order and expanding the sine and cosine functions in a power series, liq. 6.28 becomes
^46 wt -;F
Substituting Eq. 6.30 into 6.29, the energy expression becomes
(6.32)
It / 14\ / Ci Et, ^,^, pBo _-: l+186lCl _ ir-alCi\ - "" B2ct _,_L c in' \bur/ \ 7-i) l8tP-ci-pc'
This expression can be minimized by taking its derivative with respect to Cr and equating the derivative to zero. This gives
(6.29)
where
or= 4 /a\f-. 63\i)F /.^6,* _^\trlr),] - ..ls\t/r - lot7 a ros \;/L'zr 'o)'p-l
o:'
and D is obtained from Eq. 6.32.
(6'33)
Pr
0:0 s:B
at 4:0 at Q=B
I62
ANAI,YSIS
SICTIONS
6.2
ETTIPSOIDAL HTADS
r63
A plot ol l!. 6..|.1 is shown in lrig. 6. l(). 'l'hc nrinirnum value ol ljq. 6.33 crn bc lirund by taking thc derivittivc with respect to B and equating the result
(o zero:
or 4/D\l Et 5\r/l
+ (3/280)t6/r), + t24/3st(6/tP
fi = o.rtt
(6.34)
Experimental values have shown that the minimum value obtained is of the order
which is shown as a dashed line in Fig. 6.10. This figure illushates the effect of 6/t on the buckling shength of spherical sections. The minimum value of buckling strength is obtained from the figure as
of
ff:
Solution.
From Eq. 6.35, with o",
o.tzs
(6.35)
!=o.z+ tt
at 9:9.35 t
The value of 0-24 can be reduced if the strain energy due to membrane stress before buckling is considered. Therefore, if Eq. 6.25 is modified to include this strain energy and if the revised expression is substituted into Eq. 6.29, the
Dxample 6.5. What is the required thickness of a hemispherical head subjected to an external pressure of 15 psi? Let r : 96 in., E : 27 x l0o psi, and factor of safety (FS) = 10.
(FS)o and
o:
Pr/Zt
1.2
1.1
\l
--\
t.o
\
t,
,l
o9
o.8 o.7
o.6
t,
,7
'#;*
I
.15
20
(15X96)110)
0.25(27
106)
,r
5\
0.45 in.
('R Et
o.5 o.4
o.3
6.2
(\
El tve op,i
EttIPSOIDAt HTADS
The governing equations for the design of ellipsoidal and torispherical heads are obtained from expressions 6. l0 and 6. I l. For internal pressure, P. P, P6 O, and the two equations give4
o.2
o.1
,ro:
14 18
.o
64.rc
%
Fisure 6.10
(6.36)
Ne: +Prz=j;We can write Eqs. 6.36 in terms of the major and minor radii a and b. Using
l6tl
6.2
rruPsotDAt
HEADS
ffi''r)"
,j
{
can be obtained
\/l
[(a/ br2
1] cos2 7
At any given point on the ellipse given by.re and y6, the angle Irom
fisure
6.ll
Ellipsoi&l heod.
"i"Q=ffi
A plot of Eq. 6.37 in Fig. 6. 12 shows that for ellipsoidal heads with a/, rarios over 1.4, the hoop stress at d = 90'is in compression. The curves indicate that this compressive force increases as the head gets shallower. Design of heads based on these high compressive membrane forces iends to give ulhaconservative answers. This is because discontinuity forces tend to lower the maximum compressive sFess which results in more realistic desims. The ASME Code uses such an approach in the design of elliptic and torisfherical heads.
(az
sin2 Q
b2 cosz E1zlz
''
n2
1a2 5i1z Q
b2 cos2 qlrlz
Example
100 psi.
at6=9A'.
6.6. A2; I ellipsoidal head is subjected to an intemal pressure of If a = 48 in. and r = 0.5 in., detemine the hoop and meridional stress :
90', Eq. 6.37 becomes
Sol.ntion. With d
(6.37)
,, _ Po' b' -
(a2
nr=t
=
and
The radial deflection rll and meridional deflection ll due to intemal Dressure
are given by
Pa'
D^2
,l n;t
ryEq
24oo lb/in.
GIu'- ulc'- l]
n W'(Fcosv)
%=r#
48oo psi
166
6.3
TORISPHTRICAI.
HEADS
167
6.3
TORISPHERICALHEADS
elo zlq
In formulating the discontinuity equations for torispherical heads at the cylinder junction, two assumptions must be made. First, the ratio a// must be over 30. Second, all deflections dissipate rapidly away from the junction. With these two assumptions (known as Geckeler's approximations), the discontinuity analysis of a torispherical head near a cylinder junction is similar to that for a cylindrical shell. Hence, the governing equations are (see Section 5.2.1)
-!
where
4Baw
(6.38)
B=
Equation 6.38 is similar to Eq. 5.21 for cylindrical shells except that in Eq. 6.38 the quantity p is a function of 12 that is variable along the meridian. This requires numerical integration of all moment, force, deflection, and slope expressions at angles less than @ : 9g'. If a discontinuity force is applied at the edge as shown in Fig. 6. 13, Eq. 6.3g yields the following values.3
.:#rru,n,-FoB^Md.
u,
h/.
Fis'rr 6.12
n = Gr"^n, + zBoDe,Mi
7,
z1,f;c
FoBp,Mo)
^oo
(6 3e)
*r=ffi<-oupo+
Similarly, Me
Ap"Mo)
t&10
No=+(2br-ar) zo=
:
and
-ffitz
/lno.|r4Rl
24,
482)
-4800 lb/in.
4Rfn
psi
Fisuro 6.13
I6E
6.4
conditions are shown in Table 6.3.
CON|CAT
HEADS
t69
whcrc AA = ., rr'(cos ps + Be, = e &(cos Bs Cs = s-8" t.,t P Dp" = a-Fs rin B"
The forces and deflections obtained from Eq. 6.40 due to some typical loading
Exampfe
6.7. A conical
shell with d : 45" and base diamerer of g P Find the expressions for N6 and N".
ft
is
rh=
p=
pressure, N"
and lr'e
= p. Therefore, from
Eq.
Ne
Ps tan
6r
6.4
CONICAL HEADS
The sfress distribution in a conical head can be obtained from Eqs. 6. 6.11. From Fig. 6.14 with d constant,
l0
and
r=ssind
/t=o
12= stard
Redefining N4 as N, and p4 as p", Eq. 6.10 becomes Na and Eq. at
N"=;*d,;+c s=0
Hence
.2
p,s tan d
N"=0
6.l1
becomes
rv"
(6.40)
c= 0
Ps tan
a'
and
lV":;-: zcosa
6,4,1
Pr
Thejunction of cones-to-cylinders must always be considered as part of the cone design because of the large stresses that occur there. By referring to Fig. 6.15, the force 1{, at point 0 was found in Example 6.7 to be PR
Fisure 6.1,{
2 cos
c!
6.4
CONICAT HEADS
t7l
+
od
I
I
d d . o A
-o o 6t , Fr AI
(J NI
I .t. olsr AI
:+!
t
d.
!
R
o
o
'I
v;
itl E -
-l
Ol
lo
o o
lt
*"
l6 old IE ;lo ol
t
;l olN
N I .l olq
a,
f'
olp 'l'
""1drN
o o o o p
-o
d c a
-3 "i
d o u o E N le 6 | .
(b)
Figure 6.15
(i
rlt
^" |
?
Fo
".li
PnR2
or
o F
z@@
=PR 2
A, it follows
that 11 is an inward
.. ,=
170
PR t^n d
2
172
ANALYSI3
O'
This tbrce H must bc resisted by ring action at the junction The required area of the ring is given by
.HR
(f
=
PR2 tairr
o==
ts
=
I
a'
2o
(6.41)
Nl @l Nl l-l ttN
9cl
.-l ,4 ol @ ol
61
.._:x x
where A :
P
->l
NI
*'l *
e-
-l!
o' =
o:
Example
i-:-r
What is the required area of the compression ring at the conejunction in Example 6.7? Let P : 20 psi and the allowable stress in to-cylinder
the ring 10,000 psi.
6.8.
F^
Fl+
I .\r l-->
+
20x48'?x1.00
2
10,000
.
2.3O in2
I
.ol
t o
I
o o
6.4.2
Discontinuity AnolYsis
@l .l
tN -->
The derivation of the discontinuity expressions for conical shells is similar to that for cylinders. The resulting moment and force equations for conical shells are
N|
!l
NIS'
0,
qI
IN -_>
expressed in the more complicated Bessel function terms. However, approximate solutions for various edge loading conditions can be expressed in simple form as shown in Table 6.4. In this table,
cg
6:
.o *. =11
173
6.4
t74
ANAIYSIS Of
fORMEO HEADS AND TRANSITION STCTIONS
CONICAT HEAD5
t/5
exprcssrons:
f:Hu
F:H(1 -U) /r\ M: HIiIVZ
\p/
where
Figure 6.16
H:
Pr lan d'
2
circumferential ExamDle 6.9. Calcuiate the maximum longitudinal and pressure P i" the cylinder shown in Fig 6' 16 due to intemal
*"r...
_.u vz=o*"o"2"';
o'(3 *
cos2
f+F:H
where from Section 6.4.1,
(1)
as
Pr tan a'
'l'he deflection compatibility between the cylinder and cone is given by dclloction of cylinder at junction due to M and
/ F
(2)
:
Sirrrilutly,
6.4.3
to external hydrostatic The solution of the buckling of a conical section subjected The resultant equation is very oressure is normally obtained by energy methods s the iterativi prociis needed for lhe solution Experimental
ffi;;#ili;
,"."-"ft
and/
= llsirrl
f
(3)
rrlrlcs
of cylindrical "o-paring .iro*oiftut tfti, U*lling of a conicai shell is similar to the buckling of the cone and a radius equal to r-n"fi.-*ift length eq-ual to the slant length shown that the ,h" un"aog" "radiris of curvature of the cone Research has also influence on the buckling of a cone' qr""tiiy O - Dr/Dr) has a significant
176
6,4
CONTCAT
HEADS
177
*,:"('-';)
buckling equation of a cylindrical shell and of Drf Dz. f(l - DtlD) is a function A simplified equation for the buckling of a cylindrical shell" is
where
'Ihc magnitude ofthe tunctionl(l - Dtf D) canbe deternrined thetlrctically Based on this plus the "scatter" band of experimental data, a value of l 0 was used for the function at Dr/D2 of 1.0 (cylinder). The function changes linearly to a value of 0.8 for DtfDz of zero (full cone). Thus the buckling equation
becomes
p is the modified
ti
The second bracketed expression can be approximated by the quantity
2
=6_EfnlL/r,-o.4sen84
2.42E
(t
/2r)25
(6.42)
For most applications, the second quantity in the bracketed denominator is small compared with the first one and can thus be neglected' Based on this, the
r+ND,
Using a factor of safety (FS), the allowable external pressure on a cone is given by
as
P,
E-
2.6(t"/D2)25
(FS)(Le/Dz)
(6.43)
P.
4, _
2.6(cos
t"=tcosd
7"=11/2)(t + Dt/D2) Dl : diameter at small end of cone
D2
!V"'
Example 6.10, Design the cone shown in Fig. 6.18 for an extemal pressure of 15 osi. Let FS = 4.0 and E = 30 x 166 psi.
Solutinn. a' =
a' :
0.858.
Fisure 6.17
,. : T (' *
noq)
= 24
3't5 in.
I70
NOMENCI.ATURE
179
end of cone
Dr
=60"
C : modulus of elasticity L = axial length of cylinder L":(h/2)(1 +Dt/D2) / = axial length of cone l' : slanted length of cone M = bending moment in hoop direction M = bending moment in meridional direction
N, = N= N=
axial force in cone force in hoop direction force in meridional direction
pressure
pressure
Fisur 6.1S
P :
,": o,(wo-1a,ly'
=,,(u?,#i:,'*i"l'
:
and
0.20 in.
NOMENCTATURE
a : major radius of ellipse b : minor radius of ellipse lt:Et3/12(l-ttz) /)r : diameter at small end of cone
4 r, s ? t t" v w
inside radius
outside radius distance along the slanted length of cone, measured from apex temperature thickness
:
= =
radial deformation
I8O a *
e=w
for cylinders
1959.
meridional sfess
R,EFERENCES
t.
Gibson, L E., Linear Elastic Theory of Thin SherrJ, Pergamon Press, New York, 1965. von Kaman, T. and Hsue-Shen Tsien, "The Buckling of Spherical Shells by Extemal P.essue" in Ptessure Vessel and Piping Detign: Collected Papers 197-1959, Afieican Society of Mechanical Engineers, New York, 1960. Coates. W. M., '"The Stale of Shess in Full Heads of Pressure Vessels" in PressureVessel anl
Piping Design: Collected Papers 1927-1959, American Society of Mechanical Engineers, New York. 1960
Baker, E. H. et al., Srell Arnlysis Manual, NASA CR-912, National Aelonautics and Space Adminisb"ation. Washingto!, D.C., 1968. Jawad, M. H., "Design of Conical Shells Under Extemal Loads," Jounal of Pressure Vessel Technology, Vol. lO2, 1979. R^etz, R. Y., An Experimental Investigarton of the Strength of Small-Scale Conical Reducer Sections Between Cylindrical Shells under Extenal Hydrostatic Pressure, V. S. Department of the Navy, David Taylor Model Basin, Report 1187, February 1959.
CHAPTE
R7
STRESS
IN FLAT PLATES
t83
l8.l 7.1
7.2
CIRCUI.AR PI.ATES
t85
INTRODUCTION
very lli:4gl * nozzlecommon in grgcesl .quiq-"nt.Qiqrgql ru\,rr .ucas .ts such areas as rozztc covers, bulk heads, ani tuUesilOets, Ttrereas DulK neads, and tubesheets, rcefanCular
This chapter presenB-6rieTdescription of the theoretical iackground of circular The theory of symmetric bending of laterally loaded plates is generally based on the following assumptions:
rectangulir'p."rGffi;i;.
-whereas
l. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.
Thickness of plates is significantly smaller than the least lateral dimension of the plate. Loads are applied perpendicular to the middle surface of the plate. No forces are imposed in the middle surface.
Lines perpendicular to the middle surface before deformatron remain perpendicular to the deformed middle surface. These lines are inexlensible. These lines remain straight lines.
Fisure 7.1
These assumptions form the basis for developing the bending theory of plates and apply to plales where buckiing is not a consideration.
6
fr f
1dw
7.2
CIRCULAR PLATES
rdr
(7.2)
The relationship between the radius of curvature and the deflection of a circular plate is obtained from Eq. 3.6 as
;= 77
or in terms of the terminology of Fig. 7.1,
1 1\ - -r p-l
Substituting Eqs. 7.1 and 7.2 into this expression gives
d,2w
! =d2w : rn dx,2
-dQ
dr
(7
.t)
Sinilarly,
(7
.3a)
(7.3b)
'fhc second radius of curvature is also obtained from Fig. 7.1. Line,4g is the r forming a cone:
sind-at=I
Using the sign convention that clockwise angles and moments are positive and
M,: -D(!+ * ar
\r = -o(9
p+\ dr/
(7.4)
t86
STRESS
tN r[AT ptAnS
7.2
Substituting Eqs. 7.3 and 7.4 into 7.6 gives
CIRCUTAR PTATES
187
For a unilorrnly bodcd platc, thc tbrces acting on an clement are shown in Fig. 1.2u. Taking moments uboul a-n gives
(M,r
d0)
- (". - ff*)<, + dr) d0 + z(u, a,.t) " / )n \ /,{.\ + 7 drl\r + dr) dol+l = o -lO 4r / \ \z/
*(i)
or
(7
D
(7.7)
.s)
as
Ttle qvant\ty Mt dr d@/2 is the component of M, perpendicular to axis d to a shown in Fig. 7.2b. Disregarding higher-order terms, Eq. 7.5 can be reduced to
Similarly, substituting Eqs. 7.3 and 7.4 into Eq. 7.6 gives
M,+#r-M,'rQr:0
(o+5F dr)
(1
.6)
d20,ldo o -o a*-;ar-7: D
(7.8)
(Mr1!!r
Equations
7
l,lii,rr1= -g
circular plates due to symmetric loading. Equation 7.7 can also be written in term of the local load as
c
D
(7.e)
Once w is determined from Eqs. 7.7, then the moments are obtained from Eqs. 7 .3 arrd 7.4. The shearing force is determined from Eq. 7.6, and is exDressed
(7.10)
7.1. Derive the moment expression for a uniformly loaded, simply supported circular plate of radius a. For g, 0.3, plot the moment diagram and determine the maximum deflection. rotation. and stress values.
Solution.
or
(b)
From Fig.
nnz
Pr
tiswe 7.2
188
7,2
Hence, the deflection as expressed by Eq. 2 becomes
r4':_
CIRCUI.AR PI.ATES
t89
Pra
r2
Zu
or
Fisure 7.3
\l+p
'\ - r2l
(3)
and
d,l;E(
Integrating both sides gives
dltdldw\l
d, )
): b
Pr
^ dw Pr(, - dr l6D\'
3+p,.\ l+p')
r = 0. Hence
(4)
nj*, =_t
andwithp=0.30
(1)
Cz
,"'-""
o'696!aq
Et3
r = d. Hence,
Pr4
C,rz
(l -
rr)
-i
0.30
s^^=
7
-t.os
EtY
The moment expression is obtained by substituting Eq. 3 into Eqs. 7.3 and
.4. Hence
At
,,=*rt
1t)(a2
12)
(s)
,,=#(T#-')
u, = ftbt{z +
p.)
r2(1
3p.)l
(6)
r90 tliltt
rN trAT
PtATtt
and
7.2
CIRCUTAR PTATIS
t9l
= 0.3 is shown in Fig. 7.4. The plot indicats that the maximum moment occurs in the center and is given by
M*=3#
6M
TExample l.24Pa2
C,r
C,
(2)
At the center of the plate r = 0 and the slope is zero due to symmetry. Hence, from Eq. (2), C, = 0. At r = a, the slope is zero and from Eq. 2, I-
I
Also at
Cr= -Pa2
8D
Derive the moment expression for a uniformly loaded circular plate of radius a that is fixed at the edge. For trr, = 0.3 plot the moment diagam and determine the maximum deflection and stress values.
7,2.
r = a, the deflection
l,
Ct:6
-f L:
(l)
The maximum
pra pa2r2 paa 64D 32D 64D = L1^z - 'z1z uD'" value of deflection occurs at / = 0.
w=- Paa '64D&
Pa4
(3)
2n
lt.
and for
l2(l -
tr-z)
{{'o
00
P = 0.3,
r,v.*=0.171r9)
\Lt"
The moment expression is obtained by substituting Eq. 3 into Eqs. 7.3 and
7.4. Hence,
u,: f,bT
and
I' h
Figoro
+ p)
r2(3
tL)l
(4)
7.4
suppord plolo.
u, =
llt tt + tLt -
121t
3p))
(s)
tt2
$iltt
tlit
llaT ptATtt
7.3
RTCTANOUTAR
PrAlt3
t9g
at center
aM"
p)
at edge
M, = Mo throughout plate
m^x
M, = Mo throughout
plate
.,.
ffi
16tl
A ctcular plate is fixed at the edge and is at an ambient temperature of 70T. What is the maximum stess if the top surface is heated to a lemperature of l70T and the bottom surface is cooled to a temperature of -30T?kta = 9 x 10-6 in./in. T,r:0.5in.,a:60in.,8:30 x
lffpsi,p=9.3.
. answer. o
=naLTE _ 1.,
=
38,600 psi
7.3
Determine the maximum moment in the circular plate shown in Fig. 7.6 if a = 4 ir., b = 2 in., p 0.3, and P 100 psi.
l.
flgure
Answerz M'
f,or
384.6 in.-lb/in.
7.5
,nomnt
didrihtion tor
ft(d plote.
A plot of Eqs. 4 and 5 for p = 0.3 is shown in Fig. 7.5. The plot indicates the maximum moment occurs at the edge and is given by
tlnt
M,*"= -Paz
Fieur. 7.6
and
6M -0.7 o*,=v_---vSPaz
7.3
RECTANGULAR PTATES
Problems
7.1
Determine the maximum deflection, slope, and bending moment for a simply supported plate subjected to edge moment Me.
In developing the differential equation for circular plaies, the shearing shess was ignore.d because the load was symmetric with respect to 0. In rectangular plates under uniform loads, the shearing stress interacts with the normal shesses in the .r- and y-directions and thus cannot be ignored. This results in a more complicated differential e4uation than that for circular plates. In addition, the solution of th differential equation of rectangular plates is more elaborate and involves the use of Fourier series. Because of this, only the case of a simply supported
Ifi
7.3
RKTANOUTAR
PIAT!3
19!
rrctangulsr plate loadcd throughout its surface is discussed here. Nonsymmetric loadings and boundary conditions other than simply supponed result in quite complicated solutions that are beyond the scope of this book. The examples given in this section are intended to give the reader a concept of the general behavior of rectangular plates and the difference between them and circular
plates.
W-+-Q'y=o
dQ"
(7.12)
an infinitesimal section is removed from a rectangular plate, the forces acting on it will occur as shown in Fig. 7.7. Summation of forces in the z-axis
srves
If
_ dy = dy-
d,g
atu,
dxdy
(7
.t3\
Similarly, summing moments around the y-axis and deleting all quantities of
q(x, y)dx dy
Q, dy
(a..
ff *)', -
(a.
ft,,)*
=0
(7
#.ry-e"=o
do, d2M,
azM,, ar-: d* - atfr
Substituting Eqs. gives
7
(7.t4)
(7.15)
q(x,yt+#.#=,
gives
.1,r)
into7.1l
and using
M"t
= -MofromEq.3.1l
=
u
Summing mornents around the "r-axis and deleting all quantities of higher order
, q\x,
ir,
a2M,
(7.16)
The differential equation relating deflections and applied loads is obtained by substituting Eq. 3.11 into 7.16 and obtaining
(7
.17)
m,
*$$o'
which is the differential equation of the bending of a rectangular plate subjected to lateral loads. For any grven loading and boundary conditions, the deflection p can be obtained frorn Eq. 7.17. Tlie bending.moments can then be determined ftorn Eq.
3.1I
as
".:
Figwe 7.7
_,(#. _?)
u* '
^: o
=
-'(#.,#)
!-'Y^
dxdy
7.4
p,
arc determined from Eqs .7 ,12,7 .14,
IOUNDATION I97
and3.ll
n.-
-,*(#.?)
-,&(#.?)
= qssinTF*T)
comparison of the denominator in parentheses in the expressions for M, and M, indicates that M) will always give a larger value of M for the given values of a and b. Accordingly, the maximum value ofM is given by
(7. l9a)
M*=atrffitm@.*)
M^."==,?'o,==fq!*a\ 1r2(1/ffi2 + /25\2\602' 252f
|
Example 7.3. Detennine the maximum moment in a simply suppofied rectangular plate of length a and width D if the applied load is expressed as
"=
q
(7.19b)
145.1
in.lb/in.
0 and
y=
0 or
r.
Hence, the
I*t a = 6O in., b :
Sohttian,
Assume
25
h.,
eo
M,r
3.0(0.7) 12(1/602
+ r/25r,6q25)
to be of the form
= 40.2 in.lb/in.
7/
rrY\
This expression satisfies the boundary conditions of w = O and M edges. Substituting this expression into Eq. 7.17 gives
7.4
0 at all four
4o
az
+ l/b\2
Many tubesheets of heat exchangers are designed as plates on elastic foundation as discussed in Chapter 14. The solution of the differential equation of a plate on elastic foundation involves Bessel functions. The four Bessel functions used in this section are
Z@) =
6sr1r1
- t -l)ix4i = >. *,
=t-E--+o.
Ll\xt = Det\x) = S.
(x/2\t2
61,
-"'
,,=
47W*
(x/2)2
,X
(r/2)'o -f?-- "'
M,:dffi"*Y"o"|
Thc maximum value of M, and M, occur when .r
_ --l?---L, (x/2)6
23ft)
= _ ? *"r(,) =
t+ _
1lr,
r^i
a<.t]
= a/2
and
y = b/2. A
.1lr, * ,"5.t,<,t]
r9r ltiltt
whcrc
7.4
TOUNDATTON t99
99/rY * 4(?1r\" - . . . 51'? \2) 31'z \2) ,, _ 4{z\ (x\ _ d(4) /.rY _r d(6) /r\u + . . . -?tr\r/ - " h:-';-\1)
.
--+r\1)
I I t*t*1-z l*.......*l
0.577216
"
1 dzz2\x) -----:--;-=-zt\x)-- fl,2@) axx ax lfi,l?) d'zA(x) ----=-- = L4\x) - - -'--:dx' x dx | d2z4@) -----:--t-=-23\r)--dZlx) axx ax
,
The limits of the Z functions as 'r --> 0 and as x :+ co are given in Table 7' 1' The table also shows the limits for the first derivatives of Zt tltroryh Zq. The relations between the various derivatives of the Z functions are as follows:
as
P=Kow
Toble
7.1
Limits of Zfunctions
Limit
Function
as
Limit
as
.r ---+ 0
Z{x)
z2@)
1.0
cos K
:
K
--70.5
_x2
-f
r,
sin
rl,
The differential equation of a circular plate on an elastic foundation can be obtained by modifying Eq. 7 .7 as
h6)
h(x)
sin
2t^+
-x' -:7 lo
-z
cos
ry'
i,lli,(,#)l=ry
The solution of this equation is expressed as
(7.19)
&(x)
dx
1fu(cosr-sinr)
w=
il.(x)
dx
z
-Itr=
2
-x
Cfl(ar) 'f
^{EJD
C2Z2@r)
C3Z3(ar)
CaZa@r)
;!(cosr+sinr)
yx
&'(x)
dx E+(x) dx
x,
nx
ft@osi,-
sinrli
where ": 21 Za :
Ct Qa
1fu(cosg+sin0
Example
7.4.
!2tx - !2 xn v86
j,t, = 'v26 +i
Solution. From Table 7.1 it is seen that as r approaches infinity, Z approach infinity. Therefore, Ct and C2 must be set to zero. Thus
w:CtZt(ar)iCaZa(ar\
100
and
tTmll
rt{
tuT ptaTtt
UEUOORAPHY
201
0= -dr
= Ct
Zi@r) +
Ca a
Zi@r)
As r atrrproaches zero, 0 must be zero due to symmetry. But from Table 7. l, Zi approaches infinity as r approaches zero. Hence, Ca must be set to zero. Thus
w = CzZz(ar)
Mt M, My M,r P O r T t w
= tangential moment in circular plates = moment in .r-direction of rectangular plates = moment in y-direction of rectangular plates = shearing moment = applied pressure = Shearing force
applied load
dw
poisson's ratio
^F
and
4azD
REFERENCE
l.
'=
and
'fi6t'<*>
F
8rr2D
BIBTIOGRAPHY
Hetenyr,M., Beams on Etastic Foandation, University of Michigan Prss. Atrn Arbor, Michigan,
1964.
E., Smith, B, L,, aDd Bernhan, W. D., Analyris of plates, Spaftan Books, New York, 1972. Szilard, R., Theory and Awlysis of Prorer, hedice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, {.J., 1974.
McFarland, D,
NOMENCI-ATURE Et3
;:;:----------;: E
Kq
tz\t - p-)'
M,
= = = =
modulus of elasticity stiffness of foundation modulus of elasticity of foundation/depth of foundation radial moment in circular plates
PART3
DESIGN OF COMPONENTS
203
CHAPTER
St tot,,is' Mo a,' ,'l,rrrr-n rower used by o ferlilizer monufocturer' (Courtesv of lhe Nooter CorPorolion'
205
2tJ4
206
8.I
Cylindricul vcsscls ure very liequently used in the petrochemical industry. They a.re easy to fabricate and install and economical to maintain. The required
thickness is generally controlled by intemal pressure, although in some instances applied loads and extemal pressure have control. Other factors such as thermal stress and discontinuity forces may also influence the required thickness.
As the pressure increases above 0.4 S, Division 2 uses plastic analysis (see Section 15.l) to obtain
r
Example
(8.3)
8.I
A pressure vessel with an inside diameter of 50.0 in. is subjected to an intemal pressure of 100 psi. Using an allowable stress of 17,500 psi,
find the required thickness according to Section VIII, Division 1. Assume that all circumferential and longitudinal seams are double-welded butt joints and are
spot radiographed.
8.1.
equation was developed by the ASME Code, Vltr-l, for determining the required thickness of a cylinder subjected to intemal pressure. It is a simplification of Eq. 5.3 and gives accurate results over a wide range of r2/r1. This equation is expressed as
PR
A simplified
sE
0.6P
(8.1)
100 x 25 17,500x.85-0.6x100
where
t:
required thickness
pressure
r = 0.17
in.
I
shell with an outside diameter of 30.0 in.
P = inlemal
S
R = inside radius
allowable stress
is butt-welded to seamless ellipsoidal heads. The circumferential seams are not x-rayed. Find the required shell thickness ifthe allowable stress is 15,000 psi and the intemal design pressure is 250 psi. Use Section XIII, Division 1 rules.
A comparison of Eqs. 8.1 and 5.9 is shown in Fig. 5.6. It indicates the wide range of applicability of Eq. 8.1. The ASME Code, Vltr-l, has, however, limited the use of Eq. 8.1 to t less than or equal toR/2 and pressure less or equal to 0.0385 S. Various forms of Eq. 8.1 are shown in Appendix I together with
an altemate equation that expresses the thickness in terms of Re rather than R. The factor E in Eq. 8.1 is an efficiency factor and its magnitude depends on the extent of radio$aphy performed at the various seams of the cylinder. Appendix J illushates the effect of radiography of various seams on the values of E as established by the ASME Code, VI[-l. In Section VIII, Division 2, of the ASME Code, the equation for required thickness is based on the stress at an average radius. Hence,
Solutinn. From Appendix J, with a value ofE = 1.0 (seamless shell), allowable circumferential stress must be reduced to 8070 since the circumferential
seams are not x-rayed.
I,
PR
SE
O.4P
P(R + t/2)
(15,000
250)
t
Probhms
0.31 in.
PR 0.5P
(8.2)
8.1
An ASME pressure vessel with an inside diameler of4 ft has a seamless shell. The head{o-shell seams are partially radiographed. Find the re-
206
8.2
quircd thickness il'thc alkrwablc stress is 20,()00 psi and the design prcssure i$ 2900 psi.
STRESS
Answer:
t:
CATEGORIES
3.81 in.
PR
8.2
What is the maximum allowable pressure that can be applied to a cylinder shell with an outside diameter of 6 ft, thickness 1.25 in., and an allowable stress of 17,500 psi? Let E : 0.85.
II4ARY
SECON DARY
Answer: p = 524psi
8.2
In Chapter 5 we showed how stresses are evaluated at different locations due to thermal and mechanical conditions. The magnitude of these stresses must be kept below a given allowable shess. This allowable stress is established in the ASME Code, VIII-2. The designer has to establish first whether the stress is at a local or a gross shuctual discontinuity, as defined in Fig. 8.1. Next the stress
of a structure. Secondary stress is self-limiting, Local yieldinq and minor distortions can satisfy the
condltlons l'hich cause the stress to occur and failure fron one application of the stress is not to be expected, Examples of secondary stress are geheral
thermal stress and bendi ng stress
at
STRUCTURAL
DISCONTINUITY
GROSS STRUCTURAL
DISCONTINUITY
A source
intensification which affects a relatively lafge portion of a s truc ture and has a slgnlficant effec t on the overall s tres s or strain pattern. Exahples of gross structural d I sconti n ui ti es are Icad-to-shel'l and flange-to!hcll junctlohs, nozzles, and .lunctions between shells of (llfferent d i ameters or
Flsuro
relati vly small volune of matrial and does not have a significant effect on the overall stress 0r strain pattern or on the s truc ture as a l1lhole.
stress does not cause any noticeable distortion and is objectlonable only as a possibl source of a fatlgue crack or a brlttle fractufe. Examples of peak stress ar: I ) thernrl stress in austenitic steel cladding of carbon steel vessels, 2) thermal stress li the vrall of a vessel caused by a rigid change in teFperature of the contalned fluid. 3) the stress at a I ocal structural discontinuity.
Peak
Fisure
8.2
is categorized as a primary, secondary, or a peak stress as shown in Figs. 8.2 and 8.3. In Fig. 8.4 is a description of the two categories of thermal stress. Once the stress categories are established, the stresses at a vessel's different locations can be classified as in Table 8. Table 8.2 shows the allowable stress for various stress caiegories. Application of Table 8.2 to various stress categories is given in the following example.
Example
8.1
ol r.te.honicol
8.5. LetR
Engineers,)
Calculate the stress at points A, B, and C of the vessel in Fig. 60 in., L= 2.0625 in., 11, = 1.9313 in., P : 500 psi, .S. = 15,000 Psi, P = 0.3, Eo = 30 x 106 psi.
8.3.
2lo
DtslGN
of
cYLlNDRlCAt SHtLLS
tRlt4ARY STRtSS
8.2
A stress developed by the lmposed loading |lhich is necessary to satisfy the la$s of
limiting.
exceed the
yield strength l,lill result in failure or at least in gross dlstortlon. A therrial stress is not classlfied as a primary stress'
I'4E14BRANE
coefficients of expansion. Thermal stress is developed in a solid body whenever a volume of material is prevented from assu'ning the si2e and shaPe that it normally sho!ld under a chang in tefiperature.
is classified
as secondary
An exanple
stress.
ExamPles of
ls the
bending
staess
tufe distribution in a cylindrical shell. 2) stress produced bY the tempe rature dIf ference
tempera
is associated wi th almost conpl ete suppression of the differential expansion and thus produces no significant distortion. ExanPl es of I ocal thefmal stresses a|"e: I ) stress in a snall hot sPo in a vessel v/al l. 2) the difference betl/leen th actual stress and the equlvalent I i near stress. 3) the thermal stress in a cladding material.
)
general prima rY
membaane
nn e*'ampte
membrane
of a local
PririarY
stress is one which is so distributed ln the structure that no fe-distributlon of 'load occurs as a result of
sttess is the menbrane stress in a Shell Produced bY external loadr dnd monent at a perFanent suppoft or at a
noz2le connection.
shell to
t,Jhich
it is
attached. stress
Figure
8.3
or
= | -71501 psi
Solution
Point
A.
Hence, maximum stress = 14,300 psi. From Tables 8.1 and 8.2, the maximum stress for a general primary membrane sffess is
S,
Point
15,000 psi
>
14,300
Psi
O.K
B.
7150 Psi
14,300 | psi
: o., :
or
14,800 psi
-500 psi
7150 psi
-7150 | psi
Tobb
0.1
Clorrlflcotlon of
Slrun
(Rrforrncr l)
Tobb
Sirart
8.2
tt -I--,--.---t----*-1--1 | i tP. F{ s.) I I i T\-/ | | r-.+ - - -;i | I | | .-r- Hr.5 s,) I- --l/'\ llPr+PD+O+ rs. ) I P. -l- \__/ l---l\__/ L----T-------r
i r .- -r- /-\ lP(-PD H1,5 s-) L__---*f
\--'l I
i
: I
i
'
: ! :
----.t H s. ) ,
a ----
U*
&5iEn load3
Us op.aungloads
lPr +P. +Q +F
\-/
{av.
&dslull sclio.t
Fisure 8.5
212
213
2ta
8.2
215
r'" = +e)
Also,
500
x !'0-x-2 0625 =
7734 in
lb/in'
Mt=M,+N,e=M,+7734
.-....._"
r,
rh
:
=
60 +
60
'#:6l.olt3 +!
p') =
in.
60.5157 in.
B=
Fisur.8.6
3(1
,,1
h/
9.8465
o,
=._"a
n,
Figur 8.2
oe
Point ngure,
g .g
From this
Fisure 8.8
216
Dt]Ot{ of cful{DflcAt
3H!U.3
8.2
217
deflection of head
^ aw"= ^ ar, =
or
wo
wlsn
wy"
* wql^,"n"n:
wp
w9
wy1l6,
**
(l)
and for the head
o 0s: 2p'D -
47.3822Q
Eo
It'- =
"
Pr?
-
m2,987
Es
Et,
.""
4A3Mh 6l.t86lM, .
473,213
Es
M"+
Solving Eqs. 2 and 4 gives
1'.9521Q= -7733.99
(4)
Eoh-
1155.56650
Eo
-E-
totaly =
l$y
M' + r1.1563Q =
-10,150.55
(2)
rotation in head
0N*+
where for the shell
0M"
0ol.*.u
: -Iun- Lal^rc"a
(3)
Fisurs 8.9
2ll
8.3
219
=!3y:35,000psi rs
: ff :
ZSOO
psi
,,: + = i*'(L)'
Defining
: Y = 720 pri
=
220 psi
A=
e""
^: a= ,1;"1
D",
the equation
oe x/ tY
(8.4)
These stresses are divided into two categories in accordance with Table g.2:
l.
Equation 8.4 is plotted as shown in Fig. 8.10. Hence, for any given value ofL, and, t, a value ofA can be determined from Fig. 8.10. The allowable compressive stress in the elastic region can be determined from
35,000 psi
7500 psi
o1 : a, =
-500 psi
-FS
35,500 psi where FS is factor
Dressure
AEo
From Tables 8.1 and 8.2 the maximum allowable local membrane stress
is equal to 1.5S,
22,599
<
35,500
psi
+
overstressed
(D,/'XFS)
In the plastic region, ASME uses quasi-stresFstrain curves similar to those in
2.
O)
= ot =
35,000
7500
Fig. 8.11 to determine plastic buckling. These curves are plotted on log-log
220
35,220 psi
8220 psi
+ 720
o;: -500+0
maximum stress difference
= :
=
graphs with a factor of safety of two for stress. Because the stress-strain curves differ for different temperatures, a number of curves for different temperatures
are plotted
-500
psi
35,720 psi
(8.s)
From Tables 8.1 and 8.2 the maximum allowable local membrane olus secondary stress is equal to
or
> 35,720 OK
I
If
8.3
o=FS
allowable pressure is needed, then
2"8
A comparison of Figs . 5 . 1 7 and 5 . I 8 indicates that the buckling due to pressure applied to sides and ends is more critical than the pressure applied to the ends only. Accordingly, the ASME code, VIII, uses Eq. 5.17 as the basis for design. This equation is modified to take into consideration nonelastic bucklins and
^ zto -D.
4tB
FS
(D,)
8lolgv:l
tl
!""
I
.."
:l
5-
-8 -6
-6
jE
E
E
V 11 -'t
\
\ \ \
c
g;
a.>
JR
E.n
5:.
fq
'6
E.E
q 9
- s 5F fl-
; f :('
\
j6
E
da
oE
5g
i;+ ;bE
EE9 4
R
39PP9 :*
RFR
-Fo g9 'd aE 8. i; !a
220
221
olsloN oF
cYt"rNDRrcAL sHEtrs
8.3
223
l.l
P
\D./t)'
@"/t)FS
(E.lr )
The ASME procedure for the design of cylindrical shells under extemal
pressure is complicated because of the various parameters that must be considered. A summary ofthe procedure is shown in Fig. 8. 12 as an aid to the designer.
ASME uses a factor of safety of 3.0 for buckling of cylindrical shells subjected to lateral and end extemal pressures. Hence, for elastic region (D./t > l0),
2AEo
----!-
3(D,/t)
and for elastic or plastic region
(8.6)
(D./t ;P
Example 8.4. The length of a cylindrical shell is 15 ft, outside diameter l0 ft, and is constructed of carbon steel with minimum yield strength of 36,000 psi. The shell is subjected to an extemal pressure of 10 psi. Find (a) the required thickness using ASME factor of safety and (b) the required thickness using a factor of safety of 2.0.
lO),
.t4B,t = 3(D./t)
Solution.
(a) Assume
where A = factor
6 rn.
: D, :
B
Eq
= P=
r
4:zzo t '-p_
(2x0.009_l-8..1!Z?
D.
L=1.2s
From Fig. 8.10, factor A = 0.00018. From Fig. 8.11, modulus of elasticity ar room temperature is 29,000,000 psi. Hence, from Eq. 8.6
D,/t values less than 10, ASME uses a variable factor of safety that ranges from 3.0 for values of D"/t = 10 to a factor of safety of 2.0 for values of D"/t = 4-O. This reduction occurs because for very thick cylinders, buckling
For
ceases to be a consideration and the allowable values in tension and comoression
106)
(3)(32u)
r0.9
psi o.K.
t<
A check is needed to ascertain that buckling is in the elastic rather than the plastic region. FromFig.8.ll with A = 0.0018, a value of B:2600 psi is obiained in the elastic region of the curve. Hence, the above solution ;f l0.g DSi is
adequate.
^:
^
stress
(T# - 00833)'
2ol. I \
(8.7)
ur.r:]in. 6
(b) For a factor of safety 2.0, assume
t=
Then
0.3125 in.
4=38a
t
8.3
Cd
DESION
223
l. o
=
Oo./t,
idtrr"
Aanft.t L 4 oolculolar L lo l.
L./Do
106
gF.ot.r. thdr 50 ?
O.O5
3.0
=
"
psi
=
O.K.
Coloulot.! A ad u..
E
ur",:jin. lo
Ext
?
?
Example 8.5. A cylindrical shell with length 18 ft and an outside diameler 6 ft is constructed of carbon steel with a yield stress of 38,000 psi. Determine the thickness needed to resist an external pressure of 300 psi.
Solution. It r =
Ia
Oo./t ar
1.25 in.
.lO
L: z.o 4: D.t
From Fig. 8.10, factor
st.o
:29 x
106
psi,
I. 2Sl,
< O.96U ?
2x0.00095x29x106 = 3 x 57.6
Now check for plastic region. From Fig. 8.11, factor B 12,000 psi in the plastic region. Hence, the first of Eq. 8.6 cannot be used. From the second of
Eq.8.6,
P-4x12'oon ,: 3x57n
Try I. Pol
Figure
278
psi
inadequare
r:
< Poa ?
!=sr.o
From Fig. 8.11,
and A:o.oo11
8.12
224
226
lJ
12,400 psi
'P:
Use
r = 1.375 in.
Problems
8.3
l3-ft diameter reactor is 5.50 in. and its effective leneth is l8 ft. Ifthe design temperature is 900'F, what is the maximum allowa6le external pressure?
The thickness of a
Answer: P =
300 psi
Answer: t = 7/16in.
A jacketed pressure vessel with an intemal diameter of 12 ft is subjectd to an interni pressure of 400 psi and a jacket pressure of 200 psi . The shell
thickness is controlled by the intemal pressure using an allowable tensile stress of 15,000 psi at 800T with an E factor of 1.0. Determine the required stiffener spacing from Figs. 8.10 and 8.11.
I
-F
.J
I
I
'6
Answer: L
8.6
16.2in.
+
I
A distillation tower is subjec0ed to a vacuum of 15 psi. lf D" = 9 ft, t = 0.75 in., and stiffener spacing = 8 ft, what is the maximum permissible lemperature?
-J
p
E E
+l'
J
Answer: T
900"F
+ ; +I
i5
a,
,r&
.og
e;
8.4
AF
In deriving Eq. 5.17 for the maximum strength of a cylindrical shell under cxternal pressure, it was assumed that the ends of the shell were simply supF)rted. For this to be true, stiffening rings, flanges, and so on (Fig. 8.13) are nccded as lines of supports. These supports are assurned to carry all the load that thc shell carries due !o external pressure. By refering to Figs. 8. 13 and 8.14, Iotal force in stiffener is
227
DESTON
Ot CYltNDRtCAt SHfl.tS
8,4
,:4P
': FS PP" 2 2(t + A,/L)
With a factor of safety (FS) of 3.0 expression 8.5 becomes
-3PD" a:or,aatra
s
(8.8)
ti ffener
The stiffening ring must also be checked against buckling. The classical expression for the buckling of a ring due to external pressure is
I 2116
U;
E l1ti I
tf=-:
- A
o
Di,G
+ A,/L)L
8.I.t
12I
D')"A
PD.L = 2F
Es
With e", = A, the expression for
+ A'/L)L
becomes
PD"L
. I:
DzL\t + A,/L)A
(8.e)
o-
I'L(t + A,/L)
PD.
2(t + A,/L)
In this equation it is assumed that the area A" of stiffening ring is ,,smeared', over the total length z. Using the terminology of Fig. 8.11 and expression 8.5,
This equation can be used in conjunction with Eq. 8.8 and Fig. 8.10. In doing so, a hial A, is normally selected and I is calculated from Eq. 8.8. Using the value ofB, which already incorporates a factor of safety of 3.0, a value ofA is obtained from Fig. 8.11. With this A, the required moment of inertia is calculaled from expression 8.9 Because the stability of the stiffening ring is essential in calculating the shell stability, a higher factor of safety is used by ASME in the stiffening ring calculations as compared with shell calculations. With a factor of safety of 3.5, exoression 8.9 becomes
'FS
28
. t:--
DZL(I + A"/L)A
A-
(8.10a)
230
8,5
Hence,
RINGS
23I
The svuilable / obtuined liom Eq. tt. lOa must be lower than the available tmoment of inertia of the stiffening ring. This inertia is calculated without considering the contribution of the adjacent cylinder. If the composite 1of the ring and the effective cylinder are considered, then a penalty of 28Zo is applied to Eq. 8.10 and a new expession given by
l0.4psi
,, _ DzLa + A"/L)
lo.9
(8. r0b)
A,
1.09
"
From Fig. 8.11,
R = : ----------l4 (u187 5
: r :
8,6. A long cylindrical shell is constructed of carbon steel with a yield stress of 38,000 psi and a radius of 36 in. If the stiffeners are spaced at a 4-ft interval, calculate the required shell thickness and the size of stiffening rings for an external pressure of l0 psi at 100"F.
Example
0.00018.
Solution.
l*t
r
: 0.67 in. a :
0.1857 in.
OK
a = 0.67
A=
0.00028
D--
= tt+
8,5
21000
psi
lf'I1ol I'
(8.1
la)
The strength of the column must be equal to or greater than the cylindrical shell. For large diameter shell the curvature is small and the buckling streneth of the shell approaches that of a simply supponed flat plate. The riinimuit critical buckling strength of the simply supported plate abcd (Fig. 8.17) loaded in the
(8.1
lb)
By comparing expressions 8. 1la and 8. I lb, it can be concluded that in order for the column aD to be as strong as the plate, its length must be about one-half
8,5
Grp lnor
233
to.tc..d I rtm.r
S]
L.ngth
.r..sd
Figure 8.17
that of the plate. Therefore, the maximum gap length must be one-half that of a buckling lobe length of a cylindrical shell. In referring to Fig. 5.16 the maximum gap length can be expressed as
Typ. ot onttrucrio.
_l
-_l
g_;_-;;
_ ttD.
(8.
l2)
_+
ASME has developed curves that are based on Eq. 8.12. These curves are shown in Fig. 8.18. A comparison, however, between Eq. 8.12 and Fig. 8.18 indicales some differences. These differences are due to the fact that Fig. 5.18, which is used with Eq. 8.12, is plotted using the first two terms of expression fl in Eq. 5.27a whereas Fig. 8.18 uses all terms. Therefore, the results of Fig. 8.18 are more accurate.
Example
nng.
Figur' 8
(Ref. 2).
voriou
8.7.
with
D. =
7.O ft,
What is the maximum gap allowed in a stiffening ring of a shell L : 15.0 ft, and r : 1.0 in.?
Solution
'-: t
232
t+
L= r
a.zs
8.6
lrronr F'ig.
tl.12,
16.8 in.
"":#ii
3,6+Id
.s
8.6
*"""p;'L;
d;:;
"+r3
;
E3
EXTERNAL PRESSURC
";:
$-E
;a s! 5=
E
In the fabrication of cylindrical shells, slight out-of-roundness invariably results. This is due to forming, welding, or postweld heat-treating operations. Normally, intemal pressures tend to minimize out-of-roundness, whereas extemal pressures tend to increase it. Because of that, and to prevent failure, extra precautions must be taken in fabricating shells that are subjected to external pressures.
In Fig. 5. 16 it is assumed that the shell is approximated by a series of columns connected end to end. The length of each column is one-half a lobe length, or
-5 ;IJ
bet
,= -2N
nDo
=_@i o5
The slendemess of each column is expressed by the ratio //r where r is the radius of gyration. Since r is eqtal to t2/\/12 in a shell wall. the equation becomes
g gfig
r
F
t_
5.44
N(t/D.)
8I 889 S
The eccentricity of each column in expressed by e. If it is assumed that the eccentricity ratio e/r affects the strength of a column in the same way as the shell, it can be concluded that
el rr
and
for columns
------ca-
t/y12
234
5.44
N(t/D.)
for cylinders
!: t
where C1
c'
N(t/D)
(8. r 3)
I I
V
I
u
I
/
@E oB
1.57.
tl
/ /
Lf D.ratios. This, however, applies only in the case of intermediate length shells. For this range, Eq. 8.13 was found to give adequate results. As the length gets longer, tests have shown than an increase in L/D"has no influence on ef t. On the other hand, tests have shown that as the length decreases, the value of e/l increases slightly. Thus, Eq. 8.13 needs modification to take into account the two extreme cases. Thus. disreeardins the increase in e/t as L/D. decreases. an empirical equation of the fo;
/,1 /
/ / / / /
I
"1
/t
I
4 ls il
I
f I
I I
9:
t N(Jf,j- "'"
Ct
*:1 t- .
q QE
E=
q 66 o o
..'-
is found satisfactory. In using the values of C1 and C2 as obtained from tests, the equation becomes
ct .0
P6
o,
o,'=8
N(t / D")
+ o.ol5N
(8.14)
dF
E
I
3{
'i
,9d
Example
Calculate the maximum out-of-roundness allowed in a cylinder subjected to extemal pressure with D, 5.0 ft, Z 14.0 ft, and t 0-75 inCompare the result with that obtained from Fig. 8.19.
8.8.
3.ssps F
tt3R8
Solution
5.60
D= to t
237
2il
NOMINCIATURI 239
0.062510 o,: - n/t
(8.1s)
f nnrr
e:
From Fig. 8.18,
-l
"=Lffi)+o'or5(3)J(o7s)
0.39 in.
ot=
where B = is obtained from Fig.
O.53t
B
using
8.ll
e:
A = 0.125/(R,/t).
Example 8.9. A cylindrical tower is constructed of stainless steel 410 material. Its radius is 6 ft and thickness is 0.5 in. Determine the maximum allowable
compressive stress at room temperature.
0.40 in.
T
Solution
&=3=roo
,
u.)
8.7
= 29 x
106
psi
.".=*Lo
or
o,=fifo.oazs x
29
106)
:
For plastic region,
12,600 psi
A
and
=W:
psi
o.ooo87
FS(R,/r)
A
NOMENCTATURE
= Il,fiX)
<-
use
A large factor of safety is normally used in this expression because a slight out-of-roundness can significantly reduce the critical sfain. ASME uses an approximate factor of safety of 10.0. Hence, the expression for allowable compressive stress in the ASME is for elastic range,
of stiffening ring
210
D, =
DtStON
Oi CyUNORtCAt
SHH"|"S
6
E6
= joint efficiency
: modulus of elasticity F : peak stress as denned in Table 8.2 / = moment of inertia of stiffening ring
1' = combined moment of inertia
of stiffening ring and adjacent shell
Q:
R, =
S = allowable tensile shess in the ASME Code, VI[-1 & = alternating stress in the ASME Code, VIII-2 S, : allowable tensile stress in the ASME Code, Vm-2 t : thickness of cylindrical shell
REFERCNCES
ASME Boiler and Pressue Vessel Code, Section Vm, Division 2, Alrs rnative Rules-pressure Vessels, ANSVASME BPV-Vn-2, American Society of Mechanical Engineers, New york,
1980.
ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Section VItr, Division l, prcssure Vesrels, ANSUASME BPV-Vm-I, American Society of Meahanical EDgineers, New york, 1980.
CHAPTER
Inside surfoce
243
2U 9.I
9.I
INTRODUCTION
245
INTRODUCTION
A large variety of end closures and transition sections are available to the desisn engineer. Using one configuration versus another depends on manv factors suih
as method of forrning, material cost, and space used heads are:
--r-.
."ihi"tionr.
Some frequently
].'
(a)
FLANGED
Flanged Heads. These heads (Fig. 9.1c) are normally found in vessels operating at low pressures such as gasoline tanks, and boilers. They are also used-in highpressure applications where the diameter is small. Various details for their design and construction are given by the ASME Code, VI[-l.
(b)
HEI.lISPHERICAL
Hemispheical Heads. Generally, the required thickness of hemispherical heads due to a grven temperature and pressure is one-half that of cylindrical shells with equivalent diameter and material. Hemiheads (Fig. 9.10) are very economical when construcied of expensive alloys such as nickel and titanium----either solid or
_1 _T
(c)
ELLIPTICAL
(d)
FLAIIGED
&
DISHED
(TORISPHERIcAL)
clad. In carbon steel, hemiheads are not as economical as flaneed and dished heads because of the high cost of fabricalion. Hemiheads are iormally fabricated from segmental "gore" sections or by spinning or pressing. Segmental gore hemiheads are economical in thin, large diameter equipment or thick,
small diameter reactors. Because hemispherical heads are thinner than cylin_
vm.
drical shells to which they are attached, the transition area between the head and shell must be contoured so as to minimize the effect of discontinuity stress. Figure 9.2 illustrates the hansition requirements in the ASME Code,
Elliptical and Torispherical (Flanged and Dished) Heads. These heads are very popular in pressure vessels (Fig. 9.lc and d). Their
thickness is usually the same as the cylinder to which they are attached. This reduces considerably the weld build-up shown in Fig. 9.2. Thus, because the required thickness in areas away from the knuckle region is less than the furnished thickness, the excess can be advantageously used in reinforcing nozzles in these areas. Many mills can fumish such heads in various di_ amelers and thicknesses that are competitive in price. In a true elliptical head the radii of curvature vary between a jacent points
(e)
C0NICAL
(f)
g)
IlISCEL!ANE0Us
Figure
9.1
along a meridian. To simplify the calculations and fabrication, the ASME Code established the following various approximations. A 2: 1 elliptical head can be assumed to consist of a spherically dished head with a radius of 9OVo and a knuckle radius of 17go of the shell diameter to which thev are attached, as shown in Fig. 9.3. The smallest knuckle radius allowed for a
flanged and dished head is 67o of the shell diameter and a spherical radius 1007o of the shell diameter.
of
I
I
li lc
r
b
9,2
DISIGN
247
l<1l2las-.hl taper./,
'".ca
<112k,-.hl
may inctude the width ol the weld-
thcse high fbrces, the ASME Code, Vlll-1, limits the apex anglc to a maximum of 30" when the cone is subjected to intemal pressure. Above 30'a discontinuity analysis is done or a toriconical head used to avoid the unbalanced forces at the junction.
Miscellaneous Heads. Many chemical processes require unusual vessel configurations. The heads of such vessels can have an infinite number of contours. One such contour is shown in Fig. 9. lg. The design of these heads is very complicated and there are no simple methods of analysis. Experience, proof testing, and sophisticated analyses are generally used to determine required thicknesses.
9.2
VI[-l,
2SE
O.zP
(e.1)
where
{cl
Fisure (dl
Ensi'ieers) iunction. (Courrety of the Americon Societ}' of ldechonicol
t:
.lR
required thickness
pressure
P = intemal
9.2 Hod-to{hell
B = joint efficiency
This equation with E : 1.0 is plotted in Fig. 6.3 and it approximates the more complicated Eqs. 6.7 over a large range of r'fri- Othet forms of Eq. 9. 1 are shown in Appendix I. For external pressure, Eq. 6.35 is taken as the basis for the ASME Code equations. Defining e". : A, r : R,, and modulus of elasticity as Es, Eq. 6.35
can be written as
{a)
ASiIE
2:1
Head
Es
0.t25 R"/t
T
(b)
246
ASI.IE Flanged
. "
where
0.125
R"/t
(9.2a)
A = critical shain
R, = outside radius
and 0ished
Head
fisure 9.3
thickness
214
9,3
lixamplc
in
ASME DESION
EQUATIONS 249
9.1.
a*:
or
P.,
P",R.
Fig.8.ll.
Using the ASME criteria, determine the allowable cxternrl R, = 60 in. and t : 0.5 in. Use the 300'F line
Zt
Solution, = 2%
R"/t=4+ R./t
n rs A:ffi=0.00r
l
(e.3) 0.001, a plastic behavior exists and Eq. 9.2c must be From Fig. 8. I 1, with A used. Hence, from Fig. 8.11 (e.4)
and
11,000 psi
FS(R,/')
Using factor of safety (FS)
p -_
(e.2b)
":*@
9.3
= nt o"
where P = Eq =
ASME DESIGN EQUATIONS FOR ELTIPSOIDAI AND FLANGED AND DISHED HEADS
The general solution of Eq. 6.39 is very cumbersome because 12 is a variable function. However, the stresses obtained from Eq. 6.39 are important because they can be added to the membrane stresses of Eq. 6.37 which results in significantly reducing the total stress at the vicinity of the junction. Therefore, this equation can be advantageously utilized by the designer in reducing the required head thickness. The ASME used this fact in developing design parameters for ellipsoidal and torispherical heads. A study was mader with ellipsoidal heads to determine the effect of the ratio a/b on the stress level at the head-to-shell junction for a constant ratio 32 of head thickness t to shell radius r. The study indicated that the point of maximum stress in the head changes with a change of afb.Forheads shallower than a/b of 2.5, the maximum stress is in the hoop direction at the outside surface of the knuckle region and is in compression as shown in Fig. 9.4. For ratios of a fb between 2.5 and 1.2, the maximum stress occurs at the junction and is a hoop tensile stress. The stiess magnitude for various ratios ofa/b is shown in Fig. 9.4. A simplified equation used by the ASME Code, VIII-I, approximates the theoretical stress ratios of Fig. 9.4 for values of af bbetween2.6, which is the maximum allowed by the code, and 1.0 for a spherical head:
The ASME procedure for determining the allowable external pressure for a spherical section is to detemine fust the A value from Eq. 9 .2a. The allowable pressure can then be obtained by referring to a stress-strain chart similar to the one shown in Fig. 8.11. IfA falls in the elastic region, then P is calculated from 84.9.2b. If ,4 falls in the plastic region, however, a value ofB is determined fust from the chart. The allowable pressure is then calculated from exoression
9.3
as:
P"
Substituting B
= FS(&/r)
20-
(e.5)
o",/2
p= B - R./t
where B = factor determined from Fig. 8.11.
(9.2c)
Equations 9.2 form the ASME basis for determining allowable external pressure for sDherical sections.
: il'. (-tl]
(e.6)
DISION
SICTIONS e
Lh.or.t, loo I vo lLr.. tmot. votu.. etvon bU Eq.{9.O1 lle hooD etre6 of le nerldlonol EtroBs ot de eual'oc of knucklo o-eo
I
I
o*r
x- IE L_4
tl
q-6
i-;
;-3
l0^
lrc do d9
;t$
1 rffz,tf;r]
at6
Fisur
:sE
i
qo-
iE,6 \. -:Zt
6il-
i -l l
C.
ll
-l
;i
o o (.l-
9.4
l,{oximum ske5s
'o
.!
r
'l_
.oo
"P
-l t9
( to
:.{
6i
E5
g
t.
ttl
Li -j :L - lts )o
l
-l
I
,^=
//
6o do
q-: do
a
ct
zSE
0.2P
where t : thickness of ellipsoidal head P = internal pressure D = diameter of shell to which head is attached l< = sfiess intensity factor obtained from Eq. 9.6
S
3*3533
rt
ur^rr
r
ci
xour
Jo o|1ou
allowable stress
6 = joint efficiency
For torispherical heads, tests conducted by H<ihnr and others have shown that the stress at the knuckle area due to internal pressure reaches the yield value long
before the spherical region does. Hrjhn plotted an empirical equation that cor_ relates well with available test data, as shown in Fig. 9.5. To ivaluate Hcihn's
empirical curve, Fig. 9.5 shows anotler curve that indicates the stress rn an
251
DIsION O? TORMID HTADS AND IRANSITION SICTIONS equivBlent ellipsoidal head whose thickness is equal to the shell thickness. This curve indicates that Hrihn's curve is liberal for small values of knuckle to crown radri r/L. Accordingly, the ASME Code, VIII-I, developed an empirical curve that parallels both Hdhn's curve for large values of rfL and the ellipsoid curve for small r/Z ratios, as shown in Fig. 9.5. The ASME curve can be expressed by the equation
9.3
253
+ +
fo.oozw
(9.10)
|
10.26879
n =)(z
(e.8)
0.442621;l +
/r\ \U/
'
"'-,(;i]l('";)]'
PLM
zSE
O.zP
: S:
intemal pressure
allowable stress
where r :
P = internal pressure Z = spherical crown radius M = stress intensity factor obtained from Eq. 9.9
S
P=
9,2.
100 psi,
S:
E:
:t
head
ifD =
144 in.,
1.0?
allowable stress
Solutian.
a/b =
3,
K:
=
From Eq. 9.7,
0.166712
1.83
+ (3.0f1
(100x144)(1.83)
2x
=
Example
17,500
1.0
0.2
100
0.75 in.
I
E=
if
1.0,
and
o"/FS
(0, *,,;);.,'(,
-,,;)(i) - o 0006
9.3,
S, the following approximate equarion obtained and used by the ASME Code, VIII-2:
r:
50 psi?
Solution.
nl=
-t.zent
4.ss246(; + 28.e3318G)
L ..
r
9.3
l;rrrn Eq.9.tl.
M=zG+vr6) : 1.75
From Eq. 9.9,
l-
t:-
'-2xl7joox1.o-02x50
:
.17
l2:
50x240x1.75
0.60 in.
Etl,plo'dar h.d)
Because the thickness is obtained from Eq. 9.9 and because this thickness is small compared with the diameter of the head, the requirements of Eq. 9. l0 must be checked.
r15 D 240
:
P ; J
0.0625
50 17,500
=
and from Eq. 9.10,
0.002857
ln
-s.54851
o.oo38e
;=
t
,005
0.93 in.
.01
Formed Heods (Courre.y
.02
of lhe Ane.icon
.03
Sociery
.04
used.
Figure
9.6
Required Thickne.s
of
of
9.3.1
/vtechonicol
Ensineers.)
For extemal pressure, the knuckle area is subjected to a tensile stress. Hence the critical area that is necessary for consideration under extemal pressure is the
I
254
spherical region. Thus the ASME criteria for all ellipsoidal and torispherical heads under extemal pressure are the same as those for spherical heads.
116 9.4
Code,
SGCTIONS
9.4
257
tion is given by
VI[-I, uses Eq. 1 of Example 6.7 as the basis for establishing the required thickness of a conical section subjected to intemal pressure. The Jqua_
PD 2 cos a(Str'
From Example 6.7 it is seen that the hoop force Np is twice as large as the longitudinal force N5 in conical heads subjected to internal pr"rr*".
Th" ASME
T]--+. l+ I
"\
I'
I
_t_
2raon6
0.6p)
(e.l l)
+ilvl_t -nT
r
\l
,l
measured
___L
Fig'rr
9.7
of
q'
and
What is the required thickness of a conical head attached to . a "I:TOr" cyllnder whose inside diameter is 40.0 in. if the intemal pressure is 450 psi, the allowable stress is 20,000 psi, E = 1.0, and a = 20.0?
9.4.
X=
Y
and
4.559U2 tan
d
2V) tan a
1.316(V
1.0
=
9.4.
0.49
in.
0.6 x 450)
I
of Discontinuity Anolysis due fo Iniernol
ASME Simplificotion
rressur
V and V2 are given as in Example 6.9. The longitudinal stress in Eq. 9.12 is in tension for all values of a and does not govem the design criteria. The f term in the circumferential stress expression in Eq. 9.12 is positive for all practical applications. Hence the quantity a" varies from a maximum tensile value of Prft to a compressive value that depends on the angle a. The ASME Code, VIII-I, limits the maximum compressive circumferential stress to a value of Pr/r. Using these criteria, the quintity yl|rt;n Eq. 9.12 must be limited to a value of 2.0. Values in excess of 2.0 must be supported by a ring added at the junction. The area of the ring is given by the
equatron
The ASME Code, VtrI-1, uses the stress expressions obtained in Example 6.9 f9r inlernal pressu as the basis for establisiing simplified l.ite.iu fo, dir"on_ tinuity analysis at the cylinder-to-cone junction. At ihe large end of the cone (Fig,. 9.7) the discontinuity analysis results in the following i*o.*piessions fo,
tr2 tan q
(Y\EIt -
2)
Y\6rt
(e.13)
A plot of the quantity y shows that it can be approximated by the expression 0.005a as shown in Fig. 9.8. Substituting this value into Eq. 9.13 gives
,=!(o'+x{rz\
""=7(, - rrn
(9.12) The ASME Code,
1.5SE and thus
t2tanall , ['
VI[-l,
400
(9.14)
258
9,4
DISIGN
259
t.o
o.e
o
S
X=O.C
liquation 9. l5 is used by thc ASMB Cirde , Vl ll- I , as thc bitsis litr chccking lllc.ioint bctween the cylinder and the large end of cone due to internal prcssuro. At thc small end ofthe cone (Fig. 9.7) the circumferential and longitudinal stress cquations due to internal pressure are
/
t2
6-
\-7
'7Li
,: !(o '-',4)
""=?('- ",4)
(9.16)
o.2
40.
SO.
Because both expressions include a negative term, the equation for or controls because X is numerically larger than Z Limiting the maximum compressive stress to Pr/t, the term in parentheses in the equation for o1 is
Figure
9.8
<
l.sSE
1.5
:A
t
and a stiffening ring is needed for values of required area of the stiffening ring is
XYr/t
V7=
Equation 9.14 thus becomes
[ssz,
P
Prl l_=-=-tl
ran q
l-
zSE
I
,
_.:l
t.s
'l
xt/r,/tl
From Fig. 9.8, it is shown that the quantity X is approximated by 0.012a. Hence the required area can be expressed as
Prl
326.6\/F7SE\
"
1t^"
the expression
Prl
tan
af
2sE
L' d,rtl
Pr.
125
'l
(9.r7)
SE
=;
can be substituted into Eq. 9.17 to give for the small end of cone,
= J=
t :
a=
^':
where A =
#('
- *) "" "
(9.18)
joint efficiency
A = 326.6\/FEE
one-half the apex angle of cone
*G
radius of cvlinder at the small end of cone
r, =
-*"--"W*-ffiUfY6ffiU'iii,aibt
9,.1
HIAD DlllON
261
Exanple
9.5.
junctions. Lt S
Doslgn thc conc ehown in Fig. 9.9 and check the cone-to-shcll = 20 ksi, E = 1.0, and p = 150 psi.
,=ffi(t-1ff)<o.sttt
=
100)
3.70 in.2
9.4.2
The goveming equation for the design of cones subjected to extemal pressure is obtained from @. 6.43. Using a factor of safety 3.0, Eq. 6.43 becomes
A=
326.6\m
=28.28"
P.
0.87(t,/D)25
Es.
L"/D,
(9.19)
and from Eq. 9.15 the required area at the large end is
^=ffiffi(r-ff)<os,t
=
For small end
0.64 in.2
This equation that expresses the cone in tmrs of an equivalent cylinder of thickness r" and length tr, is analogous to 84. 6.42 for cylindrical shells. Thus the ASME Code, VI[-l, applies the same equations for the design of cylin&ical shells under extemal pressure for the design of cones with applicable values of t" urd L":
9.4.3
A=89
7.71
The discontinuity forces due to external lnessurea at the large end of cone are
shown in Fig. 9.10 and expressed as
{irtt*Fisurc 9.9
_:I_
262
9.4
u,__p_!t*r{^r, I I'''
(e.20)
lly limiting the axial stress to an allowable value of SE, the above equation can bc written for large end of the cone,
r\ t/ '--&1'-"2)
where X
Y
o'=*'#""1'-i(|*2.4):]
where
(9.2r)
:
=
9.34
Vz
tan
tt
2V2) tan
N,
: Q:
2.57 (Vy -
A:
104
P
SE
+g
maximum compressive stress is given by ar; a conservative maximum allowable compressive stress value is Pr2/f and thus
v-alues of X and I in Eq. 9.20 can be approximated by the expressions in Fig. 9.11. A comparison of o; and or given by Eq. 9.20 indicates that the
lhe
r:;l,t
-N-/ *
"v;/
/^
(9.22)
o.o27a
'V;=N*-l
area
Pr'
and the maximum compressive stress by 4. Limiting the allowable compressive strcss to -(P/r/r), the first of Eq. 9.22 reduces to
of
_r,,_r,ill.r.-
^t _P,,
1f
t
.027
a\/
r2/
or N, s 0, which indicates that at the small end of the cone the axial force N, must be resisted by a ring with an area for the small end of the cone
z.o
(9.23)
t,e t.6
o
E J
la
1.1
.7
necessary to design the ring at the junction to prevent buckling due to external
t.2 t.o
o.8 o.6 o.+ o.2
o
pressure. The procedure is similar to that for the design of stiffening rings in cylindrical shells. A conservative approach used by the ASME Code, Vltr-l, in designing cylindrical shells under extemal pressure assumes that intermediate stiffening rings support all the load applied to the shell. Using the same criteria, the load on the cone in Fig. 9.10 due to extemal pressure can be proportioned at the large and small end stiffening rings as follows: pressure load at large end stiffening ring
4 o'
Figure
\to.
20.
f_le. SZ.y
ZnP (r2
r)(r2
3sina
- r) cos a
9.ll
o(
X ond Y voluer for externol
pressure.
n"t: O!&i#
2U
NOMENCLATURI
'Ii)t l l()td itt lirrgc cnd duc ttl axial conrprcssitln, prcssurc on conc, an<I pressure
on cylinder is
Ily using
rr1
= E,A.
, = +tan q +,
or
tun
o+
!. eliffi*
+,
tan 0
(e.26)
which is the required moment of inertia of a cone-to-shell stiffening ring. For design purposes, the value of A in Eq. 9.26 is obtained from a stress-strain relationship. This is achieved by considering the stress in the ring (9.24)
as
F = P(M)
where
Fr
(9.27)
t,_r2tana, Lt
ri- rl
Applying a factor of safety of two in the foregoing equation and using the Extemal Pressure Charts in ASME (hat have a factor safety two), a design criteria can be established as follows:
Total load at small end due to axial compression, pressure on cone, and pressure on cylinder is
-r f,
t?trr ct
1. 2.
Calculate
Establish
(9.2s)
3. 4.
a (factor B)
rv=?tun o+L:
L
Use Eq. 9.26 to establish the minimum required moment of inertia. The ASME allows a 307o increase in value if the composite ring-shell moment of inertia is considered and the equation then becomes
ADZA, Equations 9.24 and,9.25 establish the maximum applied force at the cone_to_ cylinder junction. The critical buckling stress of a iircular ring is
15.6
o"
3Eol
nr,
NOMENCTATURE
Lj + e, + Lj A' = + + + e,
A' =
A: At :
,B =
D: D1 :
diameter
base diameter at small end
of cone
26
l)r
OISION
O' IORMID
Bf
sf.tooRAPHY
267
of cone
.1.
= joint efficiency
Bourdtnun, l{, C., "Strc$scs al Junction ol Conc and Cylindcr in Tanks with Cono Bottuns or Ends" in Prc.rsare ye.rszl aul Piping Design: Colkcted papers 1927-,/9Jg, Amcrican Socicty of Mechanical Engineers, 1960. Jawad, M. H., "Design of Conical Shells under Extemal Loads,,' Technology, pp. 230-238. Vol. t02, 1980.
8s = modulus of elasticity
4.
Jounnl
of pressure Vessel
, = head depth I = moment of inertia lK : factor for ellipsoidal heads as determined from Eq. 9.6 Z = spherical crown radius of flanged and dished heads
Z' = effective
L"
length of cylindrical shell
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Fliigg, W., Strcrrer ir, S,ells, Springer-Verlag, New
york,
1960.
:
=
70
+ Dt/D:.l
M=
factor for flanged and dished heads as obtained from Eq. 9.g
P = pressure
P" = allowable extemal
pressure
It = inside radius
R, =
outside radius
tcos d
stress
L 2.
Brownell, L. E., and E.H.Yorlll.g, Process Equipment Design, lolmWiley, New york, 1959. Shield, R. T., and D. C. Drucker, "Design of Thin-Walled Torispherical and Toriconical Pressure-Vessel Head,s" in Pressure Vessels anl Pipirrg: Design atd Anatysis-A Decade of ProSleJr, Ameican Society of Mechaoical E4ineers, 1972.
CHAPTER
IO
AND FLANGES
Iypicolflons: r.ody for in.tollins. (Courlesy G+W Tdylor-Bonmy Div., lqylor Forse)
264
269
IO.I
INTRODUCTION
271
IO.I
INTRODUCTION
One of the more common types of closures for pressure vessels is the unstayed flat head or cover. This may be either integrally formed with the shell or welded to the shell, as shown in Fig. 10.1; or it may be attached by bolts or some quick-opening device as shown in Fig. 10.2. It may be circular, obround, square, rectangular, or some other shape. Those circular flat heads that are
Fetaining
I i--l
.--.i.nil
lhl/il
rhreaded
(d)
(a)
(b)
Fisur
10,2
Boltd or quick-opnins
flol ho&.
bolted into place utilizing a gasket are called blind flanges. Usually, the blind flange is bolted to a vessel flange with a gasket between two flanges as shown in Fig. 10.3. Although flat heads or blind flanges may be either circular or noncircular, they usually have uniform thickness. In addition to the flat head or blind flange+ype closures, many large vessels use a circular, spherically dished cover with a bolting flange, as shown in Fig. 10.4. In all cases, the bolts ofthe head attach either to a bolting flange on the end of the shell or to a thickened
shell.
't
T
(e)
|-..............
tI
In general, "failure" of a bolted flanged joint is due to excessive leakage at the gasket, with very few failures in the metallic pressure boundary. Occasionally, problems encountered with bolts result from excessive tightening in
T|-?\
I
Figoro
I Fi -)-"--w
l0,l
Int srol or wlldd tlct
hods.
tt
I I
reducing the leakage problem during hydrostatic testing of the assembly. Sometimes excessive stresses in the bolts cause them to break or to stretch until the closure leaks. The basic equations used for the design of flat plates and blind flanges in the
ASME Code, VI[-1, are based on a flat plate with uniform thickness and uniform loading over the entire surface due to pressure. Depending upon the
r0.t
l
tNTRoDUcTtoN 273
dc(ails of the corner construction shown in Fig. 10.5, various C-factors are used that require different minimum head thicknesses. The maximum deflection of the plate is assumed as not more tltan one-half the thickness and all the stresses are keDt within the elastic limit.
icmkor!!dd i-- L- _
'hnror75n
,,-,.,.i'i-'::l
jrr
m'n..
lb
ll
0.20 lb.2t
#l-r., c.o3o
C-o.20or0.13 l.)
Figur.
10.3
r*
= ?
rr nr..
sk.rch.r{.llr)
lsl
i.,
"on-C',cur.r ir)
o.2o
ror
Kiucrh \
ffiSt i t [.\
| firj'I
c-0,33
Gastel
Typ.
-l-1n
c::
tI
I
T
1t2
I I
---?, .#f,
,/-"),
) dllNni I ll\l
r{lf
@*4
ll
ll
rcKl
I
C
t
O.2S
1- h+
C.
o.33
t2c
tbt Figure
(d)
l0-4
of
Mechdn.col
I-i.)
Fis',r
10.5 Un3toyod flor heods dnd covers. (Court6y Americon Sociry of r{honicol Ensineerc, UG-3,1 of rhe ASME Codo, Vlll-I.)
tom Fis.
272
274 IO.2
IO.2
CIRCUTAR
TOADING 275
(
TOADING
When an exact solution involving a discontinuity analysis at the shell-to-head juncture is not wanted, flat heads are generally calculated based on the assumption that the edges are simply supported or fully fixed. The true condition lies
somewhere between. Exact equations for circular plates were developed in Section 7. l. In using those equations as a basis, the equations below were developed using the head diameter d instead of the radius term a. The following nomenclature was also substituted in the equations of Section 7.1: Poisson's ratio (p = 9.3; p = pressure loading Qsi)
w^ = 0.0B6#
Tangential stress at edge equals
10.5)
o':
O'Ilrcf;
(10.6)
^ . -_ P OI: OI = U'IJJ'i
When the circular flat plate is loaded under uniform pressure surface, simplified equations of stress are
(10.7)
p over the
entire
E' : modulus of elasticity (psi) d = diameter of head (in.) T = nominal thickness of head (in.) P : total presswe load (lb) = 6.7*t Ort
With the edges assumed to be simple-supported, Maximum stess is located at the center and equals
,:
o.3ose(xf
/
(10.8) (10.e)
o = o.r88P(;/
)\2
o^
o.zs+fi
(10.1)
In actual designs, neither of these edge conditions is likely to be realized. Fully fixed is very difficult to obtain in any constiruction.
w* = 0'0554#
Maximum rotation is located at the edge and equals
(10.2)
10.1. Determine the maximum stress in a flat head under internal of 1000 psi, diameter / = 48 in., and thickness r = 7 in. for both simple-supported and fixed-edge conditions. Assume carbon steel with fr = 0.3.
Example
presswe
Solutian.
(10.3)
o*
= o.s2s:L "'"-'E',Tj
0.785 pd2
0.785(1000)(48),
P = 1.809.000 lb
With the edges assumed to be fully-fixpd, Maximum stress is radial and located at the edge: For simple-supported edge use Eq. 10.1:
(10.4)
o*
= o.zto
f;
, : o.:l+!!.ffi :
For fixed edge use Eq. 10.4:
14.550 psi
276
IO.3
COVTRS
277
,, =
Example
0.239
-1109-(xx)t !l--lj-:
tlttzopsi
l,
10.2. For the flat head in Example 10. the center for both edge conditions.
Solution, For simple-supported edge use Eq.
w=
head-to-shell juncture (see Fig. 10.5) and contains a factor to increase effectively the allowable stress to 1.5 S because the stress is predominandy a bending stress
10.2:
d = effective diameter of head (in.) (see Fig. 10.5) t = minimum required thickness of flat head (in.)
Example
Determine the minimum required thickness of an integral flat to 1000 psi, S = 15,000 psi, d = 48 in. with no corrosion, and no weld joints within the head (E = 1.0). The arrangement is the same as that given in Fig. 10.5, sketch , - 2, with m : l.O.
head with intemal pressurep equal
rr
R09,000x48f
10.3.
rn'
sketch b
, = 0.0136#"
Problems
0.0057 in.
I
:
56
2, C = 0.33
m:
0.33(l) = 0.j3.
t=48
0.33
1000
15,000
1.0
7.120 in.
10.1
What is the maximum shess in a simple-supporied flat head whenp psi, d 24 in., t 0.75 in., and p = 0.3t
Example
10.4. Determine the minimum corner radius to make Example 10.1 acceptable (valid) to be used.
r, must be calculated using Eq. UG-
Answer:
o^ :
15,840 psi
Soltrtion. The cylindrical shell thickness 27(c)(1) of the ASME Code, VII-1:
10.2
What is the maximum stress for the conditions in hoblem 10.1 usins the
simplified equation?
PR
1000
24
15,000x1
0.6x1000
1.667 in.
IO.3
,,
>
1.5
in.
r.j"
0.25t,
0.25(1.667)
0.417
n.
ACl
COVERS In the ASME Code, Vm-1,1 and Section I,2 the minimum required thickness of circular, unstayed flat heads and covers without bolting are calculated by the lollowine:
is constructed according to Fig. 10.5, sketch d. The diameter 12in., thickness r = l.25in.,E: l.0,andS = 15,000psi. What is the MAWP (maximum allowable working pressure)?
t=d
wnere
lsr
tcp
(10.10)
Ansyer.' MAWP =
1250 psi
: p:
S
skerch/ with ltt = the internal pnessure p = 300 psi. What is the minimum required
thickness?
from pieces that are weldd together and spot 0.85. The corner details are similar to Fig. 10.5, 1.0. The diamet d = 60 in.,,S = 12,500 psi, and
Answer:
t6n
5.792
n.
278
0UND ftaNoEs,
I0.6
CONTACT
FACING
279
IO.4 COMPARISON OF THEORY AND ASMT CODE FORMULA FOR CIRCUTAR FLAT HEADS AND COVERS WITHOUT BOLTING
As previously mentioned, the ASME Code formula contains a factor of 1.5 within the C factor to adjust for the permitted higher level of allowable stress because it is chiefly caused by primary bending stress. If the 1.5 value is removed from the values of C, the range of C values in the code adjusts to C = 0.15 to C = 0.5. Rearranging Eqs. 10.8 and 10.9 into the same form as Eq. 10.10, we see that C : 0.15 through C : 0.5 encompasses the two exhemes from fully fixed edges where C = 0.188 to simply supported edges where C = 0.309. The low value of C : 0.15 in the ASME Code is for a special head-to-shell configuration with an inside comer radius of at least three times the head thickness. The structural effect of this edge condition results in reducing the equivalent pressurized diameter on the circular flat head from the normal diameter d to a diameter of 0.893d such that the Eq. 10.9 becomes
provcd according to the code the dcsigner should recognizc th t s(nr1c calcu lltions can be avoided. If the flange is the type described in Appentlix 2 ol thc ASME Code, the code permits using flanges with recognized standards that cstablish items such as dimensional standards, materials, and pressure/temperature ratings. The code accepts flanges designed to ANSI 816.5 .,pipe Flanges and Flanged Fittings,"6 API 605 "Large Diameter Carbon Steel Flanges",T and ANSI 816.24 "Bronze Flanges and Fittings, 150 and 300 lb,'.8 Several other standards are not included; however, when the flanges are selected by this method, no additional calculations are required to satisfy the ASME Code. When calculations are necessary according to Appendix 2 of the ASME Code, VIII-I, for a nonstandard design or when it is desired to upgrade a standard flange, similar design calculations are required for blind flanges (circular flat heads with bolts) and for regular bolted flanges. Although each item is discussed in geater detail in the following paragraphs, the basic steps in designing a flange are as follows:
o=orssp(o8e'il=r"(il
IO.5
BOLTED FTANGED CONNECTIONS
(10.11)
l. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.
10.6
Establish design pressure and design temperature. Select gasket material and dimensions and facing type. Calculate N
and b.
Calculate loads for both gasket seating and operating conditions. Determine bolting sizes and gasket width check.
Establish flange dimensions (usually using those from a standard flange). Using loads and dimensions, calculate moments for both qasket seatine and operating conditions.
The most usual type of joint for easy assembly and disassembly used in the
process vessels and piping system is the bolted flanged connection. A convenient method to design and calculate flanges with ring-type gaskets that are within the bolt circle was first published by Taylor Forge in 1 937 . 3 These rules were further
VI[-l,
These rules, which are still used to calculate this type of flange, are in Appendix 2 Of thE ASME COdC, VIII.1.
CONTACT FACINGS
Rules for calculating flat face flanges with metal-to-metal contact outside of the bolt circle are given in Appendix Y ofthe ASME Code, VI[-1. This design incorporates a self-energizing-type gasket such as the O-ring gasket. fhe original rules were restricted to analyzing identical pairs of flat face flanges. Current rules have been improved to permit analysis of both identical and nonidentical pairs of flanges. Further development of design rules in the ASME Code, VI[-1,5 came with the issuance of reverse flange rules that use a ring-type gasket with no additional contact of the faces. These rules were added to Appendix 2, ASME Code,
For ring+ype gasket design as given in the ASME Code, VI[-I, Appendix 2, several types of flange facings are used. Some of the more usual types are the
raised face, the tongue-and-groove, and the
the
full seal loading is taken by the gasket in contact with the adjacent face.
lapjoint. When these types are used, because no other part of the face is
VIII-I.
in which rules are not in the ASME Code. One common type is the full-face gasket flange. There are many others that may be designed for ASME Code approval by meeting the requirements of U-2(g) of the ASME Code, VIII_I. Before any flange design calculations are performed for a vessel to be ap_
In addition to these rules for flange design in the code, many designs are used
In addition to the types of facing where the gasket must carry the seating load, one type of closure and facing depends upon the adjacent faces to be in contact with each other, but it does not require a large seating load for initial sealing. This kind of closure is used on both the ring-type gasket design of Appendix 2 and the flat face flanges with metal-to-metal contact outside the bolt circle as described in Appendix Y ofthe ASME Code, VIII-1. This construction utilizes a self-energizing or pressure-actuated O-ring gasket that is internally pressurized to seal the gasket and does not depend upon initial gasket seating by the bolts that cause compression of the gasket (Fig. 10.6). There are also special types of gaskets and facing designs that become self-
10.7 GASKETS
281
r0.7
GASKTTS
gaskets is needed
Energizing O.Rin9
A large variety of
cesses, temperatures, pressures, and corrosion environment require gaskets with different configurations, materials, and properties. Some of the frequently used gaskets are:
b.
/'' -) l\
Cold
tr.t.t
Finbi
l. t
3. 4.
Rubber O-rings
Delta
ing
4 \TRing Joint
Met.llic
I
6.
7.
Metal ring
High-pressure type
8.
10.7.
Rubber O-Rings
These gaskets shown in Fig. 10.7a are used extensively in low-pressure applications such as storage tanks and air receivers. They are normally confined in a
Lap Joint
groove to prevent exhusion and their maximum temperature limit is about 250'F. Because the required seating stress is negligible, the number of bolts needed in the flange is kept to a minimum. A groove finish of 32 rms is usually
specified.
Groove
Figur.
10.6
Typicol Gocing
d.roil..
sealing frorn the gaskets rotation and deflection that are caused by contact loading ftom a retaining ring and head closure. Some of these are called the delta gasket as used in Bridgeman closures, the double cone gasket, and the wedge gasket. In all these cases, the initial gasket seating load is low. As the pressure in the vessel is increased, the gasket rotates and deflects into a special facing in which the sealing load increases as the pressure increases. Care must be taken with this type of closure because the gasket often "seizes" and it may be difficult !o get the closure apart. In many instances, the gasket may be silver, gold, or platinum plated to help prevent the "seizing."
r0.7
oAsKtTs
ITil ll
I
_)l
(a)
Rubber O-Ring
(t) sp iru
tressurized tessurized
)t
(d)
I7I Htr
)t
O- Ring
Asbestos
(e)
Flat Metal
Fisu..
lO.7 TyF
of solk6b (conrinu.d)
10.7.4
10.7.3
Compressed Asbestos Goskels
'fhese gaskets in Fig. lD.1d normally consist of 707o asbestos, 2O7o ntbber hinder, and l0% filler material and curative. They can be cut to fit various shapes und configurations such as heat exchangers with pass partitions and oval and square openings. Thicknesses are normally fumished beween fr and i in' and rcquire a seating surface finish of about 250 rms. Asbestos gaskets are normally
These gaskets (Fig. 10.7a) are made from a wide variety of materials that can be cut from sheet metal to any desired configuration and width. Some frequently used gasket materials and their temperature limit are:
Material
850T. A rule of thumb for determining the adequacy of Nbestos gaskets for a given temperature and pressure is to limit the product of temperature in T times the pressure in psi to about 300,000.
used for tempemtures up to
Ipad Aluminum
Brass
Copper
2t1
IUttlD
r0.7 oASKETS
285
Monel
400 series stainless sieel
Nickel
Inconel 300 series stainless steel
1200
1500
Incoloy
Hastelloy
1500
1800
q".9,: need a high searing force for *l are best-suited for high-pressure applications proper seating. Accordingly, tney Tt1l
a finish of about 63 rms.
used
.
Srated gaskets require a smaller seating force than flat gaskets and thus are in screwed flanges where friction forces are to be miiimized.
10.7.7 Metol
Lens
Ring Goskets
The metal ring gaskets shown in Fig. l0.1h are used in high-pressure and temperature applications. Their small cross-sectional area makes them ideal for
compact flanges. The required high seating stress has the same magnitude as the pressure stress. The rings are made from many varied materials and are sometimes silver plated to improve sealing. The gasket groove finish is about 63 rms.
|
0.7.8
High-Pressure Goskets
Ins, delta, double-cone, and Bridgeman configurations shown in Fig. 10.7i comprise the majority of the pressure applications where the seating saess is
Double Cone
(i) High Pressure
Fisure
Bridgeman
(conrinud)
required to be low due to physical limitations of bolt spacing and flange width. They are used extensively in pressure vessels operating above 1000 psi and are made of softer materials than the seating surfaces to prevent damage to the flanges or covers. In general, these gaskets are expensive to fabricate and
216
IIIND
'IANOIS, m1lchinc; rcquirc vcry tight k)lerunces; and need very smooth seating surfaces of 16 rms or better. . High-pressure gaskets have a large surface that is subjected to the vessor pr:r*t::. +ccordingly, a free-body diagram is no-ully n"""rrury ro ll,.e.rnall determlne the additional forces transmitted to the flanges and boltjresulting from pressure on the gasket. The individual design requirements for lens, delta, and double-cone gasketo are given in the next three sections.
10.7 oASKETS
287
l'hc outside thickness of the gasket is established to allow tbr an 0.25 in. clctrirnce plus 0.0625 in. for a centering ring, ifrequired. The pitch diameter lbr grskct seating reaction is established as
c=(rD)*1(oo-ro) 3
whcre G = diameier of
gasket reaction.
as
10.7.9
through :f:r.-::"j^",:1T19j ttg rins.!o pyentpoints a to b, must be equal to or larger crushing of p: flanc: f:_T::i1t-Tl "fof the gasket and the required bolt the gasket. Thus knowing Ine nslde-dameler area, the outside diameter can be calculated from
The lens ring- gaskets in Fig. 10.8 are normally used in small flanges. Thc
: I:
spherical radius of gasket surface (in.) angle of friction (for mild steel,
it is 20")
oo
=llr,+
(D),]'/
l.'rom the geometry, the inside thickness of the flange is calculated from
where OD : outside diameter of ring gasket (in.) ID = inside diameter of ring gasket (in.)
Aa
't=:-+)l -l 16
where t = inside
thickness of gasket (in.). The width of gasket seating is normally
/ODYI
\, i I
where N =
l"r
16
fc
5-
10.7.10 Delto
Goskets
The delta ring gaskets in Fig. 10.9 are extensively used in the United Staies for high-pressure applications. These gaskets rely on the inside pressure to wedge them in the gasket groove for sealing and thus do not requhe any initial seating or bolting shess. The general dimensions that are shown in Fig' 10.9 apply to
as
G=ID+0.125
Figur.
10.8 t.n.
so3k6t,
IIINO II.ANOIS,
10.7 oasKlts
Figur.
lO.9
Dclto go!k6t.
Figur6
'10.10
Doublo-cono gosk6t.
10.7.1|
Double-ConeGoskets
(cos 60)(aXc)(3)(yield strength of gasket material) and the pitch diametr G is expressed as
Double-cone gaskets are very popular in Europe and can be fabricated in various slzes. A typical detail is shown in Fig. 10.10. The required cross-sectional
is given by
area
OD
1tl2
G=OD-0'5N
The height of the gasket is usually set so that the net pressure force does not exceed the seating force. Thus,
where OD
: ID :
A, = actual bolt
of flange (in.r)
tzxrr(|)<,-
60)
(P)(,r)
290
r0.7 GASKETS
291
'l'he operating condition exists when the hydrostatic end fbrce from the internal dcsign pressure tends to open the joint, for the gasket retains enough resiliency l() keep the joint tight. Loadings and stresses are determined at design pressure rund design temperature. The loading for the operating condition is
(10.13)
10.7.12 Gcsket
Design
To avoid crushing the gasket in those bolted flanged connections where the
gasket is carrying all the loading, it is recommended that the initial loading does not exceed the gasket seating stress y. Once the actual bolting areaA, is selecied, a check may be made to determine the required minimum gasket width by the
cnaraderistics depend upon the material and the design of the m and, the minimum design seating sEess )l irre th: cTk"jjlry and the gasket marerial. flrhou;h-the rn and y P^l:':j:o,ro in the ASME Boiler and pressure tactors have been Vessel CodJsince the 194i edition, they are suggested values only and are not mandatory. The originat iesting and development of the m and y factors are described ln an articii Uy Rossheim and Markle that does not give the underlying background for the specific.values. V9ry changes have been made to ttiese faciors since they _fu* were originally published. the of many inquiries to the ASME Code Committee regarding the .A.s validity of-result and J factors, a large-scale investigation has been undertaken the m by the hessure Vessel Research Committeero of the frelding Research Councit.
fbllowine formula:
N^"=ffi
Example
(10.14)
10.5. A
p=
250/U..
stainless steel gasket with an inside diameter of 13.75in. and widthN = l.0in. 10,000. Bolts are SA-325 Grade I with The gasket factors are m = 3.0 and y & = Sa 19,200 psi. Is the gasket width sufficiendy wide to keep from crush-
vessel has the following design data: design pressure psi; design temperature = 250'F; a spiral-wound metal, fiber-filled
t" many items not previously considered. There is a closJ corretation with the amount of tightening of the bolts, the gasket type, and the material, for thel are all related to the leakage rate of the j-oint. " the_gasket tlpe and material have bCen selected, the effective gasket .g.nc-e width for cabulation may be determined. For solid flat metal and for thJ ring_ type joints' the basic gasket seating width bs is found by the formuras rn column I of Table 7-5.2 of the ASME C;de, VI[_l, whereas for all other types of gaskets' ba is delermined by the formulas in column rI. The effective gasket seating width D is found by applying the following rules:
."J1t"9
As experimental tests progressed, it became obvious that thJrz and y factors are
ing out?
Sohttian. Determine the effective gasket seating width as follows: N = 1.0 in., b" : N/2 = 0.5 in., b = 0.5!bo = 0.3535 in., effective gasket diameter ls
1)
(2 x 0.3535)
D=06 when
bo
iin.
H
Wa
: :
With D deiermined the location of the line of gasket load reaction can be determined as well as the values of G and h6 for calculating flange moments. designing a flange, it is important to recognize that two'desiln conditions .ln cxrst-the gasket seating and the operating conditions. Gasket seattg condition cxlsts when an initial load is applied by the bolts to seat the gasket at ambient tcmperature with no intemal pressure. The minimum initial biolt loaO is
W"e
H,=
He
444,1A0
250'600
694'700
3535)(15.043X10'000)
167,100
as
fi = Sa :
= tbGy
(10.12)
A^=Y#
36.182in.,
292
AD
width is
of
0 748
in
versus
I in'
actual
s,
where & :
= W.1 = 1Y.r =
S1
ot
W^r
Sa
allowable bolting stress at room temperature (psi) allowable bolting stress at design temperature (psi) operating
10.5 A solid,
: 6.5 and y : 26,000 is used flat, stainless steel gasket with 'l2 in the vessel described in Example 10.5. The preliminary gasket inside diametef is 12 in. and the gasket width is 1.0 in. whai is the easket
seatine load?
Answer:
W,,2
384,000 lb
From this minimum required bolting a;ea A. the actual bolting area A, is In order to obtain a bolt loading for calculating moment for gasket seating, the minimum required bolting area and the actual bolting area are averaeed as follows:
selected.
IO.8
w:0.5(A.+Ars"
BOTTING DESIGN
(10.16)
Iactor
materials that have a high tensile strength and requte a smaller cross-secdona'i area.- In addition, when high sFength material is used for the bolting, care must be taken not to rcduce the number of required bolts to such a small -number that excessive bolt spacing is developed. r I Wlren the bo_lt spacing exceeds (U + t), secondary flange bending is developed between the bolts to the extent that it affects the ;ormal flange bending . To account for this effect, the flange bending moment M0 must be iricreased by the
In designing bolting for flanges, the initial item is selecting the bolting matenal. It must be a malerial compatible with the flange material . ihat is there musr nor , be any chemical or galvanic action between the bolting and ffange material that would cause the bolts to seize in the tkeads. Under certiin circurn'stances, rt may be necessary to plate the bolts or to make them from special material to prot;t them from the environment. Although it is not neceisary to select a 6olting material with a tensile shength close to that of the flange material, one should carefully consider the effects of strain elongation and rehxation of bolting
Certain times during the operation of a process vessel the bolts in a bolted flanged connection are subjected to actual stresses in excess of the allowable design stresses. This may be especially true during hydrostatic testing. Care must be taken to enswe that during this testing, no permanent elongation ofthe bolting has occurred. If so, the bolting may have to be replaced before the vessel is put into service. Realizing this is especially important if each of two suppliers provides half of the bolted flanged assembly and one does not know what bolting
is supplied.
Example 10.6. A vessel flange uses 16-2-in. diameter bolts. Flange sfress calculations indicate that a flange thickness of t : 4.5 in. is adequate. The bolt circle diameter is C = 22.5 in. Will secondary bending stresses be developed?
Solutian. The maximum permissible bolt spacing without a penalty (2d + t1 = (2 x 2 + 4.5; = 3.5 in. The actual bolt spacing is
is
(10.l5)
Example 10.7. Suppose a vessel requires Z-2 j -in. diameter bolts on a flange that is 5.5 in. thick. What is the madmum bolt circle that will not cause secondary bending shesses? The minimum bolt spacing for 2 j -in. diameter bolts is 5i in.
294
IO.9
BI.IND FTANGES
Solullon, Maximum
(2d
+ t) = (2
><
2i + 5.5; =
19.5 tn.
lo'5 x
24
n
based on maximum
80.2 in.
spacing.
I
H
Problems
10.6
Sixteen bolts at I l-in. diameter are io be located on a bolt circle of G = 32 in. The flange is 2+ in. rhick. What is the factor rhat is due to
secondary
fl
ange bending?
)
lo.l I
loodings on blind flons.
iog?
Answer:
1.0 in.
,:oJgll\,
*t'n-LYl',
(10. r9)
IO.9
BTIND FTANGES
The minimum required thickness of a cicular, unstayed flat head or blind flange attachedty bolts and utilizing a ring-type gasket that causes an edge moment is derived from the assumption that the flat plate is simply suppofted; the gasket load line G and is loaded by a gasket seating load or a combination of easket loading and a uniform pressure loading . The combination of these loadingJat the gasket and at the bolt circle causes an edge moment ofMg/zrG, as shown-in Fig. 10.11. ff the edge moment is assumed to be equal ta Wh", tlre theoretical stress at the center of the flat plate is
This is identical with the equation in the ASME Code, VI[-l, except that the constants of 0.3 and 1.9 are used in the code instead of the exact constants of 0.31 and 1.91 and the gasket load G is substituted for d. The general ASME Code equation for circular flat-bolted heads is (10.20)
For the gasket seating condition, the internal pressure equals zero and the only load is the gasket seating load W" at ambient temperature with the allowable tensile stress of S.. The equation for gasket seating condition is
ffi
" "Sening
trc
_3(3 =
+ 1 /wrrc\ :z F)-"G\-F)
tt)p
(GY
(10'17)
t=G
(10.18)
(10.21)
0.3 and E
weld joint efficiency within the flat plate, For operating condition the intemal pressure p as well as the gasket loading are applied. For this condition, Wr : H + Il, at operating temperature with an allowable tensile stress of S1. The equation for operating condition is
sE:(*rye\-r..(W)
296
t0.9
(t0.22')
EUND FTANOES
10.E. Considering the pressure vessel described in Example 10.5, the vessel is to have one end closed by a blind flange. What is the minimum required thickness of the blind flange? Design data are the following:
E-xample_
x -crr/. -
41{,12
t. -,51c - d
l.
OO,
,-'12
C.|l.1-+6. 6 l4hlig '.{ft.d l, l.d.! '.i!lni
lo'
l..iir
dillina.
2. Xc
.addj.el rfiktid. I
No corrosion exists.
at
10.12
G+w roybFBonney
actual bolt area A, is found, the design loading for the gasket seating condition W, can be determined as:
the
W:
%=
0.5(A^ + Ar)S,
700,800
0.5(36.2
36.8X19,200)
t:G
15.043)
O.3p
-, srE-
|.9W.rhc
s"EGt
hc = 0.5(C
694,700.
G) = 0.5(22.5
3.729 in.
t = ls.(Ml. v
rF
17,500
x 1.0
(t7,500
1.0x15.043t
fJgt
is lll.r =
5.329
in. I
The minimum required thickness is determined as the greater thickness of that dctcrmined for gasket seating load according to Eq. 10.i1 or for operating load rrccording to Eq. 10.22. l.i)r gasket seating,
10.8
Suppose the flat head in Example 10.8 is made by butt-welding flat plates
,=
together. The welds are spot examined so that E minimum required head thickness?
Answer: t, n =
5.780 in.
298
10.9
IIIND IIANOIS,
IO,IO
operating conditions?
Suppose the bolt circle diametsr is incrcused ro C = 24 in. What is thc minimum required head thickness considering both gasket seating and
Answer:
tnn^
5.671 in.
IO.IO
|
(a)
lr
(l
(l
The design_rules for bolled flanged connections with a ring+ype gasket that is entirely within a circle enclosed by the bolt holes and with no iontact outside of
Moment Loadlng
are satisfactory. The trial-and-error method is essentially due to the complei theory used by Waters, Rossheim, Wesshom, and Williams to solve the problem in the original development. The WRWW method, which was ultimatelv incor_ porated into the ASME Code in 1940, is ar elastic analysis of the intiraction between the vessel or pipe, the hub, and the flange ring assembly. The shell and hub are resolved by a discontinuity analysis that was previously described in Chapter 5 and the flange ring is considered as a flat plate with ihe center Dart rcmoved (Fig. I0.13). Interactions of rotations and deflections are oermiited until lhe balance is obtained. . The basic assumptions in the analysis are that the flange materials are elastic, that is, no creep or_ plastic yield at lower temperature ocJurs, the bolt loading ii assumed or determined from the gasket factors, and the moments due to loadinss are essentially constant across the width ofthe flange. In addition, rotation of tie
dimensions such as the flange thickness are varied. Stresses in the flange and the hub are calculated. If any of these shesses exceeds the allowable tensile stresses, a "new" flange thickness is selected and the stresses are recalculated until they
to design a bolted flanged connection because no stan_ of the proper size is available, the standard pressure/lemDeraure ratings are not adequate, or sperial design factors are to be used for the gasket, the procedure in Appendix 2 of the ASME code is used. The design of nanges, bolting, and gaskets by the ASME Code rules is essentially a ftal_and-enor procedure where some dimensions are set and remain fixed, whereas other
(b) Direct
Loadlng
tt+ lrr,-ri'r'ro
f+.l
Illll. l-----v------J
'tt 0z
'10.13
flat plate is assurned as linear with no dishing effect and superposition is acceptable. The solution of the complex problem is simplified for code use by cwves, formulas, and tables that contain constants depending upon the geometry of the flange assembly. Formulas for various coefficients are given in the code that permits cornputer programming of the basic equations for rapid solution. The code designates flanges with ring-type gaskets to be three types for
IO.IO
RING.fiPE GASKETS
301
Bnalysis: intgrsl, loose, und optionul. lntegral means that the pipe, hub, and
ring are one continuous assembly from their original manufacture as eithcr forging or casting welded together by full penetration welds. lnose means no attachment of the assembly to the pipe or no ability of the juncture to carry sheafs and moments other than those required to seal against pressure. These types of flanges are called slip-on, lap joint, and threaded, and they may or may not havc
hubs. Optional means flange designs that, by construction, are integral, but thc analysis is permitted by the simpler method for loose-type flanges. Examples of these various types are depicted in Fig. 10.14. The calculation of a flange with a ring-typ gasket first involves selecting the material for the flange, bolts, and gasket in a manner very similar to the blind flange. Next, the facing and gasket details are set, the loads due to intemal presswe are determined, and the required bolting area and bolt sizes are selected. The bolt circle is then decided; and the loads, moment ams, and moments due to both gasket seating and operatihg conditions are determined as with the blind flange. By knowing these and the geometry used to determine K and other hub coefficients, stress calculations are made for both conditions. The longitudinal hub stress, the radial flange sness, the tangential flange stess, and their various combinations are comparcd with allowable stresses. The method of calculation is virtually identical for welding neck flanges and slip-on or lap-joint flanges except that the axial pressure load is applied at a slightly different location. For the ring flange design, the tangential flange stress
I
6
el
tr= -tr_r
(d)
\__
F E--*--'t
d 1+
(.)
IT
9t
12
l-T
{-..*,o
l9lt\ A 9 j 12
(s)
(h)
is the only one calculated. The minimum required thickness can be directly
determined from
tM*
,..I
Example
V s-B
(10.23)
Opii.nrl lYF. Fl.n96. Th6. M.y b. C.ldl.r..t.r Eirh.. Looro.or Inr.9..t.Typ.
10.9, What is the minimum required thickness of a welding neck flange as shown in Fig. 10.lzla with the following design data? (Nore.' These data are the same as those used for the blind flange in Example 10.8. In Fig. 10.15 is a sample calculation of a welding neck flange.
Design pressure, p. Design temperature
(i)
Figur6
(i)
lo.l,t
Vlll-I.)
(k)
(1)
Bolt-up and gasket seating temperature = 70'F. Flange material is SA-105. Bolting material is SA-325 Grade 1. Gasket details are spiral-wound metal, fiber filled, stainless steel, inside diameter is 13,75 in. and width is 1.0 in. Solutinn
Typer of flonger. (Courl,ely Americon So.ieiy of Mechonicol Engin.rs, from Fig. 2-.1 of the
ASME Cod.,
2.
3.
Allowable bolt shess at design and seating temperatufes = S, =
19,200 psi.
1.
302
I 'r=
13.154
orrron coxorrronr
J7i.^l u."^L azl-1, l;ber fi//el,s u/eer tt"el rl t5 t.o. i t" ",tt /e'
Io-:".
ra't
I P;Pe s'ze
h= 6'at
B=
to.7t "
L. tza
I
c. 2t,5'
tr
ll
I
hT
Ac
=,5lc
-6r - cr
= t.1L
rc =.5(c
- t71'65
lO.l,C(d)
Flons dimBions
4.
y=
Determine bolt loadings and sizing of bolts with 10,000; m=3.0. 444,323
= l; b = 0.3535;
srl =
, : Xo,, = 2|o5.o43)'z(zsoo) :
W^z
.5lsi + s,lr.5lsx
+5rl =
13. oO
= 1/3t.+t =
Z.o
= nbGy : z(0.3535)(15.043X10,000) : 167,060 A. = the greater of W f Sbh : 694,914) /(19,200) = 36.2 in.'z or W,ef 56" = 067 ,0ffi) /(19,2C0) : 8.7 in.'z Aa = actual bolt area = 36.8 in.'z 16 bolts at 2-in. diameter W.: 0.5(A^ + Ar)Sr. = 0.5(36.2 + 36.8X19,200) : 700,800
Wo=Wa=694,914
Calculate total flange moment for the design condition.
a.115
'
lf Lh
t0.75 "
.il ..
.6or au.rld
b,
Flange Loads
l6 - 2"toont
r. a41'
CdrvndCrxt.a-G+w
D.+ tt'i..
Tovlor-Bonnev Div
a,
Figuro
lo.l5
'
Tovlor
Fors..)
4.1875
303
O..J(C
IO.IO
6) =
0..5(22.5
}r=0.5(R*g1 * ft6):0.5(2.5 +
Flange Moments
15.043)
GASKITS
305
j12BS
3.375
3.7285)
4.9613
sx = fMn/ LglB
sa:
s^=
x hD = (226,910)(4.1875) = g5g,17g Mo- Hox hc= Q5O,5g0)(3.7285) : g34,33g Mr = Hr x h, : (Zt7 ,420)(4.3018) = t,O43,gg}
Mo = Hp
Ma"
6.
!3,s70 q9!
Qte
r)Mo/LtzB = <z.uzaf,s:x:rrii;li:..763)(4.s),Oo.7s)
= Mo + Mc + Mr = 2,928,490
s" = lLsg-Q-pg
Tangential F lang e St e s s
Flange Load
g7:
= Sr =
(YMs/t2B)
ZSa
He =
W:
700,800
(2.29)(2,928,490) / (4.
9140 psi
r,
00.7 5)
( 1.
39X 1 5,590)
Lever Arm
hc=0.5(C-G):3.7285
Flange Moment
10.
Allowable stresses
56
Sa
<
1.5Sy: (1.5X17,500)
26,250
>-11,10 pC)
Mon= He
ft6
(700,800)(3.7285)
2,612,930
< Sr: 17,500 > 15,590 psi < Sy: 17,500 > 9140 psi
E.
7.
K: = Q6.s)/(ro.7s) = 2.16s. i,e..-i 7 i, "s"Ju'i uro-,, r = 1.35 z = 1.3e y 2.2e ii : z.ii."*""^' ^F,-":" sr/ go = 3.375/1.0 :3.275
2,92g,490. q}11pe consrants from the ASME Code, VI[-I, Appendix 2: A/B
Example 10. 10. What is the minimum required thickness of a ring flange with the same design data as given in Exarnple 10.9? The inside diameter has been increased to fit over the outside of the shell to where,B = 12.75 in. The bolt loadings and bolt size are the same as in Example 10.9. A sample calculation sheet is shown in Figure 10.16. Solution
h=Vrry'=V@jr1D=3.27s
h/lro = 6.2s/3.2t9
1.906
1.
VIII-I, I. = 0.57. WII_I, y = 0.04. From Fig. 2-7.6, Section WII-I;y = 1.g. e = F/ho= (.57) / (3.27s) = 0.1738
From Fig. 2-7.3, Section
d=
(u /v)hoeT
e.s1 / .o4e.279)(t)2
He
319,200
125,100
9.
L=
(te
+ 1)/T + t3/d =
t = 4.5 in.
(1.320)
(0.443)
1.763
ho
= o.5(C - B) =
0.5(22.5
12.75)
4.875 in.
306
IO.I
REVERSE FTANGES
cerrn raf.l,
Itl'lD
v f;rldr
ssir.l ..:."d
{itc
J(
iA- to5
stainl?r, jf.el
l'robhm
10,10
5A'tz6
GP.l
l'dii<
tllapsi
rv.'
li
x,
117., a';,
J1t
H -efr/!
^-
9.1
tC.
Suppose a solid flat 2j chrome steel alloy gasket with 13.75 in. inside diameter and width N = Lin., m = 6.0, and y = 21,800 is used with the flange in Example 10.9. What are the gasket seating and the operating loads?
tO
244,rOO ,O
:.51 lD +
A.
- ct ri.l = {.iol6
150 = 3.1295
= rdg
= 934,j21
IO.I
REVERSE FTANGES
=.rtc
6 tn^tr
5'|
\J
r" +-;-
,-,[x=r*
'={ *i.mi
Figure
adrd.d6.1.J-}lvib.r-
@
Dd.-
Rules for the design of reverse flanges are given in Appendix 2 of the ASME Code, VI[-1.5 This type of flange is often used to form a reducing joint. The solution of the reverse flange is similar to that for the raised-face standard flange with the ring-type gasket within the bolt circle except for some minor differences. Figure 10.17 shows some loads that are applied in the reverse direction'
10.16
c+W
hc = 0.5(C
G, = 0.5(22.5
= Mo + Mc +
Mr=
3,029,000
t
3.
4.
Bolt-up moment is the same as in Example 10.9, Muu = 2,613,000. Shape constants arc K = A/B = 26.5/12.75 = 2.078 From Fig. 2-7 .l of tlrc ASME Code, Ylfi-l, Y = 2.812. Required thickness is based on design condition as
': iE
M*Y _ (3.029,000x2.812) =
-1r21x1)@.n
5'8e8
in
Fisurs 10.17
dimen3ions.
308
'lhis muy cuuse sorns ol the moments t0 be applietl in thc opposite direction liom those loads on a regular flange. However, the analysis is the same after thc "new" total moment is determined. Again, the moments arc determined for both the gasket seating condition and the operating condition. In Figure l0.lg is a sample calculation sheet of a reverse flange. Additionally, a new term aa is introduced to convert some terms from reqular flanges io reverse flanges; fra and K are redefined and based on the reverse fl-anse inside diameter; and a new equation is added to calculate the tansential flanie
stress at the inside flange bore.
Kai'ed {""e-
special precaution is noted. When K < 2, results are faidy satisfactory; however, when I( > 2, the results become increasingly conservative. For this reason the ASME Code procedure is limited to where I< 2. Derivation of the new equations for reverse flanges is similar to that for the regular flange except shears and moments are applied at the outer edge of the ring
IOAO
r.r
l Or{t|.l
K = A/B',
flange where discontinuities occur between the flange ana *re truU. Wittr the conversion term ca is determined for converting T, Il, and y to T,, U,, alrd If, which is obtained as
r(5r+ s.)rJ(s' +
e!)
816EO ?e\
=
"=*['.*.#*)
Example
r.ir.
rta. 9r
( ! a') =?
I't,|o'l
(1,0.24)
rtl
rr = r:-rj.jb.t
0.957
Substituting this expression into the regular equation for tangential shess (10.2s)
I=.ch/d
4sr +tn.t
3l +n= qt6rl
Z5r
loatr.+ l),,P=
ff
t =./3r+ | =
l.
10.11. A reverse
to Ms = 2,613,W. The flange bore d, = 13.25 in.; the outside diameter A = 26.5.n.; and the flange thickness r = 5 in. What is the tangential flange
stress at the hub and at the inside bore?
to form a reducing connection . The total bolt-up momint ls coitroiting anA equit
Solutian,
zl.,z \j
i\l*
r*7i
--/] ] " s " o.r:r)l : 3
szzopsi
Fisurs
10.18
309
ll0
IO.I2
3l
_ 2,6t3.(xx)L
r3.2s(25)
L-'"
oa
_ z(+Xl
+lx5
#*itti
= I6'o5opsi
Example 10.12. With the reverse flange given in Example 10.11, what is the minimum required thickness based on an allowable flange stress of 17,500 psi?
stress at the flange bore of 16,050 psi is controlling. Because / appears in several terms in a no;linear manner, the easiest way to select the proper thickness is by nial and error. For the initial trial, use a square relationship as follows:
--tl-:
The term
16,050
17.500
l1z-
or t:48in.
.ti =
16,900 psi. By , : 4.6g in.
,\ is recalculated
which gives
Si:
17,500
psi. I
Pmhlcm
10.11 Using the details of the flange described in Example 10.11. what is the minimum required thickness if the material of the flange is changed to one with an allowable stress of 15,000 psi?
IO.I2
919
in section strengtl at the bolt circle from the bolt holes must be considered when the radial stress at the bolt circle is determined. ..soft,, lmplolng this type of gasket is usually limited to designs where a gasket (with a low m and 1, factor) is used and the design prlssure is low. This is necessary to keep the loads and bolt size within reaso-n ti fit *ithin th" fl*n" geometry even though the countermoment usually results in a low flange mi_ ment and a minimum required flange thickness.
used but no design methods exist in the is the flange using a full-face gasket, as shown in Fig. 10.19. lfME "C:* is a sample Figure.10.20_ calculation sheet. This type of flange is designed according to the provisions of U-2(g) of the ASME Code, Sectiorivll, Division l. This code paragraph permits using good engineering design for those constructions where no rules exist in the code. Although the analysis is similar to that used for a raised-face , ring-type flange , a countermoment is introduced from that part of the gasket that is outside of the bolt circle. In addition, the decrease
_tA
l-l
I
Several important design assumptions made in the analysis are uniform gasket pressure over the entire gasket, inner edge of flange assembly unrestrained, and no reduction in gasket pressure area due to bolt holes. Other restrictions and
limitations necessary for the raised-face, ring-type gasket flange, such as linear rotation about the centroid of the ring, prevail. Assuming a uniform gasket pressure, determinations are made of the dis
312
lrom the bolt circle to the ccntroid of the annulus from the bolt circle to the outside diameter and from the bolt circle to the insidc diameter. In solving for the distances, the angle is assumed to be small and thc arc lengths are evaluated as sfiaight lines. From Roarkr2 and using his terminology, the basic equation is
- |ltt=7 w-Jt=
qrlE
sA-rzt cv.l
I
tlEoo
)qzoo
rlj= 6tor +
,=i(T#)
a-
(lO.26a)
lr
5
14
wd/s. d ^- =ebcL'of
Horvever, converting to the terminology used in the ASME Code and as shown in Fig. 10.19a, the equation becomes
\^.2 t(.- z"Q tJte ^,= w=tl .+^,1t.= 706,t16 tr'at=r./:. ttc,= 94a, 4q6
N.A
17.,
)c.1b
Pt-,d6&
tZt,r72
A_C
2
!!:!E!-*9=-
= 2.9915'
=
=bg.4Lgl=
o. 11
b=
,.o=\a
-l|.= LlAtSoa
"^err,J
h.L- =
f6
a.=8.t-t'=
x er,o sur
1C4
tozL
*(#)
hL Therefore, substituting Eqs. 10.26b, c, d, and e, into Eq. lO.26a,
t:*
rrcrort
'-i
t\I'ti;-,.217
0 t118
.-lh&.'-20116
nr.3s torMuta tactott
,, -
(A-C'^)(U+Cl
6(A
(10.27)
-afi , -.tla
C)
r -t+a
-=rL,rt
t br rp.d..
t. ool l O,o.lo1
r,o1', H?.l6
2. +
o....'
r.*htrt l;E
I 2.+l
16- 2"uotst
t1.tt1"
C-r-ao.d.aFigurc
Od.L'r.+
lo.2o
Fiour
10.19(0)
3r3
3I4
IO,I2
FUIL-FACE GASKET
TIANGI
3I5
is determined as
ln a similar munncr, the distance or moment &rnt k)w&rd the inside diameter
..
hb
(A
- c)(u + c) 6(C + A)
(26.5
C_B
-0"=+('!:'\/ 5 \O + c
. a: C_B 2 ,
=
(r0.26f) (to.26s)
(10.26h) (10.26D
1.0272 in.
.r(?*)
,= *(?;
And substituting Eqs. 10.269, h, and
i into Eq.
10.26f gives
c-B
and solving for ft6 gives
75,368
= ZbtGmp =
178,986
HI
(r0.28)
gasket loadings and two moment arms are determined, the 9n9" analysis of the flange is the same as for other flanges. The method is equally applicable to integral flanges, loose flanges, reverse flanges, and any othei type of flange. It is important to remember to use a..soft,'gaiket that keeps tfre tott loading within acceptable limits.
/r,^\
\rt)H'
.? sqr
5)
@;^t'is,r8rl:
75'368
45r'55e
Wt= H + Hp+H; =
Hsn
178,986
451'559
'79o
705'913
t"_*9
Hb'=
W,a
= blrGy = / h^\
(2.9375)r(17 .317X1100)
175
\nHc'=
@rfi5rw=
=
175,799
/,
5015\
443'4e7
= Hay + Hb,
443,496
619,286
Example.10.9 except for the thickness is used with a full-facJ gasket. The design pressure is 320 psi and the "soft" gasket is vegetable fiber with m = 1.75 and y = 1100. What is the minimum required thickness?
A'
= 36.76 in.'z based on ffi At = 36.8 in.'z based on 16-2-in. diameter bolts W = 0.5(A^ + A) : s.5136.76 + 36.8)(19'200) = 706'176
A^
Determine flange moments at operating condition. Flange Loads
Solution
l.
Determine the lever arms of the inner and outer parts of the sasket:
h. = G '"
ha
2.5915 in.
316
FI.ANOES
IO.I4
f LAT-TACE FTANGE
3t7
[o=R * 0.59' = 2.5 + 0.5(3.375) = 4.t875 in. lr = 0.5(ft i g * h) : 0.5(2.5 + 3.375 + 2.Sgt5\ = 4.2333 n.
Flange Moments
^
Sn
tlte +
l\M" Lt2B
psi
(t.4'104)t4M,O22) (1.042Sx2.03)110.75)
17,500
14,77O
<
psi
allowable stress
Mp
Hphp
(29,044)(4.187 5)
M7 = H7h7
= 121,622 = 196JOq
317,726
s,:
Sr
VM --+
t'B
3457
zs,
2.29(464,022)
(2.03f (10.75)
(1.39)(14,77 0)
psi
allowable
stress
Problcm
Flange Load
He = W"
H=
10.12
706,176
75,368
630,808
Lever arm
h',_ "o = ho + hb- Q.915) +
Assume a flange with a flat-face gasket has an applied moment of Mo -- 464,000 with a bolt circle of C = 22.5 in. using 16-2-in. bolts. What is the required thickness of the flange if the allowable skess is
15,000 psi?
hahh
(2.5915X1.0272)
[onr)
0'7356 in'
Answer:
t,"q'd.
2.19 in.
IO.I3
Fhnge moment
Calculation sheets are included for the following types of flange design:
Sheet 1. Welding neck flange with ring-type gasket Sheet 2. Slip-on or lap-joint flange design with ring+ype gasket Sheet 3. Ring flange with ring{ype gasket
Mr:
1
constants are the same as in Example 10.9. Calculate flange stresses. Assume flange thickness t = 2.03 in. This is set directly from the radial flange stress at the bolt circte which is
4. Reverse welding neck flange with ring-type gasket Sheet 5. Slip-on flange with full-face gasket Sheet 6. Welding neck flange with full-face gasket
Sheet
= n,a@
psi
<
17,500
psi
allowable. stress
IO.14 FLAT.FACE FTANGE WITH METAT.TO-METAL CONTACT OUTSIDE OF THE BOIT CIRCLE'",'O,''
Rules for the design of flat-face flanges with metal-to-metal contact outside of the bolt circle are given in Appendix Y of the ASME Code, VIII-I. The rules are for circular, bolted flanged connections with identical and nonidentical pairs of flanges. The pairs of flanges that are in metal-to-metal contact across the whole face and the gasket load to compress the gasket are small. (see Fig. 10.21) The rules also apply to identical pairs of flanges with a metal spacer added at the outer edge between them.
L= te+l +a= T
Sr=
Sa
1.0021 +0.0407
1.0428
\4e,022)
L'?n
(1.0428X3.375f(10.7s)
3634 psi
<
26,250
psi
allowable stress
calcut
'|or{S
It
ro/ro r
llvar /lr|r
rOAO
val
^rr
|rorlxl
,!lsr +
5r,.!
tsi + S,j
SlSr
+ trlo'.5(t, +
t'i =
lr
r .d i.
aEotr.
Csrea6.r., c+W
O.r.
|{Jih.'Shsor Forge.)
Sh6.r
l.
Courre3y
3t8
3r9
tl0
:-:-=-._.....Y-
ll.lND
.:...:.---
2olrr
---
1,-
prrr
la,;,.-=
trl
5
rv.r
brc,
l*'
Lsc
"I.
^-,44
||-1/s.' w-tts,-
-e,r/.
I .Jlrb
+
r
ti=.5(c-G)
iD=J(C+r,-2$-tJ=
tavl| atr
rEl E
1."'.e
^,=.r{.-F6
z
M.l
6 rxpt
7
L3,nfl;:r,,1*-;E;F,=J+l
1,
coxrr^'m l-t
I "',i,:.
r{e,
xu5,
5r
=ti./I!r'
tat lt,
Shsi 3.
k_/,
trb
rltt 5:t
Co"ur.dG.*.d_
@
O.r.
tcie. tle.,
ili5.,--
""+[+:!Ilr#rl t)rr
ning flonga yrith ring-iypo golkt. (Cou|.tosy G+W Toylor_Bonney Div., To),lor
Fo;
=+.a,
l;-------=_+
Ur=drU
;;
e-rrr:-i-------.'] lY El k_r'=
? x r_.. r-T*-+
[v
I
i::"
i i,' ] =
of the two flanges. To organize the calculations svsiemadcally, it is necessary !v !ru!. blies and to categorize each individual nann". -- "--veJqr to classify assem_
C hs s ifcation o! As s e mb ly
d;" ;fil;;;iliit;
II r-bJ il
aadl. <t_A:
Shl
't
,__<.
gasket
,a.
Rverc wldins
c+W
Fors.)
Class 2 . Ii consists of a pair of nonidentical flanges where the inside diameter of the reducing flange Jxceeds one_half the U.it Ou."to* "i."f" Class 3- This is a flange combined with a flat head or a reducing flange where the inside diameter is small and ao", oot on"_tlif" fieiort ctcte diameter. "*"""0321
o8rox cDaa!|no{t
2.
4 Ir
IOAO :
lavn rrr
loao
lott carcuraroxt
Ar =
li
|tot,Nt
Wn=fi+i!+fi'?=
I TIVlt
T
,r
""=-:rc+.ih,i= l'.1"., -
lA-Cll2A+Cl=
tc-tlra+o= -=-=iiT6-
"i*
o
f
|lo nof
tac'ot
lttr|lr,h=nJr6r
r.aEt
tr-
r@. 6E
ar = sr
Jl!, + li'Jl$
t^Dur str!3s At
r = ..1/ I -l5l
+5rl
P*/If
'
|olr ot<ll
It
r.inlb.e!fu
!r!
C..'a.itr O.d.aSh.at
Dd.-
C6er.{-6rr.aShcet 6.
o.r.f&iL'-
5,
cfw
322
323
321
t0.15
dished head and the flange ring. The flange thickness is set by the combination of the circumferential ring stress and the tangential bending stress. Figure 10.22 shows the head geometry and the loading applied to the ring flange resulting liom the reaction from the internal pressure against the dished head. It is derived thus. Using the geometry in Fig. 10.22, the following is set: adjacent side
:
=
adjacent side
cos B,
hypotenuse L'
_\/L'''' - (
\/4L'1Err-=E
(10.30a)
2L'
(10.30b) (10.30c)
= 5" =
pR
10.21
Catagory of Flonges
t.
ca'gory 2.It
add shength.
flange :l"g.y 3. A.loose-type type that is with or without a hub or an optional type calculated as a loose where no credit is taken for the hub in any case.
Once the class and category are established, the analysis is similar to that Appendix 2 flaige except for tt udaitionJrl"oings iuus"c uy ttr. i"9" prying effe{t where the contact near the ourcr " diameter occurs . iiis Jontact torce H3 and its_moment arm lk involve an interaction between tfr" Uoft anC flange deflection and the moments Me and Ms. "iongution The required bolt load for operating conditions is
fr:g
W:H+Hc+Hc
IO.I5
SPHERICALTY DISHED COVERS
(r0.29)
A ( outeide dianeter)
'Ihe ASME.Code contains special rules for designing spherically dished covers I-tll TntnC, "ng flange. The formulas given in the code are approximate Decause tney do not take into account the discontinuity existing between the
Fisuru
10.22
Sphcricolly-dirhed covcr.
t26
.tND
IO,I5
Substituting
^'
a-B)/22
F'cos B,
(r0.30d)
T2-27(F)-J=0
2p -r
(10.37) (10.38)
When the value of ./c, is substituted in Eq. 10.30d, the equation becomes
s" =
(10.30e)
This equation is identical with the equation given in 1-6(9) of the ASME Code,
v[-1.
(10.31)
]anCeryia
Application of this equation is permitted for either internal or extemal presp is the absolute value for either the internal pressure or the external pressure. The value for ffi is determined by combining the moments from bolt loading and gasket loading with the moment caused by the pressure loading from the spherical head on the inside edge of the ring. When this total moment is determined, the absolute value is inserted for Mo in the equation. Figure 10.22 shows the loadings caused by the pressure. In Fig. 10.22, the loading shown is due to intemal pressure. However, if the loading were due to
sure. The term
extemal pressure, all directions of loadings would be reversed, but the effective stresses on the ring would be the same. If external pressure were applied to the head, it would have to be examined for compressive buckling that might set the thickness.
-'
butY = (A + B)/(A
vM"
T2B
(10.32)
B),so
"= c^;(*=)
s, = s" +
(10.33)
Combining the circumferential and the tangential stresses in the ring grves
10.14. A spherically dished head is to be bolted to the welding neck flange described in Example 10.9. The dished head is to b attached at the upper inside comer with the outside surface even with the ring's outside (see Fig. 10.23). What is the minimum required thickness of the flange ring when the spherical head is dished to a radius of = 28?
Example
r, = r4@-=F 4r e= n -
(to.34\
It
s8(A _ B)
+ B)
(10.3s)
s,=f<n * fiut
(10.36)
329
IO.I5
t-oad
Solutlon. From A=
of Example 10.9,
Arm ho he
Moment
26.5;
a=
10.75; L=28=2(10.75\:21.5
IIp =
11,
8l,700
= 0.5(C - 8) = 0.5(C - G)
: 5.875 : 3.729
h6)
Mp
H6hp
He
= Hp :250,600
Mc = H6h6 =
M7 = H7h7
=t#
=*ffii
2.560
in.;
Hr =
use2.625 in. Hn
336,100
336,1.0O
hr = 0.5(R'r
g'l t)
= -hn
4.8O2
Mo: Mp + MG + Mr + M, :
-0'5T +
-O.5(T
Ma = Hnhn
: -
1.313
168,050r +441,300
3,469,60
L'=L+l:r.r.t*?@
L' = 22.813
cos p1
168'050f
in.
=0.972;
h=13.626"
(2,613,0W)1?!ll_!!JI)_ rt'orv F=u and r: (nJ:00xmj5)(26i - l0J5): ?,, Rsn = T: F + \/F' + J = *2-s5o = 5.732 in.
The minimum thickness at operating condition is
'" _
If we
(2s00x10.75)y'4f11.8 8(17,500x26.5
= F'
cos p1
GO,24O)(0.972\
9950 lb
assume
T = 5.75 and M0
2,503,000,
= F'
sin Br
O0,'2,40)(.236)
a(10.75)(9950)
?A2O
lb
336,000
r :32.8so
zr(10.75)(Z4ZO)
91,76
T = 0.540 +
'ffi;ffi
If
we assume T
2,419,000,
I=32.850"?*i:# =ro4tl
Load
furn
Moment
He = W. = 700,800 ho = 0.5(C
G)
330
ptAlrs, AND
FtANGTS
l'robhms
10.13 A spherically
dished flange with an outside diameter ofA = 36 in. and ofB l8in. is subjected to a gasket seating momenr of 3,500,000 in.lb. The allowable tensile stress of the flangi material is 15,000 psi. What is the minimum required thickness at the gasket seating condition?
an inside diameter
lndividual nomenclature is used throughout Chapter 10. It is usually noted near to where used. The following list gives some of the general nomenclature.
Answer:
M51o*
circumference
A I C E G 1u' N-6 P R S S. 56
:
= =
outside diameter of flange (in.) inside diameter of flange (in.) diameter of bolt circle (in.) weld joint efficiency diameter of gasket reaction (in.)
gasket seating width (in.)
: : :
= = = =
: :
Yory = seating stress of gasket material (psi) E, = modulus of elasticity (psi) W^t = flange loading for design condition (lb) = flange loading for bolt-up condition (lb) Wz bn = basic gasket seating width (in.) b = effective gasket seating width (in.) OD = outside diameter of gasket (in.) ID = inside diameter of gasket (in.) = actual bolt area (in.'z)
Ms
(in.lb)
332
Mn
tuNO fl-ANOts,
lt-ANOts
S|EUOORAPHY 333
BIBTIOGRAPHY
0*
o,
or
Bhch, A. E., and A. Bazergui, "Mthods of Analysis of Bolted, FlaDged Connections-A Review," Ecolc Pol)4echnique, Montial, Camda, Jaluary 1981. InterprEtive Study on the Design of Notr-Circular Flaoges and Flanges with Extemal Loads" (a
private report to PVRC , May 23 , 1979 .) Rrut, H. D., A. Bazeigui aod L. Marchand, 'Casket lakage Trends" (A private report to PVRC),
o,
a"
lL
April
1981.
Rodsbaugh, E. C., atrd S. E. Moore, "Evaluation of the Bolting and Flarges of ANSI 816.5 Flarged Joints-ASME Part A Design Rules," ORNUSub-2913-3, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TeDn., Septenbr 30, 1976. Timo$henko,
1940.
REFERENCES
ASME Boiler atrd Pressure Vesol Code, Section VIII, Division I, Pressure Vessels, ANSVASME BPV-Vn-I, Amedcan Society of Me.hanical Engine$, New Yo*, 1983. ASME Boiler ard Pressure Vessel Code, S@ton I, Pover Boilcrs, ANSVASME BPV-I, American Society of Mechadcal Engineers, New York, 1983. Wate$, E. O., D. B. Wesstiom, D. B. Rossheim, and F. S. G. Williams, "Formulas for Sftsses in Bolted Flanged Connections," f/dns. ASME, vol. 59, 1931, pp. 16l-169.
Wate$, E. O., D, B, Rossheim, D. B, Wesstrom, aDd F. S. G. Wilham's, Development of General Formulas for Bohed Flaryes, Taylor Forge atrd Pipe Works, Chicago, 1949. Waters, E. O., and R. W. Schneider, "Derivation of ASME Code Formulas for lhe Design of Reverse Flanges," WeldittS Research Council, Bulletin 262, October 1980, pp. 2-9. ANSI Standard 816.5, "Pipe Flatrges and Flanged Fittings," American NatioMl Srzndards hstitute. New York. API St ndard 605, lzrge Diametcr Carbon Stee, FrarSer, ANSVAPI Std. 605, Americatr Petroleum ltrstitute, Washington, D,C. ANSI Staftlard B16.24, 'Bronze Flanges ard Fittings, 150 aod 300 lb," America! National Standatds Institute, New Yo*. Rossheim, D, 8,, and A. R, C. Markl, "Gasket Irading Con$tants," Mechanical Eb gi ceri g, Vol. 65, September 1943, W. 647-648. Raut, H. D., and G. F. Iron, "Report of Oasket Factor Tests," Welding Research Council, Bulleti! 233. New Yort. De.ember 1977, Modern Flange Design, Bulleth 502, Tttt ed, , G aDd W Taylor-Bomey Division, Southfield, Mich.
',
11.
12. Roark, R. J,, FormnJas for Stress and Strain,3d ed., McGraw-Hill, New York, 1954. 13. Water$, E. O,, 'Dedvatior of Code Fordulas for Part B Flanges," WeUinB Research Coun il, Bnlletin 166, October 1971, pp. n47. 14, Schneider, R. W., and E. O. Waters, "The Backgrcund of ASME Code Cas 1828: A Simplified Metbod of Analyzing Part B Flanges," Tranr, ASME, Jounal of Presrure Vessel Technology, Vol. 100, No. 2, Mt! 1978, pp. 215-219. Schneide., R. W, and E, O, Wate$, "The Application of ASME Code Case 1828," Irarr,
ASME, lournal of Pressure Vewel Technology, Vol. 101, No.
I, February
1979,
pp.87-94,
CHAPTER
ll
334
335
336
I
I
I.I
OENERAI,
.I
GENERAL
process vessels require openings to get the contents in and out For somc vessels, where the conients miy be large or some of the intemal parts may need frequent changing, access is made through large openings in which the entirc heai or a secioriof the shell is removed. However, for most process vessels, the contents enter and exit through openings in the heads and shell to which nozzles and piping are attached. In addition to these openings others may be required, suCh- as those for personnel entering the vessel through a manway opining. Other openings rnay be necessary for inspecting the vessel ftom the outside-thmugh a handhole opening , and still others may be required-for cleaning or draining tie vessel. Thesl openings do not always have a nozzle located at the openin!. Sometimes the closure may be a manway cover o-r handhole cover pad area by that ii eithlr directly welded or attached to the vessel or a built-up
All
additional loading may require compensation as well as what is necessary to rcsist the internal and external pressure loadings, as shown in Fig. 1l.l' Openings and nozzles similar to those occurring in pressure vessels also occur in piping. This is the case where a branch run is attached to the main run of piping. The branch-to-run intersection is subjected to the same pressure and ihermal expansion loadings as those applied to a vessel nozzle. Although the nozzles have a similar construction, usually an important difference lies in the relationship between the ratio of the nozzle diameter to the vessel diameter and the branch diameter to the run diameter. For pressure vessels, this ratio d/D is much less than for piping. In many piping systems, this ratio may be very close
bolts. For some nozzles, additional loading to the iniernal or extemal pressure may be innoduced from dead loads ftom equipment and piping and ftom thermal expansion flexibility loadings from the piping and equipment motions' This
Ml
to 1:1, as as shown in Fig. 11.2. In designing openings and nozzles for resisting loadings from internal and extemal pressures and from external loadings, two types of stress conditions are important. Fkst, the primary rnembrane stresses in the vessel or run pipe, that is, the necessary stresses mahtaining static equilibrium must be kept within the limits set by the allowable tensile stresses. Second, the peak stresses caused by abrupt changes in the geometry at the nozzle-to-shell comer and cause stress concentrations must be kept within acceptable limits. These peak stresses are important in a fatigue evaluation where the design life of the nozzle and the other
f-
F^l
figura
tl.l
FigurG
ll.2
OPININOS, NOZZICS, AND EXTERNAI TOADINOS vcssl parts or piping system are established. A slight change in the details at tho
I.2
STRESSS
intersection may enable the vessel to operate through many more cycles of pressure and temperature loadings. Detailed rules for designing vessels and piping to accommodale the primary membrane stresses and loadings from intemal and external pressures are given in codes and regulations such as the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Codel
and the ASME Code for Pressure Piping B31.'z In addition, some design rulcs are given in the more advanced sections of these codes to permit considering shess intensity factors (SIF) and stress concentration factors (SCF) in determining peak stresses. The peak stresses are used to determine the design fatigue life of the vessel. Other codes do not mention peak stresses or fatigue evaluations and leave the latter as the designer's responsibility. At the present time, none of
these codes contains detailed design rules for the consideration loadings from either dead loadings or piping expansion loadings.
of extemal
I1,2
Both single and multiple openings require calculations that show that the stresses and loadings in the shell and head are kept within acceptable limits. Single openings are calculated by the reinforcement method, whereas multiple openings are calculated by either the reinforcement method or the ligament efficiency method. In both cases, the primary stresses are effectively kept less than the allowable stress by replacing the area removed for openings. For a single circular opening in a flat plate with infinite boundaries in two directions (not through the thickness) that is subjected to applied forces and stresses along opposite edges of the plate, stresses are increased above the nominal applied stress in the unperforated plate. The stresses decrease away from the opening until the nominal stress in the plate is obtained. The ratio of the stress at the examined point divided by the nominal stess is the stress
intensity factor.
ll.3
basic equation at an opening may be represenied in terms of o and 0, with the angle of the considered point measured from the loading axis.r For the loading shown in Fig. 11.3a, the or is axial and 0 = rl2 at the maximum sfiess locarl2 atthe maximum stress location tion. ForFig. ll.3b,lhe q is axial and
and,
a1 and 0 : 0 at the maximum stress location. For Fig. 11.3c, the a1 is axial and o2 : o1 is at right angles to o1. Values of 0 are the same as for the cylinder. When two loadings or stresses are involved, the effects at the maximum stress location are added. The basic couation for direct s[ess is
0:
The basic equation for the maximum stress at the edge of the opening in terms of the component of stresses in each direction is
o^o:3o1 -
o2
(1r.2)
" Zl'.
''
(11
l)
where the values of or ?rd oz include plus and minus signs depending upon whether the applied stress is tension or compression. The stress intensity factor at the edge oi circular openings for various ratios of applied edge stresses is siven in Table 11. l. The stress intensity factor for various combinations of stresses is maximum
340
l.2
STRESSES
AND IOAOINOS AT
OPININOS
341
Tqble I I.l
Streu Inlenally
intemal pressure-the basic equation for the stress intensity factor is found by combinine the effects of sfesses in two directions according to Eq. l I l:
Applied Stress
Stress Ratio
",,
3.00 2.50 2.00
: Zl'.
cos
20
where o cos 20
= =
1:0(axialonly)
2:
= -1
0 +
I
1
I I:I
(cylinder)
(sphere)
where 0 cos 20
at the edge of the opening and decreases away from the opening until the stress
to 1.0.
Using the following nomenclature, various formulas for different combinations of applied stresses are developed:
=Ilz* /r)'* r - 3fr)'+ r + (r)'- t- rf:)'lI u/ 4L- \r/ \r/ \x/ ,(')' . ,(;)'] ", =ilo.
",
(l l.s)
r:
For applied stress ratio of 1 : 0-the condition of an axial tension load only-the basic equation for the stress intensity factor is obtained by solving Eq. 1l.l with 0 = rl2 wherc cos 20 = -1, giving
At the edge of the opening, the sffess intensity factor is determined from Eq' 1 1.2 assuming cr : or vnd 02 = 0.5or so that
(1
l.6)
"' = Zl'.
Substituting various values of r for.r in Eq' 11.5, stress intensity factors at various distances from the edge of the opening are
',:ilr. (;)'-,(;)l
o^:3or-0=3.00or
1.3)
At the edge of the opening, the stress iniensity factor is determined from Eq. ll.2 assuming that o1 = or and or = 6'
(r 1.4)
r 2r 31 4r
2 5oor
l.23at
1.09or
l.05or
Substituting various values of r for x in Eq. 1 I .3, stress intensity factors at various distances from the edge of the opening are
For an applied stress ratio of 1 : 1 in a spherical shell or hemispherical head under internal pressure, the basic equation for the stress intensity factor is resolved by combining effects of stesses in two directions accoding to Eq. 11.1 that gives
r 21 3r 4r
For an applied stress ratio of 2
3.00sr
1.15ar
'=t*$'
under
(l l.7)
l.Mo1
l.O4o1
At the edge of the opening, the stress intensity factor is determined from Eq' 1 I .2 assuming that at = or dllrd cz: 6t as given by
c*:3c1 - ar=200or
(11.8)
oPlNrNoS,
l{onfis,
I.3
ol'r
li)r
at
I'roblems
II
.1
r 2r 31 41
Exarnple
2.O0oy
What is the stress intensity factors for a plate under a stress ratio of 2 : - I for the vessel given in Example 1 1.1 at the edge of the opening and at distances of 2r,3r, and 4r?
l.25or
1.11o1
Answeri
1.06s,
A vertical vessel under intemal pressure and dead load contains an opening that is qubjected to applied stresses. The dead load stress is equal to the circumferential pressure shess. For this stress condition, what is the basic equation for the stress intensity factor at any location from the center of the
opening?
11,1
Incat\on r 21 31 41
SIF 3.50
1.2O
1.05
1.Oz
11.2
Solutian.
The applied stress in the circumferential direction is o1, whereas in the longitudinal direction it is the longitudinal pressure stress minus the longitudinal dead load shess. This equals oy, IO.5o1 and c2DL: -or and the summation equals -0.5o;. Using Eq. 11.1, the basic equations are
is one in which the stress more than VRt In terms of the radius intensity of 1.15, does not extend of the oiening r, how far ftom the edge of the opening in-a hemispherical head under iniernal pressure is required to have a stress of 1' 15. assuming
S^
o1?
becomes equal to 1.1S. at a distance of 2'66r from the edge of the oPening.
",=url,. (t']
-;['
4l lcos
20
where 0
cos 20 where
=
=
"
2
11.3
-l
tr
As in Problem 11.2, what is the distance from the edge of the opening along the longitudinal axis in a cylindrical shell under intemal pressure if required to have a stress of 1. lS,?
o:
cos
20: *l
I
Answerz T\e SIF becomes equal to l.lS. at a distance of 2'90r from the edge of the opening along the longitudinal axis'
"ol,
rG)'
,, ="olo. (;)'
.'(')']
I,3
Exarnple 11.2 For the vessel described in Example 11.1. what is the maximum stress at the edge of the opening according to Eq. I 1.2?
AsdescribedinSectionll'2,thereisanincreaseinbasicshessesatanopenlng pathway for in aflat plate or shell under edge loadings due to the discontinuous pasJ from one side of the opening to the other side' the loms (anO stresses) to the When this happens, otler pathways have to be established- in.order to keep
Soltttion.
Assuming that or = o1 and o, = -0.5 rr, the equation for maximum stress at the edge of the opening is given by Eq. 11.2 as
o,o^:
3oy
oz
= 3ot
(-0.5ar)
3.50ar
orimarv sresies at an acce-ptable level. The basic theory of reinforced openings ir to suppty pathways with additional material in the region of the opening to -ttt" opening. In designing process equipment and other tiJ ioud. Uy "u.ty u".t"l., tiis pattrway iJ supptied by the thickening of the basic shell or pr"s*r" iozzle material and Uy adding material such as a pad, as shown in Fig' l1'4' placement of the additional material is important. It must be sufficiently near prevent the opening to be effective; and yet, it must be added with caution to
Tn
\,i:
.r!,
\:;i*
figure
L5
Reiniorcemsnl
Figt re I
From Fis.
L,4 ,{lhods of odding r6inforcmsnt moteriol. (Court*y Arnericon Socisry UM6.l of the ASr'tE Code, Vlll-l)
of itchonicol Enginerc,
l
T
5
another problem such as high thermal stresses. Investigations by the pVRCa and others indicate that the placement or location of the reinforcement is important. On most pressure vessels, the reinforcement is added to the outside as shown in Fig. 11.5. However, on some vessels the reinforcement is added on the inside as in Fig. 11.6; and on still others, some of the reinforcehent material may be added !o both the outside and the inside as in Fig. 11.7. The best arrangement
\tl .t
Figur
for reinforcement is the so-called balanced reinforcement which consists of about 35-407o of the area on the inside and about ffi-C|Vo of the area on the
outsidg. On many designs, it is difficult to place any reinforcement on the inside
I1.6
Rinfor.ment odded to
intid. of opning'
345
t.l6
I.4
RTINFORCEMENT TIMITS
Tn
{.a
T
\i,:'l
\i-;.jl:i
ular to the surt'ace of the shell. These are set at a point at which it is l'elt that the added reinforcement within the limits is effectively helping to replace the metal removed at the opening. Two formulas are used for setting the limits measured from. the opening offlre two inswEis used. c9!!er!!e3!91g.1@g!qg".jg@f, with--th" The first answer is equal to the diam6fer of the opening d. The second limit equal tothesumof ?l + T^+ O.5d. AsshowninFig. 11.8, the thickness ofthe nozzle wall usually determines which of the two limits controls. At a distance d from the centerline without reinforcement added, Eq. 1 1.5 for a cylinder gives a SIF With additional of 1.23or and Eq. 11.7 for a sphere gives a SIF of 1.25 reinforcement material, the nominal stress is reduced close to that in an unperforated plate.
t-c*
q.
If z nozzle is attached at the opening, it also offers reinforcement arca available for replacing that area removed from the vessel at the opening.lUon the wave
@iruegAUC!.d9l4bl9-lgled
1.285 /Y rt
.
damping length of a beam on an elastic foundation. For a cylindrical shell, this length is a function of l/B, where B for a poisson's ratio of 0.3 is equal to many years ago when The vertical limit was set in the ASME Code as 2.5 an assumption was made that r/r of 10 was to be usEif-This limit is about right 12,000 psi. The development of for an internal pressure p of 1200 psi and S 2.5 T" is
Figore I I
.7
Rinlorc6manr odded to
bofi
either because it is not accessible or it interferes with flow or drainage. The balanced reinforcement is often used at manway and inspection openings where no nozzle is attached. For applications in design problems, where the reinforcement requirements
are established, the method of replacing areas is chosen rather than a method that balances loads or stresses . An area at the opening for carrying primary loads and shesses is removed. Thus this required area must be replaced by another area adjacent to the opening that is not used for that purpose. It is desirable to replace that area required for primary loads by an adjacent reinforcement area. Within
- p
_l\/,
\/o.tv
r.285
1.285
O.246r
2.46t
For code application, the number was rounded off to 2.5 f. With the wide range of r/t ratios, which are currently used in process vessel construction, some of the codes are setting this reinforcement limit in the vertical direction by
L=
where L = /, =
4,
O.7S
!r-I"
11.e)
the reinforcement limits, the reinforcement areas are assumed to have the same load-carrying capabilities as the area removed for the opening. Consequently, when the reinforcement areas are equal to or exceed the required area, primary stresses have been restored to as near the unperforated plate as possible.
I.4
REINFOR.CEMENT LIMITS
1.2
Each pressure vessel and piping code treats the calculation of the reinforcement area somewhat differently and establishes both parallel and perpendicular
As described in Section I
or head is highest at the edge of the opening and decreases away from the opening (based on a shell wall with constant thickness). When the effective thickness is increased, as happens with added reinforcement material, the everage stresses are lowered. Limits of reinforcement are set parallel and perpendic-
limits in different ways. A discussion of the reinforcement requirements for several different codes follows.
Example
11.3 A cylindrical pressure vessel that is 60-in. ID by 6-in. thick contains a nozzle that is 12-in. ID by 3-in. thick. What is the stress intensity factor at the reinforcing limit that is parallel to the surface of the vessel?
r.4
RqNtoRctMENT
tlMlrs
Solution.
d:12in.
0r
T,
T^
O.5d
=6+3+
0.5(12)
15
in'
The limit is set by the 15 in. from the nozzle centerline. The stress intensity factor is obtained by using Eq' 11.5 to give
11.4 If
the new reinforcement limit in the vertical direction were based on r/r = 5 instead of r/r = l0 that was used to obtain the present limit of 2.5T,, what is this multiplying factor in terms of T^ for r/t = 5?
The vertical
limit is
limit of
r/t = 5'
an allowable stress of 15,000 psi, what is the maximum design pressure permitted for an rft = 5 based on the circumferential stress formula given in the ASME Code, VtrI-l?
Based on the circumferential stress, the maximum design pressure is 3260 Psi.
Answer:
i t.l.
The rules for reinforced openings in ASME, Section l, Power Boikrs, permlt using the replacement of both area and ligament efficiency provided certain limits are met. Ligament rules may be used for repeating pattems of openings provided the maximum diameter of any hole in the pattern does not exceed a diameter determined from Fig. PG-32 of Section I. This figure is a plot of the following equation with limiting values of K between 0.5 and 0.99:
Ti+Tn+o,td
a,,,
=z.ts{WJr-x)
(11.10)
I1.8
p=
348
3IO
4nn"
I.4
RTINFORCEMENT
TIMITS
35I
3. 4. 5.
D, =
of shell (in.)
fl = S=
Except for hemispherical heads, formed heads have dlD = 0.25 Bnd d^* : 2-in. NPS, which is the same as for cylindrical shells. For hemispherical heads, the actual center-to-center distance in item I is met. The value of K is one-half the value of 1( as determined bv Eo.
11. 14.
d,-
I,
Size and. Shape of Openings
(1
l. l1)
r= -N o Reintorcement Re quhe d
PD"
1.82
St
(t|.r2)
The shape of the opening when these rules are applicable is limited to circular, elliptical, or obround where the ratio of the large-to-small dimension is < 2.0. When the ratio is ) 2.0, special requirements may be necessary to resist any twisting moment. For shapes other than those above, a special analysis or proof test is required. No limitations are set on the size of an opening by Section I rules. However, the rules in the text are limited to the following sizes:
l. 2.
The rules for openings in Section I contain proyisions for single openings when no calculations are required to prove the adequacy of the shell. No calculations are needed for a cylindrical shell when either of the following is met:
For vessels 60 in. and less in diameler, the opening shall not exceed 0.5 D or 20 in. For vessels over 60 in. in diameter, the opening shall not exceed 0.33 D or 40 in.
l. d /D < O.25 arrd d^* = 2-in. NPS. 2. d* = maximum diameter using Fig. PG-32.
For openings in forrned heads, no calculations are required to prove the adequacy if all of the following are met:
When these sizes are exceeded, suggested rules place the available reinforcing area close to the opening. Required Area of Reinforcemenl
The total cross-sectional area of reinforcement required for any plane through the
1.
where
A+B L= 2(r + K)
(11.13)
A = dt,F
(r1.15)
r -- = --!2:1.82 S?:
A and B
(1
1.14)
diameiers of adjacent openings (in.) diameter of formed head (in.) thickness of formed head (in.)
1 1.
D, = outside { = nominal
10.
2.
For torispherical heads when the opening and its reinforcement are within the spherical part t, is the minimum required thickness for a hemispherical head when the radius is equal to that of the spherical part of the torispherical head. For a 2 : I ellipsoidal head when the opening and its reinforcement are within
352
u
I.4
REINFORCEMENT
IIMITS
353
circlc of 0.8 D, ,. is the nrinimum required thickness fbr a hemispherical heud when the radius is equal to 0.9 D.
(l)
2.5 T, or
(2)
2.5 T"
T".
If the thicknesses of the shell and nozzle are uniform and the reinforcement area does not extend beyond this uniform thickness, the following formulas may be used for determining the available area of reinforcement. However, if the opening and its reinforcement extend into areas with different nominal thicknesses
and different minimum required thicknesses, these formulas are not applicable.
Figorc
tt.9
Ensinrs, Froh
fig.
1.
At=(EL-Ft,)(zd-d)
or
(11.
l7)
Figure 11.10 shows a 66-in. ID steam drum containing five different diameters and two types of nozzles. What are the nozzle reinforcement Example
requirements? The design data are
11.4
At=z(EtT'- Ft,)(T'+n)
(11.18)
2,
Area available
in nozzle
of
(11.19)
Az=2(T"-t,)(2.57,f
Design pressure = 2875 psi. Design iemperature : saturation at design pressure approximately 689'F. Materials 70,000 psi UfS drum plate. Allowable stress at safiiration temperature : 16,800 psi. Weld joint efficiency is E : 0.95. Nozzles are 3+in., 4 in., 5 in., 63 in., nd 24-in. ID.
Az:
2(7"
t^)(2.57,
+ T)
(r 1.20)
Solution.
When two or more openings are spaced so that theil limits of reinforcement overlap, the combined area is used and counted only once. The spacing between any two openings is to be not less than 1.33 4". For a series of openings in a pattern, the area between any two openings equals 0.7f' of the area obtained by multiplying the center-to-center distance by the required thickness as shown in
1.
0.95 is
'
PR sE - 0.6p
Fie. 11.9.
I
a d
I.4
RIINFORCEMENT I.IMITS
355
T"l
--
b
x
2X
EX
T^
d-^:2.75
\rr3t675x(i-r0.9
4.814 in.
x
6.
7
The only single openings are 5 in. and 6{ in.;others are not considered single. Consequendy, all nozzles have the reinforcement area calculated
(see Table 11.2).
All
ID
B( D=LIMIT OF REINFORCEMENT
together.
A, = dt,F
d(6.294)(1.0)
6.294 d
8. 9.
d or T,+7,+
O.5d:6.75 + T.+ r
2.5(6.75)
16.875
in. or
2.57,
REINFORC EMENT
ond
,,3t-in,, nozzles.
11.10
.,S.t-on,,
d)(6.7s
6.294)
2,
Az:2Y(T^-t^)
Tqble
ll.2
3| in.,4 in.,5
in., ond
6f
in.
'' 4,
sE
- 0.6P
Pr
rR75 16,800
r 0.6 x 2875
as
,X=
parallel Y=
6.'75 +
normal
,*,
,r-32r-
l3 -ffifi;Js=
r'tur
d T"+r 2.57, 2.5T, t,^ At Az A, 22.03 1.8'75 3.s 10.375 4.688 t6.87s 0.334 7.8'7 t4.44 22.31 25.18 2.125 4.O 10.875 s.313 16.875 0.381 8.09 18.53 26.62 31.47 2.5 5.0 11.75 6.25 t6.8'75 0.477 8.44 25.29 33.73 6.875 43.27 3.O 6.875 13.188 7.5 16.875 0.656 8.89 35.16 ,t4.05
Area available is greater than atea requied and values of
A,
T"
K'- = 0'99
116
12.
I,4
REINIORCEMENT
IIMITS
357
A 24-in. lD
downcomer has "set-in" nozzle and calculates d/D = 24/66 = 0.36 exceeds limit of 0.33D for vessels over 60 in. ID. Alternate rules are also recommended.
Dattem of three fows on 3-in. centers and 4 5-in. longitudinal spacing, as shown
in Fig. I l.l l. The design pressure is 500 psi at 700"F design temperature The allowable stress is 16,600 psi There is no corosion.
t- = 0.lm(12) :
14, Reinforcement area required is
2.289
in.
use
?i
5l
Solution
in.
l.
=
151.06 in.2
A, = 6.294(24)
Limit parallel to shell is greater of
"
2.
+
12
0.552 in.
d:
24
in. or T,'t
16.875
T,
O.sd
6.75
5.25
24
n.
sE
500
1.125
of
- 0.6P
16,600
0.6 x 500
0.035 in.
in. or
is
2.5/5.25't:
13.125 in.
3.
U-
12)(0.456)
5.47 in.2
Deiermine the reinforcement limits based on Ts = 1.125 in' and f,. = 0.188 in. Limit parallel to shell surface = X = 2.25 in. or (1.125 + 1.125 + 0.188) = 2.438 in., use 2.438 in. y = 2.57" = 2.812 in. ot 2 5n = The limit normal to shell surface use 0.469 in. 0.469
in.,
in
r:r.rrzzle
At =
Azz
2(t3.t25)(5.25
2(6.5)(5.25
o)
2.289)
77.73
in.'?
in.'2
68.25
2.25" diameter
At = Ar
greater
A21
A22
151.45 in.2
> A, of
151.06 in.2
20. Also, check 'tlose-in" limit. Determine limit parallel io shell as the
of
0.75d:
0.75(24)
18
in. or
T"
T^
+r=
24 in.
limit is the same for the "close-in" limit, the area required of 0.674, is also satisfied without further calculations. I
Because the parallel
Exrmple 11.5. Determine the minimum required thickness of a 36-in. ID cylindrical shell based upon reinforcement requirements. The nozzles are through-welded as shown in Fig. 11.9c and have 2.25-in ID on a staggered
Fisur I
l.l I
358
I,4
REINFORCEMENT
IIMITS
359
4.
l-2.
Actual spacing = 4.5 in. parallcl 2(2.438) 4.875 in., exceeds actual
ll.7
For triangular anangement of openings shown in Fig. I l.l I with oPenings that are 2.25-in.lD, what is the minimum side length of a spacing that forms a series of equilateral triangles?
A,=
Ar
Az
dt,F = (2.2s)(0.552)(1.0)
1.242in.2
Ans#sr.' Minimum
Ar = (?i
r)(spacins d)
= (r.tZs
0.552X4.5
z.z5) =
1.289 in.z
I1.4.2
0.035)(2
0.469)
0.143 in.,
Asa = (0.552)(4.5X0.7
A561s: (l.125)(4.5
VIII, Division 1, Pressure Vessek, arc similar to those for ASME Section L However, the rules for reinforcernent are given as the main choice, with ligament rules used only as an
altrnative for repeating pattems of openings. Rules iue contained in both the
1.0)
1.739 in.2
2.25')
2.531 n.2
>
1.739 in.2
iext and the appendices. They are given for both internal pressure and extemal
pressure. The rules are essentially the same except that only 50% of the replacement area is required for extemal pressure assuming that the minimum required thickness in each case is based on the appropriate formula and design rules for both intemal and extemal pressures.
5.
3.75in.,0 = tan-' 3/2.25.0 = 53.13.. With a spacing of 3.75in., the parallel limit of 4.875 in. exceeds the actual spacing; therefore, the limits overlap and the special rules apply. From Eq. 11.16, F:0.5(cos2 0 + l) = 0.68 for g = 53.t3'.
A, = dt,F Ar = (4
Examine the diagonal plane, 2-3. With a row-to-row spacing of 3 in. and a longitudinal spacing of 4.5 in., the diagonal spacing is +
\,tr
ZB
N o Reintorcement Re quiNed
Single openings in vessels that are not subjected to special applied loadings, such as cyclic loading, do not require reinforcement calculations if the openings do not exceed the following size limits.
: -
(2.2s)(0.ss2)(0.68)
= 6.30r
.n.,
r'r,)(spacing
(3.75
2.25)
1.124 in.2
A: = 0.143 in.'z
A, = A1 ! Az
1. 2.
Size
1.267 in.2
>
0.845 in.2
A14a:
4567s
(0,552)(3.7 5)(O.7
= 0.125)(3.75
anl
6.
factory.
1.125
The nrles apply to openings that are circular, elliptical, or obround. The latter shapes often result from an opening in a curved surface or from a nonradial nozzle. However, other shapes arc permitted when considered according to
u-2(e).
For openings in cylindrical shells, the rules in the text are limited to openings of the following size limits:
Problzms
11.6
What is the minimum required wall thickness (rounded uo to the next l/8 in.) of a t2 3/4-in. ID nozzle atrached to a 60-in. by 3.75-in. thick drum? The allowable stess of both the shell and nozzle material is 15.0 ksi. The nozzle is attached by a full penetration weld with comer fillet welds with a throat of 0.7 ?i. The design pressure if 1400 psi at room
1. 2.
For shells 60-in. and less in diameter, the opening is not to exceed 0'5 D or 20 in., For shells over 60 in. in diameter, the opening is not to exceed 0.33 D
or
210-in.
@mperature.
Answer:
t-in
2.50 in.
When these size limits are exceeded, in addition to the rules in tle text, the rules in Appendix l-7 are also to be met. These additional rules may require some reinforcement to be placed closer to the opening than required by the rules in the
360
II
,4
RETNIORCEMINT TIMITS
361
text. l.'tlr opcnings in sphcrical shells and lbrmed heads, the text rures are mer
by considering the use of reverse curves and conical sections where possible. There are no specific limitations on size and shape of openings in spherical shells and formed heads. Required Area of Reintorceme nt
The total cross-sectional area of reinforcement required for any plane through the
A: dt,F
(ll.2l)
a
conection factor for pressure stress on plane being examined with respect to longitudinal axis, as shown in Fig. 11.12. This factor is applicable only to nozzles with integral reinforcement, circumferential stress (longitudinal plane) or of a seamless formed head with the following additional provisions:
1 2. 3.
When the opening and its reinforcement are totally within the spherical part of a torispherical head, l. is determined using the hemispherical head formula with both E and M = 1.0 (see Fig. t1.l3a). When the opening and its reinforcement are in a cone, r, is the required thickness of a seamless cone. When the opening and its reinforcement are in an ellipsoidal head and within a circle that is equal to 8070 of the shell diameter, r, is determined using the hemispherical head formula for a seamless shell of radius K1 D , where D is the shell diameter and K1 is obtained.from Table 1 1 . 3 and as shown in Fig. 11.130.
o" r;o
FisurIl.l2
of d's ASME Code, Vlll-l .)
Atb
loo loo
eoP
Fis UG-37
The value of t, obtained from any of the methods given above is used only to determine the required area of reinforcement. The value of t" used to set the minimum required thickness of the shell or head is based on the thickness fbrmulas that consider all the design loadings and weld joint efficiencies.
2.5n+
L.
t62
I.4
REINTORCTMENT TIMITS
Tqble I 1.3'
D
/2h
3.0
2.8
1.27 1.8
2.6
2.4
1.08 1.4
Kr
D /2h
36
l.l8
1.6 o.73
KI
0.81
0.65
Head
The total cross-sectional area of reinforcement required for any plane through the
center
0.67 dt,F
(l l.26)
Head
roinfiorrnenr colculations.
The limit is set exactly the same way as for a nozzle that is within the rules the text.
of
r I L
ior determing t, to u! in
Wlen any two adjacent openings are spaced so that their reinforcement overlaps, the combined area is used, but is evaluated only once in the combined area. The preferred spacing is at least 1.5d"", with 507o of the area required between the two openings.
Example 11.6. Determine the reinforcement requirements of an 8 in. 1D nozzle that is centrally located in a 2 : 1 ellipsoidal head. The inside diameter of the head skirt is 41.75 in. The allowable shess of both the head and nozzle material is 17.5 ksi. The design pressure is 700 psi and the design temperature is 500'F. There is no corrosion and the weld joint efficiency is E : 1.0. See Fig. 11. 13. 1 for details of a nozzle.
1.
41 =(2"d._d)(ET,_Ft)
or
(11.22)
tu = 2(7" +
T^
0.5 d)
d(ET,
Ft,)
(r1.23)
2.
of
(r1.24)
+^' o.taq"
A,=(sDQ.-h)
A2= 6n+2.5t"\(7.-t,)
T^r
t'6
(11.2s)
When the size of the opening exceeds the limits in which the rules in the text apply' the supplemental rules in r-7 are used in addition to the text rules. These additional requirements follow.
Fisure I
l.l3.l
L6.
t6a
l.
t.4
RHNFORCEMENT
UMI1S
365
Solullon
The minimum required thickness of aZ: I ellipsoidal head without an opening is determined from UG-32(d) of the A3ME Code, VIII-I as
ll.
is
A,:
A1
'r Az:
1.960
+ 4'805
:
=
6 765
in'' If
additional
PD
zSE
Area provided = 6.765 in.z > area required area is needed, use fillet weld area. I
6.040 in.'?
3.
As noied in the definition of r, ro use with Eq. 11.20 and shown in Fig. 11.13.1, when an opening and its reinforcement are located in an ellio_ soidal head and within a circle equal to 80Zo of the shell diameter, ,. to be used in reinforcement calculations is the thickness required for a seamless sphere of radius K1D, where D is the shell ID and E for a 2 : I ellipsoidal head is 0.9 frorn Table 11.3. For this head, the opening and reinforcement are within 0.8 D = 0.8(41.75) = 33.4 in. Using the spherical shell radius of R = K tD = 0.9(41.7 5) = 37 .57 5 n. in the hemispherical head formula gives
Example 11.7. Determine the reinforcement requirements for a l2-in. x 16-in. manway opening. The l2-in. dimension lies along the longitudinal axis of the cylindrical shell. The manway cover seals against the outside surface of the opening so that the opening nozzle is under intemal pressure' The ID of the
shell is 41.875 in. Both the shell and manway material have an allowable tensile stress of 17,500 psi. The design pressure is 700 psi at a design temperature of 500'F. There is no corrosion and the joint efficiency is E = 1.0' Details are shown in Fig. 11.14.
Solution
1.
The minimum rcquired thickness of the shell is found from PR t=-= - sE - 0.6P 700 (20.938)
7oo (37.575)
2(17,500
1.0)
0.2(700)
u.
/f)
rn.
4.
(17,500
1.0)
(0.6
":'::700)
ln.
= (17,500
7OO
(4)
1.0)
0.6(700)
0.164 in.
rs
2.
,|
E.
Because the limit of 2X = 2(8): 16 in. is less ihan 33.4 in. of item 2 above, the provision of the spherical head may be used.
Lirnits perpendicular to head surface i s y = 2.57, or 2.52,, whichever rs smaller. y = 2.5(1) = 2.5 in. or 2.5(1.125) = 2.813 in.; use 2.5 in.
Limits paraUel to head surface = X = d or (T, + T, + r), whichever larger. X = 8 in. or (4 + | + t.125 = 6.125 in.); use 8 in.
700 (6)
(0.6
700)
= 0.246 in.:
use
1
in.
-a-
(ET,
Ft)(U
d) = (1.0
0.755X16
8)
1.960 in.,
Az=
of Reinf
l
7.
57"(7,
- tJ
= 5(1.0X1.r25 -
0.164)
4.805 in.,
Figure
ll.l,1
12
r.4
RflNFORCTMENT
UMTTS
367
3.
t' =
.0 is determined tiom
t joint efficiency of E :
Solutinn
T,
+ T, + 0.5d : 6+
d:
12
in.
1
1* = S+in.
1.
The minimum required thickness of the cylindrical shell from Example 11.7 is
t=
0.858
in.:
x
usel in.
2.
PL
zSE
700
20.938
O.zP 2x
17,500
x 1-
A,:
Ar = (ET"
dt,F
12 (0.858X1.0)
10.296 in.2
in.
3.
=
1.7s4.o.2
Ft)(2x
d) = (r jn
0.85sX24
r2)
"
4.
t =-=
Pr
sE
o.6P
in.
At = Azz =
57,(7, 57,(7,
0.246)
5.020 in.,
0) = 6.256 ;n.z or
= 6in.
+ 3 = 4.75in.; use6in.
At = At + A^ + An
1.704
5.020
+ 6.25O-_
12.974 in.2
T,
T,
+ 0.5d= I +
0.75
4.
Area provided of 12.974 in.2 ) area required of 10.296 in.2 Examination of circumferential plane where F = 0.5 from Fig. 11.12 gives the reinforcement area required by Eq. 11.20 as
5.
= 2.5(1\ =
2.5 in.
A,:
conhols.
dt,F
16 (0.858)(0.s)
or
6.864 in.2 6.
2.5f":
2.519.'lt,
= l'875 in.;
If the arc length of l6.4in. is used,A, = 7.036 in., Either of these areas is less than A. in item 3 and does not control. The longitudinal plane
in.'z
Example 11.8. Determine the reinforcement requirements for a 6-in. ID noz_ zle that is located at the junction of a cylindrical shell and a hemispherical head. The entire opening is in the cylindrical shell, but ttre reinforcemlni extends in Dotn drectlons-some into the head and some into the shell. The ID of the shell is 41.875 in. The allowable shess of all material is 17.5 ksi. The design pressure
At = (ET" -
3e0 E. 9.
TXTEnNAT TOAD|NGS
1.4
REINFORCIMINT
LlMlTs
369
Az:
5T,(T,
- t') = 5(0.75)(0.75 -
0.123)
.2.351
'fhe rules are applicable to circular and elliptical openings and to shapes of of circular and elliptical cross-sectional nozzles' In ,ft" iti "rsection "p*i"gt "i following limits also apply: addition, the
A, =
Ar * Ao + A2 = 4.943 in.2,
not enough
1.
L0. Reinforcement area available in attachment fillet weld assuming leg dimension of 0.5 in. is 43 = (0.5)'?
limited to The ratio of the large to the small dimension of the opening is 1.5.
centerlines of openings is limited to no less than (a) Three times the sum of the radii for formed heads and the longitudinal axis of cylinders. (b) Two iimes the sum of the radii for the circumferential axrs The rules shall be satisfied for all planes'
0.250 in.'z
ll.
At = 5.193 in.z
Problems
A, = 5.148 in.'?
4,
limitations' For all dimensions and shapes of openings that are not within these
design-by-analYsis is used.
11.8
What is the minimum required thickness of the nozzle wall (rounded up to the next ] in.) of an opening whose reinforcement is based on an available area from both the shell and the nozzle? The opening has a 15-in. diameter and is located in a cylindrical shell of 22-in. diameter. The design pressure is 450 psi, the design temperature is 450'F, and the allowable iensile stress is S : 15,000 psi. There is no corrosion.
1. 2. 3.
Single openings with d*, = 0'2 V]4r and two or more openings within a clide- with a diameter < z 5 \/fu , the sum of the diameters is
<
th'ickness is
I in.
11.9
Assume the nozzle in Example 11.6 is not centrally located in the 2 : I ellipsoidal head. Instead, some of the reinforcement area extends into the knuckle region. Is the available reinforcement area sufficient for this condition? If not, how thick does the nozzle have to be?
Center-to-center spacing > 1.5( + d)' greater than Center-to-edge of another local stressed area, where Pr is 1. 1S-, is : 2.5 \/Rt .
0.25 \/Rt
Required
Ana of Reinforcement
Azsrer.'
I
?,
1.25 tn.
Thetotalcross-sectionalareaofreinforcementrequiredforanyplaneisgivenby
A:
1.4.3
Reinforcement Rules for ASME, Section
dt,F
(1r.27)
Vlll, Division 2
where t, =
The rules for reinforced openings in Section VtrI, Division 2, are similar to those for Division 1 ; but there are some differences . Reinforcement limits and spacing are based on the damping length of a beam on an elastic foundation. The rules
F = factor
are for either intemal or external pressure with no specific rules given for extemal loadings or for fatigue. However, there are stress inlensity factors that can be combined with the intemal pressure stresses to indicate the peak stresses for fatieue.
depending upon the plane under consideration' 1 0 for formed heads and on the longitudinal plane' For nonintegral connections, F = 1.0 for all Planes'
of reinforcement is placed on
each side
of
an
T7O
of (l) d or (2) T, + T" + 0.54. The limit of reinforcement along the vessel wall measured on each side of the opening when two-thirds of the required area of reinforcement is needed is the larger of (1) r + 0.5 \Ar or (2) T" + f, + 0.5d.
,-
90 dca.
f. 2.
fo1-FiS. 11.15a and b, it is the larger of (0.5 (1.73x+2.5b+ n < 2.57, and, < L + 2.5t,
For Fig. 11.15c, when 45 degrees
\/riI,
or
0.5
\Gn
Y"if
3.
=
2.57".
or
(L' +
.5
\/ffi
or e.73x
te)
2.5t0)
\/r^I, +
or (2.57., +
t)
In both expressions above, t" is not to exceed 1.5[ or 1.7317 where I7 = width of added reinforcing pad.
For all cases, the terms and definitions are:
*=
0
l. 2. 3. 4.
1Lt
Figur
is integral or
attached
by full_
ll.l5
Deioil! for limir of rinlorcmonr normol to vesrel woll. (Courtesy Anericon Soci6ty of
,i..honi.ol
371
I.4
REINFORCEMENT
TIMITS
373
4.,
is
o.ilTl <
0.0008
(11.28) Value of
where rri =
mean coefficient
temperature
dl\/Rt,
<o.20 >0.20 and
Nozzles in Cylinders
of
vessel metal
at
None, except
12
required
None, except
12
required
design
14.os(d/\/-k)1tz
<
or lowest to
0.40
1.811dt,
>0.40
0.75 dt,
ls.40(d/\/RDt/2
1. 2.
1.0
0.80.
where S, = allowable
Sy
Example
Determine the reinforcement requirements of an.8-in- ID nozzle tha:t is centrally located in a 2 : 1 ellipsoidal head. The inside diameter of the head skirt is 41.73 in. The allowable stress of the head material is 20'5 ksi and of the nozzle material is 21.6 ksi. The design pressure is 70O psi and the design temperatme is 50OoF. There is no corrosion. See Fig. 11 18 for details ofnozzle'
11.9.
Solutinn
Limitations
1.
The minimum required thickness of the 2 : 1 ellipsoidal head using Fig' AD-2O4.1 of the ASME Code, VIII-2, is determined as follows:
1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
Edge+o-edge of openings
2.5
\/Fi.
1.5.
which siue. : o.ozt | ; = ;* = 0.034 I = 0.9D = 0.9(a1.75) = 37 575 in. t = O.OLLL = O.o2l(37 .575) = 0.789 in.;
use 1.O-in. thickness
Limit
D/t
d/D
l0-250
0.50 max.
d/\/Dt
P
s
700x
21,600
0.80 max.
0.5P
4 0.700
= 0.132
in.;
374
ltl
l2l
Lc-
OSas
li / RPI3R
'
128
k./ 213|Bh/a+g.'tI
h.dt
for notrl.3 in
(3) Th. c.ni.r or l. or L, i! .r llr. ionct!.. ot rh. ourrldr rorl.clr ol th! .hdl r.d .02116 of rhicknt.r, ...nd a',
.
Cylindric.l Sh.llr
{a)
unilorm rhictn!3r
.on3id.r!d.31.
l. condrudioff whr. th. .o.. bosfthry p.$6 rhrollh mll r.gh.nr, th! .on. born.Lry m.y !a o.l, through !h. thi.ln'.i
rr
|
o.ltro 0.5.
rh. tfEer ot r.41
the
rtre
n
rr
'
>
\/A;
l./21
o.
tn
)
)
or tl
0
l0l90,1
= {0' /90)r
{.1
Limits of reintorcine zone. (Courrely Amgrkon Sociory of rnechonicot Ensiners: From Fis. 560.,{-l of the ASME Code, V t-2.}
Fisurc
ll.t6
Figuro I I . I 7 Nozzlo d6tqil. 60r u3 of olrrnorive rult. (Courl$v Arnericon Sociry of tnchonicol Engineers' From Fig. AD-560.IJ of {'s ASME Code. Vlll2.)
3.
Limits parallel to head surface are: (a) For 1007o or required reinforcement area:
o.'1a1"
6.125 in.;
X'
7.085 in.
Fisure
tl.l8
ll.9'
375
116 4.
I.4
REIN'ORCEMENT
I.IMITS
Fig. I l
19
377
tor
Y:0.5\/r^h + K or 1.73-r + 2.5rr,+ K.< 2.57, and < L + 2.5h v = o.s r{+s6rttll25) + 0.25 = 1.383 in. or
= 0 + 2.5(1.125) + O.25:3.063 in. < 2.5(l) : 2.5 in. and < 4 + 2.5(1.125) = 6.813 in.;
details.
Solutian
1. 2.
Strength ratio
usel=2.5in.
t=
5.
S:ojp Pr
pR
use
""'
in.
1ffi7o: A,
: ?: A, : t)(2x
dt,F
8(0.789X1)
6.312 in.'z
3.
?(6.312) :
Using AD-201(a) of the ASME Code, VIII-2, the minimum required thickness of the nozzle is
4.208 in.2
6. 7. 8.
,., = _ g.5p = s
= (r,
- dr:
(1.0
0.789)(16
8)
1.688 in.'?
4.
Examination of the longitudinal plane gives limits parallel to shell surface as:
(a)
2Y(7"
t^) = 2(2.s)(r.rz5
0.132)
4.965 in.2
Total reinforcement available form head and nozzle within 1007o reinforcement limit is
d or (f, + f, + r), whichever is larger X= l}in. or (6+ 1+ 1.25) = 8.25 in.; useX = 12in'
X=
(b)
=
1.688
A, = Ar r,4z
4.965
6.654 in.'?
>
6.312 \n.2
X' = r 4 0.5\/R"t or
(2, +
I" + r)
whichever is larger
9.
8.25
in.;
use
Ay
:
=
(7,
Ft)(2X'
d\
: (r -
0.789)(2
8)
X' =
8.315 in.
1.3O2 in.2
10. Total reinforcement available from head and nozzle usins two-thirds limit is A, = Ar
Az
1.3o2
4.965
6.267 in.2
>
4.208
in.'?
Example 11.10. Detemine the reinforcement requirements for a 12-in. x 16-in. rnanway opening. The 12-in. dimension lies along the longitudinal axis of the vessel. The manway cover seals against the outside surface of the manway. The 1D of the shell is 41 .875 in. The allowable stress of the shell material is 20.5 ksi and of the manway material 19.4 ksi. The design pressure is 700 psi
Figure
ABCD=LirDit
ot
Rei.nforcemerlt
1t.19
Deloih of 12
I1.10.
078
I.4
REINFORCEMENT
TIMITS
379
(c)
5.
y=05\/VJ+x
Y
In examining the circumferential plane, reinforcement area required according to the ASME Code, VIII-2 is
or
+ K Z.ST, and, < L + Z.Stp = y = 0.5\/6.625 x l2s + 0.25 = L698 in. or Y : 0 + 2.5(1.25) + 0.25 = 3.375 < 2.5(l) = 2.5 in. and < 3 + 2.5(1.25) = 6.125 in.
1.73x 2.5te
A,:
dt,F
16
0.858
x 0.5 =
6.864 in.2
Using the arc length of 16.4 in., A. = 7.036 in.']Either of thetwo areas is less than 4, in item 4d and do not control. Longitudinal controls. I Problem
usey=2.5in.
11.10 A
(d)
l0o7o:
A,:
dt,F + 2t"t,(1
10 in. inside diameter nozzle is attached by a full-penetration weld and comer fillet weld to a 48-in. inside diameter as shown in Figure 11. 15b. The shell maierial is 5.4-266 Class 1 carbon steel and,the nozzle material is SA-182 F304 stainless steel. The design pressure is 1250 psi at a design temperature of 500'F. What is the required thickness of the shell, nozzle, and pad (if required) to satisfy the reinforcement requirements?
+
(e)
Answer:
shell,
{ = 2.5 in.
To
nozzle,
0 375 in'
Pad' t"
= l'375 in'
= (1 -
0.728)(24
12)
3.264 in.2 I
(f)
1.4.4
outward: 421 = 2(2.5)(1.25 - O.2n)e.946) = 4.872 inward: A22 = 2(2.5)(1.25)(0.946) = 5.9t2 in.2
in.z
Ruies for welded, reinforced connections according to ANSVASME 831.1, Power Piping, are similar to the rules for reinforced openings in the ASME Code, I and VIII-I. The following requirements give the basic considerations. N o Reintorcement
C altulalians Re
(g)
quired
A, = A1 At
(h)
1.
A' =
(l -
0.728r(2
8.315
12)
1.259 in.2
(i)
2. 3. d/D < 0.25. 4. Standard fittings of extra heavy or Class 3000 rating.
Limitations.
and 90 deerees.
Connections made from fittings that have a standard pressure/temperature rating established. d^:2-in. NPS with tn6 > Schedule 160 pipe.
At = At + Aa + An A,
1.259
+ 4.972 + 5.912 =
t2.O4O in.z
3t0
r.4
RHNFORCIMINI
llMlt3
3tl
a = angle between nozzle and shell (degrees) D, = outside diameter of run or header (in.) d1 = (D" - 27,) /sin o(in.) dz = horizontal limit of each side of centerline, which is the T, + T, + 0.5/, but not more than D, (in.) 1 = perpndicular limit : 2.54 + t, (in.)
Required Area of Reinlorcement
larger of dy or
The lotal cross-sectional area of reinforcement required for any plane through the
A,:
which for
l.o7t^hdlz
sin d)
(rr.29,
90' is
A,
Avoi.lable Area of Reinforcement
= l.o1t*dl
(1 1.30)
The total area available for reinforcement is the sum 45 where each area is determined as follows:
ofAl + A2 + A3 + A4 +
(11.31)
sm(I
(rr.32)
A3
=
=
area
of fillet welds
t, T; -T
N ^N N' f fislr6
F.di6d 6lnro6m..t.r!. a6. at -.rc6wdl l. h.!d.
Aa : A5 Reinlorcement Zone
a& ar.
A4 45
rilld
*ld dll't
in
The limits of reinforcement are formed by a parallelogram with sides of d2 on each side of the nozzle centerline and an altitude of Z perpendicular to the shell
surface.
Au
A2
-.rcF
wttl in
br.nch
- m'ttt
td'!t doc
tun
I I .20 Dimnlions ond not'otions for ANSI/ASME Ensinosru, From Fis. 1O'1.3.1D of ASMBANSI B3l'l )
2.
Multiple Openings
The following should be applied:
54"
area
l.
a design Example 11.11 A steam pipe has a 24-in' inside diameter with of 14,500 psi at the design temoressul of Z5OO psi and an allowable stress of pera$re. A branch ptpe wtrn an rnside diameter of 8 in connects at an angle
980
1,4
RflNloRclMlt{T tl,ulTs
lu
a = angle between nozzle and shell (degrees) D" = outside diameter of run or header (in') dy = (D. - 24,)/sin o(in.) dz = horizontal limit of each side of centedine, which is the T, + T, + 0.5d, but not more than D, (in.) 1, : perpendicular limit = 2.5T^ + te (in.)
Required Area of Reinforcement
larger of d1 or
The total cross-sectional area of reinforcement re4uired for any plane tbrough the center of an opening is given bY
A,
which for
l.o7t,,hdt(2
sin d)
(1r.29)
a=
90o is
A,
Avaihble Area of Reinforcenent
= l.olt*dr
(11.30)
The total area available for reinforcement is the sum 45 where each area is determined as follows:
ofAl + A2 + & +
At=Qlz-d)(T"-t*)
Ar = -_---:-sln a
A3
(11.31)
;r I
t,
zL\T,
t*)
(rr.32)
= a'.ea of fillet welds A+ = nrea of reinforcing rings, pads, and so on. A5 = arca of saddles
-T
rNvFr.diDdorntor6n.nr.n!iaa..!43-lilltt'|'!ldm'itl Nv 4llD!l!II' eor aa - nrot in ri.s, p.d, or l.t trl a6. a1 -.'..sEll i. h..rL N' dinror.m.nr lNoa {2,1 l@' atle a5 _htnt innddttdd!run aE 42 -.r6.Mlt an bEnch f (Court$y Americon Socitv oI ttchonicol Figur. I I.20 Dimaffions ond nolotions for ANSVASME B3l l
Ensimrs. From Fig. 104.3.1D of ASME/ANSI
Reintorcement Zone The limits of reinforcement are formed by a parallelogram with sides of d2 on cach side of the nozzle centerline and an altitude ofl perpendicular to the shell
surl'rce.
B3l'l
2.
l 54"
area
Mulliple Openings
Thc folkrwing should be aPPlied:
l.
a design Example 11.11 A steam Plpe has a 24-in' inside diameter with psi and an-ailowable stress of 14,500 psi at the design tem-"r.ui" of 2500 ;;;;;.; ;;-.fi pipe with an inside diameter of 8 in' connects at an angle of
?82
so that
I.4
REINFORCEMENT
IIMITS
383
o = 75'.'l'ho
E
br&nch is &ttached by a lull-penctrutit)n wcld that is radiographed 1.0. Determine the thickness and reintbrcement requirements.
requirement: l7-in. OD ring x 0 75 in thick Nozzle attached to shell and pad by full-penetration welds'
Pad
Solutinn
Problem
l.
PR t', = Sf=-06p 2. t*
=
25oo
x tr
2.5 in.
I.4.5
Pr _ oSt, Sn A,:
2500
4.0
2.0 in.
3. 4, 5.
Plant and The reinforcement requirements for ANSI/ASME B31 3, Chemical are similar to the requirements for ANSVASME Petroleum Refinery Piping, connections' S31. t and for Section Vtri, Dini.ion 1. Rules are given for branch
oi no""l"., which are attached to run piping, or headers' Differing ftom other
1.07(2.308\(8X2
sin 75')
29.43s't.z
,"info.""."nt
shown in
minimum requiled thickness of the branch piping piping' The area "ul"ulations anJ tne tun piping is measured on the outside thickness of the is the remainder of the piping's nominal thickness as available foi riiniorcement
, the
Fig. 11.21.
use8.5in.
Limilations of Geomew
The angle between the nozzle and header is restricted to those intersections where tle acute intersection angle B is equal to 45" or more'
Perpendicular limit of reinforcement is as follows: Assume a 0.75 in. thick pad is added and attached by full penetration welds that are exam-
L = O'75 in'
L=
2.s7i,
+ t" =
2.5(2)
5.75 in.
6.
1. 2. 3.
Ar
(2x8.5
8X2.5
2.308)
2.880
in.,
Standard fittings that have pressure/temperature ratings determined' < O'25 and a Standard fittings not exceeding 2-in. NPS that have d/D lb or more. pressure rating of 2000 Integrally reinforced connections that have been proved adequate by tests, calculations, and use.
4, =
2(5.75\(2
sln /J-
:-o
7691
14.656
n.,
Nomenclature
4 = opening size in run or header (in') dz : horizontal limit on one side measured from the centedine of the open20.430 in.2
ing (in.)
l+ :
F:
,,, =
L4 RllNrgRcltllllr I Llmlrt
g--t:6
Ar = ttdrQ
For extemal Pressure'
sin F)
(1 1.33)
(11.34)
3
E
\,
Limits.
6!l
t2 ic
'6-
t;i.ie:
IaE
g'E
d1 or T1+4+05dI
D1,.
l
I
:;e
12 fa <{ ---{--J_ 9a
i
I
I I I
*r
(t
E'6 E-i E8
Vertical
Limits.
of
the smaller
2.5T,
Areas Available
or
2.57b
+ 4,
where
4=
pad thickness
(in')
i +i s9
q:
I
En
96
5a z6
A2:
(2d2
d)(Th
th)
(11.3s)
9i ii'6
.l
. a^ =
2L4(Tb
tb)
(11.36)
sin P
metal is weaker than In other metals available within limits Aa, if reinforcement ;;r-;i;;,J,,h" area available for rcinforcement is reduced by Sn/Su'
4 = nominal
ut
t6 = required thickness of branch (in.) ?i = nominal thickness of branch (in.) D6 = outside diameter of branch (in.) D,, = outside diameter of header (in.)
384
"
Excess area within the following is considered acceptLa, wtrl.;e La is measured perpendicular to shell surface'
1. 2.
Center-to-center distance of at least 1'5du"' At least 5O9o of the total required area between the openings'
rrc
I.5
SHCLI.S
3A7
Oxnmplc I l. 12. An tt in. NpS Scherlule g0 bronch (nozzle) is attached at right angle to a 20-in. NPS Schedule 40 run (header) with a full penetration weld with fillet weld cover. The allowable stress is 13.l ksi. Design pressure is 600 psi at a.design temperature of 900.F. Determine the reinforcin-g requirements and pad size, if required. Sohrtion
5.
Ar
(?.125)t0.519
0.450)
= 0 492 in'z
l.
Determine actual and minimum required sizes at the branch run intersection as follows:
'
4= = 0.519 in. {, = (0.s00)(0.875) : 0.438 in. th: PD/2(SE + py) = (600 x 20)/2(13,100 + 0.4 x 600) = 0.450 in. b= Pd/2(SE + PY): (600 x 8.625)/2(13,100 + 0.4 x 600) = 0.194 in.
Fillet weld size is the lesser of 0.7?i or
0.7(0.438)
(0.s93)(0.875)
= 2(r()2:
0.063 in.2
Excess area
in Azr Az + Ao = 1.939 in'2 This is less than '4r; conpad shall be provided. Determine the thickness of pad based sequently, a on the pid extending to the horizontal limits of reilforcement'
(7.r25)H = 3.206
Assuming
1.089;
Il
= 0.297 in.
f, =
5116
in.;
(2w
in.
weld,ir" = |
7'r2s)(0'3125) = 2'117
2.
Determine the horizontal limits of reinforcement from the following, whichever is the greater:
5/ 16 in. pad.
(14
7.125X0.3125)
= 2 148in2 =
3 '237
= (8 - 2 x 438)/sin 90" = 7.125_in. opening size dz = (0.519) + (0.433) + 0.5(7.125) : 4.519 in. or d2 = it : 7.125 in.; use d, : 7.125 in.
d1
in''
3.
of
It may be possible to obtain more refinement and a thinner or narrower plate by : 0 312 in and by including the reevaiuating the vertical limits by setting T, outer fillet;elds if they lie within the horizontal reinforcement limits' This
recalculation may reduce the pad thickness and/or the pad 14-in. by 5/16-in. pad is satisfactory. I Problem
width However,
2.5(0.519)
1.298 in.
or
Lq
11,12
2.5(0.438)
+0:
For the construction in Example 11 . 12, what is the maximum allowable working pressure when the allowable stress is increased to l8'8 ksi?
1.095
in.;
use Za
1.095 in,
Ansper.' MAWP =
I
880 Psi
4.
Determine the reinforcing area required according to Eq. 11.33 as fol_ lows:
1.5
41 = (0.450)(7.125)(2
sin 90.)
3.206 in.,
In addition to the method of reinforced openings for compensating for metal removed at openings in shells, there is the method of ligament efficiency The
318
I.5
SHEITS
389
ligoment el'licienoy method considers the loarJ-carrying ability of the area bctween two points in relationship to the load-carrying ability of the ligament reTltlilg when the two points become the centers of two openings. In thc ASME Code, only the shell plate is considered; however, Lloyd;s Rulis6 permit some help from integrally attached nozzles. The basic method of diagonal ligament efficiency for application in thc ASME Code was developed in 1915 by Black and Jones oiihe Babcock & Wilcox Company, which was published in 1920 in the Marine Engineer's Handbook.T ln 1975. a limit design analysis was used to examine suesses ln a perforated cylindrical shell.8 This limit analysis was further developed for ASME Code application and used to update the original code rules. The rules and curves are still given in several sections of the ASME Code and several foreign codes that determine the ligament efficiency used in the cylindrical shell formulas. The ligament efficiency curves apply only to cylindrical pressure vessels where the circumferential lension (stress) has twice the inbnsity of the longitudinal tension (stress). Once this was established, Rankine's Eilipse of Streis was used to determine the iniensity of lension and of shear on any diagonal ligament. This is shown in Fig. 11.22. The total tension and the total shear are ottained by multiplying the intensity of tension and of shear, respectively, by the diagonal pitch between openings and by the shell thickness, as ixpressed by
the following equations:
intensity of tension on any plane intensity of shear on any plane total rension
rotaf
cos2 0
(11.37)
:
_
l 1.38)
l(p,4)
A. ,-,
(11.39)
shear:
*\p'T,)
sin
A cos
11.40)
The stress factor for tension for any section of the ligament is obtained by dividing the total tension by the cross-sectional area of the ligament. The shess factor for bending for any section of the ligament is obtained by dividing the bending moment of the section by the modulus of the section. The bending moment is the product of the total shear multiplied by the distance between the section considered and the point of contraflexure, which is the plane passing through the centers of the openings. The distance is Y in Fig. 11 22'
length of ligament bending moment section modulus
: L = P' - \/F=4
=
(6161 shear)(I)
(11.41)
(rr.42)
(11.43)
:+:tg-P
1
(p'T,\
^ "'
cos20+
lp'-\/d2-4Y'z)T,
(11.44)
Sa=
sin 0 cos 0
(11.45)
The total stress factor for both tension and bending is the sum of the stress factors
for tension and for bending. When the curve was originally developed for the ASME Code, the maximum total stress factor was found by tial by calculating
the shess factor at several sections between the sections through the centers of the two openings to the plane that is tangent to the edge of the openings. Table I1.4 shows a sample of this calculation to determine the maximum factor for a particular angle ;ith the longitudinal axis 0 values of p' /d and a shell plate
Figur.
I1.22
Diogonol ligoment!.
thickness
I.
390
I.5
SHEIIS
39I
Undcr the sponsorship of the Pressure Vessel Research Committee, an extensive limit design analysis of perforated cylindrical shells with uniform patterns ofopenings was completed. This limit design analysis was used to determine the upper and lower bounds of limit pressure. A 2 : 1 ratio of stress field was considered and the shell plate curvature was not included. From this analysis, the basic lower bound equation was develooed into PLqb
The lowest factor is used to calculate the minimum efficiency for the angle 0 being examined.
efficiency
43 7vo
Examplell,l3.
(11.46)
Determine the minimum required thickness of the shell given in Example 11.5 using the ligament efficiency rules.
Solution For application in the ASME Code, the equation was rearranged so that the diagonal efficiency term was expressed as p' /d, a number equal to or greater than 1.0, and the efficiency was expressed as a whole number. The equation for
code use is
1.
of 4.5 in.:
sec2
'-
E=r ^'(1r.47)
p'
O {0f)
2.
Determine the equivalent longitudinal efficiency from the diagonal efficiency using Eq. 11.47 as follows:
Calculations of minimum ligament efficiency was determined by examining various planes between openings at different distances of I as shown on FigI1.22. An exanple of the calculations based on the original ASME Code work is given below. It has io be repeated for different values ofp ,/d and for various
angles 0:
sec0:1.667
+ s-7 51ly =
47 .59?o
known
data:
d=
4 in.; s =
calculated dnt^:
p':
=ffi
(1.667)2
+|
(r.667 /
r.6T\/t + Q.667f
t.AZ
3.
Determine the minimum requAed thickness using the equation of UG27(c)(l) from the ASME Code, VI[-l, as follows:
ToblE | 1.4
I,ength
t = sE PR = - oip
Section
r'164 m'
Modulus 1.84
1.98
Total
Factor
I .84
This thickness of , = 1. 184 in. is based on the shell thickness only with no contribution from the nozzle. I Problems
r.77
1.69 1.63 1.59
1.31
2.20
2.28 2.29 2.28
2.O2
z.t8
2.34 2.48 3.65 8.93
|.72
1.72
1ro
1.55
1.72 t.'72
1.72
1.72 2.58
.32
6.12 6-12
between two openings for the longitudinal and to be equal when the longitudinal spacing is 4.5 in. diagonal efficiencies and the opening diameter is 2.25 in.?
d be
3.44
0.84
0.39
1.23
Answer:
= 54.1'
392 ll.l4
I.6
R
IATIGUE EVAI,UATION
Of
PRISSURI
393
ln Problem
ll.l3,
where
conliguration'l
Answer:
I
= inside radius of shell or head (in) r = inside radius of nozzle (in) 4 = nominal thickness of shell or head (in) D. : mean radius of shell or head (in) = 2q * t
P = intemal design pressure or pressure range (psi) I : stress index for various locations (see Table 11'5)
I.6
PRESSURE
When a fatigue evaluation is required, it is necessary to determine the peak stesses around the openings. The current methods are the stress index method, experimental 0ests and measurements, or a theoretical analysis procedure such as a finite element analysis. The stress index method is the easiest method and is allowed by the ASME Code, III-1 and VIII-2. The stress index method was developed from reviewing a large amount of experimental and analytical data determined in a program conducted by the Pressure Vessel Research Committee . The stress index method pennits easy calculation of peak stresses at the nozzle-shell or nozzle-head intersection without resorting to any complex analysis. The stress index method gives conservative results; and if the exact multipliers for a specific geometry are known, they should be used. Essentially, the nominal stress in the shell or head is multiplied by the stress indices and the peak
shesses are obtained. The peak stresses are determined from the following equations where the shess index I is multiplied times the nominal shess. For spherical shells and formed heads:
o, = normal
or
stress
= tangential stress in plane being examined (psi) o, = radial stress in plane being examined (psi)
Example
shell that is 36-in ID by 2'5-in' thick contains that is 4-in. ID by 0 75-in thick' The design pressure is a perpindicutar nozzle td00psi at a design temperature of 450'F. The vessel is subjected to cyclic operation and a faiigue analysis is requircd' Peak stresses and- str-ess concendation factors are noi known for the specific geometry to be used' What method can be used to evaluate the peak stresses for a fatigue analysis?
11.14. A cylindrical
Solutian. At the intersection of the nozzle to the shell, peak stresses are as obtained according to Eq' 11.48. The nominal stress is determined
_ "
PD^
2T,
1900(36
+ 2.5)
2(2'5)
14.630 psi
.PD.
For cylindrical shells:
(11.48)
index The peak stresses are determined as follows using the factorc for stress from Table 1 1.5:
Longitudinal Plane
o= t.PD.
(11.49)
Stress (psi)
Inside
Outside
Outside
+30 ,720
Hoop stress
+45,350
stress
Toble
I1.5
lrngitudinal
Stress lndex
- t
q10
+ t7 ,560 + 14,630
0
/
Cylindrical Shells
Radial stress
1,900
+38,040
0
LongitudinalPlane
TransversePlane
must be These values are the peak stresses due to intemal pressure only and on the shell for combined with other peak stresses occurring at the same location a.fatigue evaluation. Problem
2.0
qr
2.O 2.o
0
(r/R) (r/R)
3.I
1.2 1.0
1.0
a1
z,o 0
-0.2 -2r"/D^
-o.2 -27"/D.
11,15 A reactor
:
vessel is 5 ft. 0 in. inside diameter with hemispherical heads' The design pressure is 450 psi at 650'F The allowable stress of the
I.7
TXTTRNAL IOADINGS
vcsscl is 17,5(X) psi. l'hc hcatl and shcll rrc nradc ol.rrinirnurn thickncss r)alcritl roundod up to (hc ncxt I in. Thc vessel is operated undcr ir cycling conditkrn.so.that a fatigue analysis is n"""r.ury. It is necessary to place an 8-in. inside diameter by l-in. thick nozzle, in the vessel. Is the peak stress less in the head or in the shell at the nozzle junction and what are the values ofpeak shesses at the maximum location in ttre treaa and shell? Thin-wall equations are used.
W/?Cl
tr
nsvcrse
I.7
EXTERNAT LOADINGS
stresses are generated in both head. Although the stresses in thJ nozzle are both membrane stresses, which are acting upon the entire nozzle cross sectlon, and local membrane stresses, which are aciing through the nozzle wall thickness, present analysis procedures are available only for the general stresses without resorting to some procedure such as a finite element -analysis. These general procedures usually have a way of applying a stress intensihcation facto; (SIF) that predicts the local stresses in the nozzle. The stresses generated in the shell or head adjacent to the nozzle are-focal stresses. A proce-<lure for determining the_se local stresses is given in detail in Welding Reseirch Cor,rncji, Bulletin Nol ttJ7 "
. When external loadings are applied to nozzles, the nozzle and the shell or
When extemal loadings are applied to nozzles or branch piping, local saesses are generated at the nozzle-shell intersection. Several typis of ioading may be applied, such as sustained loadings, transient loadings,- ind thermal flexibility loadings. Sustained loadings are continuorisly applied and "*paniion combined with iniernal pressure, such as dead Ioads. Transient loadings are applied for a short period of time, such as earthquake and wind loadinls, pressure fluctu_ ations, and water hammer loadings. The thermal expansion Ioadlngs are caused by potential axial growth of piping from temperature expansion.
-the
r)lorncnt. torsional moment. and axial fbrce. Stresses at various locations on thc inside and outside surfaces are obtained by combining the stresses from variuus offects. This involves considerable "bookkeeping" that WRC 107 developed t<r help alleviate. Once the stresses are obtained according to WRC, they must be combined with intemal pressure stresses to determine the overall stresses. Bijlaard's original problem was finding the effects of structural supports on a cylindrical shell. This initial work considered the radial loads and moments over a flexible, rectangular loading surface. The initial treatment of nozzles was an approximation based on a rigid attachment without the effects of nozzle wall flexibility. Bijlaard extended this work to spherical shells based on a shallow shell theory and considered both solid (rigid) attachments and nozzles with flexibility parameters. Usage of the rules is generally limited to D/, between 10 and 200 for cylinders and between l0 and 250 for spheres. Usage is also limited to d/D oI about 0.33 for cylinders and 0.50 for spheres. However, depending upon other parameters, the value of d/D nay go as high as 0.60 for some
A limit of 0.80 is also applied to the value of d/YD^T for both cylinders and spheres. The curves in WRC 107 are related to certain parameters at the intersection. The two important parameters are the shell parameter and the attachment parameter. The different applications on spherical and cylindrical shells follow.
cylinders.
Spherieal Shells The shell oarameter is
r0
"
:t :
..fn;r
(11.s0)
| | .7.1 Locol Stresses in the Shell or Heod Although a considerable amount of theoretical development work on local in shells from external loadings was conducted ind reported by p. p. iiJyalff'r in the early 1950s, it was not until rhe Welding Risearch Councit ff IlulldinNo. 107 was issued that all the miscellaneous inforriation from Bijlaard and others was put into a concise form for easy use. The range of usige is rcslricted by limitations on various parameters,'but it is infinitily better than
strosses
It = "
o.875\-RJ
(l1.sl)
In the attachment parameter for all solid attachments, no parameter is needed. For a hollow cylinder (nozzle),
(11.52)
t
T
I
anything before WRC 107 was issued. Currently, experimental and theoretical work is being conducted to extend its useful ranse.
(1
1.53)
396
t.7
EXTERNAT
T.OAOINGS 397
proper values must be read carefully because it may be necessary to interPolate not only from line-to-line but from curve to curve. The values on adjacent charts do not always increase or decrease in a consistent direction. Computation sheets
are given for:
0.875t
't
Cylindrical Shells
The shell parameter is
v,
._
to.
1::
The attachment parameter for both solid and hollow is for a cylinder
(1 1.56)
e=o8i:.
For a square,
(r 1.57)
=
For a rectangle
*g
where cr
(1 1.58)
C!
F, B,
R.
c2
R^
If
t,,
If
u=
01.5e)
t. r,
u=
(1r 60)
- S it u r" 4f 4ith:r l ) Hhcn r I o, s - I rrI:L-lL!j-$-c--[.!qi \ s - l/2 lox+oy ! llox - ay)2 | at2 Jot r'tax - oyl' ' 4r' 2) r,then t = o, s = largest absolur. ndgnitudc of either s - dr, oy or (ox - oy)
Figure 1'1.23 Computotion sh.t for rigid onochment to.Phericol shell. (Courr.sy Welding Reseorch Council, WRC Sulloiin lO7. A',s'Et 1965,)
Using these parameters and the curves given in WRC 107, stresses may be calculated at the inside and outside surfaces due to the various loadinss. The
; I
F-igure 11.25.
shell
Mt
L Appliod Lootir'
Rodiol looC, CirG. l5h. hl, Long. Xolttl,
GF6atfia
Pc?omalcra
Rh
Mc M"
l.
Appl,cd
Loodr'
3. Gemrtric Poromctcrr
Rod,ol Lood, Shror Loqd, Shcor Lood, Ovc.terning Mom.nr, OvGrturhrng Moarcnt, lorrronol Momcnt,
M,
e=-lb. vt2_lr. v,
Slcr Lcod, 2. Goaary Vorrrl thicllorr, Arccharat rt,dlur, Yorrol odior. Fig
lor
v!
ROUND
ATTACHMENT
Focfora
dua lcl rncnbrono lcod, ;,, =bending lood, Kb aNOTE: Entc. oll torcc voluor in occsrdoncc wrth rign convGnlion Frcm fr g. Rcod <urv lor STRESSES - il lood ii cpporilG rhor rhown, rcvcrtc
AU
a^.
CYLINDRICAL SHELL
rhot ;ho-n,
'
rL
Eu
8L
"vc?t'
t'9nr CL
3hM DL
Cu
3c or
cc
tignr rhorn Ds
x6_
?/2,a
(n /Nd\ l t- rh /
\?/ f,b |
lnl
6P
= =
lC or 2C- I
!A
8u
BL
CL
F,.0
ro
/rd\
5P-l to l0 Xrl F
*^
T
5r4-
IA
t ta^26 rd
rc/ tnE
-"(""ft)'#=
t-
l2
l-
f
t-
t-
F
r
r
ta
I
ro l0
N,rfiiT
ilt
^'\T/
/
N,r\r/E;T\
''
f
f
-=
xo
IL,/ tra6l
-^(-#)'#
/ t5l-l 16\ \nzr-B /
6fL
=
+
I
+
r-Prr -
x.r/T;T
@
Ht
\ t 7'ii7ffi=
1r-,{ffi \
\ rr /
?
T?
+
+
3C or ac
-g? t?,a
F
u.y'Ti.'i
tt
Add olgcbroicolly
6M:
:
lc-1
fr{R6f
or
2C
.. (*,)' -! r rr (3).8 ta = r/
\
lo, .ummol;on of r, r,
ffiE'
tr
2A
ir
*(#)'#?'
xr\;ta,B-'l'
t At \
I
=
lP- I ro l0
+
T
It
/xvT\ \ P /
J.c/l,aP ! _E r rL/litp
itffi
IL
6l{c
3lr-l to l0
xyrr/if
Bl
t
f
.t-
'"("-fo)' ;;EF -
t
+
+
+
---{a ., 2t-l
rllrrp
"(""+-r'#=
rrlr < {rP ' l{t =
2nc2o'
xyrr/EiT
r.,
f.t D.-tl
?
F
t-
xrr/F;-i
xt
xv1fiiT
//Nrry'nhr
r,
.l-
T,+ =
Trd =
"F
;;T
YL
{-
lor rumnofion of
de.
fr
de.
=,+ r, ofr7
li --,7t- :*+t . a
I
{-
r
I
-s
4T-
1)
+
d!.
COMBINED STRESS
I}ITENSITY
of eithEl o, s = lar@itudg s = l/2 fo**o* ! /to* - o0)2 + 4t2 )or r'(ox - o4)d + 2) Wtren T = O, S = largest absolute magnitude of either S = olr oO or (O* - 06)
tJtren 'E I
"
2)
1"1",),* t3;
Hhen
-'",
1",1fifffi;?l'5'll'lli#,Fa
to sphericol shell. (Courtesy Welding
Reseorch
(Courtesy Welding Reseqrch Council, Figure I1.25 Computotion sheei for qfiqchmenis to cylindricol shell' WRC Bullefin 107, August 1965.)
Figvre 11.21 Computotion sheet for hollow otiochmenl Council, WRC Bullerin 107, August 1965.)
399 398
4OO
I.7
IXTERNAL
TOADINGS 40I
In addition tt) thc linritllions ()n tlrc gcorlrctty in thc anitlysis in MiC, thctc arc othcr lirnitations. 'Ihis analysis detennines only the stresses in the shell or head due to the extemal loadings and thus those from intemal pressure must bc added to them. Because no nozzle stresses are determined by this method, they must be determined by a separate analysis. However, engineers felt that when the extemal loadings are applied to a relatively thin-walled nozzle, the highest stresses may be in the nozzle. For thick-walled nozzles, it appears that deformation is similar to a solid attachment and maximum stresses will occur in the
VD,"T ^: -+L:
where d, =
D^
shell or head adjacent to the nozzle. Bijlaard's method indicated that for a longitudinal moment, the maximum stress occurs on the longitudinal axis.
However, experimental results obtained in PVRC tests indicate that for larger nozzles with ad/D = O.5 or larger, the maximum stress may lie somewhat off from the longitudinal axis. Thus adjustments have been made to some of the curves in l\lfiC Bulletin 107. In spite of these shortcomings, a reasonable estimate of the stresses due to the external loadings is obtained by following
wRC lo7
iecondary stres;s, and peak stresses depending upon what loadings are inshell that is 84-in. ID by 1'0-in nominal thicknLss contains a nozzle S-in. ID by 1.0-in. nominal thickness' The design pressure is 400 psi and the allowable stress of the material is 17.5 ksi' The nozzle is subjected to an inward radial loading of 12,000 lb and an applied moment in
Recendy, in considering certain PYRC work to extend the ueful range of WRC 1O7 , J. L. Mershon concluded that within the range of its applicability, the curves for loadings on a cylindrical shell could be reduced, for all practical purposes, to an easier-to-use set of curves given in Appendix K. This set of simplified curves practically eliminates the need to interpolate between various curves in WRC 107 to determine the factors used to calculate the stresses. When the simplified curves are used, it will still be necessary to combine the internal pressure stresses and to develop a method of "bookkeeping" for the signs of the various stresses due to different loadings. The sign convention used with the Mershon method is identical to that of WRC lO7, as shown in Fig. 11.25. The figure shows that stresses may be obtained at the same locations. The relationship of the curves given in WRC and the Mershon curves given in Appendix K is as follows:
Example 11.15,
A cylindrical
of 150,000 in.lb. What are the combined sttesses on the lon-gitudinal axis due to these two extemal loadings using the Mershon metfodand the curves in Appendix K? The vessel is not subjected to cyclic
the longitudinal direction
1.
V(85X1)
r.uo
Using this parameter, the constants from the radial loading on the longitudinal axis are:
2C,zc-l 3c(l),4c(1)
3C(2),4C(2\
K.5 M'/P = 0.127 From Fig. K.6 Mo/P : 0.086 From Fig. K.8 N,I/P = 0.160 From Fig. K.8 N6T/P = 0.176
From Fig.
tor the simplified method, only one parameter is required in using the the opening-shell parameter of ,\, which is determined as follows:
curves-
3.
Using these constants, the stresses due to the radial loading are determined as follows:
t.7
EXTERNAT
TOADINOS 403
if available.
M, rrom p (bending) = 0
rr?[A18gu] :
0861@5!qE]
nrro o,'
oreo n,i
M6 from p(bending)
N, rrom p
N4 from p
Lonsitudinal Axis
Membrane
(membrane) (membrane)
Bending
Membrane
o"( = a) o,( = a4)
85
Bending
-r-0.35
-f 0.55
: 0 1?6[%P]
1.40
0.80
+0.20 +o.lo
400
0.70 0.85
= zrro nri
s =PD^ ' 2T
Using the parameter in item (1), the constants from the applied longitudinal moment on the longitudinal axis are determined as follows: From Fig. From Fig. From Fig.
2xl I
= l/'wuPsl
E.
rc.2
u,ft=
The total cornbined shesses from htemal pressure and extemal loadings are grven in Table 11.9.
o.tto
11.16. For the cylindrical shell given in Example 11.15, determine the stresses due to iniemal pressure and applied extemal loading by the method in WRC Bulletin lO7 .
Example Solution
1.
FromFig.
Using these constants, the stresses due to the longitudinal moment are determined as follows:
For the WRC method, the following shell-nozzle parameters are required:
B:0.875f;=
,5
0.875
a2r=
o.roz
R^ 42.5 Y=;=i=
stesses determined as follows:
42's
M,
ftom M2@ending)
o r?o
l(ffi#]
=,r,r*
0,,
The constants below are determined from various figures in ITRC and the
M5from M1(bendins)
: 0 r04lqx!ggg]
o.oze f
= e:oo n,i
From Fig.
N, ffom M L(membrane) =
N5from M1 (membrane)
o.roof$lqll :
l.l * J244- = 2060 psi q#"'q = 6340 psi From Fig. zc-r M6/P = 0.088 x
4C
No/e/R^) =
From Fig.
38
N6/@L/R,^B) = 4.5 x
Summaries of membrane stresses, bending shesses, and combined stresses at various locations for external loadings are given in Tables I1.6. 11.7. and 11.8. From Fig. 1B
n
@#ftffi-_
3630 psi
In addition to the stresses from the extemal loadings, the stresses from
internal pressue must b combined. These stresses may be determined
898
-..i
--t
&
88S
I
\ct .d
s"qaR
all+ f
O\FF'
t':+ -t-
ldui
8833
i++l
di -i ,.i d
REB O\:O
ttl
:5t516;6
+'++
s:8.i -i -i
ttl
98 a" +t$.1
o
ar
J
v1
\o^
\ +ll
v1 ..!
e88 1o\\
.9
o\ \o
,9
t
2
o o o o
t++
+tl
+tl
o
o
.9
o
o O\\OF
t++
tt
l++
6
o'
o
F:o\
+++
s
6
c..l | -! ol
o
aa
o o
ao
:H5
o
-o
f B o
-o
o
o
o
c
o
o
{,
= o
ao
iO\Q
c t
ttl
F q
f
1 tt.:
."1
vl
I
= o b o
in
f
t.icj tl
b o
NINI
)
q
Eonr
-g
9
o
-o
\
-9 -o o F
\s
eeE
o
-o q F
zlaF
o l-
>oA.F
405
::c-fi:
406
1.7
EXTIRNAI
LOADINOS
407
t" h=
tc-t +
4B 28
6.6
Probhms 11.16 For the same vessel described in Example 11'15, what are the stresses on the transverse plane when the applied moment is changed from a longitudinal rnoment to a transverse moment M": 150'000 in'lb and the radial loading remains at 12,000 lb using the method in Appendix F?
Fig.
= 0.12s x
FrornFig.
Mfu= 1.3 x
=
(42.5),(0.103X1)
Answer: o6:
1050 psi
From Fig.
3.
Using the intemal pressure stresses determined for Example 11.15 and combining then with these stresses gives:
oO
= -8180 Psi Cr. = +30,460 psi Du = +33,280 psi Dt = -6200 Psi 4t Cu = -3550 Psi
Cu
Cr'
Du
BU
BL
= Dt =
+23,800
+23,800
+ 3,400
+ 23,800
+23,800
+ 3,400
l0'l?
Psi
-3,400
-3,400
P membrane P bending
M1 membrane M1 bending Totals
1,690
I,690
1,690
l,690
9,000
+ 9,000
-9,000
+3,630
+ 9,000
-3,630 +9,250
+37,100
+3,630
+9,250 +24,880
-9,250
+25,860
or
AU
= + 31,150 Psi Du = +34'670 Psr Dr. = -7050 Psi o': Ct) = -2620 Psi Cr = + 19,240 psi Du = +21.820 Psi
AL
BU
B1
Dz:
I1.7.2
equaUon
+920 psi
+ 13,600 + 1,700
+ 13,600
+ 13,600
+ 13,600
I,700
+ 1,700
1,700
-2,060 -6,340
-2,060
+6,340
1,050
-2,060 -6,340
+ I,050
+ 14,800
-2,060
+6,340 + 1,050
in the
1,050
M1 bending Totals
- 14,800 - 11,240
+ 14,800
14,800
+32,960
+20,4ffi
.P,M,,7" _ _ A_ I
+5,460
(1 1.61)
4OO
r.7
txTCRNAt
LOADINGS 409
Howcvcr, to utiempt to make some correction fbr local eflbcts, the bending moments are adjusted by a stress intensification thctor. For piping thermal expansion flexibility stresses in both the ANSI B3l.l and ANSI 831.3 Codes,
the procedure is as follows:
se
- t/il a aP
(0r.62)
where
S'
M'/22 @si)
torsional moment (in.-lb) section modulus of nozzle (in.3)
Example 11.17. A l2-in. NPS Schedule 160 branch and run pipe are attached to oneinother. The design pressure is 2200 psi. The allowable stress at ambient temperature is & = 17.5 ksi and at design temperature is Sl = 12'0 ksi' In addition to the intemal pressure, the branch is subjected to externally applied forces and moments ftom thermal expansion of connecting piping. These moments and force are Mi = 600,000 in.-lb; M, = 900,000 in.-lbiMt = 750 '00,0 in.lb; and F*iur = 90,000 lb. The nozzle is designed for 20,000 cycles Using the design procedure ofthe ASME-ANSI B31 I Code, what is the total applied stress and what is the allowable stress?
Mr
= Z=
Solution
1.
z
(11.63)
itM)" + (i"M.)
Properties of 12-in. NPS Schedule 160 are D, : 12.75 in.; inside ard : 80.5 in.2; metal area = 47.14in.z;z = 122.6in.3; t^ = 1'312
ln.
where
i1
: :
in-plane SIF from Table 11.10 outplane SIF from Table 11.10 in-plane bending moment, (in-lb)
100
i, =
Mi
80 60 40 30
{actor
= 1.65/i
' Flexibilitv factor lor miterc k = 1.52/h5t6 ' Stress intensif ication
lo =/(1.255" +
where
S" 51
0.255/,)
(11.64)
20
15 10
:
= =
allowable stress at ambient (cold) temperature (psi) allowable sfress at design temperature (psi) reduction factor from Table 11.11 based on number of cycles
.9
r .r ||
.\
'
'tactor t = O-75/h213
l|
3
2
The design is acceptable when S5 < 51. lrngitudinal stesses Sa due to sustained loadings, such as pressure and dead loading, shall not exceed S7,. When 51 ) .[, the difference may be added to the term 0.2551 in Eq. 11.57. This gives
,So
t!
1.5
cl
I I
I
1.00
tf.
1 end flanged
0.75
:/[1.255" +
0.255,
(Sr
Sz)]
cr
i]
2 ends flanged c1
=i1l3
or
sA =/[1.25(s" + s) _.ir.l
(11.6s)
s EE E e q:33 33: .t oo o o o
Characteristic
rs
,:f F "1l't I (
ll
tLh
,
|r
F_r
q
.l
rI. 1f
-Ill r$'
t)t
-lf't I s
rir. ,l -ll- | I
rlr s
.!
IFH .a',-n
lF.. tS
1r -1
N
.RIG It\
l'>
lms
ill,\
frn-T|
H
{
e't Eo
#E
*lh
-iEIN
(,)l
o\
'\ l<
rFi I
9l' +l
*l
l{ e l"t
o\
:l
rF,ls
r,-rs
<f
=r
+ It\
{.tFr
rr..,
Jl{
I
rr-,.|s adl
\t
rr-. |
.n
9X
o
o
E
<i
lt
ol\
o.
lE.
l{
-l-
o, lE
<i
l!
o
c]
g.F
!.)
o o
rt)
qli ot{
ctl\
o.
lt dl\
o. lQ
ctl\
o\
..tF
t{
oF.
ct
l\
o'lQ
ct
lt
li dlt
o.
l{ cil\
o.
(.:9
=
o
E
'=ll x .!s
9I's
!a
rn
l;' ls
vr
i I'q
l;
o o o
-o !>r !-
0 ;
-9
-o
3bX
E}?
.:
c
g
d0
--&-
E
E
Fr'
F: -dsF Fi;: 9 eE
'^c
'r::
.i ltt
B
4r0
sY
HH.t g;Ill
^.,*
Es it .E &,
<;
e I
"E Ea
E E"*ii"Eq
gSEFe"gE
EE
J{
.bv
trl
EtIigEtEEEFf
4ll
P.2 '*6 E E{ OE
>!!
il tr lr
I
g
F"
B* 3E g9
613 hF 2A
p,B
g.E E
o .9. 9'x
o o
,S
E c o
-E
.s
Eg '{E {>r
EE di >,
a.-
ac sb a
ssso;
.E
gq
EE ra
E--R
'E }F
l!";:5
5
9
E.Ets
Jg; ET
.i
EO
E E
.9 -EE
q -t *; .i;i FF
E ir-a
5fi
ao .-' >i E - 6 E .l =
.9
I
at)
ll '6
.s
c o
p
E9 5fi
E *E
E
t\ d" t 'E
t,
o o o
,s
$ig E iE,
ei e 'Eq
$*c
5 o
al
o)
E 3.3 t
>-:-e
e F
o
.g
o p
412
EEEI F
Eg
?A
1t1
ollt{lt{ol, f{ollt|t,
Tobb
AND
rxil${
r KTAD|NO3
NO'rltNCtATURt
4lt
ll,ll
f)
Strcr-Rongr Rrductlon
Factor,
Focl,oru (
7.
S,r:
/
Se
1.0
100,000
Over 100,000
Courtgoy American Society
gioeers.
3760]
26,490 psi
160 branch pipe is attached to a 16-in. NPS pipe. The design pressure is 2000 psi, the allowable Schedule 160 run stress cold is S, = 17.5 ksi, and the allowable sfress at design temperature is 12.0 ksi. The maximum allowable torsional moment is 450,000 in.-lb. The pipe is designed for 10,000 cycles. Maximum
2.
Data at juncture from Table 11.6: 1.312 n=4 __ 5.719 =n,r"n R, u:H=z.qo n-'-
allowable bending moments are set as equal, ff rounded up to the next even 1(X) in.lb, what is the value of M. md Mi2
s,=E=ffi=*oo.t
4.
Determine the bending shess:
NOMENCTATURE
Individual nomenclature is used throughout Chapter 11 and usually noted close to where used. The following gives some general nomenclature:
Sa=
2.05
600,000),
(2.40
900,000
122.6
20,770 psi
p, or P = intemal
(psi)
F"
5.
s"
- !*|14
n
M6
OT
: :
= =
extemally applied axial force (lb) extemally applied horizontal force (lb) extemally applied bending moment (in.-lb)
total local stess at opening (psi) allowable tensile stress (psi) inside diameter of shell (in.)
6.
s
D
: :
t6
BIBI.IOGRAPHY
417
insidc dianrctcr
ol nozzle (in.)
:
=
r,
T^
"strcsscs liorl Radial Loads aDd Lxlonl l MoDrcnls in Cylintlrical I'r'cssttrc Vcs scls," Wtltlint: Journal, Vol. 34, Rcsearch Supplcncnt, pp 601ts-617s, 1955 "Computation of the Sbesses ftom Local Loads in Sphcrical Prcssurc Vcsscls or -, Pressure vessel Heads," Wewing Research Council, Bulletin No. 34, New York, March
14.
:
= = =
minimum required thickness of shell (in.) minimum required thickness of nozzle (in.)
17.
"Local Stresses irr Spherical Shells from Radial or Moment Loadings," Weklirg Joumal, Vol. 36, Research Supplement, pp. 24ls-243s, 1957. "Sresses in a Spherical vessel from Radial l,oads Acting on a Pipe," weldinS -, Research Council, Bulletin No. 49, New Yo*, April 1959 "Stresses in a Spherical Vessel from Extemal Moments Acting on a Pipe," ibid , pp
195't. -,
-,
3t-62.
"Influence of a Reinforcing Pad on the Stresses in a Spherical Vessel -, l-oading," ibid., pp. 63-?3.
under Local
, "stresses in Spherical Vessels from Local Loads Transfe.red by ^ Pipe," Weditq Research Council, No,50, pp. 1-9, May 1959. , "Additional Data on Stresses in Cylindrical Shells under Local Loading," ibid., pp.
-, -
l0-50.
REFERENCES
1. 2. 3. 4, 5. 6, 7. E. qlll.
'ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code," ANSVASME BPV, American Society of Mechanical Enginee$, New York, 1983. 'ANSI/ASME Code for Pressure Piping Mechanical Engineers, New York, 1980.
American Society of
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Harvey, J. F., Theory and Design of Modern Pressure Vessels, 2nd ed., Van Nostland Reinhold, hincton, N.J., 1974.
Rodabaugh, E. C., and R. C. Gwaltney, "Inside Versus Outside Reinforcing of Nozzles in Spherical Shells with Pressure Loading," Phase Report 117-7, January 1974, BattelleColumbus Inboratory, Columbus, Ohio.
Rodabaugh, E. C., "Proposed Altemate Rules for Use in ASME Codes," Phase Report 117-3, August 1969, Battelle-Columbus Laboratory, Columbus, Ohio, Rules and Regulations
Ellyin, F., "An Experimental Study of Elasto-Plastic Response of Branch-Pipe Tee Connections Subjected to lntemal hessure, Extemal Couples, and Combined lrading," wRC BulletinNo 230, Welding Research Council, New York, September 1977.
Ellyin, F., "Elastic Stresses Near
Attachments
a Skewed
Hole in
l98l.
for
the Classifcatior
August 1970.
Sterling, F. W ,, Marine E gi eers Handbook, McCtraw-Hill, New York, 1920. Porowski, J. S., W, J. O'Donnell, and J. R. Fan, "Limit Design of Perforated Cylindrical Shells per ASME Code," Jounal of Pressure Vessel Technology, Vol. 99, Sedes J, No. 4,
November 197?.
Ellyin F., "Experimental Investigation of Limit lnads of Nozzles in Cylinddcal Vessels"' wRc BulletinNo.2lg, welding Research Council, New York, September 1976 Eringen, A. C., A. K. Naghdi, S. S. Mahmood, C. C. Thiel, and T. Ariman, "Stress Concentrations in Two Normatly Intersecting Cylindrical Shells Subject to lntemal hessure," WRC Bulletin No. 139, welding Research Council, New York, April 1969. Fidler, R., "A Photoelastic Analysis of Oblique Cylinder In&fiections Subjected to Intemal Ptesslure," WRC Bulletin No. 153, Welding Research Council, New York, August 1970. Findlay, G. E. and J. spenc, "Bending ofPipe Bends with Elliptic Cross Sections," I/Rc B!.rletin No. 164, Welding Research Council, New York, August 1971. Gwaltney, R. C., and J. M. Corum, "An Analytical Study of Inside and Outside Compact Reinforcement for Radial Nozzles in Spherical Sheus," ORNL 4732, June 1974, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tenn.
Wichman, K. R., A. G. Hopper, and J. L. Mershon, "Local Stresses in Spherical and Cylindrical Shells due to Extemal lradings," Welding Research Council, Bulletin No. 107, Ncw York, August 1965.
Bijlaad, P. P., "Shesses from Local Loadings in Cylindrical I.\ME, Vol. 77. pp. 805-816. 1955.
ll. _,
vol.
"Stresses ftom Radial Loads in Cylindrical Pressue Vessels," Welding .loutnal, 33, Research Supplement, pp. 6l5s-623s, 1954.
al!
BIEIIOORAPHY 4I9
"A Note on
the Conelation of Photoelestic and Stcel Model Data for Nozzlc Con' Cylindrical Shells," WRC Blt eri, No l39, Welding Resealch Council, Ncw
Kruus, H.,
ne.tions in
teveD, M. M., "Photoelastic Determination of the Sftesses at Oblique Openings in Plates and Shells," WftC Bunettu No. 153, Welding Resea.ch Council, New York, August 1970.
teven, M. M., "Phoioelastic Determination of thc Shesses in Reinforced Openings in hessure Vessels," WRC Bulletirr No. ll3, Welding Resea.ch Council, New York, April 1 6. Lind, N. C., A. N. Sherboume, F. Ellyin, and J. Dainora, "Plastic Tests of Two Branch-pipe Connections," lyRC trrrerir No. 164, Welditrg Research Council, New York, August 1971. Marwell, R. L., atrd R. W. Holland, 'collaps Test of a Thin-Walled Cylin&ical Pressue Vesscl with Radially Attached Nozzle," WRC Bulletin No. 230, Welding Research CouDcil, New
Yo!k, April 1969. Taylor, C. E,, and N. C. Lind, "Photolastic Study of the Stresses neat Operdngs in hcssure Vessels," WRC Burkr,t No. ll3, Welding Resea.ch Council, New York, April 1966' Tso, F. K. W., J. w. Bryson, R. A weed, and S. E. Moore' "Stress Analysis of Cylindrical Pressure Vessels with Closely Spaced Nozzles by the Fhit Element Melhod"'in Vol l' Stres! Analysis of vessels with Two Closely Spaced Nozzles under Intemlrl Pressure'
oRNL/NUIiEG-18/vl, November 1977, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, oak Ridge, Tenn'
Yort, September
1977.
Mershon, J. L. , "Intetpretive Repoit orr Obliqle Nozzle Connections in hessure Vessel Heads and Shells udder Ifternal Pres$ur ading," WXC Sarr?rrn No. 153, Welding Research Council,
New Yort, August 1970. Mershon J. L., "Preliminary Evaluation of PVRC Photoelastic Test Data on Reinforced Openings in Pressur Vessels," WRC Bullain No. I13, Welding Research Council, New York, April
1966.
Raju, P. P., '"Tbre-Dimensional Finite Element Analysis of 45" Lateral Model | (tl/D = 0.08, D/T = lO, under External i&Plarc MomeDt lrading," TR-3984-2, Teledyne Enginedng Services, Waltham. Mass. December 1980. Raju, P. P,, "Three-Dimensional Finite Element Analysis of 45"I-ateral Modelz(d/D :0.5, D/f : n) under Intrtral hessur and Extemal in-Plane Moment Loading," TR-3984-1, Tlcdyne Engineeriry Services, Waltham, Mass., December 1980. Raju, P, P., "Tbree-Dimensional Finite Element Analysis of 45" Lareral Model l(d/D = 0.08, D/T = lO) under Internal Pressure and Extemal in-Plane Moment Loadings," TR-3X9-1, revisd A, Teledyne Engineering Services, Waltham, Mass., January 1980. Riley, W, F., "Experime al Detennination of Stress Disributioni in Thin-Walled Cylindrical and Spherical Pressure Vessls wilh Ciltula. Nozzles," WRC BulletinNo. 108, Welding Research Council, New York, September 1965. Rodabaugh, E. C., "Elastic Stesses in Nozzles iD Pressue Vessels with Intemal Pressue Loaditr8," Phas Repoft ll7-1, April 1969, Battelle-Colubus Laboratory, Columbus, Ohio. Rodabaugh, E. C., "Review of Service Experietrc atrd Test Data on q)ening$ in Pressure Vessels with Non-I egral ReiDforcidg," WRC Bulletin No. 166, Weldiog Research Council, New York, October 1971. Rodabaugh, E. C. , and R. C. Gwahiey, 'Additional Data on Elastic Stresses in Nozzles in Pre$sulE Vessels with Intemal Pressure loading," Phase Report ll7-2, December 1971, BattelleColumbus kboratory, Columbus, Ohio. Rodabaugh, E. C,, aDd R. C. cwaltoey, "Elastic Stsesses at Reinforced Nozzles ir Spherical Shells with Pressur and Moment Loadiog," Phase Report ll?-gR, September 1976, BattelleColumbus Iaboratory, Columbus, Ohio. Rodabaugh, E, C,, and S. E. Moore, "Evaluation of the Plastic Characte.istics of Piping hoducts in Relation to ASME Code Cdteiia," NUREC/CR-0261 ORNI-/Sub-2913/8, Oak Ridge National Inboratory, Oak Ridge, TeIm., July 1978. Schroeder, J., K. R. Srinivasaiah, and P, Graham, "Analysis of Test Data on Bmnch Connections Exposd to Intemal Pressure and/or Extemal Coluples," WRC Bulk,n No. 200, Welding
Research Council. New
Schoeder,
and P, Tugcu, "Plastic Stability of Pipes and Tes Exposed to Extemal Couples," WRC Bullctin No, 238, Welding Research Couucil, New York, June 1978.
t.,
CHAPTER
12
VESSEL SUPPORTS
Ditfereni v$sel supporis. (Courresy of the Noofer Corporotion: St. touir, Mo.)
420
421
412
VISSfl" SUPPORTS
I2.2
I2.I 1. 2. 3. 4, 5.
INTRODUCTION
a;.
Ring girders
Saddles
Most vertical vessels are supported by skirts, as shown in Fig. 12.Ic. Skirts are-economical because they generally transfer the loads from the vessel by shear action. They also hansfer the loads to the foundation through anchor bolts and bearing plates. I*g-supported vessels are normally lightweight and the legs provide easy access to the bottom of the vessel. An economic design is shown in Fig. 12. lb, where the legs attach directly to the vessel and the loads are transferredby shear action.
I.'igure 12. lc shows an alternate design where the lcgs irLre attached to lugs that in tum are welded to the vessel. The bending stiffness of the shell and its ability to resist the moments adequately, must be considered. The cross-bracing ol the legs may be needed to minimize lateral and torsional movements. Vessels supported by ring girders, (Fig. 12.1d), are usually placed within a structural frame. The ring girder has the advantage of supporting torsional and bending moments resulting from the transfer of loads from the vessel wall to the supports. Horizontal vessels, (Fig. l2.le), Ne normally supported by saddles. Stiffening rings may be required if the shell is too thin to transfer the loads to the saddles. The problem of thermal expansion must also be considered.
I2,2
Design of the skirt consists of first determining the dead weight of the vessel W and bending moment M due to wind and earthquake forces (see Chapter I 6) . The
stress
-w
^
Mc -+I
(r2.r)
10. Hence, the area A and the
R/t )
2rRt
rR3 t
: I:
(a) Sklrt
(b)
Leg
(c) L!s
,
where
#'#,
0z.z)
o:
= M=
W
rder
Figur
(e) l2.l
Vessel supporrs.
it
usually
controls the skirt design and is kept below the skirt's allowable axial compressive stress as given by Eq. 8.15.
VESSIt SUPPORTS
Atlcr the thickncss of the skirt r is determined, the next step is designing the anchor bolts. For a given number of bolts Nthe total bolt area can be expressed as NA where A is the area of one bolt. The moment of inertia of bolts about the vessel's neutral axis is I = NAR2/2.'fhtts, Eq. 12.1 is
Toble
12.2
Radial Edge Wrench Across Across Bolt Root Bolt No. of Size Thrcads Arca (in.'?) Flats Corners Spacing Distance Distance Diameter
B
_-w2M ,
where P = load/bolt
17
N -NR
(r2.3)
arJ rr d 10 o1
weight of vessel
'
M=
bending moment
;e
z
rr_6
0.969
1.1'7 5
li
l!2 L7
RE .t? 16a
!!1
a,
ti
z
ri
7F,
1.383
rr_6
1.589
rt
t5
L1
L'
ra-
8 8
8
o.728 o.929
1. 155
ri3
2
zc
.16
L1
2.4t6
2.622
3*l
J7
The maximum load/bolt is based on the allowable stress and conesponding area given in Table 12.1. The allowable stress depends on the type of boli fumished. Table 12.2 shows various properties and required dimensions for bolts with different diameters.
lt li
8 8 8 8
2.828 ^3
-15
Ja-
4
J;
3.035 3.449
+7
12.1. Determine the required skirt thickness and the number of bolts needed in a vessel with an outside radius R = 7 .0 ft. IIJI empty weight Wr : 160 kips, weight of contents Wz: l4l;} kips, wind-bending momenr M : 1500 ft-kips and temperature = 300. F. Assume A307 bolts and use
Example
Figure 8. 11 for the exiemal pressure chart.
+i
zi
^ I J-6 Lz ^3 ZE
t)a
,7
1!
1Z
Ji
3.862 4.2't5
4.688 5.102 5.515
5.259
6.3
7
+i
5
Solution
Skirt design
On
tt
a=
.487
Ji
7i
8
5.928 6.341
'7L
lE
8"1
oi
6.755
+i .ri
rt
ra
8j
9
Lpt
t=
Tqble
12. I
Bolt Type
4307 4325 4449
A.490
Allowable
Tensile
Stress (ksi)
Cross-Sectional Area
(in.')
tr
20 40 40 54
'l{'
is number of lhrcads/in.
lN
Vttilt luPlotTt
r2,2
160
tKlnT aND
lA$
RINO
DIIION all
1l|40
1500
12
r (84
0.37 5 / 2)(0.37 5\
r(83.813f(0.375)
10.28 ksi
bctwccn and/or r,esting on a group of piles, it can be assumed that fte intersction to that of a reinforced concrotc c-on"ret" is similar Uots, bie plaie, U"".. fn t"feoit g to Fig. 12.2, the following assumptions are made:
ttt
*d
1. 2.
0.125
A:
=
Boh design
Let
The contribution of the bolts on the compression side is negligible' The bolts on the tension side are assumed to act as a continuous ring width r", where r" is calculated from the equation
of
RJt
0.001 I
,,=4 zrd
12,100
(t2.4)
A=
psi
OK
3.
l2'1'
N=
I-oad/tntr:
- t2
l@+
2(15ooxl2)
12(84)
:
Frorn Table 12.1,
area requlre{
22.4 kips
:
=
ldW
22.4
| .12
n.2
(N' =.S).
:
=
18.2 ksi
12
1.23
14.8 in.'?
Having established the nurnber and size of bolts, the next step is to calculate thc interaction between the base plate, anchor bolts, and supporting snuchre. If thc supporting structure is a steel ftame or foundation, then Eq. 12.3 is all that is necded for designing anchor bolts. On the other hand, if the foundation is deep
tigl!.o 12,2
lrt
v||||t turro$t
Tobb 12.3 Concntr Proprrflcr
Allowable
Compressive Stess (psi) Compressive Stress (psi) Modulus
I2.2
SKIRT AND
IA3:
RINO DTSION
429
1=,t"
of Flasticity Gsi)
=W=t-2k
(12.6)
f" = o.4sfl
25m
3000
E.:
The total force T of the tensile area of the reinforcement can be determined bv sumrning forces on the tensile side of the neuhal axis which gives
57,WO\/n
Ei
1,t25
1,350 1,575 1,800
lt
8
/8"
t0
9
3500
,1000
'll /,r\( t r = f,t,l;l {r--= ll.,r. yl sin 7 + cos 7l I * \ | [; \z/ tr -1- sln 7 L\z / J)
o|
"E, = 30 x
lf
psi.
, =r,^(1) *,
The disance between
(r2.7)
12
4.
6.
Concrete on the compression side is assumed to have a width t" that is the same as the width of the base plate. The allowable complessive stress of concretel is taken from Table 12.3. The ratio of the modulus of elasticity of steel to that of concrete is defined as n.
is
f
J
(r2.8)
n: .E" Ec
=f'/e, -f"e" e"
f"
f"a"
Similarly, the total force C of the compressive area of the concrete is given by
b=<,,*-{;lls::=;v]
c=(t,+*"r\h*
The distance /3 between C and the neuhal axis is
(12.e)
In an elastic analysis, the stains in the concrete and steel at any location are the same. Hence, e" : e, and
':ti - ,=*
Also, from Frg. t2.2c, using similar triangles
f, d-kd ,1 x=
From these
obtained:
nf. kd
"-216]
lJ2's)
The relationship between extemal forces M and I7 and the intemal forces
and
1] 1Jnf"
2M"=O
assumptions
afr Fig,
w(h + h)
r(h + 4) = 0
alo
0nd
v|lilt lutFom
12,2
SKIRT AND
lASl
RINO
DlllON .ltl
^ = M-W(\+l) t 1ra
1,
(12. r0)
Example 12,2, ln Example 12.1, it was found that l2-lN in. A307 anchor bolts were needed for a vessel with an outside radius R = 7 ft,Wt = 160 kips, M = 1500 ft-kips, and a skht thickness of0.375 in. If/l = 3000 psi, determine the actual stess in the concrete and bolts.
Similarly,
Sohiion.
)r',=o
and
By referring to Fig. 12.3 and Table 12.2, for le-:ff' bolts, the bolt circle can be calculated as
C:T+W
The values of 7,
(12. r 1)
Also
of
/c.
,t":2(0.25 +
Frorn Example 12.1,
1.875
1.375)
0.375
7.375
n.
Tqble 12.4
2h/d
0.01 0.02 0.03 78.52 73.74 70.05
66.93
2t"/d
1.489 1.477 1.465
2h/d
0.016 0,o32
0.048 0.064 0.080 0.096
Kr
3.1 13
Kz o.267 0.378
18.2 ksi
0.04
0.05 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.15 0.20 o.25
@.16
0.463
0.535 0.599 0.657 0.160 0.852
1.049
1.452
r.439
1.426 1.400
1.373
6t.&
57.t4
53.13
44.43
0.30
0.35
r7.46
11.54
0.40
0.45
5.74
0.50
0.55
0.00
0.84 0.80 0.70 0.60 0.50 0.40 0.30 o.20 0.10 0.00
o.128
0.160
2.983 2.935
2.887 2.772
1.304
1.233
1.161 1.087 1.013
o.239
0.318 0.397
2.61
2.551
2.442
1.218
r.370
1.509
o.475
0.553 0.631
2.333
1.640
0.938
0.862
0.785 0.709 0.631 0.553 0.475 0.397 0.318
o.709
0.785 0.862 0.938
1.013 1.087 1.161
2.2U 2.1t3
2.000 1.884
r.765
1.884 2.000
0.@
0.65
0.70
o.75 0.80 0.85
-30.00
-36.8'l -44.43
2.113
t.765
2.2U
2.333 2.442 2.551 2.661
2.772
Figirr. 12.3
1.ffi
1.509
|.3'to
1.218 1.049
t.233
1.304
o.239
I2.2
SKIRT AND
433
of
"f'
and Eq. 12.5 gives
K= r + 9810/(10xr8)
K=
0.43.
:
0.47 ,
O.O2
K=
1= a
1= a 1 a
&:
The magnitude of
o'.,*
o.ssz
which is considerably lower than the assumed value ofl( = 0.43. Hence another trial is needed with a K value of 0.02. After recalculating values of 7, /", C, and /", a new value ofK is obtained and compared with the assumed one. ff both values are approximately the same, the analysis is completed. If they axe not, a new analysis is performed. Thus, in this example after a few trials, for K = 0.O75, the following values were obtained:
= o.srr
2.157
:1 = 0.8s (t
',L --:1.$7
as
& = 1.836
4 d
.
= o.rn
:
The value
49,750lb
is determined ftom Eq. 12.7
as
ofi
K(:2.e47 K) = 0.734 T. _ t5 x ld x t2 tr
-
16
x lff
(0.85
0.120) (172.25)
:35.230
35,230
(o.027 3)(t7 2.2s / 2) Q.e 47 ) 5085 psi
:
From Eq. 12.1I
9810 psi
:
C
C = 49,750
160,000 and
= t95,230 f"=42psi
:2O9,750lb
Equation 12.9 gives
2@,750
K:
I" =
r+(5085/10+42)
0.076
as
,4r.tll',t!tf!,t;;
atrt
vlSlll tUPPOltl
Anchor Cholr Dcrlgn
r2,2
SKtRt AND
lA3!
R|NO
Dll|ON 4$
12,2,I
The base ring is designed both for the effect of the concrete-bearing load on the side of the foundation under compression and for the bblt force on the other side of the foundation in tension. On the compressive side, the base ring can bc assumed as a cantilever beam subjected tol as shown in Fig. 12.4. The required thickness is obtained from 6lj4 C= __V t
r]--l
lrl
ls-l
(")
(b)
t:
\/;
l6It4
PARTIAL VIEW OF
BASE RING
M=
the expression for
r!-
t becomes
\/;
wherc t
tw
---1_r",,
(r2.r2)
DEFLECIION
: : : :
(,
Fisuru 12.5
axis
/" I o
rnining the maximum bending moment in the base ring is rather complicated because of the nature of the boundary conditions and the hole. However, an
approximate and conservative solution can be obtained by assuming the ring to act as a plate simply supported on three sides and free on the fourth side. Using the yield-line theory,l
On the tensile side, the thickness of the base ring is conholled by the amount of bolt force and dimensions shown in Fig. 12.5. The exact analysis for deter-
external
work =
intemal work
F(t) =
or
21,1016
dr
u,
(a
- fi j
__r'
Mp=
2[2n
/a + a /2t
d(2/a + r/21)']
Fi$,r. | 2.a
^4M 't'
lta
w||tt tuDotTl
whcrc o
(
I2.2
SKIRT AND
!A3!
RINO DISION
S,l2b
/a + a /2t
d 12'/a
+ t/zq'l
12.13)
12.3. Design the base ring shown in Fig. 12.7a. Stress in the bolts is 17,500 psi; height of gussets 12 in., and concrete-bearing stress is 100 psi, Allowable stress for base ring is 20,000 psi and yield sfress is 36,000 psi.
Example
ul
approximate free-body diagram of the forces is shown in FIg. lZ.O. Venicat torces are transferred as shown in Fig. l2-6a. The resulting unbalanced bending the gussets resulting from the vertical forcei requires equal and -^_1T:,1i opposrte T horizontal forces as shown in Fig. 12.6b. These horizontal forces induco local sfiesses in the shell that are calculated from the equation
(f =
as defined in Fig. 12.5b. The load in the shell is tansferred tothe anchor bolts through the gussets.
a, b, d, and I
re
Solution.
tained from
An
x100x62
20,000
0.73 in.
From Table 12.2,
tln
net area
of I l-in. bolts is
(12.r4)
force F in bolts
17,500
= 24,6M lb
G)vqlrcaL_EaSaEs
u.c)(b4) ''
zzh
(!)HoRtzoNTaL FoRcEs
Figur. 12.6
Figw.12.7
all
12.13.
vltllr
SuPFol?t
t2.3
D!3|ON
ol
luPPoR?
":''''
From thls trblc, cloarancc for wrcnch diametcr is 3.75 in. Allowing for gusset flllct wclds, the distance between gussets is as shown in Fig. 12.7i. froi fq.
v
ile- designq
thickness
91
z4-roo
--
t-i-7 \i-_/
q
Jtcrta,r
'4-,4
/F lor
--+--
thickness of 0.73
by bolt load, or use a base rin! in. with anchor chairs, as shown n Fig. 12.7. The stess in the shell is obtained from Eq. 12.14 as
"- = -1t
of
point has choice to make. I tlisin., which ais controlled One can either use a base ring 1.07
[Iil-[f[ff]w
ruro,
\7V
,,,u,"'r.,
Column B in Fig. 12.8 is designed to carry shear in accordance with the equation
1.5x24.600x6
: I
oigt n
10,4O0 psi
This sbess is combined with the axial stress and the total must be less than thre tirnes the allowable stess.
I2,3
Support legs are designed to take into consideration axial loads, bendins mo_ ments, and shear forces in tlre vessel. Refering so Fig. 12.g we see that at-cross section A-A all forces are expressed in terms of M, V, and W. The axial force W.is canie.d uniformly by all columns. Bending moment M is carried by the columns away from the neutral axis and the shearing forces v are carried by the columns closest to the neutral axis as shown in Fie. 12.g. Column A in Fig. 12.8 is designed by using Eql I2.3 given by
The shearihg force f at the top of columns B causes bending mornent in the column if no cross-bracing is used. With cross-bracing the force T is resolved irito axial forces as shown in Example 12.4.
T =VQ -Il
Example 12.4. Determine the forces in columns A and B of the vessel shown in Fig. 12.9.
and B due to W is
=-w * n{ -NR
2tu1
F=
w 240 :30 N8
where
P:
W
iV :
weight of vessel
number of columns
_ 2t4 .NR
2x20p,0
M = noment
--"--*-"-ry*"trffiffitrufft
t2.3
rr3t. I'he quantity p of the crosshatched
DIS|ON Ot SUPPOnT
uog
4l
a= wo(?,\ \1t /
/=
50k
The force
2:r2t
M-2aaa8Fr
(b)
Il
is then given by
0.2653 lb/in.
a=
(o.z6sr)(:3y
12.50 kips
:
X=
/2.5
(d)
This force
Il
Force U is a r{dial force on the shell and force X is a horizontal force in the plane
of the cross-b\acing.
.
(")
:igur. 12.9
u=
Hcnt
sin
a=
12.5
0.414
5.18 kips
y= '^
The force X intoduces additional cornpressive force in column B as shown in Fig. 12.9e. The distance between columns is
t=2{ =3.en
The apFoximate height of the colurnns is 20 deers and the axial force F in colurnn B is
ft.
ll
u=W h
The moment of inertia
#n:6e.61
=
kips
I of
force E
= 7O.lt fip.
"n
BA
vtss
suPPokrs
I2,5
A
lhc shgll duc t() support cccentricity is givcn by
119.61 kio
RING GIRDTRS
: --l5() kip total forcc in column B : -50 - 69.61 : total force in bracing : 70.91 kips I
M":
Fe
r2. r5)
If the cross-bracing is eliminated in Example 12.4, the shear force tends to cause a bending moment in column B. Assuming the bottom end of the columns pinned, the horizontal force causes a bending moment at the top of the column of magnitude 12.5 x 20 ft 250 k-ft. Thus, without a bracing system, column B must be designed to withstand a compressive force of 50 kips plus a bending moment of 250 k-ft rather than a compressive force of 119.61 kips with a bracing system. Note that the absence of a cross-bracing causes the tops of the columns to
and the maximum stress in the shell is calculated from reference 2. Both membrane and bending stresses are calculated. Details ofthe required calculations are well established in reference 2. Further treatment of this topic is unnecessary in
this book.
I2.5
RING GIRDERS
sway laterally because of reduced rigidity. This can also cause excessive vibration or deformation of the vessel.
Ring girders (Fig. lz.ld), are common in elevated vessels supported by a structural frame. An exact analysis of the stresses in a ring girder due to various loading conditions is very complicated. For a uniform load, the stresses and forces can be determined easily with the following assumptions:
I2.4
LUG-SUPPORTED VESSETS
The main design consideration regarding lug-supported vessels is the stress magnitude in the shell. Bijlaard's method is usually followed in such a design.2 It consists of determining the stress in the shell at the vicinity of a support lug of height 2C2 and width 2C1, as shown in Fig. 12.10. The bending moment in
l. 2. 3. 4.
Supports are equally spaced. Vertical deflection at supports is zero. Slope of ring girder at supports is zero due to symmetry of loads and
supports.
Torsion force at supports is zero. This assumes twisting of the girder due to flexibility of shell.
Based on these assumptions, t}le moments, shears, and torsion at the supports and in-between supports are given by
M, = Kzwr2
M^
Kswrz (12.16)
: Ka,wr r, =0
V,
v^:o
T^:o
where M,, V,, T" = support moment, shear, and torsion, respectively. Posi tive direction is shown in Fig. 12.11.
M,,
V^, T^
K3
(t
w
= =
midspan moment, shear and torsion, respectively constants obtained from Table 12.5
\__
)r-l t4
1,.,
t
Fisur 12.10
: r:
uniform load
radius
I 2 .5
The maximum torsional moment occurs at the ansles shown in Table is given by
and
Ifl'
Viiiliti,hom
2,t
milo
ottDltt 4t
_ In deriving Eqs. 12.16 it is assumed that thc loade and thc rcactions rct through the neutal axis ofthe girder. In pressure vessels the loads are tansfcrre.d to the ring girder through the shell. If the ring girder is taken as a channel section as in Fig, l2.l3a, tben the loads in the sh-ell cause a bending moment in the girder because they are not applied through the shear (flexural) center. This
moment, shown in Frg.
l2.l2a,
m=-we
Figuro
l2.l I
T*"
supports are obtained ftom
Kewr2
(r2.r7)
e=
b2d2h 41,
The moment, shear, and torsion expressions for any given location between
Me
Ve
The uniform bending moment m causes tension hoop sbess above the r_axis and compression hoop stress below the.x-axis as shown in Fig. l2.l2b. T\e
V,r sin d
M,cos 0
wr2
(l -
cos 01
(l2.l8)
whete M6,
V6, 76
:
=
mornent shear, and torsion at any location angle as define.d in Fig. 12.11
0
Tqble
\ 'r
Angle of Maximum
Torsion
12.5
Ring
Gider Coefficienrs
'l--zt{-
Tr-
Number
Angle
Between
of
2
J
ftom
Support
Ka Ks Ka (degrees)
Suppons
(degrees) K3
180
Supports
120 90 72 60
45
1.5707 1.0471
-0.57m
-o.2091 -0.1107 -0.0690
0.7853
0.6283 0.5235 0.3926 0.3141
5 6
8
-0.t351
-0.0931 -0.0519 -0.0331 -o.o229 -0.0128 -0.0082
-o.M7l
-0.0262 -0.0166
-0.0115
t0
36 30 22.5
18
l2 l6
20
0.261'l
0.1963 0.1570
-0.@65 -0.0042
l0-r 10-, lo-2 10-2 l0-3 10-3 l0-! 10-3 l0-3 l0-"
39.55 25.80
D.21
15.30 12.74
9.53
7.62
634
4.72
3.79
(b) Figw. 12,l2
"--*tr*"wffruruilr12.5
momont and corrorponding strcso can be cxproosod
ac
RINO
OtRDlRt
Uf
,, M=-mr= -v,rb2d2h 4L a:
mry
/.tsev-rr *
rt
L
(12.19)
wb2d2hry
4I?
where
o-
sftess
= width of flange d = distance between flanses ft = flange thickness I, = rnoment of inertia of girder r : radius of vessel
D
(bl
Figurc 12.13
(c)
M,:+
("o,a"otf
- 'rr -
3) - t. t .t
(t2.20)
M,=+(*,;-i)
-Ha tt = Zco.a
v,:-H '2
and in-between the supports 0
= a/2
it-z
Mr=
nrl . ";\sm;
f coo ?
4
W$tt tupPotll
2,6
SADDU
tUPPOmt 49
''''tit'lttl
_ r, = .f,| cos a
Solutlon
7_.i smt
from Table 12.5, with N
w
fia
200
v,: +!:!s a .a
The positive directions of M1,
F1,
t-z
8,
& = -0.0519
Ks
-0.02.52
= 0.3926 K6==3.940x10-3
Kc
Exanp!9 12.5. The ring girder shown in Fig. 12.t4 is supporred at eight points. If I7 = 200 kips, find the forces in the ring at the supports and at the point of maximum torsional moment.
I2.6
SADDTE SUPPORTS
Horizontal vessels supported by two saddles (Fig; 12. le) act as simply supported beams. For vesSels with dished heads (Fig. 12.16a) the equivalent beam lenglh is taken as .L -l 4H 13 where L is the tangent-to-tangent length of the vessel and
.br (,
At Support
Eq. 12.16
M", M^
-82.65 k-in.
12.50
v", v^
L,T^
Eq. 12.19
M
Eq. 12.2V
-60.05 k-in.
+40.54 k-in.
Mf
Fr
lxx =
587.4Inl
k -6.13 k
14.80
k -8.50 k
13.58
'-. Wk+e'\
_
200 1.89
812
=
Flgure 12.14
12.'26'
a==z:45o 6'
t2.6
SADD!! SUPPORTI
4tl
M=60.05 K-in
Fotce.
tt
point ot
l rrinr,n
is the depth of the heads. The vertical load on each head is given by V = 2IIw 13 and is assumed to act at the center of gravity of the head. Thc horizontal pfessure on the heads due to liquid heads is resistd by a horizontal force F acting as shown n Fig. L2.l6b.It is interesting to note that for hemispherical heads where 11 is equal to r, the bending moment at the head{o-shell junction due to force F and vertical force V is zero. The bending moFent at any point in the vessel is obtained from statics as shown nFig. n/f6 lL b The section modulus of the shell between the saddles is I/c and is expressed as rr2t. At the saddles, the effective section modulus is reduced due to the dqfonnation of the shell which renders the full cross section less effective. Research has shown3 that the length of the effective cross section of the shell is equal to the arc length of the contact angle of the saddle plus one-sixth of the unstiffened shell, as shown in Fig. 12.17. The section modulus of the arc length that is in tnsion is expressed as
Il
Z:
r2t
[4
o1\ C2M, for unstiffened shells at saddles or: CrM" for stiffened shells at saddles
,=
C1M6 for
(r2.22'
,TEI
'(.
F=r.w
L/
Fisur. 12.16
450
tigur. 12.17
112 Vllln
tuPForTl
shoss in shell (ksi)
t2.6
SADDI tUPPOtTt
4t0
The shearing stress at the saddle area is influenced by the deformation of thc unstiffened shell above the saddle. Experimental research has shown that the shear near the saddle is distributed along an arc length of
r: t=
c,: '
J,ft't
sinA/A
as
I ^-ll "-r4LA+;inE;I-2Giltlfu)l
- cosA
a, =
wher
CtV
(12.24)
t=o+E
The shear sress in tlre shell between the saddles is computed by assuming a sinusoidal distribution of the shear forces where the maximum value is at ihe equator, given by
^ Cr
o' = I nn 'io
where
@
'
(12.23)
where r
: a:
radius of vessel
0/2 + F/20
ang(e as rneasured in
d= =
Fig. 12.18
and
shear sftess
Equation l2.Z is also used to check.the stess in the head. In this case the value of t in the expression for C3 is taken as the thickness of head rather than shell. The circumferential stress in lhe shell at the saddle area is calculated by assuming the shell above the saddle 0o act as a fixed arch subjected to shearing s&ess as illustated in Fig. 12.19. Using the theory of indeterminate stuctures, the moment at any point along the arch can be expressed as
Ma =
/1
osnzB -
sin,9)
+ jFcosPQF + sin2p)
.
Flgurc 12,18
-sinp
[;B \4
lr
| | \1 ; sin 2B + ; gcoszll o + ll
#a
v||l|taultom
.ltt
"r
3.#Pi
o
o
160
6 o
140
V
.\
s1s
120
-Ut
t@
\
o
w
2
Fi$rc 12.19
o.t
o.2
where
tigw.12,20
Cc=s111.2|-:^P'-=sn2!. '24
The maxirnum value of M6 given by this equation occus at
the maximum circumferential bending moment in the shell can be expressed asa
ll
0:
from B. Hence
,'= (v)",
where C6 is given by
(12.26)
"r=
where C5 is plotted in
H*,
(r2.25)
Fig. 12.20.
..=
and
, /, Experimental work has shown that the wjdth of the shell that is effective in , / j/resisting the moment in F4, 12.25 can be taken as four times the radius or " one-half the length of the shell, whichever is smaller. It has also been showna that Eq. 12.25 is valid whenA/r is eqgg!-Io lfreater than 1.0. For A/r values of 0.5 or less, it is suggEGTll[llvalG-i@1e reduced l tfre neaA. nor inbetween values of A/r, a reduction factor (Rf)
t,
* = (;i -',
can be used.
0.5<:<1.0
A plot of the Quantrtt C6 is shown in fi9. 12.20. When the stess in the shell as calculated from Eq. (12.25) nd 92.?,6) is excessive, stiffening rings are used at the vicinity of the saddles to carry the
bending moment.
illuooRAPHY 1r'
{,
Browncll, L. 8., ald E, H, Young, Procr$ Equlpmcnt Datlgn, John Wiloy, Now York,
1959.
F = bolt
"f"
load
BIBTIOGRAPHY
Ro8rk, R, J.,
f, : allowable lensile stress of steel bolts * = constant given by Eq. 12.5 Kr Kz = constants given in Table 12.4 K3 - (u = constants given in Table 12.5
/=
length
12.2
aodw. C.Yot
Data, Vol.2,
N = number of bolts
n: f,/f.
R = radius
f:
To
V = shearing force
l. t
Wood, R, H, , Pla.rric aal Elattic Design of Slabs 4nd Prater, Ronald hEss, New York, 196l . Wichman, K. R. , A. G, Hopper, ad J. L. Mershon, "Local Stiesses ir Sphericl a|ld Cylin&ical Shels due to ErteErl lradings," BAC Barr"ri, 107, Welding Resarch Council, New
YorL. 1965.
Zic}' L. P.,
Large Horizortal Cylitrdrical Pressur Versls otr T\a,o Saddle "Stsss Suppons" in Prr$rr" Vesscl dnd Piphb DesigL, Collected Pqert 1m7-1959, lJreicat Society of Mechanical Elgircers, New York, 1960.
it
PART
459
CHAPTER
a
T
I3
't
.!
I
5 z ,l
'b
!
*
p
g
461
462
fl.At toTIoM
TANKS
I3.I
INTRODUCTION
four standards:
Flat bottom tanks are normally constructed according to one of the following
F*
oZ
zzz
XXX
1. 2, 3. 4,
storage tanks.
welded, low-pressure storage tanks. ANSI 896.1. American National Standard for welded alumrnum_alloy
API 650. Welded steel tanks for oil storage. API 620. Recommended rules for design and construction of large,
F-
o.l
< | 42
'6bE qa- 9-
-i -i
cl cl
AWWA D 100. Standard for welded steel elevated tanls, standpipes, and reservoirs for water storage.
xxx
E
:.:
a.l
txz
tz
specific requirements and limitations are obtaiied from the standards them_
selves.
Table 13.1 shows a general comparison between the requirements of the various standards. The values in the table serve as a general comparison;
6
\o
however,
.- q. q.
9e
*9.9-
-t
zz
zzz
'6
I3.2
.- Irr ,J t-z
The requkements of API 6501 are for flat bottom tanks containing liquids with litde or no surface pressure. The design criteria are based on simpti"fied equations with a minimum amount of analysis.
|
3.2.
Roof Design
ao
o
o
.+
E<
\o
(,)
:.9
column-supported roofs. As the diameter gets smaller, seif_supporting roofs become more economical. Dome and cone ioofs -" th" -ort popolar iypes. The following equation for designing self-supporting do-" .ooi. is obtained ^ from Eq. 9.2b, which is based on a fairor ot saiety (FS) four:
Flat bottom tanks with large diameter and fixed roof normally are designed with
XXX
o
(t E (t
ed
ERE
< txd
*.E
aa
XXX
d,
c o
<zx-..;
r.)oo
a
5?)XF-
.E }!'EU
e .<
'H
'^
P=-
0.0625 E (n111'
(13.1)
E 'o
0
an
The required thickness is obtained by assuming that the maximum pressure consists ofa live load of 25 psf, which is the assumed maximum snow load, and a dead load of a maximum roof thickness of 0.5 in. as allowed by ApI. Hence
o o
^ s E3 \ E 8.9
EFsE
EtrEE
tsFEE
E e 8-: Ve
,= .9
:
=
E EE^ EEH v 5t
.9*
^" 3 H.c ; ::
?sEFEfE 4 aa6e
5 e*ff
o F
>
trtrtrE
a6.l
I3.2
tptting
f-
'
200
(13.2)
which gives the required thickness of a dome roof. - The roof+o-shell junction has a stiffening ring to provide for the discontinuity forces shown in Fig. 13.1. Force 1l is u,
"."
o)
"*pr".rJa 11 = Ndcos d
PR
API 650 assumes a maxirnum value of o for head-to-shell rings of 15,000 psi. The value of P can be taken as 0.315 psi. The maximurn value of cos 0 for R is 0.8D and is equal to 0.909. Expressing R andD in feet andA in square inches, the required area is
zcos0
and the required area needed to resist this tensile force is given by
(13.3)
^: ux
API uses the equation
.DR
H(D /2) ^_
(13.4)
'-
DR
1500
(13.s)
P"
E-
Substituting
t = 29 x
13.6)
Figure 13.2 shows a plot of this equation for various factors of safety. A more simplified equation used by API is
,: 400 sin 0 -J
where 1 : pquired thickness of cone roof
D
Fis',.o 13.l
(13.7)
(in.)
:
=
rt,2
Alt $0 rAHKI
For tanks with small intemal pressures, the maximum pressure is limited to that which does not cause the uplift of the tan} in the ernpty condition. Hence ftom Fig. 13.3 the upward force due to pressure is equal to the downward force
Pt?2=w.(q)(')
4
r. -.2r.
Flgure | 3.2
In this caee,
The required area at the cone roof-to-shell junction is obtained from Eq. 13.4. H for a deed load condition is liven Oy
PD n= 4sin0
and
A=Dz
Using 1.5,000 pi p = 0.315 equare inches, the rcquired area is
8c sin 0
(13.8)
g:
'*""'-
*-^ffi**Yffiiffiitnmr
13,2
or
API 630
TANKT
{i60
P= 4 =6w+h't
where P = intemal
Imate equation
r'N=--2
30,8004tan0
^ 6th
(13.1 1)
: D: t/r : YW
(in.'?)
lbttr
= D= 4=
P*":W
ferring
t,,
Equation i3.11 may be rewritten to calculate the required junction area -A as (13.10)
. A -- :
(r3.r2)
The stess level at the head+o-shell junction must also be checked. In reo Fig. 13.3, vertical force V is given by
., PD ,D v=__;__\th.l)-;
API 650 assumes failure to occur when the stess in the junction area reaches 32,000 psi. This is an increase of 60% over the allowable sness of 20,fi)0 psi used in deriving Eq. 13.11. Hence failure pressure can be expressed as
4:
whete
P1
r.6P
4.8r,
(r3. l3)
=J 6 tan
_
,P
1 IPD H: ta'J9L4-thrDf 4l
rcquired area is
= A=
of water)
The sepond tenn in Eq, 13.13 is an adjustment factor that corrslates this equation
HDlz
(f
Dzl\ =#4r-to1
ryY .
Bh,
= 1.u,
o.r u
^ Mo tan d r=--jr-+thy
e=ffi+tt,
It.2
Sub8titutlng thia oquatlon into Eq, 13.12 givcs
AFI 610
TANKT ilTl
0.153 W
30,800 tan 0
(r3.14)
which is the circumferential oeam between courses A and B, This mcthod considers that the bottom plate on course B stiffens the next course at point X 0nd the maximum stess occurs at a location higher than X. This location is arbiharily set at "one foot." At point X the hoop stress is given by
: d:
weight of shell
angle of roof with horizontal axis (degrees)
.PD -2t
or
Note that failure of a frangible roof joint is only possible when the wetding is
-_Gy(H-t)D
Design Defining y
gtves
13.2.2 Shell
25
API 650 includes two rnethods for the design of shells. The first is called the "one-foot method," which consists of calculiting Ae re4uir"O ttrict<r,"ss of sn"l course A in Fig. 13.4 based on the hydrostatic pressure at I ft above point X
r)G
+ cA
(13. r s)
: G: I1 D
S
= I=
The second method, the 'variable point method," is an extension of the one-footmethod in that it calculates a more exact location of the maximum stress near the junction of the bottom or shell courses with differing thickness. In this case the bottom course is assumed to be hinged at its junction with the bottom plate. Hence the deflection due to intemal pressure at the junction is equal to the deflection due to an applied shearing force as shown in Fig, 13.5. From Section
{t
TFo= n
Fisure 13,4
4:6p V PR2
.. '=
ZB3DPR'
E-
?AI'IKS
'IAT 'OTTOM
13.2
APt 650
TANKS
473
'l'osts have shown that this equation is too conservative because the maximunl strcss can be many feet away from thejunction where the pressure is reduced and the stiffness ofthe second course becomes signincant. Accordingly, the equatbn lirr the desisn of the bottom course is modified to read
13.
l6)
The thickness of the second course is determined from the following equations;
.2t-=t^
t, ir +<r.37s
Fieur 13,5
.L
The hood stress at any point along the cylinder close to the junction ls given by
h. -l
(t3.r7)
Na=pR(l_Ca.)
where.c& is given by F{,. 5.23. Taking the derivalion of this equatlon with respect to .r and equating it to zero gives the point of maximum Nr.'This occurs
at
where
t2
= lz =
/z
thickness of second course calculated from the equation for upper course (in.)
3tr 4p
and
lr, = rn(r =
Hence
"n,to
"o"3!)
(13.18)
1.06 PR
where "r is the variable design point that is a function of the thicknesses of layers,
tank radius, and liquid height. In referring to Fig. 13.6,.r is the minimum value of .r1, -r2, and "r, obtained
t=
Ne/S 1.06 pP
_
or using the terminology of ApI 650
s "'
Ch"
xz
where
= l '22lrt"
'=
rr.oor(a!429)
t ={.*,(*=-! I + K\/K
--* nr-Tfflffiffiiifrir
P
3
r3.2
Apt 6t0
TANKS 47t
locATtot{ OF TA CF TAN(
SHELL
oEstcit Fo[{T
VARIAELE
_ 2.42E ( (t/o)rt 1 Fs (r - *zltte \n /o - o.4s \/;lDl or for long cylinders with E : 30 x 106 psi and p = 0.3,
H =77.e2
Substituting P",
'"1-:
/
0.3iI Gh,
0.61
fr/
iflN. Hrr. OF xi
WHEl,l
+'1.o;c-o.xr
I 'Tn
'll
I
,6+j.-l
where
UNRESTRAIT{ED
0..'ffi
Figure
MDIAL
GROTIT'TH GROTITN
t D, lh,,t1 t.-{// \--EtElo3fic nrovment oI rhll cour!. ot girth ioint (Rt. 5).
13.6
The required section modulus of the stiffening ring necessary for resisting the lateral pressure is obtained from the following classical buckling equation of a ring:
I
as
*=?
3EI
R3
towindroadsm'it*.n*d.ri:;lil:J"-Hfr::3*Tilffi
p = O.00256
where p = wind
pressure (psf)
V2
if:#,::;
where
-: "
F=
Hence
3EI
Fs(R)
PH
a__100-mph
specified. Hence
PrlilFS)
P = 25.6 Psf
3E
shell is designed to withstand a yaglum pressure of 25.6 psf. A simplified expression for the buckling of cylindrical s-hells is given Uy fq. O. tZ as
Because the pressure distribution may cause a vacuum on part of the shell, the
FS z= PHD2C/D 2AE
(r3.20)
1rt
!;rlll.rr{jwlillirfrs
illT tonom
?aNl(t
I3,2
APt 650
TANKT
4ll
of the tank is not lcss than 0.015. Hence, C/D = 0.0075. Usins FS : 2.0. P = 25.6 psf, E = 29 x 106 psi, and expressing D and If in feet,-the equation for the required section modulus of a stiffening ring is
API arsumca that tho rstio of thc outstanding leg of a stiffener to thc diameter
Z = O.Offit HD2
where z =
requirc.d section modulus
(r3.21)
II :
D
|
3.2.3 Annulor
Plqtes
ApI 650 tank is given in Table 13.1. At the shell-to-bottom plate junction, the ApI standard requires a buttwelded annular plate whose thickness varies between 0.25 and 0.15 in. and is a function of the shess and thickness of the first shell course. The width of the annular plate nust be adequate to support the column of water on top of it in cas of a foundation settlement. By referring to Fig. 13.7,
al
*=+
Using plastic analysis,
lM
,
(b)
4M tisut
13.7
L= L=
R Y;
"l
where tr
t;fr
yGH
: /a : 1l: G:
length of annular plate (in.) thickness of annular pla0e (in.) height of liquid (ft) specific gravity of liquid
Letring p = 62.4 pcf, a), = 33,000 psi, and expressing inches, the equation becomes
H in
fe,et and
4 in
Exarnple 13.1. The steel tank in Fig. 13.8a contains a liquid at the roof-toshell junction level. Eesign the various tank components if G = 1.1, CA = 0.0, S = 15,000 psi. Use the "one-foot" method for shell design.
._
195
tb
\/GH
Sohtian,
l3.l
gives
API 650 uses a factor of safety of two for the length. The length of the annular plate is thus expressed as
2n
Use
L=
390
in.
\/ GH
(r3.22)
For the shell design the required thickness for the bottom course is given by Eq.
ata
'ltt
torTors ?A]{t(l
r3,2
lV'
ae
I/ = 6(100t)
Usins a conservative value of
0.25 in.,
I1 :6(100 x 0.25)
(.)
v\s"/
Zroo
o:sV
26.20
ft
Because this is larger than the height of the tank, no intermediate stiffeners are needed.
4r4xt
4.27
n.2
Use
4 x 4 x 5/8 in.
angle with
A = 4.61 n.2
t = ll4 in. according to Table 13.1. Assume the annular plate is 1/4 in. thick. Then the width of the armular plate from Eq. 13.22 is
For the bottom plate use
(b) Fisur6 | 3.8
L = ------_
39oh
YGH
-:ffi
L
390
0.25
13.
15 as
2JJ79
in.;
. '
=
2.6(80\Qo 15,m0
0.29
- txl.t)
r = 5/16 in. for
the bottom course
13.8b.
in.
Example
Use
In Example 13.1, determine (a) the maximum allowable internal pressure and the maximum failure pressure, (b) the required roof-to-shell area if a ftangible joint is required, and (c) the thickness of the shell using the design conditions of Example 13.1 and the variable point method.
13.2.
.- _2.6(80X10-1x1.1)
15,000
Solation
(a) The maximum pressure that does not cause uplift of the shell is obtained ftom Eq. 13.10:
0.14
in.
Use
r3,2
APr 630
IANKS 4tl
. r'*=--lo-+Ex0.437s
:
junction is giveo by Eq. 13.11
U4)
h1
Yrtr
indicates that tz t2! as given by Eq. 13.17. Equation 13.18 is based on an iterative process that is initiated by assuming a value of f2, which can be obtained from the approximate equation
t": -'
2.6H- t) DG '
15,000
The maximum pressure that does not cause excessive stess ai the head-to-shell
as
_2.6x9x80x1.1
15,000
^
:
=
(30,800x4.61x0.s77)
16.3 in. of water From Eq.13.19,
: r.
O1n
0.14 in.
0.59 psi
Thus, maximum intemal pressure 0.21 psi. The failure pressure from Eq. 13.13 is
K=-=1':-;=2.14 t" u. t4
C
.r,
Pr:
=
1.6
:
=
0,59
0.6tV@l-iZXo5 + 0.32(0.5eX10 x
0.59(10
70.80
12)
:29.98
:
p1
rz:
xc
12)
1.22Y(40
l2)(0.14)
=10
Hence -r
0.t53 W
l0 controls
and
-x tz=2.6D@ a,-/r2\G
2.6(80X10
as
ro/r2)(r.D
(c) The thickness of the bottom course is calcrilated from Eq. 13.16
15,000
6.1a
0.463
x m
80
6x20x80x1.
15,m0
f.
Because this value is the same as the assumed one, the analysis is complete, and no additional iteration is needed. Hence. use
h: 5/16 in. for the bottom course tz: l/4 n. for the top course as govemed by Table 13.1 I
-' -.---ru-*ryffiffiiuffiTtliii
I3,3
API 620 TANKS
..2iL$tua
API 620 tanks2 tend to be more complicated in geometry and are generally hiekr-ilptt^pressu'e than Apr 650 tank;. Accordingly, trr! :llJ9:Id g of API 620 differ rquirements significantly fiom those of ApI 650 because the mrcknss of the components is obtained from shess analysis that considers the biaxial shess state rather than a set of simplified formulas. _ The shess analysis procedure in Apl 6t0 is based on Eqs. 6.10 and 6.11. Equation 6. I I for /Vd can be determined- for any shell configuration by using the summation of forces obtained from a free-body diagram.-The advantage of a free-body diagram is that forces other than pressure cair be accountedlor without C:inF tryugh T inregration process. Once Nd is determined, the value of ly'e is obtained ftom Eq. 6.l0 as
'l
.62,4 pct
l&*&=o
R2
Rr cross section.
(r3.23)
where
Ne
= X of forces at a given
\.
13.23 ro
13.3. The rower shown in Fig. 13.9 is filled with a liquid whose specific gravity- is 1,9 rlp to point d. Above point a the tower is subjectd to a gas pr9sswe of 5 psi. Determine the forces in the various components of the tower disrcgarding the dead weight of the tower.
Example
Solutian
Roof Forces
The maximum force in the roof is obtained from
and
fron 84.
13.23 with R1
:
t\o ^,
Rz
48
ft,
_PR_ 5x576 - 2-
:
Fig. 13.10a. Below section a_o,
and the unbalanced force 11.
1440 lb/in.
a 5-psi pressure is needed to balance the pressurJabove sectjon a_a. Force lVu in the roofhas a vertical component V around the perimeter of the roof. Sum_ mauon ot torces in the vertical direction eives
40-Ft Shell
The maximum force in the shell is at section b-D as shown in Fig. 13.10r. Total weight of liquid at section D-b is
av -
,o,ll o
=
600 lb/in.
v=!=s"ff
Total pressure at
w r-,
is 5
(62.4/144)(35).
=:rr^;*:X,:,o,
P = 20.17 psi
Hcnce
-=ff;;%
2,744,s00
(2O.17)GiQaD' + v1ay480;
V = 600 lb/in.
' -- "
\,4)"1'nr'
r3.3
API 620
TANKS
4T5
(e)
lV:i
c(c)
+-
cb- - -
_c
Tfr-{-tT
v
.-b
o)
b"(d)
Figuro 13.10
----d
and
oo
and Rz
= R.
Ne_pR=(n.n)(?/io)
=
Conical Trawition
V:
and
600 lb/in.
zt84l lbiin.
wo
-. =
:
di6
849 lb/in.
Hence Eq. 13.23 becomes
600
At section b-b force V in the zl0-ft shell rnust equal force V in the cone due to continuity, as shown in Fig. l3.l0}.
co and
iz = R/sin L
'""
-" --ilffi*-"""Tiiftl6ffii'iinn
13,3
APt 620
TANKS 4tt
&=g0=uo?o:!!) -srn
0.707
20-Ft Shell At section c-c the value of V in the 20-ft shell is the same as V in the cone duc to continuity. Thus
N1
6847 lb/in.
600
lb/in.
(inwards)
Figure 13.10c shows the forcs at point c. The weight of tiquid in conical
= lt
,'1llol,ff^",,,',
At section d-d the liquid weight is given by
-2777 lbli'..'
*=4rl+R,R,+n3)
-3 : 457.2100 lb -(Iy+
Total liquid weight is
W:
=
j,?rr,9oo + (62.4)(n)(r0)2(zs)
3,692,000 lb
2,744jffi +
457
,4n =
3,201,900 lb
/6) A\ P=s+l#l(70)
5 + (62.4/ A0@S\.
:
From Fig.
35.3 psi
p = ?A.5 psi
Sumrning forces at section c-c gives ('24.s)Gr|(r2o)2
3,201,900
(v)Giea\ = o
N6
35.3(r)(r2o)2
+ v(r)(2$):
l/ = -2177 lblin'
= -2777 tbtin.
- The negative sign indicates that the vertical component of iy', is opposite to that assrrmed in Fig. l3.l0c and is in cornpression Ltner man 6nsion. This is caused by the^column of liquid above the cone whose weight is greater than the net pressue force at section c-c.
No: PR = (35.3X120)
:4236lblin. I
13.3.1 Allowqble
Stress Criterio
: : H. :
-.t11''
0.707
-39271blin.
(compressive)
The required thicknrcss of API 620 components in iension is dtermined from the larger of the values obtained from these two exDressions:
, =N' -sE
(13.24)
lb/in.
'
.rt{"
,tE
488
13.3
Compressive Stress with Equal Magniludc
API 620
TANKS
489
whorc t :
Ne No
lerentinl Dbections
The goveming equation is obtained from Eq. 6.35 for the buckling of a spherical
Section 8.1
The API criteria for components in compression are as follows. Compressive Stress
a= srz,soo(*)
which is approximated in API
as
in
No
Stress
in the Circum-
ferential Directian
The rules for this case are based on the axial buckling of a cylindrical shell as given by Eq. 5.28. With E = 30,000,000 psi and a factor of safety 10, this equation becomes
r,ooo.oool;l
/.\ \^/
(13.26)
,=,.,,,o'(f)
13.2s)
This value is 1.8 times smaller than the value given by Eq. 13.25. Accordingly, the limit ofEq. 13.26 is established as 15,000/1.8 = 8340 psi. Thus oDElc in Fig . I 3 . I 1 is the criteria used for components having compressive stress of equal magnitude in the meridional and circumferential directions. Compressive Stress with Unequal Magnitude in the Meridional and Circum-
To prevent the stress in Eq. 13.25 from exceeding the allowable tensile stress of the material, an arbihary value of 15,000 psi is established as the upper limit of the allowable compressive stress. This is shown in Fig. 13.11 as line OABC where 4-B is a transition line between Eq. l3.ZS and the upper limit of 15,000 psi.
terential Directions
The criteria for this case are based on the following equations: (larger stress) + 0.8(smaller stress) shess determined fuom OABC tn Fig. 13.11 using R for the larger force
<
1.0
(13.27a)
at
th
1.8(smaller stress) shess determined from OABC in Fig. 13.11 using R for the smaller force
< 1.0
(13.27b)
o o
Compressive Stress in One Directinn and TensiJe Stress in the Other Direction
o
t
The criteria are based on the assumption that the capability of a component to resist compressive force in a given direction is reduced as the tensile force in the other direction increases. The goveming relationship is derived as follows. Let
,
E
Figure
rrr
--ii_------:-i--------------
l3.ll
t:.tt
fLAt
und
lotTot
TANKS
I3,3
actual tensile
491
Rool
ol
l8nk
Then
M2+MN+N2=1.0
13,3.2
(13.28)
The interaction of this equation with Eq. 13.25 is shown in Fis. 13.12.
Compression Rings
p_ression ring region at that location. The region can be in tension or compression depending on the direction of the discontiriuity as well as the troop torces. apt 620 as-sumes that portions of the roof, shell, and cone shown in He. 13.13 are
As shovn in Example 13.3 there are unbaranced horizontal forces at the roofto-shell and cone-to+hell junctions. These forces must be carried by a com_
Fisur
13.13
Q=Na,Wn+N1'"W"+HR
(r3.2e)
where
!
3
: Nr. : N0, :
Q
I7r,
= =
(in.)
W"
11
: R:
t:
\
The total required area at the junction is determined from
i
B
Flgura 13.
l" *r'o
Sioxiol stress chon for combinod retuion ond comprelsion 3O.Om p3i ro 38,OOO pst yietd srr$s
:
=
is,ooo--L
when Q is compressive
(r3.30)
when Q is tensile
'.'
--*""*'ffi **TffiTffi
whorc A
S
f irmr
a,rpa (in,2)
roqulrtd
E = joint efficiency
Details of various ring attachments are shown in Fig. 13.14.
Example 13.4. Deterrnine the required thicknesses of the 20_ft shell and the conical reducer in Example 13.3. Also detemine the required stiffening ring arca at point c. I,et S 20,000 psi, E = 1.0, and CA :0.O.
No
are
'=
4236 2o"ooo x
lo
0.21 in.
kt . 9. t=i6-'
Then
Figurol3.14
!,6!y
z 4t
, tfsom
6v.tiir.
Y-J
of {|.
Not P.rh'.3rbrc
Fmi.libl.
qnd noip6rml$lble
f.:
o.oo+z
actual tensile
r*rr
ffi
7530 psi
493
.91
13.3
APr 620
TANKS
495
ffi
+S+O Vsi
106 10.5625\
actual compressive
,o"r. =
8zl40psi
from Eq.
13.25
= l.g x
\-m-)=
ru=ffi=0.:o
n
0.302
use
0.38
=W: 7290
o.ts
0.78'?
+ 0.30 x 0.78 +
= 0.91 0K
M = ,Ooo = O.SS
0.38'?
+ 0.38 x 0.59 +
0.592
or
user=9/16in.
N, = 849 lb/in.
Ne
and from
6847 tb/in.
Eq. 13.24
' = 20,000
6847
:
Forces at point c are given by
0.34 in.
Na
No,
= -3927 lblin'
C3927)(6.48) + 2940(4.93) + (-3927)(r2o) -482,190 lb
: l/a :
N,
Lt
-3927 lblin.
4158 lb/in.
Q: :
From Eq. 13.30,
t = 11/16 n.
Then
", _
available
482,190
15,000
= area =
32.15
n.2
required area
(0.6875X6.48)
(0.5625X4.93)
31.25
.23
24.O2 in.2
"rr
ffi
6o5o psi
Use 2
in. x
12 in.
ti"g. I
.9O
I3.4
ANSI
I3.4
TANKS
497
The rules for ANSI 896.1 Tanksr follow the same general criteria as ApI 650 rules. Differences in various requirements between ai-uminum anJ sieet tants are given in Table 13.1.
|
, = r"oo -
(13.34)
3.4.
Design Rules
The design of dome roofs is obtained from Eq. 9.2b and is based on a factor safety of 4.0. Hence,
of
ANSI 896.1 uses an approximate equation which, for the design lrxrf.s, is given by
conical
o.06258
t=-
\/F
1414 sin 0
13.35)
\R/t)'
Using E
t= ToiYP where r = p=
thickness of dome roof
R-
where r = required thickness of cone roof (in.) D = diameter of tank (ft) P = dead plus live loads (psf)
(13.31) 0
The required area at the roof-to_shell junction is obtained from Eq. 13.4:
--
PD2
8o sin
(13.36)
O_DRpcos0
4o A conservative value of cos 0 is taken as 1.0. Hence,
(r3.32)
D= o:
(13.33)
0
diameter of tank (ft) allowable tensile stress (psi) angle between cone surface and horizontal base (degrees)
^_
PRD
4o
where A = required area at dome roof_to_shell junction (in.z) P = dead and live loads (psf)
The design of aluminum shells is based on Eq. 13.15, which is based on the "one-foot" method given by
roof (ft)
I:_----.4
2.6D (H
tt
(r3.37)
allowable tensile shess of roof, shell, or junction area, whichever is less (psi)
where r: shell thickness (in.) D = tank diameter (ft) 11 = height of liquid (ft) G = specific gavity
498
FLAT
IOTTOM TANKS
BIETIOGRAPHY
/:
e = joint efticiency
top tanks,
Il
ANSI B96.1 does not contain mles for intermediate stiffening rings. For open 'iilio. a stiffening ring is required, *hich is basJ;; a. i" *,, is defined as the overall height of the t"* ""*, ,J-E{I.'liio;;";;".
dcsign of components. Instead it outlines the general requirements associatc(l with design loads, earthquakes, allowable compressive stress in columns, radiographic examination, and so on. Most of the requirements in API 650 can bc applied to AWWA tanks. Some exceptions are given in Table 13.1.
REFERCNCES
- _ PHD,
48
(FS)
(13.38)
E Q/D)
l. 2. 1.
for Oil
In an elastic body,
for Design and Construction of Large, welded, Lout-Pressure Storage Tanks, 7th ed., API Standard 620, American Petroleum lnstitute, washington, D.C., 1982.
= Ee
13.3e)
4. 5. 6,
and for a stiffener in bending, the relationship between strain and curvarure
t=
Hence, from Eqs. 13.39 and 13.40
t
2R
(13.40)
for welled Aluminum-Allo! Storage fdt tJ, ANSI 896.1-1981, America[ National Standards Institute. New York. 1981. AwwA Standotd fot Welded Steel Elev.tted Tanks, Standpipes, and Resen'oirs for water StoraS?, AWWA Dl00-73, Afterican Water Works Association, New York, 1973. Zick, L. P., and R. V. Mcclath, "Design of Large-Diameter Cylindrical Shells," presented at the 33rd Midyear Meeting of the American Pekoleum Institute, 1968. Karcher, G. G., "Stresses at the Shell-to-Bottom Junction of Elevated-Temperature Tanks" in l98l Proceedings-Refning Department, 46th Midyear Meeting, American Petroleum Institute, May 1981.
American Nation^l Standard
t =f 2D 2E
Substituting-this expression into Eq. 13.3g and using a factor of safety 2.0, the expression for the required section modulus Z becoires
BIBTIOGRAPHY
Steel Tanks
for Liquid Storase-Steel Plate Engineering Data, Vol. Institute, Washington, D,C,, 197 6.
l,
z = 0.084 PHD'
(13.4r)
/: I3.5
Most water tanks are built in accordance with the ..American Water Works As.sociation Standard for Welded Steel Elevated Tankr, Si_Jpio".,'_o n"r"._ voirs for water Storage.'a The standard gt";, ;;";ons rbr the
f"* ;;";#"
CHAPTER
14
Rod bdffle h.or x.honsers. (Courr$y of ihe Noorer corpororion, Sr. touis.)
501
Heet transt'er cquipment is used in many applications such as boilers in power plants, heat exchangers in the petrochemical industry, and condensers and evaporators in heating and refrigerating systems. Heat transferequipment varies from miniature heat exchangers a few inches in diameter to power boilers over 100 ft long. This chapter presents the theoretical background and design equations of heat exchangers and boilers.
raat
.'AT|oNARY I{AO TY?II atiEu tYPl5
aNo
----tlll!-i l,-tn
E
'1t'-ii'
L
ONE PA3s
SHETL
14.I
ll,l
TWO PrSs SHEI!
WITTI TONGITIJDINAL AAfRC
---{11=i l-\
fIXED TUBESHEI
flxlo
Tuscs8fEr
H(AO
Heat exchangers in the United States are normally designed according to the Standards of Tubular Exchanger Manufacturers Association (TEMA)I and the ASME Code, VI[. In general, TEMA requirements are a supplement to the ASME requirements, for they tend to include areas not discussed in the ASME. Most of the TEMA design e.quations relate to tubesheet design when affected by differential pressure and temperature, expansion joints, bustles, and so on. TEMA uses alphabetical designation to differentiate between vadous types of frequendy used components. This is illustrated in Fig. 14.1. The components can be interchanged to form a wide variety of heat exchanger configurations, as shown in Fig. 14.2.
llr la-I
-Jl
a
!ii!r I
BONNET
-tL---.>
N
(NftCRAI
p
H
OI,i'!;IDE PACKCD FLOATING
'IEAO
c s
J
+J11------
Their rules, which apply to thft different classes of construction depending on the severity of service, are referred to as R, C, or B. A summarv of the differences between these classes is given in Table 14.1.
.---LI
WTH
----Lfn\
\
$.=.!a_(n===
DEVICE
FLOATING HEAD
'ACKNG
Tqble
14.l
C, qnd B Exchongers
I
PUTI THROIJOh fLOATING HEAO
CIIANNEL II
K
KETILf TYPE RE'OILEN
'1-1-------------\\
Paragaph
Service
fuIJ-IIJBf SUNOLE
o_||
,l
t.l2
1.15 3.3
Severe
i
Corrosion allowance
(cafton steel)
Shell diameter
rn.
Moderate
General
in.
-l
in.
x
SPECIAL TiIGH PICSSUR CTOSUNE
__'ii',
__
8-60
Minimum thickness of
longitudinal baffle
4.42
i h.
;
in.
Figurs
l,(.1
Vorio{rs IEMA component6. (Courtesy of the Tutulor Exchongr Monufoturoi! Alsociotion, Inc.)
4.71
in.
I in. i io.
None
atloys
"1
in. alloys
in.
6.32
!+
?n.
None
l0.
s j in.
t in.
503
AJW
Fis'lrc
l,{.2
(conrinued)
I4.2
.l
The basic equation for the design of heat exchangers is obtained from Examples 7 and 7 .2 ^s
"
|.'APaz
T -7=
0.7 5Pa2
o=
Letting G
:'l*:
5(M
].o
=ttE {',
rornxedprate
50s
5OO
I4.2
507
whcrc Cr is a constent that is based-on such parameters as ligament efficiency, tubc.stiffening effect, and method of edge suiport. n" fiV"e for the required thickness of a tubesheet in bending is based "q""tion_ g.77. on a t^t6i Hence.
C,
-_FG t, '-7 Vs
where
(14.1)
= required thickness of tubesheet G = diameter P = applied pressure S = ASME allowable tensile stress F = factor equal to I 25 for simply supported plate and I
.
plate.
00 for a fixed
Tle $earing stress in the tubesheet at the outer tube perimeter must also be checked and kept below an allowable stess. The tota force W aue io press*e
Fisurs l,{.3
l4.3is
W=PA
The shear area A" through the outer perimeter is obtained from Fig. 14.3 and is
d"
= p=
e,=
Hence the shearing shess
cr( -e)
as
Example
o ls expressed
14.1. A tubesheet for U-tube exchanger has a 12-in. diameter and is subjected to a design pressure of 100 psi. If the tube layout is as shown in Fig. 14.4 and S 17,000 psi, what is the required thickness? Assume the edge to be simply supported.
A" Cr(l a=
Thus Eq. 14.2 becomes
PA
d,/p)
(14.2) is given by
VIII-I,
_ 0.3tDL lP\
0 - dJpt\i)
within outer tube perimeter
(14.3)
w\erc
DL
4Af C
area of tubesheet
Figuro
A=
l,{,,(
IOI
I4.3
509
Solullon,
F'ronr
Lq.
14.
l,
where M7
2
- _ (r.2s)\r2)
=
From Eq. 14.3 with
: Er :
11
0.58 in.
= I=
4 = factor
34.97 in.
Thus
,. NErlrF,a,r M, = __:,TA'l
M,
14.))
f,*, = 0.58
in. I
ANArySts oF TUBESHEETS tN
U_TUBE
THEORETTCAI EXCHANGERS
r4.9
Gardner in 1959 published a papef that explained the interaction between the tubes and tubesheet in U-rube ireit exchangers. Gardner assumeJthe interaction
th";1;.;-
,r= -nTt
(r4.4)
DX
o
o.2
OA
Fn
1
2
4.OO
More
3Or
400
3a3
3.70
3.83 3.69
o.6
359
3.52
3.OO
Figure
3.60 3.53
3.46
o8
1.O
3.43
F'sur6
la.5
(Rf. 2)
1,t.6
(RcI. 2)
I)clining
I4.3
THEORETICAT ANALYSIS
OI
TUSTSHETTS IN
U.TUBI TXCHANGTRS
5l
r0)
Eq. 7.7
where D* is the modified flexural rigidity of the tubesheet and ly' is the total number of tubes. The differential erquation of the bending ofa plate as given by
'= cry#)"'
(14.6)
IIU")
( 14.
becomes
For simply supported tubesheets, the moment at the edge is not zero because the outer tubes have a bending moment that is transferred to the tubesheet. For this boundary condition, the value ofAl is given by
A1
.,/d,u\ ,\d,)
a
(14.7)
This equation can be solved in terms ofBessel functions. For plate, the solution can be expressed as
edge
(14.1l)
. =uJ-{1g1_!1_
dw pa3 / -I\ dr= o.\zu2)LU-Alt(utl
_
Afto@") _
r"(U)t}
With the value ofA; established for the two boundary conditions, the values of M,, M,, and Q can be obtained from Eqs. 7.3a, 7.3b and 7.10 as follows:
(14.8)
u,:
(r4.9)
r*fi{o
p+y
- alro14 - 5Or,<rr]}
elsaul
w = deflection
a,=
+9nP4u,]}
t'0
"'
P = applied
pressure
U.=
A=
10,
(a
9 = rafir,<u)
The maximum value of M, can be obtained from boundary conditions and U values. Hence,
u=tr
constant of integration
various
1r
D*=
.E'*
E*73
M'* = Pa2 F.
where F.
(14.13)
= effective modulus of elasticity of perforated tubesneer Z = thickness of tubesheet t,r = effective poisson,s ratio of perforated tubesheet a = radius of tubesheet r = radius of a given point on tubesheet
d
: coefficient obtained from Fig. 14.7. The maximum bending stress is given by lt \T/ ' =e!e\
(14.14)
tube diameter
tube pitch
:p -
p
as
p=
For fixed tubesheets, the rohti,on at the edge is zero and Eq. 14.9 can be solved forA,:
i(#),",
(l4.ls)
,22
.20
.18
.16
74
12
.10
.oa
.ou
""1
.o2 |
234567
rigurc 1,1.8 (ReI.2)
u .t ,
Or-U 6 7 8 9 "
Fisurs
10
ra.;
Ger. 2l
Equations 14.16 and 14.17 arc combined in a plot, as shown in Fig. 14.9.
The interaction between the tubeshe"t ttii"t oy combining Eq. 14.6 with Il" = !a:
*lY . 4 =
Example
is illustrated
14.2.
if
E* : 9.0 x
106
psi
(:)=h
t
N= 88 Er=30x
lt* : Ir =
0.3
O'0166
106
psi
n=
3.46
l=
(14.16)
12 in.
r-zts
T
AA
where
E+ Iasl ^=ftztl=il4f.Nr,lt/t L l
Also Eq. 14.13 can be expressed
as
1a\
/l\= \qo/
or
^' 6F^U2n
5t2
ff:
ar.utu
(14.17)
Fisurg
1,{.9
(Ref. 2)
drAr la
srlR laulPMlNT
I4,4
Then
515
11,390
U.:(a=18.78
T=THIcKNESS Or PERFORAIED PIAIE
f. = 0.008 (conservative)
,=10--9'7s=0.r,
and from
Eq. 14.14,
o_
o=
(6)(0.008)(100)/
0.2s
psi
< 6 (,
0.6
o.s
o.4 o.s
\o.z+)
12,000
>
OK
UI
TUBESHEETS
The ASME Code, VII_I, uses the method in- Section 14.3 for designing tubesheets. The tigament efficiencv 4^obtained from o',D#Jiii.Jrk, is sum_ manzed in Figs. 14. t0 and 14. il . Because the diamet , oiti" ouirt" tuu. ,o* ls normally less than the tubesheet dlameter, an adjustment is made to Gardner,s t4. t4.t3. The tubesheet is assumed ," a and an outside ring of outer "r"riri.ii" iirilr"i"Tllj,. r"or, radius ,. Accordingly, Fig. 14.9 must be modified ft"-y,io_ot b/a. A ::.J.j:., on Heat Exchan8ers sample of the curves developed by the ASME ruSgr_o_up is shown in nigs. r+. r z anJi+ifr rlr. , .r I .os. r,xpressing Eqs. t4.16 and 14.17 in rerm's oi
o.1
02
Figure
03
14.10
04 05 06
08
1.o
LtcaMENT EFFrcrEt{cY, ?
TAIANGULAB PITCH (Ref. 3)
=+cq
r;;;;;;;;;;".
g,"".
as
,
where f = 6F^
",e.J
(14.18)
c,=+s
r, : otl(f) 110
(14.19a)
I4.4
517
\
2.OO
-0.1
\
SIII'AFE
P|ICII
ROTATED
PLATE
09
o8 o:l
2 2
o.6
0.20
o o 05
OA
0.r0
0.04
uI
o3
a2
o.l
oo
o.2 0:i
LGAmENT EFFrcrENcy
SQTJAFE PITCH
rtl
o4 05 05
, -
PFd'
oa
o.o2
Fisure
l4.l
(Ref. 3)
0.8
c^
1.0
2.O
3.0 4.0
5.0
Expressing
Figvre
Triangular pitch
14.12
K'
a G
a
,:
where
of
rlZ,,
(l4. r9b)
and
/*
r*: "
li'
2K'
Example 14.3. Determine the thickness of the tubesheet of Example 14.2 using ASME's Eq. 14.l9b.
t tl
I4.5
519
2AAeA
t 66
;;
SOUARL P]TCH
\,
ROIATTD SOUARI
P TCH
K: bA
I4.5
The shess analysis of fixed tubesheets in heat exchangers is very complex due
to the large number of variables that affect the analysis such as difference in tube
Tlar
Figure
l,l.l3
SOUARE PIrcH
(Court
.y ot
and shell strain, the ratio of shell and tubeshet stiffnesses, effective applied pressure, and relative thermal expansion of shell and tubes. The development of the simplified TEMA design equations for determining fixed tubesheet tlickness is based parfly on the theoretical work done by Gardnel'5 and Miller.6 From Eq. 7.9 the differential equation for the bending of circular plate is given by
5.0 and
= 6.0.
Hence
K, = t.?
(r4.20a)
The next sction shows that in a fixed tubesheet the quantity q, which is the local pressure at radius r, is not a constant. Rather it is a function oftll given by
f+
From Eq.
o.sz
Q:Cz'rKlm-2w)
where g: local pressure C2 = constant
l4.l9b with G
3.0,
r = 3.0(0.s2)
=
O.2A
(0.25X17,000)
in.
Nt(d!;-t)Er
!20
I4.5
521
: 4:
L
,,?
lcngth
ol
tubcs
a,:
move with respect to each other. Now define
"f-----"----=tt-l - r'#ll
fzzi,,rfr
Q"
\t4.22)
FqP
(14.23)
*ffi*2,'fi-*#*,ff**oo=o
where
where
Z,(x.)
^ -,
,a
=--
x. Zz@.) 2 zi&"\
,, h6) - "
(r4.24)
I 4.20e
and 14.2Of
p* =
M"
0"
lzz6.) +
_
BD*
L--
rr-,r\ vzltr;l
x4
- alz'G) L I
(l-
-::------r!'zt9a)l xa
ttt
zl(x") + Hzte")
\14.25)
This equation can be solved in terms of Bessel functions. For symmetnc loads, the solution can be taken as
or
q=C2[27@)+HZ2@)]
(r4.20b)
zl(x)
ffiV,<ol -
H=ZL@.)
Z1@)
+ HLzze)
z+(x)l|
(14.20c) (14.zod)
e=ffifzX,l+Hz!(x)l
(14.26')
", ft
The value of 11 is based on the edge condition of the tubesheet. For fixed
tubesheet,
4:
,=-t#
[zzb) ,.. = -\ffi] + l0 -
(14.27)
whcre the Z functions are as defined in Chapter 7 and C and be det^ermined from the boundary condidons. Definrng P as the average pressure acdng on the
II
are consranm to
O and
I"
*o
* = r,z&)lt - rffi]
ttt/x"Vt,- r\
(14.21)
"t
04.28\
i|IAI IiAII'IIR
f1t^u.uiu"n
IQUIPMINT
and f.o_fi.'il.;j.",i"i? *a C, ar" at any rocation in the tubesheet -magnitude is obtained from F4. l4.2oe. The maximum uAu" oi tf,l.M. ui url g,u"n ,. ,, ---- "" *'*t obtained from 84. l4.ZOe and
vuluc or',r,,, the H constants can be carculated from 14.2[1. Constanr C2 c{rn then be determi""d known, the of the benolng moment
Eqs. 14.27
normally
"*p."r."a
pazF^
u,
M^
where
(14.29)
fi
"
I
=T (1)'"
"ili..r"J ^i
(14.30)
For large values of -r, the Z val.uls can be approximated by those gtven in "' "'" Table 7.1 and rhe quantities Fo and F^."n u"
F= 7{l + t/-X.l
F^
1234567A9
t/i
IX" =-:
t)
Fieur 14.16
and
I"rom
":
a
,+P(ort)ro
20,390 psi
o'nr
I4.6
tubesheet of thick_ ? = 0.50 in. if the eeometry L u, ,to*n? n!:'il;;?: = 52,800 lb/in.3. E* = 9 x 106 psr, p* p = icrii-pri. =-0..1.
14.4.
-a
Solution
Development of the TEMA simplified equations are based on Eq. 14.23 and can generdly$e<fi.r'idedinto.thraseparateieps-..The first is determining an equivalent local pressure on any given tube. The second step is establishing an equivalent general pressure on an equivalent tubesheet. The third is incorporating the first two steps into the differential equation of the tubesheet that is considered as a plate on elastic foundation. These three steps discussed in the next three sections are based on th work of Gardner. ? The notations used are the same as those given by TEMA.I
D.=q;#H#=103,020
"-\o-)
xa:
= (^\r'_
=I'0062
I4.6.1. locol
Equivoleni Pressure
9(6) = 6.037
One of the main assumptions made by TEMA in the analysis of tubesheets is that the tubes are uniformly distributed tbroughout the tubesheet. Referring to Fig.
524
14.6
14.17, it is seen that the total tbrce 4 in one tube due to a tubeside pressure acting on the face of the tubesheet iS dxpressed as
li
o=
4: t=
where
tubesheet
o:*l#-ry1=*+l'-i(*il
4:
where
nAf,
(14.34)
force F" also acts on the tubes of Fig. 14.3 that is caused by such factors as thermal stresses, restraint due to other tubesheet, or other unbalanced forces in the heat exchanger. This force is expressed as Besides forces 4 and
4 a third
t)on
r4.3s)
tube force
stress
or = longitudinal
in tubes
The total summation of Eqs. 14.33,14-34, and 14.35 is equal to an assumed equivalent force q acting on an equivalent tubesheet of radius r. Hence,
4na2
N
or
E- n+
F*
(14.36\
s=@f,-u)+\u,-ttot,
The axial stress dr in F4. 14 -37 can be written Equlvalent Confl gurafl on
Fieuf.e 11.17
(t4.37)
as
,,=!,6,-
u,,",)
14.38)
iIiIO
I4.6
whcrc Ii,
i = pr : poisson's ratio of
oc,
wlrcrc
: w: c, :
L
0r
AI, =
"1tunt"
in tube length
can be expressed by
rl"(Y-
",4]
.
"[(#), - (*)-]
(r4.39)
a
(r4.41)
"l(ry)'-(*)-l
Pressure
**
r from
Eq. 14.39 can be.obtained Fig. 14.18. The strain of the centerline .r ,r,. lrom i_ir,_g". r,."i i,j*L*"o
",
a,=a-!t-L-o,r,
is shown
(14.40)
Wn
: ta'P,
(14.42)
where
W1
If the tubesheet is assumed as an equivalent solid plate subjected to a general cquivalent pressure P, then the total load on the tubesheet is
Wp
= ra'P
(r4.43)
where P = Wo =
Because W|,
W:
where ll{ =
1ra'(n
- P)
as
(14.44)
unbalanced force on tubesheet. The longitudinal shess in the shell can be expressed
Figur6 14.18
w
nt!(Do ts)
(14.4s)
.,.,6r$g.t,.rr:t,r^tr1rtii4t;ti.
DttloN lt9
written
as
+ = ^!
whcre
d"
",e,
(4,47)
*,=o#*
(14.48)
Substituting Eqs. 14.44, 14.46, 14.47 , and 14.48 into Eq. 14.45 gives
ot=*o.m-ee;ln
(14.49)
Equation 14.49 has two unknowns, Atr" and P. It is also based on Eq' 14.47 which does not take into consideration the strain due to an expansion joint.
When the dhell has an expansion joint, E4. 14.47 must be modified accordingly. In Fig. 14.20a the expansionjoint can be approximated as shown. The flat plite aD in Fig. 14.?-Ob is assumed fixed at points a and b' The total deflection of the shell is given by
FigurE
l,t.l9
where D,
r"
outside diameter
of shell
LL"=
where 6 = deflection of
as
1"
+ La"Q
(14.s0)
expansion joint.
,*=!6rwhere d,
e6
tr
6=t"+6,
1",o*'1
(14.51)
(r4.46)
where 6.
6p
:
=
= longitudinal
a":
{rw
w,"l
(14.52)
,.n.rnier'_lrti,iirllilrw,
]lt
14,6 TIMA
ftXNO TUBrSl{ilT
DllION
tOl
Fisur. 14.21
(r4.54)
(14.55)
,1.2O
where
51
:
=
=
spring constant of expansion joint load on shell from expansion joint 1rt,(D" t,)P"
l7r,
Ei = modulus of elasticity of expansion joint /i = mornent of inertia of expansion joint = 4,24(Dt + D)tj I - lengtlt of expansion joint n : number of convolutions in expansion joint
L!"= w -
= l7e; =
4
thickness of bxpansion
joint joint
=4tp?4'Letting 0
o?tp.
oue Io priessurc torce Woy end forceW" obtained from stucturii analvsis as
gy,iq g/6" can be derived from *..Tf:ilTl5^l1l:.f 9: to be subjested to the forces shown. Fig. r4.2r by assumrng me expansionjoint
+
Thi deflection
Wo",
u=ffi,w+w^rfr+#@l
Conpulng thlr oquatlon wlth thc last tom of Eq. 14.53 shows that
('.*) =r+---atand
Equation 14.54 has two unknowns,l, and P. It is also idontical to Eq' 14.49 lor hcat exchangers without expansion joints, that is, for Si '-+ o. (14.56)
14.6.3 Relstionship I
ISj
Tho
2nl3 r2Ey'i
TEMA design equation for fixed tubesheets is based on F4s. 14.23,14.41, 14.49. At r 4 it is assumed that the quantity 2w in Eq. 14.41 is negligible. rnd Eq. 14.23 into Eq. 14.41 and equating the latter with Eq. 14.49 Substituting . tlsult,in the following expression:
P=Pr'-P!+Pa
(r4.57)
P
(14.60)
.t:ii:tflTri HL
r4'4'
14'48' 14
sc
w* afr
woi
Pi =
+=ffi_w*,,,"
*
P) + $1",<n rt"(Do
":
_(:)(j#)1,.,ffi])
un,r,
1p"-
,sa +
[<o?
- Dhp"]
'-
.. E,t,(D" n=Effi@" t) 1s
E
modulus of elasticity of tubesheet material
I J
Hence,
LZ4J
Ir+"@"-t"t*t"1
(14.58)
Fe:0.2s+ tr
=
LL' .-:_ = L
a2
P:, P:, Pi
E"tn(D.
t,\
frc
L-'/t
"l1
<4
*|.i-t/r-**a
\p
oztn 1r
d"-t d-2t
. r -
d.-t .......:d,
t,(D.
- l
D"-t"-tu:G
D"'2t"-2a=G
h - t) (D.-2 z (D"-3t",
.,--_-_.*@"*,1r7@qrr'!l[t|ttEr|Eu|'mnr1*
14.6 TIMA llxlD TUllSHllT
Honco,
,,,r..sr.tRtitrrttll]]]{{44e1
DllloN ctt
=ffi;n
+ o.dr(r.s
+nl
"'
=t*4{o'*Irr's
+ K(1'5
,,-(#+)(w\
+Dr
(+)('"5)t
3:Httf
"ti..L.iftrlate E : n x ld psi for tubesheet material and shell d" = 0.5 x 10-6 in./in."F Iength of tubes = 144 in.
=
0.065 fu.
thickness of tubes
.=
(b)
15 osi
tigor'11.22
operating temperature of shell = l87T operating tempexature of tubes = ambient temperature 70.F
ll9?
K:
Fq
+ (, 2s _,
Solution.
.,|#_qa#ft#%
(#;l]'"
of
in.a
Fq
'8752
tt =
f;1n
+ 36xo.2sf = o.l6e8
"i
a _ O6)Q7
106X0.1698)
j =, * s(ry?E#H:1]q
OI
-@Xlxl?l)47=6t--
165,300 lb/in.
t:t-i(*, 1
=l- +\ ,l : 0.9146
=
rr2o I 0.75
2 x 0.065
35.5
32 85
J=
0.0304 0.8750
!36
llcncc,
+
/f,
(0.0304X200. 73)(1.87
s'
x [1 + 0.4(0.0304)(200.73)(l.s + 0.9146'
=_
12.4428.16 RO?7r
7-)
Itll\:r-=
ilil||tl
Fisur 1,t.23
/r'\
""'
'
41.55
15
n.lnn
(0.0304x200.73)(1.s7
s'
___-/uuu\F._______ l-.-------1
EELLOWS EXPANSION JOINT
{o.oro.orooltr.
200.73(1.5+ 0.s75)l
_ rr.0 \
l5
I4.7
EXPANSION JOINTS
= nTarr<s.trst
=
6.57
0.36s0)
'fhe two most common types of expansion joints are the flanged-and-flued and the bellows, shown in Fig. 14.23. The flanged-and-flued expansion joints are
used where the deflection between the tubes and the shell is not very large. The most frequently used method of analysis is that of Kopp and Sayre.E It treats the
x [9.5 x =
1.48
10 6(187
70)
(6.5
10-6)(119
70)
12.4428
joint as an equivalent rectangular structural frame with some modifications to account for the inside and outside radii. Many experimental investigations have been performed to verify Kopp and Sayre's method. The results have shown that tbr most applications this method is satisfactory. Bellows are used for large deformations of the shell. The analysis based on a NASA researche is similar to that of Kopp and Sayre in that the bellows are treated as a structural frame with hoop stresses resisted by rings or equivalent plate-and-shell segments of the bellows. A frequently used standard in the united states is that of EJMA.I0
P=41.55-6.57+1.48
=
From Eq. 14.I 36.46
NOMENCTATURE
F2G2 P
47"
4
(1.2r2Q5.r2
36.46
8686
psi
OK
a = radius of tubesheet b = G/2 D. : outside diameier of tube F : modulus of elasticity of shell E,r : modulus of elasticity of tube
G
diameter of tubesheet
530
HIAI
TRANSTTR IQUIP/IITNI
BIBLIOGRAPHY 539
/I, i: poisroo's r.ittio ol tubcshcct ntatcrial /r* : poisson's ratio of perforated plate o = allowable bending stress
K' = b/a
M, = radial bending moment in a tubesheet Mr = tangentizl bending moment in a tubesheet
Dcsign
of l'ubc
l'r(!$ut? V(tii,l Ml
P4ing Design Colletted Pape^ 1927 1959, Amcrican Socicty ol Mcchanical lirgirrccrs, 1960, p. 6'72.
7, 8. 't.
10,
Mcmo from G- P. Byme, Jr., Secretary ofthe Tubular Exchanger Manufacturcrs Associatk)n to Members of the Technical Commiftee, dated January 3, 1964 regarding Standards Background Data prepared by Karl Gardner. Kopp, S. and M. F. Sayre, "Expansion Joints fo. Heat Exchangers," Contributed by the Heat Transfer Division and presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Society of Mechanical Engitreers, New York, November 27th, 1950.
Analysis of Stresses in Bellorrs, Design Criteria and Test Resubs, Part l, Atomics International Repon NAA-SR-4527. Standads of the Exponsion Joint Manufacturers Association,4th ed., Expansion Joint Manufacturers Association, New York, l9?5.
shell side pressure BIBTIOGRAPHY L., "What's lhe Difference Between TEMA Exchatrger Cl^sses,"? Hydroca/bon Prcce$in8, June 1980. Rubin, F. L. and N. R. Gainsboro, "Latest TEMA Standards for Shell-and-Tube Exchangers," Chemical Engineering, September 24, 1979.
Rubin, F.
= ASME allowable tensile stess = thickness of tubesheet = thickness = thickness of shell = thickness of tube a" = coefficient of thermal expansion of shell a, = coefficient of thermal expansion of tubes
4 p g J Z t t" t,
local pressure
8,
1982.
n =(p-d)/d.
REFERENCES Standads of Tubular Erchonper Manufecturers Association,6th ed., Tubular Exchanger Manufacuers Associarion. york,
Niw
1978.
Gardner,
K. A., "Hear-Exchanser
Jourrnl ol Applied Meclranics, American Soc",y O'Donrell, W. J., and T. Slot, ..Effective Elastic
Noverbber 197t. American Society
lf ,r4""_-Lat"*'i1r".",
,'S#:
A., Exchanger 9**, Society of Mechanical Tube_Sheer Design.,. Journal of Apptied Mechanics, Amencar I Engineers, Decembei tgag Gatdner. K. A.. "Heat Exchanser Tube-Sheet
..Heat
of Mechanical Ensineers.
J*r;i ;I ;;;;;;;Ir'#"r'l*^o",
s;iety of Mechani.je
Design_2
Fixed Ttbe
nginee..,
CHAPTER
t5
This chapter presents some design aspects of solid and layered vessels with pressures in the range of 10,000 to 100,000 psi and higher. In these high pressures prestressing, or autofrettaging, becomes an important consideration in
the design. It was shown in Eq. 8.1 that
t=. sE
PR.
0.6P
,,,
zero, the thickness approaches infinity. In other words, as the pressure increases, the allowable stress of the shell material must be increased higher than 607o of the design pressure for the equation to be valid. This increase in allowable stress requires materials of high tensile and yield properties. The limitations ofEq. 8.1 for high pressures are usually overcome by using a different equation that is based on the theory of plasticity as discussed later in this chapter. Equation 8. 1 is shown in Fig. 5.6 as being very similar to Lame's Eq. 5.9 for thick vessels. Disregarding extemal pressures, Eqs. 5.9 and 5.10 become
A thick-woll loyercd
vssst (Courres),
0.6P) approaches
(1s.1)
540
ot = P'
541
512
whcrc
r5.2
PRESTRESSTNG
Ot WAU"S
whcre
P' = Pl ,!! "l \r; - rfl
/,?\
t, :
or, cz, 03
F-or a
E = modulus of elasticity
The shess distribution given by Eq. l5.l is shown in Fig. 15. 1 for a vessel with rJ 11 = 2.2. The max-imum stress is in the hoop direction and is at the inner surface where r = ri. As the pressure is increased, the stesses increase until they reach a maximum limiting stress where rainre is assumJ ti oc-cur. r,o. trrin vessels the ASME Code assrirnes that failure occurs *f,"oG-ii"ra poin, l, reached. This failure criterion is conveni*t *a tir"'rni*iriut pnocipat sfess tleory. In thick vessels the crirerion usually""lf"i mareriats is the energy of dislortion theory. This trr""q, tl,;lrrii.o" -combination in a body under any ""uor, ", of sfesses begins only when the TI,I)oi", *oCy .I per unit volume absorbed at trrefiiit is Squar to tfre Sstorrion ^s:11 stain energy of distortion absorbed per unit volume at any poi* in u .,r"rr"O to the elastic limit under a state of.umaxral stress as occurs in a simple tnsion "'* """, test. The equation that expresses this theory i, giu"n iV-.
principal shess
bar stressed to the elastic limit in simple tension, cncrgy of distortion expression becomes
02:
a3
0 and the
0 I u\ol w:--6lror a pressure vessel with the tbree principal stresses given by cnergy of distortion expression is
i*
-o
Itecause Ws,
* = \!t<r, -
oz)2
(sz
o),
(o3
- c1)21
(1s.2)
+ De),
'.:($(T)Gl
o1
(15.3)
It is interesting to nole that when the axial strain is assumed to be zero, the axial stress becomes
p,(21t)
or
\/3
(1s.4)
In most applications the difference between Eqs. 15.3 and 15.4 is negligible.
I5.2
.L
Figu.e 15.t
As the pressure in Eq. 15.3 is exceeded, the inner part of the shell becomes plastic, whereas the outer part remains elastic, as illustrated in Fig. 15.2. The derivation of the relationship between dle elastic and plastic regions is beyond
,4
vtt!!t! fot
HtoH PnlssuRrs
15.2
PRESTRTSSTNG OF
WAU.S
545
.,"
o'r"sr'c
Rrc,o, 't'
lklrution 15.7 may be used to determine the lower bound pressure P* at which ytrl(ling occurs by letting p : 4. Hence
Fisurc 15.2
the s9ory of this book. However, it suffices to say that the derivation is based on plastic analysis of an incompressible ."r"c-i *irl, *." "*i"i'.nn.. rr," resultant equations are as follows:
".=#(
-2o"
-1)
(15.8)
l'his equation gives results very close to those given by Eq. 15.4. Equation 15.7
Elastic region:
lnn also be used to determine the upper bound pressure P+ at which total yicfding occurs by letting p = ro. Hence
(+)H ('.!)
\r5
lnr
(15.9)
Itlxnmple (15.5)
15.1. A
pressure vessel with a solid wall has an 4 of 8 in., r, of 80,000 psi. Plot o6 and o, when P = P* and when P =
15.3.
8'z
(#X'*1*znt)
(#J(-' * 4.* znt)
@(5"*z'n!)
*:trfl':H[X
?iween
the applied pressure and the elasric-plastic interrace
=
(15.6)
rrnd
36,650 psi
o,
= ss+o(r. ,,-/ \
!g\
o,=rsno(r
'l'hese two values are shown in
-ry)
:
#('
-4 f;
Fig. 15.3.
zr,L\ p/
(r5.7)
80,000 psi, a trial-and-error From Eq. 15.7 with P = 60,ffi0 psi and o, 11.50 in. Hence from Eq. t5 5 calculation gives p
t46
Ytlstt3 foR
HtoH PRISSUnES
I5,3
I.AYERED VESSEIS
547
Figlro'15.4
Solution.
,
The maximum autofrettaging pressure of 60 ksi is less than fwice the lower bound pressure P*. Accordingly, the stress distribution resulting from a pressure drop of 60 ksi is in the elastic fange, as shown in Fig. 15.4. FromEq.
RaDrus
lNcH
t5.1.
Fisurc 15.3
s.---g-)
oa= -rs,ezs(r
.ry)
a,=
46,Do(1.427
+ 2rn;3)
The stress distribution given by this equation is superimposed with that in Fig. 15.3 for a6 at P = 60 ksi. The resultant residual stress is shown in Fig. 15.5. The internal pressure of 45,000 psi gives a stress of
o; = +e,loo(-o sz: + z rn
A plot of
/-
;)
ri. f
u,
oe: rr.tzo(r.ry)
and the total stress distribution due to this and residual stress is eiven in Fie. 15.5.
these equations is shown in Fig. 15.3. i" Fig . I 5 . 3 are significait because they show the redistriburion or the stress pattem as the inner region of ^. ,1.^.y:-p_t"g the cylinder beco_"a ptu"ti". ato not" the reduction of rhe stress at ttre inner
surfactrrrd;;il;;;,i'?iL" ,o"r,
i, ln"."u."Ji"yoro
I5.3
TAYERED VESSETS
Example 15.2. plot the circumferential residual stress a, when the frettaging-pressure
oeslgn pressure of 45,000 psi is applied.
j: !f-pl:
rs
r.
i, ."o""ic iJr"r,
;i;
auto_
irlT o, *r,"n u
Layered vessels were developed in the United States and Germany at about the same time during World War II. In Germany they were used in ammonia plants as well as for producing gasoline from coal. In the United States they were used for ammonia-synthesis processes for the ultimate production of nitrates. Since
PRESSURTS
I5.3
od
LAYERID VESSTTS
ar P=45Ksl
c(
o o
f
i,:)SBRINK
Fr-r
(d) ColL
WRAP
Figure 15.6
'?iiLi;i*
Wodd War II the technology of building layered vessels has improved substantialty..Today layered vesseJi are used ii'",i,ia"i"re" ;i[nfT"."ru." tions in the penochemical industry "pp,,""as heat exchangers,
fit method wherebv layers ."'inOiuiOuutty for_"Jiito form thl reguired total ,r,t'L"*'ii]g.'is.orl. "yfmO"r, rr," to. ft: coil-wrapped method whereby a .rrti"u""r-J""t i. it ip i, *ounO ItlO spiral or rn a helical fashion to form a cylinder as in Fig. 15.4:'
and shrunk on each other to
the colcentric_ or spiral_wrapped method where the layers.consist of segments welded together in spiral fashion to ftickness, as shown in Fig. 15.6a andb. The second method
of potential problems such as erosion and at -ay oc"urln ti" inner rt during the operation of the vesset. "orrosioritt "tt Layered vessels are constructed by various methods. The difference between these methods is in the thickness of inoiuiaua Uyeri *.ap-piig
"nA construction can be divided inro
urea reactors, -such ammonia convenrs, autoclaves. and coal gasificati;; Layered vessels consist of a multitude of layers wrapped tightly around an inner shell to form a pressure-retarnlng envelope, as shown in Fig. 15.6. The vent hole system is a safety feature incorporateainio ttre iay"iJu"."sel o"_ hon. It consists of a mulritude of small holes "on.t drilled radiity lntoit fuy"., _a extending from the ouiermost layer to and including " tfr. i'uy", uj1'u""nt to tfr" inner shell. The holes are sized and spaced so that they do not affect the structural integrity of the vessel. The venting ,yrt"- uJt, u. u'rnonitor
The earliest reference to layered vessels was made in the 1951 API-ASME bde. In later years when the API Standard and the ASME Code were separated, llre layered-vessel criterion was deleted from both. It was not until Jan'tary 1979 that layered vessels were included in the ASME Code. In establishing the new llyered-vessel rules, consideration was given to the state of the art as well as the and research accumulated by the industry in the past 50 years. An "iperience c l ibrt was also made to provide rules to accommodate all types of known
l:ryered-vessel construction. Today most layered vessels are constructed in accordance with the ASME ('ode, VI[-1, Division 2. The majority of the design equations given in the code lor solid wall vessels are applicable to layered vessels. For fabrication, the ASME Code, VI[-1, Division 2, gives additional rules for layered-vessel construction. One criterion for controlling wrapping tightness of layered shells is rhat the area of any gap between two adjacent layers, as measured from the end of a shell section, must not exceed the thickness of a layer expressed in square inches. This is illustrated in Fig. 15.7. Another criterion used occasionally to measure the tightness of layered shells
,#il.
!.-o""ou.",
is limiting the circumferential expansion of the outer layer during hydrostatic testing to a value not less than one-half that ofan equivalent solid wall thickness' tlencJ the stress at the outer layer due to internal pressure P as given by Eqs. 5.9 and 5.10 is co
;;;;;;
= --;--"-r;- ri
Pr?
2Prl
C,=0
' r;-
ri
wtt|tt tot
HtoH PR!33UR!3
15.3
t/aYIRED
VISSILS
55t
'l'hc uctusl measurcd growth must not be less than one-half the value given by r5.10. A third criterion for determining the maximum permissible gap in layered rhclls is by relating the gap height to a given shess level. Referring to Fig. 15.8 End Eq. 5.12 and assuming the end to be fixed against rotation, it can be shown lhd the gap /, can be related to the bending moment by the expressron
l!.
,F;
GAp AREA
AREA OF GAP
Mo
(15. 11)
a=f
r,.n
!l
bstituting cb
<
TH ICKNESS
Figurc 15.7
ex pnesseo rN nl
= -- .)-
6Mo
B=
*: |b, e, = '
p(o, + o)l
,:d+
into Eq. 15.1l gives
9.--DP'J E(rz.
r?)
h= O.55ro, E
(1s.12)
=P--! -2
,.=n"+|
and the circumferential growth is given by
t.71rp(Z?.^
t)2(?R^ SERnt
t)
(b)
(15.10)
Figur6 15.8
5!2
PRESSURIS
r
5.3
TAYTRED
VESSfl.S
553
Equati0n 15.12 cannot be used directly becau-se the quantity o, is not readily known. This. quantity, however, can be related to un uiio*udr"-Jt uy lating the principal stresses at a layer as ".. "ut"u.
llv('I
by
')
15. r 6)
:
=
ot=tyt+)
where o6, cr., ar = principal
,S
stresses
'
: n:
=
S.
0.2 for carbon and low-alloy steels 0.3 for austenitic stainless steels
allowable stress:
15. 15
= hoop stress ;r, = poisson's ratio o6 = bending stress due to gap l, p = intemal pressure
The maximum stress intensity is given by
lrluation 15.16 can be expressed in terms of S" by substituting Eq. uxl letting m = 3.0 and n = 0.2, which yields
for o6
(1s. r 7)
ah=ob+r+p
The maximum stress inrensiry
o; is limited by
",o+f,+"=#r.
or assuming S
15. 18)
oo+]+p<KS^
where K = 3 for indefinite number of
Code,
(1s.14)
= S.
and
cycles. where aa is greater than 35, Lut less than . _Ircases 3rn,S,, the rules ASME
V I,
apiti i"r
"
of the s.pilfr!a""ir"'rr,"_pr"rri"
t": *Z
and z^\-
o6=NS.-+-P
Eq. 15.12 can be written
as
(15.15)
o= o'ss/s" fN E L
where N = 25"/KS^
'
0.5
:l J..l
15.19)
^
where & = alternating
stress as defined in the ASME Code,
VIII,
and
K is
vtttttt tot
HtoH PnrssuRES
r5.3
|AYERED VrSSfl.S
K=-+.,,"[**
& = maximum
allowable alternating stress
r=
P
t:.r, . A l::10L" with E layered vessel with a 42_in.. inner d.iameter is constructed of carbon sleet = 29,000.000 psi. D.,.r*in. ,ir" ni"iriorn iito*uor" g"p
i:r:*ifff:''
f31#fl'
th".;i;;"y;;'iiiii'h"
vrr,
".,,"r
'i
Also from Fig. 15.9
- R?: a2 R2
?aYs
(1s.20)
iffi
il:IlTr1
I
RyI h=
Ia
(15.21)
K=-:+
: l.2l
2 ^r- 1.21xx4o,ooo 2O,nO
Ys
,R1
cos d
(ls.22)
3.31
h(h + 2R.)
21 x 20.000 29,000,000
_ 0.55
2(&+h-R'cosc)
_ 0.5 _
4000
20,Oo0/
(1s.23)
0.021 in.
t
Substituting
n"t'"l wh"r.
2RzB
is n"eteo to tar.e uc"u,nui"##;:1""91t tT9 account' rhis can be accomprished by 91,p' ..X*nsap. rhe toar st uin tr,eo zu--'J""; rn gettrng the strain required to close one gap, refer to fig. iJ.S
i,
;;il;;;;
one gap tl,".Jil;ffi;""1TlTYl auulue of anv secdon' ain a lavered rn given cross criterion
2Rra ZrRr
ilij};T,=fffifj
x6
ilJ'#:,li1
ffif:T,:
t= Bc
,1,"r"
+ yE:
R?
and
'Rz
xE+(Yo-a)2=Rtr
asina
R2
l!6
VttSlt! foR
HtoH
PRTSSURES
15.3
TAYERED VESSIL3
o, ='rr, Rr
r1
'="'&1"*""'\ & /l
and 15.23 into 15.25, which gives
_,
/c
sin
a\'l
_j,P * l*
o,= -P
-2
p,--
) .
(r5.25)
The total snain required to close one gap is obtained by substituting Eqs. 15.21
,=fre+4sin-tc
where
(rs.26,
co,: oo-
o.
A=l4: I r
2+
h/Rl
2(l-cosa+h/R)
(2 + h/R)(h/R)
C:
2(1
cos
d + h/R)
(2 + h/R)(h/R)
Example
vessel
y.=!d(rs.
15.4. The following gaps of 11 = zl0 in. and rz = 55 in.
(15.28)
by the quantity
A plot of Fq. 15.26 will show that the lines are a linear function of strain versus /r/R1. Hence, the ASME Code, VItr, Division 2, approximated 84. 15.26
=)
Gap
e
lrngth
5 in.
Height
0.008 0.005 0.010 0.009
At Radius
43.25 in. 43.25 in. 48.50 in. 53.00 in.
= 0.109(2a)3
/(1
I 2 3
4
(rs.27)
Determine
9 in.
in. in.
in.
7 in.
6llr.
in.
< 0.r0er4)
\/-/
if
/, = 0.3, S.
3O
106
stain required to close all the gaps is determined by summiig all -the individual shains given by Eq. 15.27. The hoop stress in a layir due o all accumulated gap stains is approximated by
ue
Equation 15.27 calculates the strain needed to close any given gap. The total
15.27 ,
.,:o.loefi#
=2.33x10-6
=;l t-
lL--
,)e
., = o.roeff# :2.62
1o-6
The total hoop stress due to gap shains and intemal pressure can be expressed
as
.,=o.loe*#:3.25x10-6
vlttl|.s
foR HtOH
eo
PRTSSURtS
I5.4
pressure ffa1
PRESTRESSING OF LAYTRED
VESSII.S
559
=9
1"^
rotal=10.30x10,6
From Eq. 15.28,
due to interlacc
(,
2o.ooo
=
Because total e is less than 10.47
1O.47
H#)
f
10-6
a.-4,:
NS
(
1s.32)
I5.4
'l'he deflection of layer i and all layers beneath I due to pressure 4+r can be olrtained from Eq. 5.8 by substituting ar = 0 and disregarding the term p'z. The cxpressions for the deflection, using the terminology of Fig. 15.10, becomes
tfe gniral or concentric method,of fn fabrication, the transverse weld shrinkage m me rongitudinat seams causes prestressing .f ,h. ;;r;;i6#: Such weld snnnkage is influenced bv manv r,.ut input, unJ ff:"iffilr:'"X.ll,ii,X#ill1ffi:J.T
niiiiil;"',ffiI
/15 ?1\
(1s.34)
;i
r \n,t,-ni-,-"''/
s=kw
where s =
transverse shrintage rn welds
(Is.29)
ft = coefficient of transverse shrinkase w = width of seam weld Refe'ing to Fig. 15.10, the total radiar deflection due to transverse shrinkage ot a number of seams in one layer
rs
^ ,i-,:
Rr'?-
r)
(1s.35)
(15.36)
,ns 2t
where d = radial deflection n = number of welded
seams
(15.30)
in a layer
Weld shrinkage decreases the diameterof a welded layer. This causes a ravers undemeath it' rhe deflection equai;;'ffi; ;?::;:"trh "ompatibitity
pressure between the welded laver
d-dt=4"
15.31)
Fisure 15.10
560
I5,4
PRISTRCSSINO OF TAYERED
VTSSEIS !6I
o' =
Stress
v'nR'n-'
nkwE (RIt
- 4.iR!*z lRi'z
R!.)
Ri)
(rs.37)
"'=
Stress
il:;r-1t
-i.,,Ri*r
R?\ /. *;,7
=
(r5.38)
Stress
8733 psi
2r\(21.52
21'z\
(1s.39) Equations 15.37 and 15.39 are necessary to determine the precompressive sress in a layered vessel due to wrapping Uy *," oiri-ira.etnoA of fabrication. "on""oG" In the shrink fit rnethod, the orecompression equations are the same as 15.37 and 15.39 except that the'qaanniy n*w/2iir"pfuJJy-Jrn. Eqs.
Stress
11,365 psi
ot
= 4o(o.s)er.sf
=
12,487 ps|
2.25
tO6 (2t.52 -
202\(222
2l.5'z1
n"*"
, ='#,'
.. In the coil-wrapped Hence the applied
r'
ra,(i!'!Liul
*r,
(15.40) (15.41)
"'::!f('\.#) + ry#::t
method, the initial stress in the outer layer pressure for Eq. 15.lg is
i is known.
n-r=#
and the total sbess in the outer layer is
oi= o"
Figur 15.l I
362
PRESSURIS
SIBTIOO[APHY
From Eq. 15.39, stress in inner shell due to wrapping all three layers is
o,, =
:??l
l_]ou
(, .
#) (ffi _
+
0.0163
0.0120)
-18,737 psi
Stress
d' = -17e,04e(l
\ * ffis,)to.otos
lnz
+ 0.0t20)
l{ = inside radius as defined by ASME llm : mean radius r = radius rr = inside radius r,, = outside radius J = shess ,1. : allowable sfress given in ASME t : thickness w = width of weld seam rr = coefficient of thermal expansion
pn
A.r
-9774 psi
o,= -tls,rNs(t + ff)ollllt : _4052 psi Total stress in inner shell : -1g,737 psi Total stess in layer one = g733 - 9744 = _1041 osi Total stress in layer two = I I ,365 4052 7313 osi = Total srress in layer three = 12.4g7 psi f
NOMENCTATURE
: : :
stess at layer
.,1
(fr
= =
(ft (f,
: :
yield stress
hoop shess
D = tr-T,
E = modulus of elasticity e = circumferential growth h = gap K = weld shrinkage
Mo = longitudinal bending rnoment
ITtl
U0
BIBTIOGRAPHY
Armstrong, W. P., and M. H. Jawad, "Evaluation of Thermal Conductivity in Layercd Vessels," ASME Jounal Prcssure Vessel Technology, November 1981.
\onnl,
Process Equipme t
1959.
M. H., "Wrapping
n P
NME Publication 72-pvp-7, Seprcmber l9?2. W., andP. G. Hodge, Theory of Perfectb Pkstic
5.
CHAPTER
t6
TALL VESSELS
564
565
566 I6.I
16.2
IARTHQUAKI
LOADING
567
Special design considerations are required for tall vessels that are installed in the vertical position. These vessels may utilize support skirts, nngs, ring girders, lugs, and other forms of support attachments as describid in Chapter 12. However, the vessel itselfrequires special design considerations in setecting the proper thicknesses and stiffening rings, if neided, to adequately support the vessel and to resist the applied loadings. In addition to loadings from intemal and external pressures, tall vessets must De capaDle ot.wlthstanding additional loadings from the dead load of the vessel, the inlgmal parts, insulation, piping-, and externA equipment, anA tiom 9onte.nt1 earthquake loading and wind loading. Thi tall vessel, as we as'most otner types of vessels, T9y also be subjected to applied forces and morneni, fro- tt errna expansion of the piping. The niost critical combination of loadings that cause the highest stresses may not occur when all of the loads are appii.j u? ttr" .a-e ti-e. Certain loads may cause critical stresses during the time of of u".r"t, whereas other combinations of loadings ma! cuuse critical ".""tion stre;ses when the vessel is filled with its contents. The propei design of the veJmay require examining several different loading conditions to Jstablish the proper thickness and other requirements for a safe desien. Some of the cornbinations of loadirigs requiring careful consideration
sffirt
cornbined with the internal and external pressurcs and any other kradings that arc lpplicable to the tall vessel. The following sections describe dift'erent methods lor establishing the forces, moments, and overturning moments from extcrnal kradings. In addition, methods are given regarding how to combine those loadings with other loadings in order to determine the highest stresses and to satisfy tid-22 of the ASME Code, VI[-1. Included also are methods ofconsidering the rlynamics effects of the wind loading and wind velocity on vortex shedding and
ovalling vibrations.
I6.2
EARTHQUAKE LOADING
t"
ln the design of tall, vertical vessels, one cause of stresses in the v-essel wall is lhe overhr;ing moment from the lateral force of an earthquake loading' Although most disign standards require vessels to withstand earthquakes, usually no sfecific applicible rules are given. The purchase order or design specification ,hould list thi applicable code to be used for earthquake design, such as the
are:
l. 2. 3.
Vessel. installed in place but not operating (no contents, internals, or insulation) and not under an applied earth{uake or *inJiouotng. Vessel under intemal pressure with contents and other dead loads with or without earthquake or wind loading. Vessel under external pressure with contents and other dead loads with or without earthquake or wind loading.
ANSI A58.1, "suilaing Code."r the Ilniform Building Code,a ot some otler applicable building cod;. Additionally, the location ofthe installation is required ^determine the appropriate earthquake factor. Figure 16.1 shows a typical t; oarthquake -up aicording to the Uniform Building Code (UBC)' Earth"one in other building standards may be different. The procedure quakj zones given lbr determining the lateral earthquake loading is similar in most building standards and is G same in both the UBC and ANSI standards Some coefficients in the formulas and the zones on the earthquake zone map may differ in various
standards.
For both the UBC and the ANSI standards, the total lateral earthquake force is calculated by the following formuia:
for a specific vessel, may be a worse combination than any or me condltons listed ^t;*:::::,b,:l!:y: above. The designer must be certain that all conditions aretxamined for determining the controlling condition. The required thicknesses and other desigi requirements vary somewhat de_ pending upon the design theory chosen. Thi .*i-u, ,o".r ,fi.o* is used for Ine oeslgn ot most tall vessels. This theory is used in the ASME Code. VI[_I, and the API 620t and 6502 design rules. Tie effects of using other theori"s a.e discussed later. The two-external loadings that are important in the design are those due to e:mnquake toadrngs and wind loadings. AJthough the ASME Code, VI[_ | , does not specify design methods or design codes th-at are considered, application of used design ruGs is discussed. nememUer,'ii'ile specinc rocauon where tie tall vessel is to be_ installed, as given il the design specifica_ tion or purchase order, the design rules may be so-mewhat oimere# tom eitrrer ()1 me two rules described here. Local requirements are always considered. Once the extemal loadings and overtuming moments are determined, they are
ZIKCSW
(16.1)
where Z = coefficient
Z= Iv = total
3
depending upon the earthquake for the location of installation. For ANSI A58. I for zone O' Z = | /8 ' For both the UBC and the ANSI 458.1, the following apply: for zone 1'
/16
zone 4.
Z:
for zone 2, Z
1.0.
3/8; for
zone 3,
ered 0b)
I:
K=
C
I=
K
*^y: :"lryPt
= 1/15\/7 =
? = fundamental period of vibration of the vessel assuming a uniformly loaded cantilever beam fixed at the base by the following:
16,2
IARTHOUAKE IOADINO
569
(16.2)
r = o.osos.g.
lines (in.)
(16.3)
h = sfraight length of shell from tangent to tangent of shell-to-head w = W/h = average unit weight of shell (lb/in') of straight shell
length
E = modulus of elasticity of vessel material at design temperature (Psi) /* = moment of inertia of shell cross section (in.4)
1,:
(v/8)(tl +
t)3t when (d
L = O.Oa9@2 -
r = nominal thickness of shell (in.) 4 = outside diameter of shell (in.) d = inside diameter of shell (in.)
S
known.
'hdrdhh|'b.dlol
Figuro I 6. I Rirl zorc mop ot rhc Uniied $ort" (Reproducld tro,n thc Unifrofih Building Code, I 9g2 Edirion, CoPy'iglt 1982, wifi pcrminion oI th. p!bti3h6r, Thc Inr,arnotionot Confera"* J g;tdr;Offt.uL.f
O.l2 < KC s 0.25 for UBC. O.l2 < KC < O.29 for ANSI, zones 0, l, and 2. O.l2 KC < 0.23 for ANSI, zones 3 and 4. = CS < 0.14 for UBC and for ANSI in zones 0, 1, and 2. CS 0.11 for ANSI in zones 3 and 4 when.l = 1.5. = KCS need not exceed 0.3.
When KCS
force becomes
Zw
(16.4)
When the vessel is rnade from shell sections with different dianieters and thicknesses, the lateral earthquake force is determined for each cylindrical shell section above the plane being examined. However, for a cylindrical shell of uniform diameoer and thickness, the total lateral earthquake force V is distributed
as follows:
s68
570
1.
lAt I
vrlslt
I6.2
fluid in shell fluid
EARTHQUAKETOADINO
571
At the.upper head-to-shell tangent line, apply a concentrated horizontal force determined as follows;
4=
n shall not exceed O.Z5V and Fl shall be considered zero for ? = 0.7 or less
(f6.5)
2.
E:30x106psi
(16.6)
^ (V - hw.h. n,=--;f,
d+t
'
60
0.5
U.J
For a shell of uniform diameter and thickness, this gives __ a triangular load disnibution with the pointing downward. fo. tie momenr, _apex assume a concentrated loadine of (V _ "ul1ufutirg fl applied at the centroijof the niangle that is equal to 2/3 tr from the-lower he"j_t,i'rr,"rr arg"riiiJJri Jio*n rn nig. t6.2.
Ongg A9 values of d and .{ are determined and the moment arms respective forces are known, the overtuming moment
to the
is determinel
as
(16.7)
-f
I
vertical vessel with a cylindrical shell and hemispherical heads is installed inside a building in Boston. fhe sheU is i ftlnril aiurn"t"r, 0. 5 in. noninal thickness and 30 h from t"rg"nitl i-t"r,t. ft uiJ."r , a fluid at 35- lb/ft3. The purchase order speclfies "ontuio, tf,"t tfi" UsC"b" i"llowed for
16.1. A
ro.",
ur"a ro.
Solwion. The UBC specifies that the total lateral earthquake force is calcu_ lated from Eq. 16.1 by the followrng: v = zIKCSw Z = earthquake factor
earthquake zone 2 where Z = 3/8
"
c"rigor
1= 1.0 K=2.0
W
-+
I
shell weight
n(30.52
weight of heads
= (4/3)n(30.53 _
30\(360)(490/1728): g7gs16
3O?)(4gO/
|TZS\:
1630 lb
Figure
16.2
312
/, =
tAtt vrlstts
9.949161r
16.3
600)
WIND
IOADING
573
r = 0.0908
Azswer.'
0.12
"
CS
=r
0.2102;maximum is C
= (0.12)(1.5) = 0.18; maxrmum is CJ = 0.14 KCS = (2)(O.M) = 0.28; maximum rCS = 0.3 yis determined by using Eq. t6.l and KCS : 0.2g as follows: v = (3/s)(t)(0.28)(34,24o) _
3600 tb
Answer:
16.3 WIND
TOADING
4=0. I
Therefore, V
3600
lb
and
Example 16.2. The tall vessel described in Example 16.l is to be supported at the lower head-to-shell iunction. Dete-rmin" ,fr" i"""".frg'iro-"n, - -'i-'i''|b 'n u, support line from the lateril earthquake forces.
Two distinctly different kinds of design considerations are generated from wind Ioading. First, the static force from the wind-loading pressure against the vessel ou".to-ing moment that must be considered in designing tall vessels "our"a'- in the vertic-al position' The second consideration is the dynamic effect installed from vorlex shedding of wind passing arcund the vessel'
*"
16.3.1
&e horizontal earthquake force to-be applie; the vessel in Example 16.1, this grves
;t;r-""',,#;;i#loaoing.
of
For
wind loading and its applica:tion to i vessel. The two most widely used standards are the ANSI A58.1 Code and the Uniform Building Code' Although there are differences in tle procedure for determinilg the wind loads
M" = (3600)(20
Problems
rZ) = 864,000
in.{b
site' methods use the same rnap for determining the wind velocity at the location Building Code' as shown in Fig. 16.3 for the Uniform
betieen the ANSI A58'1 Code and the Uniform Building code' both
16.1
When the ailst A58.1 Code is used, the basic equation for determining the velocity pressure q, at various heights z is calculated from q"
What is the total lateral earthquake force using the ANSI A5g.l Code for the following vessel? A vertiial vess"t *irh ;-;;;l;;.il-o.on"o o, lower head. The shell is a seaml"r, pip" *i;h inrialtii.am","., ,.0 in. thick,.and 40 ft. long wirh 3_in.-ih'i.k ri;;;J#;. rd"uJrlr"r gas at ambient temperature. The vesset is instJleJin "ont"tn. --.*mqo"k" ,on" 4 where Z = l.O.
;_i;:
*"
0.OO256
K,(tv)2
=
1'0
(a)
where q, = veloclty
pressure (Psf)
Answer: 16.2
= y=
1
Fig' 16'3
K,
veloc8
Pressure coefficient
Consider the exact same vessel given in problem 16.1. What is &e total lateral earthquake force using tri'" u.ii"""-i",rar"!'C"iJ.ll"r,
In addition, it is necessary to modify Eq.a by the force coefficient C1' which is 0.6 for a cylinder, and by the gust factor G, for the height of the vessel above -basic wind speed is determined from Fig' 16'3' ttte ground bv!I. Once the ielocity pressure for a cylinder is obtained from Table 16' 1a' To determine the
l6'lo
\-,
Fig
16'3
N* k)
| | il
g !E ! g.a ? r;
HN -.r d6 uI| : 9{ E ET
I I
(;round (ft)
l,css than 30
100
110
t20
r-, | :at
;
:F 'E _i
i t;
i- F!
,!aA
q
gi
*8i i '-9
tr
5 E +l
: FT d -0H E I
30-60 60-100
100-140
l40-200
200-300
100-400
7 911 10 11 12 14 15
g 13 15 16 18 20
11 14 16 rg 20 23 26
13 17 20 23 25 2E 31
16 21 2s 28 30 34 38
19 25 29 33 36 41 45
23 29 34 39
42
48
s2
gEg
: p:
li
16' 1b tlesign wind pressurep, the velocity pressure is modified by G, from Table
i:
-E
uccordins to
p=(qxc)(G)
where
16.8)
q r." -* 6d
E g !8 .e:
i-e
is ftom Table 16.1a and G, is ftom Table 16'1b' for instatlations above ground level, G is based on the total height of shell and supports. Depending on the total height, there may be several different ^wind pr"riu.". f6r different height zones. For {.sig1 purposes, wind tlesign toaoi ure appiieC at the center of each height zone Gee Fig' 16'4)' Wfren tdi 1982 Ilniform Buitding Code is used for determining the design wind oressure in the horizontal direction, the basic formula is
(g
Cy)
P = C,C"q'l
(16.9)
Toble
16.lb
15 20 25
30
40
1.23
180
1.26
160
50 60 '10 80
90
1.17
/100
100 Dn AO
1.16 1.15 1.14
1.13
1.12
1.07
574
t"t
wtl .l
16.3
Tqblc
WIND
LOADING
577
16.2
odo (psf)
100
ll0
30 37
120 36 38 44
lrss than 20
;10-40
t2 t4
16
l6
18
20 22 25 30 32 35
z)
27
31
42 .to
53
JO
40..{0
l,{l -10O
20 22 26 29 30
t'7
t(x) t(x)
150
t9
20 22
23
33
,10
40
45
47
53 56 62 65
63
110-200
300
47
52 55
6't
'14
44
){) 400
3'l
't't
Ituilding Code are different from those given in the ANSI standard. A typical rlistribution of wind loads at various elevations for a tall vessel is shown in Fig. t6.4.
-f
I
Figrrr.
16.,t
condition, the natural frequency of the vessel is set higher than the vortex
slrcdding frequency determined by the maximum velocity of laminar wind at the vcssel location.5 Resonant wind velocity is related to the heighfto-diameter ratio ol a cylindrical vessel, as shown in Fig. 16.5.
where p = design wind pressure (psf) C" = coefficient for combined height, exposure, and gust Cq = pressue factor = 0.g for cylinders 4, = wind stagnation pressure at 30-ft level 1 = importance factor = 1.0 for pressure vessel
The Uniform Building Code basic. wind speed map is shown *._dg::rry_p for a cylinder for vari9";r,!r!itz"i", in Fig. 16.3. The 1"11T tn" grouoo rs glven in Table 16.2. Aeain- there "ilou? may be sevlral aifferent jesign winC pressure Ioads for different-height zones. The height zones for the Uniform
The natural frequency of the vessel/, is greater than the frequency of vortex sheddingJ, using the following equations:
(16.10)
(16.1 1)
^ f, = -t;
o.2v
1 = period of vibration from Eq. 16.3 I{ = maximum velocity of laminar wind or resonant velocity (fVsec), (see Fig. 16.5)
rAu.
vlll .l
r60
140
16.3
shell is 5
W|NO LOADINO
a 120
110
.8.
,-
15,106.7
wall thickness, and 100 tl. specification requires the vessel to 0 in. from tangent to tangent. The contract be designed according to the Uniform Building Code requirements What are the ltteral wind forces to be used for design?
Solution, The UBC map shows that Corpus Christi, Texas, is located in
100
3 .s 90
100-mph wind zone. Therefore, the wind forces at various locations are calculated usins Table 16.2 as follows:
I
E ,E
;l
lb
rb
lb lb
;l
Exampte
vessel
Upper Head --
Total
\r?r,
470 lb 15,860
lb I
What is the overtuming moment due to the lateral wind forces assuming that the vessel is supported at the lower shell-to-head junction for the
16,4.
in Example 16.3?
12
Figl|rre
t4 16 la
20 E--24---i
ltD
Solution Load
t6.5
Arm
D=
f,>L
as a
(16.12)
frequeniyf,
l"
",i"s;;i;itil;;:,fi#11,f
f' = #
=
r = nominal
y,:.:.1 is examined for ovalling vrbration at least twice the vonei shedding
x 10 = 25,800 ft-lb x 30 : 83,700 ft-lb 3,2N x 50 = 160,000 ft-lb 6,820 x 80 = 545,600 ftlb Upper head 470 x 101* : 47,470 ft-lb Mo : 862,570 ft-lb a ft 2040 ft 4}-ffi ft 60-100 ft
0-20
2,580 2,790
Example 16.5. Determine if the vessel described in Example 16.3 is adequate to resist vortex shedding and ovalling vibration.
(16.13)
I{i.l_!.. ,\*.T: ed a stiffening ring within 24 in. ofboth shelt-to_head Junctlons, and additional stiffening nngs are evenly spaced to keep the maxrmum of g0 ft. span a
f. > 2f,
Example 16.3,
(16.14)
Solution
1.
= z(31'? - 301$200)@90/ 1728) = 65,219 16 Heads = 4/3 r(313 - 3or(49o / 1728) = 3,320 lb Total weight = w:68,530 lb
Shell
i,100
with a cylindrical shell and hemi_ spherical heads is to be installed our ol doors near Corpus Christi. Texas. The
!to
.,
rAu.
vlll|lt
I6,4
VESSEI. UNDER INTERNAT PRESSURE
ONIY
58I
Dctcrminc these properties: 68.530 .= w 1200 = 57.1 lb/in. n= 10.11 lJused on a support line at the lower head, what is the overturning momsnt liom the lateral wind force for the vessel in Problem 16.5'l
10,0
A pressure vessel is 10-ft inside diameier by 2.O-in. thick and 150-ft tall. l)etermine if the vessel design is adequate to resist ovalling vibration.
and
f.
0.09i consequently,
H
V
D=
ii;
000x12)
te.3s
I6.4
40.33 ftlsec
s D '" =0.2V - --51? = I.56cps f, > f, 1.65 > 1.56 oK - 683(1) J. = .o;i = 25.55 cps f' > 2k 25.55 > 3.12 oK
Problems
_(0.2)(40.331
tall vessel under internal pressure only, the primary additional considF|rli(nr to the intemal pressure is the effect of fluid pressure head and the dead ['rrl. 'lhis is especially important at the bottom of a vessel where the effects may r rrrubine. The fluid pressure head may occur only during hydrostatic testing of lh{' vcssel or it may be a continuing load occurring during operation ofthe vessel, lh' additional pressure caused by the ffuid head is calculated as follows:
l,or
",=W
wlrt
(16.ls)
lc
PJ
Il
7
t'
= =
additional internal pressure effect from fluid pressure head (psi) height of fluid column above point (ft) density of fluid. lb/ftl
shell and flat closure ends i8 to be installed near Denver, Coloiado. Th" ffi;;#;;.or tlre cyfin_ drical shell is 8 ft, the nominal i.6't.l'Joo ,r," ,o"igr,, length from head weld seam b head i, izJ n.-rir" nut t"ua, are 6.0-in. nominal thickness. Wt at is tf,e totA fa*J*ioO
*rl.rhi"k;;j, *aJl""-
Answer:
""a"r
14,060 lb.
|l the fluid head exists in the vessel during operation, the value ofP7is added lhe intemal pressure when the minimum required thicknesses are set. At the ' lr(,ttom of tlte vessel, the stresses and minimum required thickness are set by the tirtrl pressure. It may be possible to decrease the thickness when the fluid head rllcct is decreased in a vessel where a variation in plate thicknesses is acceptrrblc.
16.6
Ansu'er:
21,100 lb.
16'7
Many_design specifications requirea-minimum design wind speed of r00 mph. What is the total lateral^wlnd torce on the vessel in problem 16.5 based on a wind speed of 100 mph?
Answer:
21,390lb.
If the fluid head exists in the vessel only during the hydrostatic testing, the plirnary membrane stress frorn the combination of the hydrostatic test pressure rrrrtl the fluid head pressure may go as high as the yield strength of the vessel t|r terial at the 0est temperature. However, if the resulting minimum required tlrickness from the combination is indicated as more than that thickness required lrrr the normal design conditions, substitution of a pneumatic iest or a combination of hydrostatic/pneumatic test should be considered. In general, the minirnum required thickness of a vessel should never be set by the requirements of thc hydrostatic head unless it is impossible to test it any other way. Also, rcrnember tJlat a hydrostatic test may use fluids other than water if water causes rr rrroblem such as corrosion.
..7
.
TAtl
Vt!!!ts
16.4
ONIY
583
vslrcr uur also lts weight to iffi:i;:lJ:,.:ji,# ffi #*'#liilT":lji ;iilliJi,l,,lj, ;ii il.;",l:ll,l be consi( cause tensile or -addttronal.loadings : locatton of the extemal supports sKrn tocation. "r# ,ii:e or s[
Whether the ,t .ir", pressive sresses a"p""a, "uur.J.Un",t-,w
lrr hoth Eqs. 16.18 and 16.19, the dead load term may be either tension or
q'orrrpression depending upon the plane being examined.
In general, above the rrrpport line, this term is compressive and the total longitudinal stress is the
il
#l}1T3ffi:*|"**'
or=PR _
is initiallv set by
rllllcrence between the intemal pressure effect and the dead load effect. When llris is below the support line, the terms are both tensile. For some arangements, thc condition without inlemal pressure may be more critical than when intemal
prcssure is considered.
(16.1
.rr is positive, the actual stress is positive and the allowable stress is rlctcrmined from the allowable tensile stress tables. If the value of or is negative,
lht: allowable stress is determined by the method that establishes the maximum rrllowable axial compressive stress in a cylindrical shell.
ll
in
IJG_Z7tct(l
'e;;#;"i:') sE=P(4+o'
vltr-I,
expressed
(r6.1
l{xample 16,6. For the vessel described in Example 16.1, determine the total kngitudinal stress in the cylindrical shell above and below the support line that : 15,000 psi. lN at the lower shell-to-head junction. The value of SE
where
= allowable tensile shess (psi) E = weld joint efficiency (E = I.0 for seamless) P = intemal design pressure (psi) R = inside radius (in.)
,S
pressure
Using this equation, a lentative m. circumferential .*;.. Wil;;;"f"rmum required thickness is set based on tho thickness is determined, be necessary ro inci;" it may d;;f;:litequ.ired tluid head.as well as the intemal pressure. Based desigir ^thethe total lonsitudinal stress'is determined ";;;;;;:r
9,700
815 10,515 lb
f.;;
il;;iil#;
l"nili,ill"t'""''
,PR
2t
w rD^t
(16.18)
oL: ot:
+Q45)(
*730O
wnere
ot:
W
(lo.sls)
a(60.5X0.5)
= total dead load of examined(rb).rhl,;.h:#X,,:?lf :*;r.TdLJr""" D" = mean diameter of shell (in.) _ 211 * ,
From the equafion in
ot = 7190 psi tension with intemal pressure ot : ll0 psi compression without internal pressure
'lhe dead load of vessel and contents below the support line is
VI[_ | , with rhe rerms rearranged and the dead load term added, 1tM-E.-C"de, the following equation is grven:
uG_27(c\et.:lg:
,,=+p(!-o.z)t
\zr /
w rD^t
(16.19)
815
20,620
2,290
23,725 tb
tta
TAtt
wr!![3
16.5
AND EXTERNAI
IOADINO
585
a1
: I
pressure considered.
250
ot:
I6.5
Example
l6J.
l"TlT
line^
!Trftri".'tainingnuidat35rb/ft
t;;*r;ivo'l.,jii'L,r"e,
When a
l(#t. at the lowest **.::of is-nee_ded lt both the lower sheu-to-head tansenr and *f point the lower head.
JZ.s
At the^r,ff shell+o_head tanr lower .jent line. rhe fluid height ft.
For
For
is
30ft+2.5ft=
fluid P7
7.9 psi
14.1 psi
|rcssure and extemal loading from such sources as earthquake or wind, both the tcnsion and compression sides of the cylinder must be examined. These items rurc similar to those for a tall vessel under internal pressure only, except for the Irl(er only one of the sides needs examination. The earthquake loading or the wind loading is resolved into an overturning moment that is further resolved into lcnsile and compressive loads. Using the membrane shess equations given in Eq. 10.2, the total longitudinal
ntrcss is determined
water e, = GZ.$(Q.D =
ftom
(f':-|-=-=----..--:-
(16.20)
35 ft.
And in terms of the present ASME Code, obtained from the total longitudinal stress is
water P, =
15.2 psi
6t:
*P
(16.21)
Problcms
16.10
What is rhe circumferential syss bgeO_o1_tfre ASME Code, VIII-I, at the bottom of a tall vessel rh"t contains nuiC at sO tUTdJj an intemal "#al'ta_eter design pressure of 400 osi? .The.
As can be seen from this equation, many different combinations of stresses must hc examined to obtain the maximum stress such as, with the first term equal to zero when tlere is no internal pressure (vessel not operating), and with internal pressure, with the second term either iension or compression, and with the third tcrm either tension or compression. There may be more combinations because
i".;;;;l
,"r."i; ;;:;.
uy
".*
Answer: 16.11
c6
of W, the dead load, varies depending upon the location of the plane lhat is being considered. Usually, the maximum stress is located at the support line; however, when the vessel has various diameters, it may be necessary to cxamine stresses at different cross sections. This, of course, is not considering any local stresses in the shell caused by the support.
rhe value
15,200 psi
What is the naximum shess in the shell of the vessel in problem 16.10 during a standard hydrostatlc test of 1.5p?
Ilxampte 16,8. The vessel described in Example 16.l is to be supported at the Iower shell-to-head junction. What are the longitudinal stresses in the shell above and below the support line? The intemal pressure is 225 psi.
Answer: o,
22,700 psi
components is
386
TAtr vlssEls
I6.5
;::: i:;::i:
Shelt fluid
M. = (862,570)(12)
10,350,840 in'-lb
2O,62O lb
Fluid, heads
The overtuming moment is
2,290 tb
oL: + @7s)(*ot
Windward Side Stresses
o.z)
- = * <zzst(#* - o 2) !ft#6.u.
The side of applied force above the support line is
dead load
|.
Pressure, dead
ffi#3
I
2. 3.
(350)
(3540)
3190 psi
shell
upper head
ITOO
815
o1
= + (6705) =
10,515 lb
(110)
+ (ffi01 =
72OO
psi tension
f. 2.
23,725 tb
lower head
o1
= + (6705)
With intemal pressure, dead load and wind load' = +(7030) - (350) - (3540) = 3140 psi tension With no internal pressure, with dead load, and wind load = 0 - (350) - (3540) = 3890 psi compression
Stre
A I lowable
ss-Tension
at = +(6705) - (110)
(600;
= 56*
&=
6507
and leeward sides at the support line? What are the allowable tensile and compressive shesses?
Example 16.9, The vessel given in Example 16.3 is to be constructed trom 5.{-516 Grade 60 marerial o""ign"d f- +zS pri ut iSO;f."I.lle weto joint --a efficiency is E= 1.0. what are trre tota longiirJinartr"rr"r' on uotr, tr,e windward
. = 0. 125 ^ nJ,
and
0.12s
(31/
l)
o.0go
fron Fig. 8.1 I and also Fig. 5-UCS-28.2 of the ASME Code, VI[-l ' the value of8 is 11,500. This gives an allowable stress ofS": 11,500 psi' All
S1luti91,
From Table UCS-23 ofthe ASME Code, VIII-I, for SA-516 Grade 60 at 650'F, the allowable tensile stress is t = 15,m0 psi. The weight of the shell and upper head above the support line is'determined'from Eiu-pt" tO.S u,
I'roblems
65,2rO
16.13 A tall
0.5(3320)
66.870 lb
The. overtuming moment due to the wind loading at the support line is determined from Example 16.2 as
end. The shell is 4 ft inside diameter by 2 in. thick by 75 ft from end to end. The flat heads are ?.5 in. thick. The vessel is supported on the bottom that rests on structural supports that are 75 ft from the ground level to the support line of the vessel. The wind zone is 110 mph and
!tt8
TAtr vt33!r3
1000
thc Unilbrm Building Code prevails. What are the longitudinal stre liom wind loading on both the windward and leeward sides above support line?
Answer: t6.t4
o2from wind
300
200
load =
-r 1 660
a
n
Assume that the vessel described in problem 16.13 is supported on ground instead of supported 75 ft in the air. What are the tonsituJ shesses from the wind loading in the shell above the support iinei
!eo
Foo E50
roo
Answer:
+1360 pel
340
30
1.0
Numbr of Lob!,
2 3 4 56
810
subicr
{t/Da}
lo uniform extornol
prssuro
llsure
16.6
"'
1.23
D:
L',
(16.24)
Ity applying Sturm's equationT for the ratio between the extemal pressure alone loadings, an equation can be developed that gives an rrna thi *i"t "o-p."ssive Pj for the combined loading as a multiplier of the cquivalent external pressure base extemal pressure Po. This equation is
(16.2s)
For a ) 1.0, the vessel rnay fail by yielding and should also be checked as u cantilever beam including the axial shess effect due to the external pressure' fhe axial load from the extemal pressure is
equadon,
P* = 0.25 P"D-
(16.26)
Pp.
And the axial compression unit load is
P..
(16.22)
'Ihe axial load from external pressure in Eq. 16.26 is combined with the axial load from dead loads in Eq. 16.23 to give the total axial loading on the cylindrical shell. When this loading is divided by the shell thickness, the result is the total axial compressive shess on the cylindrical shell. This actual stress is
' = nD^
compared with the allowable axial compressive shess determined according to UG-23(b) of the ASME Code, VI[-l.
(16.23',)
Example
TAu, VtSSH.S
I6.7
AND EXTERNAI.
r
TOADINO 59I
hemisphericul heuds. The vessel is designed for lull vacuum (15 psi pressure) at a design temperature of 550'F. The material is 5A-516 Grade There is no corrosion allowance required. The vessel is l0 ft 0 m. diameter and 116 ft 8 in. from tangent to tangent. The vessel is to be in the vertical position and supported at the bottom tangent line. It contains ffuid weighing 50 lb/fd. Thee stiffening rings are evenly spaced at 30 ft 0 in with 28 ft 4 in. from each tangent line. What are the longitudinal stresses the support line?
lir
i;il;;
psi'
;i;;;
beam check
?5 .:.0 needed' is
in'.is satisluctttry
l'rohlcm
Solutian
l.
Determine a preliminary thickness based on the extemal pressure using the procedure of the ASME code, uc-28(c)(1). a thickness of t = 0.75 in. D. = 129 + 2(0.75) = 121.5 in. D"/t 121.5/0.75 = 162, and 360/121.5 = 2.9630. From Fig,
vl[-l,
L/D":
101
5-UGO-28.0, A
O.OO022.
head a hemivessel consisls of a cylindrical shell with-the lower the upper head soherical head and the upper head a flat head Because *"igi'tt or zo,ooo lb from connecting equipment it vacuum at room is rnaAe- 2'S in. thick. The vessel is designed for full there is no corrosion' Material is 5A-516 Grade 60' and position and vessel is to be hydrostatically tested in the horizontal The is supported at the lower installed in the vertiial position The vessel permitted' The vessel treoa+o-stt"tt tangent line' No stiffening rings are from tangent to tangent' The is 5 ft 0 in. insidi diameter by 60 ft 0 in' the required thickvessel contains only a gas during operation' What is ness of the vessel?
ffi; ilp".t; J;
i".p".*."'
^ ," = -----ffi
,,
2(O.OW22)(26.38
23.9 psi:
3/4
in.
OK
I6.7
: : :
=
zr(60.7 52 -602)Q4C0)@90
(4
/ 1728) = 112,950
/3\n(60.753 -603)(490/
t728)
9,740
26,180
:458,150
to extemal pressure and A tall, vertically supported vessel which is subjected in a vessel with extemal .*rc.uf fouain! contains ,tre'set similar to those by Bergman and ur"rror" on". ft *"thod of combining loadings as developed " 16.5 is used to obtain Pj used in the analysrs il.,scribed in Section value -iit" between Sections 16'5 and 16'6 is that an expanded which is given in Eq' 16 23: ".f"-Aff"t*"e are used in obtaining P" ,,,'i;ii#J.i;;;
3.
follows:
P'=
= rlu'o lDlrn'
4=
-trD^
W *.4We ;D3-
4M
nDz c
and
(16.27)
'l'his new value of P, is then used to obtain new values of 16 .22 and 16 .25 .
P/ from Eqs'
^=A/D"f:ffi=0.1401
n = 3.0 from Fig. 16.6 for
P,
(310.6)
llxample
0.1704
what are the For the tall vessel described in Example 16 10' zone 2 using the tonsitudinal stresses when the vessel is designed for earthquake Uniform Building Code?
16'11.
L/D,:
r?04)
2.963 andD"/t
162
Sotutian, It is necessary to determine the lateral earthquake earthquake ,,u".t,-iog rno."nt at thl support line Using Eq' 16' 1' the lateral
lbrces may be determined.
p; =
- l *t0:11
13,11(0
(r5)
rs.04 ps'
As determined in step I, the maximum allowable extemal pressure based on t : 0.75 in. is P, = 23.9 r", at 550T. Because the required pressure of 15.04
y=|fcrzone2 1= 1.0
K=2.O
392
TAu. VtSSEtS
BIBTIOGRAPHY 593
607,(xx) tb
Axill
433.6tb/in.
+ 5698.3/().75) : lt,200 Psi' lirftowing the method given in UG-23(b) of the ASME Code' -Vlll-l ' stress on a cylinder is determined as follows: lllowable" axial "o-p."riiu"
stress is (452.lt
thc
106 psi
d+t t
determine
A=
0.125
0.75
R.lt
0.125181
0.0015
O.75
I,:0.049(l2l.5a
v
l2O4)
517,600 in.a
(433.6)(l4ooF
r noro
Code' VIII-I is Ar 550'F, the value of B from Fig. 5-UCS-28 1 of the ASME ' -ont"qoently, the actual compressive- stress. of 8200 psi is less than l;ititi pJ.' plate thickness of 0'75 in' thc allowable compressrve sness of 8700 psi, and the
rs
satisfactory.
l'roblem
= (0. 12X1.5) = 0. 18; maximum is CS : 0. 14 KCS = (Z.O)(0.14) = 0.28; maximum KCS : 0.3 y = (3/8)(l)(.28)(607,000) : 63,740 rb F' = 0.07(1.0592)(63,7 40) = 4,7301b but not more than 0.25y =
(63'740, F" = V M" = (s9,010X1400)(2/3) + (4730)(1400) = 61,698,000 in.-lb
Using Eq. 16.27, determine total compressive loading as
in Problem 16'15' what is the required cylinder thickness if the 20,000-lb force is applied at the edge of the rather than at the center of the head?
same vessel described
in Although--the ffect of the thickness originally selected is adeovertumlng moment ls added, the
REFERENCES ANsvAPlstandard62o,RecommendedRulesforDesignandConstruc|ionofLarse.weucd', Washington' D L ' Inw-Pressure Storage IdnIJ American Pelroleum Institute Peroleum Institute ' 65 O, Wetded Steel Tanks for Oil Storage ' American ANSTAPI Standard Washington, D.C. New York' 1982' Auiidings and Other Stntct rr, American Nalional Standards Institute' Building Officials' Whittier' Uniform Buitditrg Code, 1982 ed , Intemational Conference of
Cal.
,"
P,
ffi*
15.0
ffr^@# : 310.6 +
/56OR 1r
5387:1
s6e8.3
=
=
ANSIStandardA58.l-lgS2,BuildingCodeRequirementsforMinimumDesiSn.I'oadsin
"=#r=ffi=3-t266
m
0.1401
n=3.0
9-l+0.1401
Because
15.8 psi
7.
Hydrccarbon ProDechetto, K., and w. Long, "Check Towers for Dynamic stability "' 45, No. 2, February 1966, pp' 143-147 ' c?rrir,g, Vol. Subjected to Applied Forces"' Bergman, E.O., "The Design of Venical Prcssure vessels piping Design ASME New York' 1960' pp 576-580 it"?in vuutt ona University of Strum, R.G., A Study of the Collapsing Pressure of Thin'walled Ctlinders' Experiment Station, Bulletin No 329' 1941 Illinois, Engineering
0.75 in., MAW? = 23.9 psi at 550.F, the shell is still acceptable with the earthquake loading. When a is larger than 1.0, the vessel is checked as a cantilever beam. The axial unit stress due to p- is P_:2!
BIBLIOGMPHY
Vibratiots, 4th ed , Mccraw-Hill' New York' 1956' "Collapse by lnstability of Thin Clindrical Shells under Wrndenburs, D. F , and C. Trilling, Ttuns. ASME Vol 56' NewYork l9J4 pp ulv-bzJ' Extemil Pressure,"
Den Hartog, J. P., Mechanical
=Gs)(120.7s)
452.8rb/ in.
CHAPTER
17
VESSELS OF NONCIRCULAR
cRoss sEcrloN
595
396
17,I
V!33H.3
0r
l7.r
TYpES
Ot vEsstls
597
WPES OF VESSELS
opening consists of several different diameters through the vessel wall thickness , depending upon the type of calculated stress (either direct membrane sfiess or bending shess), the effective opening size and the ligament efficiency calcu-
jlte diamelers of the openings are uniform through the wall thiikness, the ligament efficiency is calculated very similarly to that for a circular vessel. Ifthe
Although many kinds of noncircular cross sections may be used for proces! vessels, only a few configurations are used widely. The ASME Code, VI[_l, limits design rules to vessels of rectangular cross section as shown in Fig. 1i, i and Fig. 17.2 and to obround cross sections. Some additional rules are given fof vessels with a circular cross section that utilizes stay plates to give addedltrength to the vessel. The rules in this chapter are limiied to vessels with a straight longitudinal axis and noncircular cross sections. Rules are given elsewhere ior vessels with or without a circular cross section that is made into some other shaoo than one with a shaight longitudinal axis, such as a torus. Some vessels contain very few openings, whereas many others contain many openings. If tlere are only a few openings, they usually are individually rein'. forced by replacing the area removed as described in Chapter 11. In manv vessels, multiple openings are calculated according to the rules for ligaments.
Ii
dnd flol w6ld ioint lorg-rodius corne'5 {or minimum sire$ oncanlrolion
with rectangular or square cross lations are determined in different ways' Vessels
r;*it*t."y tt ;it"i"."
Figur.
l7,l
Diviiion)
Four-plore rectongulor hoodcr utilizo! wsld ioints or eoch corner. (Coortesy Ecodyne MR/r{
thicknesses' built with many different combinations of wall opposite sides have the same-wall thickness where two "o.uinutions opposite sides have a different wall thickness ftom the two ^"J*ft".,ft" ",ft- $pe is often used in air-cooled heat exchangers' other tiJ".. nts mav "ii"# fu iioes or different thicknesses' wheteas still others ffiil;;;i; uiitir. ,tuv'ptut"t to stiffen the flat sides of the vessel' -'. for rectangular cross i"n"rui diff"."nt combhations are shown in Fig' 17'3 for rectangular cross r""ii#ii rt ti r"yplates, in Fig' 17'4 circular cross sectionssections with stay without and ;;;;d]; F s i'?.5 for obrooid is similar for vessels with with andpressure intemal "*y ;ilf""gh the analysis
;il;
"oirJarea is di-fferent.
plates on each type witfr tnos! with extemal pressure, the effect of stay
+--J
+ l";
fioure Enginen' (Couriesy Americon So.isfy of Recrongulor crds s6ction' wilh sloy plots' '{echonicol Cod, Vlll-l') Fis. l3-2(o) of the ASl,tE
17.,1
kim
figur 17.3 Ploin ractongulor crols sectioff. (Courtesy of Americdn So.iery of Fis. l3-2(o) of the ASME Cod, vlll-I.)
s99
598
I7,4
OPENINGS 60I
I7.2 :-(
.1--
RULES IN CODES
cross section have been in Spccilic rules for the design of vessels of noncircular Prior to that time' the ASME 1, iince the r97 7 Addenda'
(ieaDDliedseveraldiftbrentmethodsforestablishingthemaximumallowable ln 1963' the ASME -,'rir"I i"it= i;; ".tt.it tr noncircular cross section pressure.vessels' This code "t i,;[';:"ffi;A;A Cu." irrs rot noncvlindrical according to UG-34' but ,,,r, *.rtin"O the heads and covers to bi calculated longitudinal axis be calculated il;;i;il;tid;;iuie" p-a["] to ttt"thic[ress or maximum-allowableaccording working il;;;6. il;;;;i*rt", p"r-its ttre by one of the proof tests permitted by irr"r*i!',J" i","t-ined analytically or tho ASME Code. -tn cross section given in the addition to the rules for vessels of noncircular vessels^are contained in ASME-Cod", VIII-I, design rules for rectangular vessel code'2 and several Pressure i ,i,,yd" R;;i;*;i strippin!,r the Swedish
other codes.
I7.3
number of openings that are lirr those vessels and headers that contain a limited mav be applied For :';; ;;;g;-lrt p"n"m, the method of reinforced openings reinforcing rules for flat plates apply lf the flat sides of noncircular vesseis, the ligament efficiencv i;; ;;;;i;;t ;;angea in a reluiar pattern' the method of
rrrav be apDlied.
""i;;Jfi;i"ament
,^t a J"i".-it"
ili;,-#;i"*t r- t"nain! to the degree of weld joint examination' relati-ve iii**"Ld i"* "in;iency
k,wer effiiiencY of the two is used'
both *rJ
it is necesstress and the hgament efficiency for membrane $ress' In addition' it is necessary to determine
foi
The
(c)
Figure
(d)
(Co,rrr,e5y Americon Socioty
I7.4
oI
17.5 Obround ond circl.llor cros. .crions with ond wiftout sioy plote!. lchonical Engiru.rc, tom Fig, t3-2(b) ond (c) of th ASME Code, V t_I.)
a regular pattem as shown ln l'or flat plates with constant diameter openings in and bending stresses is the i ig.'i?.6, ,ii" flg"."nt efficiercy for b;rh membrane for setting the ligament same. When the two opemng's being considered an equivalent rtu"" Ano"nt diam;ters, it is necessary to determine follows: "iil"i*"y openings by averaging their diameters as
oi"-"i"i"i,ft"
DB=O'S(dt+dz)
600
(17.1)
as
vtssEts
of
r7.5
rllicicncy equation
STRT3S
OOI
Da=05(1 5 + 1'25):1375in'
.|.|rglisamentefficiencyisbasedontheminimumspacingofp=3'5in.ustng in' tlrc eq-uivalent diameter Dr = 1'375
^
l'roblems
l?.lAheaderisdesignedforaligamentefficiencyofe-=-e'=0667What for 1 ?5-in diameter openings? is the rninimum cen ".-,o-tJnt"' 'puting Answer: d = 5'25 tn'
17
''
.2 '-
two.rows of 7 /8in' Theflat side plate of a rectangular header contains 3-in' apan and the openings,are on 8-in' ie th" iiL"L
ienter of the same flat side plate The i""d;JtJi*ao ioint " ;;il'j"t"r, only visually eiamined' has a weld joint efficiency of f = O.ZO. Wftut is the efflciency used to set the minimum required
alon'g ttre
along each
row
The header.
aLso
contains
thickness?
Figuro
17.6
cm-eb--
P_DF
p
*ft"
radiog2 has the weld joint examined by fuli thickness? required is the efficiency used to set the minimum
17
'
Example 17,1. What is the membrane and bending ligament efficiency in a rectangular cross section header in which 11:6 lf|.-, h = 12 in., and tt = tz = 0.75 in. with a single row of 1.5-in. diameter holes on 4-rn. cenrerto-center spacing?
I7.5
4-1.5
0.625
T
and
Therearemanydifferentarrangementsofplateswith.openings.withmulti. the .iio*n in Fig 17 7' For use in air-cooled heat exchangers' ;;;; thickness ", ."iiidi".J" ar" orr-gJd in increasing diameter through the-plate tube
3.5-in. center-to-center spacings. The opening diameters also alternate with first a 1.5-in. diameter opening followed with a 1.25-in. diameter oDenins. What is the minimum ligament efficiency for setting thickness?
*t
i",
rolling in the tubJs the larger diarieters are needed for may be considered' "a-in power. Any nrrung"'fi"nt of various diameters
,.
D-Da
p
17.3)
I7.5
STRESS
I-,-IN
t:
11
. p-
d1
I a, tt.n>j F;--;;;'r
*1
+
lFl
I
:I
do = 1,625"
J
figure
17.8
l7'3'
D,
=1#(r.625 x
0.125
+ l.s x
1 490
in. I
Figur.
17.7
is 1'25 in' Example 17'4. Tubes are expanded into a rectangular header that 'fne grooves in the notes ute 0.875-in. diameter with two 0 3l25-in -deep tt ict. spacing hole for holding power. The grooves are 0 125 in' high with 0 25-in' What is the between them.-The top gtoove is 0.25 in ftom the top edge
membrane ligament efficiincy
where
if
'4:
p:3in'
do
Example 17.3. Determine the membrane ligament efficiency in a header where /r : tz = l.5O in. The header contains a series of openings on 4_in, centers. The openings are multidiameter, as shown in Fig. lt.g.
Solution,
P:4in. in. ?6 = 0.125 in. dr = 1.5 in. T1 : 1.125 in. dz = 1.375 in. Tz = 0.25 in.
da:
1.625
in. ?6 = 0.25 in' dr : O.9375 in. T : O.125 in7i : O 25 dz : 0.875 indz = 0.9375 n. \ = 0.125 n' d, = 0.875 in' 7i = 0.50 in'
=
0.875
,"
#(0.875
0.9375
x 0.25 +
+
0'9375
0.125
+ 0'875 x 0'25 +
0.125
0.875
x 0.5) = 0.888
606
Vt33!r3
0t
NoNctRcurAR CROSS
rs
SECTTON
I7.6
607
(
I =2
lrrom Fig. 17.1 and Eq. 17 5'
AXz
17.6)
",=1:jq=o.zo+
Problcms
>Ax=bofr(;+4
/a
/T^
+z+...+4) -/
7;+...+T"l -/
\
(r7.7)
+ btrt
centers. The holes are l-in. diameter with the ends counterbored 0.25 in. deeo to a diameter of 1.125 in. ff the plate is 1.5 in. thick, what is the lisament efficiency for membrane stresses?
l;
/'r-
+ brTrl; +
\-
"'n
4)
Answet
17.5
etu
+
0.702
A seamless square header that hasT l/4-in- inside measurement by 1.125 in. thick is to be formed so that it will have a constant thickness. Thc header contains a row of 2-in. diameter on 3-in. centers. The holes havc one groove for expansion at the midthickness of the plate that is 0.125 in. high and has a2.125-in. diameter. The opposite wall contains a series of handhole openings 4.25-in. diameter on 7-in. centers with a seat on the outside 0.125-in. deep by 4.75-in. diameter. What are the ligament
effi ciencies
2A=
boTo
"
From Eq. 17.6
(17.8) (17.9)
Ansver2
e^: e^ :
(17.10)
+ rt +
12
+ . . . + r.
-I)
\2
1-in.-thick plate. The plate contains a row of tube holes on 3.5-in. centers. The holes are allernate 2 and 2.5 in. All holes are counterbored 0.25 in. and to a O.Zs-in.larqer diameter. What is the ligament efficiency for membrane stress?
(17.11)
Answer: e. =
LIGAMENT EFFICIENCY FOR MULTIDIAMETER OPENINGS SUBJECT TO BENDING STRESS
9'339
I7.6
c = larger
off or
(r
- fJ
(r7.r2)
For a flat plate that contains rnultidiameter openings, it is necessaxy to determine an effective ligament efficiency in bending by locating a neutril axis of the various diameters and thicknesses of the openings and the effective moment of inertia. From structual mechanics, the basic equations are
b6=P-DB
Because
c = t/2 and I =
bEt3
/12,
6
(17. r 3)
= "
2AX
>A
(17.5)
c tll2\
608
vtsstts oF
I7.6
609
us
And
liq
lT l5
Dt=P
-n
o/
4
(17. t4)
1.53
0.617
|.)xamp|elT.6.TheheaderinExamplel?.4issubjectedto'bendingStresses in tt e nut sides. What is the ligament efficiency for the bending shess?
(17.15) Solution
D_D"
p
Example
17.5.
Example 17.3.
Solwion
P = 4in.
0.125
2 AX = 2.37s
in. bo = 4 - 1.625 = 2.375 in. dr : 1.5 in. br = 4 - 1.5 = 2.5 in. dz = 1.375 in. bz = 4 - 1.375 = 2.625 in.
do
1.625
P=3in' bo = 3 - 0'875 = 2'125 tl:,' do : 0.875 in' To : 0.25 in. h = 3 - 0'9375 :2'O625 \n' dr = 0.9375 n' Tr = 0.125 in. :2lZ5 in' Tz= 0.25in. dz=0.875\n' bz=3- 0 875 bt: 3 - O'9375 : 2'0625 in' dz = O.9375 in' Z: = 0.125 in. bq = 3 - 0'875 = 2'125 \n' dr = 0.875 in' Tr : 0.5 in. r, AX : (2.125)(0.25)(0.125 + 0.125 + 0.25 + 0.125 + 0 5)
+ (2.0625)(O.t25)(0.0625 + 0.25 + 0'125 + + (2.125X0.25X0.125 + 0.125 + 0.5) + (2.062sX0.12s)(0.062s + o's) + (2.12sx0.s)(0.25)
X 0 5)
+ 2.625 x0.25 =
1.8906
(2.o62s)(o.r2s')
+ (2.12sx0's) =
2'6406
r = + l(2.37 s)(0.12r3 + e.s)(0.37 13 + e.6zs)(0.2s)31 + (2.375X0.125X0.625 + 0.375 + 0.2s _ 0.36S3f + (2.5X0.375X0.1875 + O.zs _ 0.36S3f + (2.62s)(o.2sr(0.3683 _ 0.1212
rzsxo.2r3
Q'062s)(o.r2r3 + Q. t2sr(o'2s\31
(2.0625XO.r25)3
0.6243)2
/ = 0.0884
c = the larger of 0.3683
0'5
0'6243)2
or
(0.75
0.3683)
0.3817
Ds = 4
-#ffi
= 4 - z'47:
1'53 in.
+ (2.0625)(0.125)(0.0625 + O.25 + 0.125 + 0.5 + (2.125X0.25X0.125 + 0.125 + O.5 - 0.6243)2 + (2.0625)(0.125)(0.0625 + 0.5 - 0.6243)2 + (2.125x0.sx0.6243 - O.2s\2
610
vrsslr.s
0f
I7.7
STRISSES 6I
I = 0.3451 in.a
c = the larger oI O.6243
Equivalent diameter is equal to
or
(1.25
0.6243)
O.6257 \n.
De
eb
= 3 -ffi
(6)(0 345r \
= 3 - 2 tl8 =
0 882 in'
applied badsolvc lbr minimium required thickness in terms of geometry and are. necessary because the thickness ings. Even in these cases' some assumptions of isiirectly related to primary membrane shess, but, it is related by the square stress ' lhc thickness to primary bending th B;th il.rty;embiane and primary bending s$esses are determined for point examined' Where required' shesses may various configurations at each t f"r the effect oi a weld joint efficiency' if there.is one' and for when a """J "O.i"t*E membrane shess and the bending saess ligament efficiencies
In looking at the efficiency from Example 17.4, this is a case where the groovcl for expanding the tube have little to do with the efficiency because e. = 6.794
and eu
9.796.
both thJ rspeating pattern of openings is used. -'n.""iai"g to ttre ASME-Code, VIII-I, a weld joint efficiency according 10 joints) ' uw- t Z ls reiuirea for longitudinal butt-weld joints (and-some other butt all points .trtrr.ugn tftJ*"fa joint eficiency is applied to the membrane stress at weld in tn" noi side plates, iiis applied to the bending stress only at the "*u-in""OA" examined binding stresJ is located in the flat side plate rather than ri
Problcms
Code' '"i"i. ui tt" *"tA iom,, the weld j6int efficiency is not applied' The ASME applying the weld joint efficiency to the allowable stresses VUi- t , is any polnt' "onsiOAng instead of modifyinf thJcalculated snesses' However, in examining
17.7 T\e
header in Problem 17.4 is subjected to bending stresses as well a! membrane shesses. What is the ligament efficiency for bending stresses?
Answer:
eu
9.792
17.8
What are the ligament efficiencies for bending shesses in Problem 17.5?
Answers:
et : et :
I7.7
joint efficiency is used in the equaeither method worki when the proper weld tions. '"-Only bending the lower efficiency of the weld joint and the membrane and is used. The weld joint efficiency is not modified by the lit es."', efncien"ies joint does not only the lower efficiency is used' If the weld ii*u*"n "tn"i"n"y; rt" p-", irxamined, only the ligament efficiencies. need be considered' thrcugh the "3"* Provisions are given to account for holis with different diameters determined for calcuolate thickness.-For those cases, an equivalent diameter is iating the ligament efficiencY. in deterttt"" for"going discussion, one realizes that care is. required separate the a:t any location. In general, it is. easier to tlt"and the bending stress at each location examined ln most stress midpoint and ends of the side , shesses should be ixamined at the also have to as at the weld joint, if one exists Other points may
"i
Design rules given in this chapter are for vessels and headers that have a sraight longitudinal axis with a noncircular cross section and closure plates on each end, The fonnulas are based on assuming a unitJength vessel section with no stengthening effect form the longitudinal direction of the plate. However, for certain uniform thickness vessels and headers, provisions are given for plates with a length-to-width ratio of two or less to compensate for the added strength from the longitudinal direction. The design rules in the ASME Code, VItr-I, provide for vessels of rectangular and obround cross section where different walls may have different thicknesses. The method used in the ASME Code, VI[-1, combines plate and shell theory and stuctural design theory where it is necessary to assume wall thicknesses and calculate stresses that are compared with allowable stress values. These methods were described in Chapter 7. For vessels and headers of uniform thickness, e.quations can be developed that
t"nril",t
.6tt -".U.-""r.
code; however, the combination of primary pfus primary bending stress for a plate thickness assumed to be
1. 2.
govern' At design temperatures where tensile strength and yield strength the lesser of the following:
(a) 1.5 times the basic allowable tensile stress at design temperature' (b) Yield strength at design temperature' At design temperature where creep and rupture strength govem' the
lesser of the following: (a) 1.25 times the basic allowable stress at design temperature' (b) Yield strength at design temperature'
612
17.8
BASIC
EouAlloNS
0r3
["br externll prcssure, where the total stress may be compressive, a limitation also set based on buckling of the side plat.
il
The basic theory is the maximum strsss theory that is generally used in structural analysis. For cross sections of members and stifieners other than the combination of primary membrane plus primary bending stresl Tlangular, is limited to the shape factor of the member times the basic ailowable tensilc str6s in the applicable code but is not to exceed the yield strength at the design temperatures where tensile strengtl and yield strength govem. At design teir. pratures where crep and rupture strength govem, the same limits apply, but tho shape factor multiplier is limited to 1.25 regardless of the actual shape factor,
r.
M"=+Hl{'##)
of long-side M is llcnding moment at midpoint
(17.18)
u"
__
un
_P#
( 17.
19)
such as and the bending stress in the same equation. It may be necessary to separate them for evaluation when different efficiencies apply to the membrane stress rather than to the bending shess.
it is necessary to calculate shesses at various pointl which combination controls. Certain analysis methods, that in the Swedish Pressure Vessel Code, combine the mjmbrane stresg
ur= un_P#
(17.2o)
I7.8
BASIC EQUATIONS
For analysis purposes, the noncircular cross section of the vessel is considered as a skuctural frame. Each component of the rectangular or obround frame contains a load that causes a membrane stress and i moment that causes a bending shess. The total stress at any point is the summation of these two
stfesses.
Internal Pressure,
loading against the adjacent walls. fhls toaaine is resisted by strength of material, and weld or ligament efficilency of the -the-thickness, lvall! that are carrying the load. The applied loading d e)(1,) and the resisting loading is (&Xr)(2d. When these are equated to e;ch other and solved for S,l the membrane stress for the short-side iJ
(17.16)
^PH
2t2E
Ith'
(17
.17)
as follows:
From the theory of structural frames,3 the basic moment equations for a rectangular frame under intemal pressure loading p when the two pairs of oppcsite sides have equal thickness and equal length, as shown in Fig. -.9, are
MM
rigur '17.9
'ro$
!crion heodor'
6t4
Vt!!!ts 0f
17.8
BASIC
EQUATIONS 615
Momont
ol incrtiu
/1 lirr short-side is
L=\ '12
Moment of inertia
12
t3
PHz
(r728)
for long-side is
1.. |-
r3
'2
n
I
""07.22,t
Clearing
P l2rrz r28
(17.2e)
M-=+ffi#-1.s''?)
Multiplying Eq. 17.30 through by
(17.30)
So:M'
Bending stress in comer of short_side is
(-l),
M-=+('5"'(r7.23)
G)a=ryx! Z.lt E
Bending stress in comer of long_side is
+J#)
+tuo,.;
(17.31)
6;)a=ryx! 2lz E
Bending stress at the midpoint of the short_side is
$),=h(""'(r7 .24)
(11
.32)
tsr.lr: $ * 1 UtE
Bending stress at midpoint of the long_side is
Ilxarnple 17.7. Determine the adequacy of a rectangular cfo-ss-sectional headeiwith a design pressure of 150 psi and made from a seamless forging with oi t2,soo psi' The header inside dimensions are 14 in by tn allowable .t "ti 7.25 in. with a constant thickness of 1 in. All openings are reinforced'
Solutian
(17
.2s)
$,:ryx!
Cross multiplying Eq. (17.18)
1.
(17
.26)
,=*$=oo',,
2.
Calculate bending moment at comer Mc using Eq. 17 l8:
simplifying equations, the equation for the bending stress at the midpoint of the short-side is determined as follows:
.. ua:
P
(r7.27)
M. .
150 /(14)r/0.0s33
\- r+rerffi -llfr
=1838.28
(7.25)3/0.0833\
1838.28
3.
M1a
using
Eq lT' 19:
Mu = Ma
-'+
*Tq = -
ft3632
6t6 4.
I7.8
VtSSEtS
BASIC EQUATION5
ot/
Of
(S)c',v
(S')'v
+ (Si')or:
1050
l l'030
=
=
l2'0ti() psi
Mu = Mo
- +8 = 1838.28 :
(1838.28)(0.5) (0.0833)
PH2
(150x-7 25)'?
852.7J
(S).,v
(sJ,u
+ (S)' =
1959
5120
6170 Psi
5.
values' so 1-in. thickness is satisAll sfesses are less than allowable sffess
lrctory.
(S)aa
6.
11,030 psi
from two Crectangular cross-sectional header is made of the short-sides' Th weld joints are rcctions and butt welded along ule center
l,)xumple
17.8. A
(r""
,f
--O:d833- =
1836.72)(0.5)
I l'o2o Psi
r|)otexaminedwiththebacking,t.ipt"ftinplacefromTable.Uw-12ofthe room tem,ili*,riit"J", vrii-r' r = o.si' The design pressure.is l15,psi,at of 7 500 i0 with an allowable stress ' ,"r",ri."] *O tft" .","""f is se-S t S Craae is 6 bv 0 625 in' thick'
1
ilI.
uv r in thick and the short-side holes on 3'75-in' centers ls ( )ne lons-side contains a row ot i'S in diameter thc desiln acceptable?
Solution
ri'!il;; ;il;ir.i
11,030 psi
8.
of short-side:
)
1.
long-side with the tube holes: Calculate the ligament efficiency of the
^ tsr)" =
9.
c^=t=:'ls,;1
s=oeo
2.Calculatethemomentsofinertiaofboththelong-Sideandtheshort-side:
:540
psi
L = i=
3.
lo5opsi
4.
ll.
Calculatethebendingmomentatthemidpointofthelong.sideMMusing
(,S.),r.r
(S)aa:540 +
11,030
Eq. 17.19:
11,570 psi
M, -- Ma -
( = ror.rr-
(115X13'5f
-1778'so
5,40
11,020
11,560 psi
5.
of the short-side Mrv using Calculate the bending moment at the midpoint
of short-side;
Eq. (17.20):
6t8
.
:323.8s
(S)o,v
17
vlll'l
619
(S,)'v
(Sr')o'v
=
+
1550
12'950
14'500 pst
6.
Calculate the bending stress at the corner of the long-side with the (E = 1.0):
(S)p
(S'),v
(Sa)rv
1550
6230
7780 psi
<s,t*=W:ffiffi=5o5opsi
7.
Calculate the bending stress at the midpoint of the long-side with holes (E = ea = 0.60):
rrrembrane plus bending stresses and are acceptable' |rlculated sfesses are tess tnan tne aiowable
t*t""t-'it"i
l'roblems
C-sections that are-buttrvelded 17.9 A header is made ftom from two *eld is not examined and the backing fn" the centerline of th" 12 bv 6 bv 'tto*-'iA" in pro""; tr'"tiiott' E = 0 65 -The.header-is at the weld il;;;. is the stress I in. thick with a de"gn p'";tit" oiZoO psi' What
Mucz
1778.50X0.5.)
along
/./eu
psi
8.
1.0):
Maq : ttilaN = iE
9.
joint?
(841.35)(0.3125)
(o^oro3xl3) =
12'950 psi
Answer: Maximum
stress
10'160 Psi
0.80):
l?.10 A
t.)att
= bzru Psr =
the centerline or t*o oppoiit" 2-in diameter on of openings that The adiacent side co"tain' u 'ow 'are lreader is 7'25 by ii ttoisi and the 5.75-in. centers' fr'" O"'igtipt""ut" where is it located?
along C-sections that are bxtt welded square header is made from two is 0 65' efficiency wetd-
liJes' The
ioint
it
tfi"''l*ito*
=
stress and
e^:
9.691
\r.)M =
PH (l rsx6) : Ui = ,(lx0f)
(l1sxt3.5) ,(o.6rsxo3)
Azs*er"
Maximum stress
)uu
PSr
I7.9
=
0.S0):
\r^tN
zttE
Ph=
Appendix13.r,h:f
y:::*h#t"
j;,:.lllllll1lH"',,'Tl:H jiJ,::iT;
l55u
Psr
5630 psi
c expressed Code geometries shown' to the sPecific in the ASME same thickness' the equations When the opposite sides have the lT lT However' tnot" *iu"n in Eqs 17 16 and Code, V[I-l, are the same *"*rt"" theri are rounded comers' or when when opposite thicknesses a specific
structural
(S),v
(S.),y
+ (Stff
580
17,790
18,370 psi
ftHl'"quu,ion,
.ipi",
t4.
'f'ui
+
Z:
\-l -!:
'{
3
+I
+: + crs \l*
I
,: *sl
j
I
-(\ -+
I
-s
\i
I
;
(J
9,)
-^-r-i- T 5 -E-'"r
lt5\(l
t(a
lc'l
I
T-r 't!.
c.l
-i
Eo
]: : \"1^
.:_-:-\
I +
.*
; ^;l{ -l+
'{ ol
I
:'
al
+ +
,-..:\
: \]
f'l r_]d
\)
N
!J
di
N
+
\]
d
:J
dl
a.a\
*<-
.\ilN
I
6Jor
le {-l$
IN
-l tN
-t{
:l lA :
rN
s .+Y
I
qJ
->
ri
o 9
'Ed 9! YE
-B
EEEFEEEE E:>S"a'Si
ii3333Ss rxrrSSrC
3a93qLraa
Fa
E!
lrl
<at\
$\J
r-
c-
F-
(J
620
621
622
bending stress at thc midpoint of the short-side of a rectangular cross-sectlr headerisEq.3of Article l3-7 of the ASMECode, VIII_1. bevelopment of same equatlon as given in Eq. 17.32 is
Iqble
l,rIure
17
.2
Location Membrane Stress (Psi)
as,:
ffiltsn'n
o,ttti
:ff
(t7
(17
l'l .3a
t't .3b
Ph
/(2hE)
Ph/(2t28)
Ph
/(2^D
k?)
K= |+
o2K
t;td
(r7
"'k
Kr
- Kr))\
17
.3c
Short-side Long-side
P(a + L)/^E
(r7. (r7
(t7
t't .3d
P(h + s)lhE
Php/2(At
PHp
comel
Short-side Long-side Shon-side Long-side
_h2(l + a2n = _orlhtl, + Hrl, u H, I _ h3lt + H3I2 -L h'1, "ht,+Htr] (l+K) hlt + HI2
Substituting Eq. 17.38 into Eq. 17.33 gives
12( z +
pt)E
l7 .3e
.
P(L+L.l+a)/hE P(h+h+a)/t2E
P(a + L)/nE Pa/hE
PaltzE
tt.)a
Midpoint, curve
End, curve
Side
@,:#,rftt"'-
+:#]
(17
t't .5b
Midpoint, curve
End, curve
Side
P(a+L)pl(At+ph)E
Pap/(A, + ptt)E Pap/(At + ph) E
brane stresses remain the same, but the blnding stresses are reduced by multl. plying by the factors in Table 17.3. The stressei are then obtained by using tho following equations:
in Table 17 .2. Although all the formulas have been developed on the basis of a length_to. width L1/H and Ly /ft of four or more-the ratio where there is no long dimen. sion effect-provisions are given for the simple rectangular header shown in Fig. 17.3a to reduce stresses when the aspect iatio is lei than two. The mem,
Equation 17.39 is identical to Eq. 17.32 and shows the relationship between thl gquations in Appendix 13 of the ASME Code, VI[-l, and those derived fron basic theory. The ASME Code contains extensive nomenclature in Article 13.! fo-r yarioug configurations. Equations for the bending stresses in Table l3_lg,l of the code are shown in Table 17.1. In addition, equations for membrana :hTle! for various configurations in the ASME Code, VIII_I, are summarizod
Tqble 17.3
LtlH
or 1.0
1.1
Lr/h
0.56 0.64
0.'13
Cz
0.62
0.70
o.77 o.82 0.87 0.91
1.2
1.3
o.79
0.85 0.89
1.4
l.)
1.6
1.8 1.9
2.O
o.92
0.95
0.94 0.96
= Eq. 17 .23 x
0.9't
0.99 1.00
0.9'l
0.99 1.00
C2
(17.40)
623
r7.9
Cl
(
vlll'l
= Eq.
17
'25 x
r7.4
(Si,),v
5120 Psi
= Eq'
17
'24
Cz
17 midpoint of the long-side using Table Calculate the bending stress at the lirst equatlon:
l'
(s,)" =
17.26
= Eq.
Cl
17.
l,lxample
For those cases where eitdrrer Lr/H or Ltf h is elss than 1.0, it is necessary reorient the axes of the header and to recalculate all properties such as of inertia of the wall. Dimensions are chosen so that the longest dimension is L1, the next dimension is ft, and the shortest dimension is 11. This may result in pafi which was originally considered to be an end closure becoming a wall the header. All calculations are based on this revised confieuration. Vessels of noncircular cross section may be subjected to external pressuro, Membrane and bending sfiesses are considered the same as for intemal pressun unless the resulting stresses are compressive where stability may be a possibh mode of failure. Interaction equations are used to examine the various plates fot stability. Calculated stresses are compared with critical buckling stresses with I factor of safety applied. This is described in Article 13-14 of the ASME Codo,
ffi;;ffi;;;
17.10.
truilt with a shortened The header in Example 1?'9 is to be at the midpoints considering the trt" foesses ia in. wttu'
rho-rtened length?
'"
= l4it'
=
l.oo
L'
cr
c2
L:
t.ZS
Ct =
vl[-l.
long-side only because the length-toThe strengthening effect applies to the width ratio ii less than 2'0 This gives
(s)1q'
(s6)r
x cl =
(11,020)(0 79)
8?10
psi
Example 17.9. The rectangular cross-sectional header in Example 17.7 il made according to ASME Code, VIII-I, rules. What are the bending stresses at the midpoints of both the short-side and the long-side?
ExamDle
ffi1ilfi;;''=
l7.tl.
r=
1 in.; c
0.5
and
,rt"
be built with a shortened The header in Example 17 9 is to axes for analysis and what iz in' whnt is aonejo trt" n"aaer long-side? midpoints oi the short-side and the
"=#=T:o.ttn
rl fl\l r=i=;-=0.0833
. = (,:)"
ffi;#, r,)
Lr/h
reoriented for analysis ln the 1.0, the axes of the header must be
Calculate the bending stress at the midpoint of the short-side using Eq. 17.33 and Table 17.1, second equation:
b".;.';i;;";'also
-,,1: flat end closur-et^which have now The first assumption is that the originat I in trti"t on'tttur basis' 1= 0'0833 remains'
tqin.,h=
12in', andrl-=
7'tf
in' -
(Ja)":
(1s0)(0.5) l2(0.0833)(1)
fr
+ (0'5t79)3'l /t4), I
" =+
K=
=ff
= o.suz
O.6042
vEsSEt
o;
l7,lo
DGSION
Of NoNclRcutAR
VESStLs lN OTHER
CODES
627
Check
il
L, :
V
1O = t.lZ
14
t4
tests Among those design codes lirr Llovd's the Swedis'h Pressure Vessel Code and the
L,
;$,"%il'ni-":X',"*"';1ff #:1':,1
h=
i=
1.17
l7.lO.l
Shengthening fagtors apply to both short_side and long_side. Calculate the bending stress at the midpoint of the sliort-side
are rules and (i)ntained in Chapter 18 of the Swedish Pressure Vessel Code using Eq. 17.4
ts,r,=ffffil'
(Sa),v
rrrrrl -
ozrfffilro.el
l,
il;;;t-f- ilGning rectangular cross-sectional headers subjectedare no rules G ,ut"-ttti"tn"" of walls on all sides' There are con:ffi;";;;;i,h when i;ff;5;it ffi ;tilerent watl thicknesses' both thethe wall thicknesses long-side and the short+ide' for ttre st'"ss"s in J;"i, ;;;i;;; *i{;-basJ;q"^u'; ;iu"n Pressure vessel Code
for the long-side from the Swedish
is
2280 psi
^ fust equation:
Calculate the bending stress at the midpoint ofthe long_side using Table 17.
;=(;,-&*6
t
(17.M)
/c, - (150X0.5)(lD2f .- - I + (0.6042)r'l (0 62; = ae5e o,' '""' - D6lEl5?i) 1t': 1; fi,ai |
Problems
effect and the other term is the One term in the denominator is the membrane gives Code' em"ct. Substituting terms from the ASME
VI[-l'
"nOing
s*i. =
rectangular vessel
17,11 A
^ =;
2: n
100 for
21
eb
shown
a=3in.;L=6in.;h:3:[il.
psi.at a design temperature of 300.F. There is no cfusion and full radiography is applied at all weldjoints. What are the total stresses in tho long-side plaies and in the comer section using the method in the ASME Code, VI[-1, Appendix 13? Dimensions are as follows: 11 0.75 in,; =
in Fig.
17.3c ir
kilo
x=d
Eq 17'rg
gives '2
(r7.4s)
Answen At
center, ,t
,S
14,100 psi
At end,
1480 psi
Ph lta s=*\*=
10,720 psi
3hK\
(17
.46)
In bend at 26.e, S
"
lf e- =
e6
= E,
I7.IO
Ph
(r7.47)
In addition to the ASME Code, VI[-l, design rules for noncircular pressure vessels are contained in other design codes as well as in various textbooks. In addition, empirical design rules have been developed and used for a numUer of
the Swedish Pressure Vessel Code The basic equation for the short-side ftom
is:
628
VtSStts
of
NoNctRcutAR CROSS
SECTTON
I7.IO
(
CODES
629
p_ s-
/100\
\;i
'^,Jz
!
tz
rz
6^k/4
t7.48)
cross-scctional headcr givcn in krng-side and the short-side of the rectangular lixrrnple 17.7.
VI[-l,
p /)\ - = I:l S
\1,/ t/e^ +
3hKfe6
(r7 .49)
h:14\n. :H =7 h14
li)llows:
H=
25
7.25in'
= 150Psi r:1'0tn'
g.51g E:1.0
use
17 47 as
'=#(*='+)
If e^ =
e6
(17.50)
t,
K:K^=
(r7.5t)
1s0(14)(1 x s_
0.5_1_8_-t__?
s=#e+3hn
The various values of K are determined as follows:
14
x 0'250)
11,570 psi
lrortheStressatthemidpointoftheshort-side,useEqs.17.53and17.51as
lbllows:
Midpoint of long-side:
K^:
Midpoint of short-side:
\-LA--rZd
(17
K = K^ =(o.s18f
.s2)
+ 40.s18)
= -0.116
=
6170 psi
s_ KN:
q-ttq-z
(
1s0(14X1
+_1lj-_lj x
(0 116)
Problems
17.53)
o.s (Y-)'
the vessel described in Example 17 12' if thJ same cross_sectional area is kept but the cross sectlon $ square iort*A of a""t-gular, what are the maximum stresses at the midpoint and comer of thJ side using the Swedish Code?
\m/
(17
.s4)
Ansrver:
4560 psi
8370 Psi
K^ = K, '
0.5
f)-)' \n/
(17.55)
lT.l3ForthevesseldescribedinExamplelT12'what-isthemaximum is increased allowable working pressure for the header if the thickness
tot=
1.5 in'?
based on the stress at the corner of the
Example 17.12, Using the Swedish pressure Vessel Code formulas for n rectangular header, determine the maximum stress at the midpoint of both the
630
l7.lo
DESIGN
Ot NoNclRCUl'AR
VESSELS
lN oTHER
surlace cular limits measured from the vessel is the nominal op"nin^g Aia*"tet and where d, is ttre actJ 'd ,fti-.tn"t' of the tube stub (in'')
8810
12,530 psl
Rules for the design of forged, rectangular cross-sectional headers air given Chapter J of Lloyd's Rules. In order to use the rules, the header has\i con radius of not less than 0.25 in. As with other desisn methods for cross-sectional headers, stresses at the corner and in the ligaments betwecn openings are examined. The method used to detennine the efftciency of ligaments between openingl is similar to that used in other codes except that Lloyd's Rules permit coniiderin'g the reinforcement area in a welded tube stub as giving a smaller equivalent diameter. Without welded tube stubs, the hole diameter is used. For a regular pattem of holes, the ligament efficiency is
E = ligament efficiency
'l'he value
ofA/8
il;#;;;;";;,uaio'
lri.'"..iiJ"
#i;.;t.
of
irj"'ii
H;"ji.i;',H*1""a.
uDart. the value cIose.
't'o*n the.value of A/B'Readhorizontauv ""4 ""'JJlvio r' the minimum required thickness' of uJui ot values are 'lo' fi," 'n" of r tnitt U" greatel than t. [f the
pto""doi"
u'
from tangent of comer to tansent -a r = ditt*"" lT l0 Using the value of K' enter in Fig
A=
(17.s6)
efficiency is
For an irregular pattern of holes, that is, one in which the spacing between op;nings is variable but the opening diameter is the same, the ligament
using the doss-sectional htd:t Example 17.13. A rgctlnSlr| -square wittr no ftbe openings' The allow-lt-,*t]t Llovd's Rules. The header rs I :]in' psi' th" d"tign pt"ssure P equals 150 abli stress of the materi* is rs,o0O fsi':oJ ffi"ij, ,it" rnrnrfi required thitkness of the header?
Solutinn
="
p, Io,-Zd -
Ptrpz
(17.s7)
an
4=o B
t
anct
J=
1.0
opening with a welded tube stub, the diameter used is the equivalent diameter d. determined by
For an opening without a tube stub, the hole diameter d is used. For
K=Y= lfiH
B
0.056
= rooo
d"=d-L T
where
(17.58)
B:7'5-2(o'2s)=t'o
r = (7 0X0'056)
Example
I = nominal
thickness
:0
392
in'
A, = excess area in tube stub over that requ ed for internal design pressure plus area in attaching fillet welds within perpendi_
17.14.
6t2
vtgSlrs 0i
BIBTIOORAPHY
633
E3333SB
4 = 0.s0 B
B
1
(0.23)(7.15
I'roblems
;J";;er'with
i^l;i;;;;"rtrl"
i.o-in. aiut.t.t
of a the Lloyd's Rules' what is the minimum -requi-red.thickness wall-to0'25-in corner radius and 9-25--in' inside psi and the urro*uur" tensile stress is 1s'000 contains a row of openings that is desiqn Dressure 1800 psr' One side on 3'b-in' spacing along the center'
AIB
0,30
Answer:
t,ni,,
1'75 in'
17. 16
stuus' are added at the openings? anA aftached by a 1.O-in. inner diameter uy O ZS in' ' tttict
if welded tube
0'25-in' fillet
weld.
tlB
0,10 0,08 0,07
Answer:
t";n:
1'75
in
Cannot be reduced
to 1'625 in'
0,06
0,05
REIERENCES
l.
K
2.
and Other Lloyd's Register of Shipping, chap J' "Boilers of Steel Ships' London' lg72' the Co structon and tlassirtcaio Relulatiotls for the Strength of Pressure^Vessels' Publication of Pressure V essel Code' Calculation
Swedish
Pressue vessels"'
it
Rules and
Series A
r, tiJg"t, o.",
the centerline of a header that is 7. 75-in . square with 0. Z5-in. inside corner radii. The material's allowable stress is.15,000 psi tf," J"riln fSOO pri.
August 19?6, James F. Lincoln Arc w ., DesiSn ofwellments, 8th printing, Wetdog gounAation, Cleveland' Ohio' 1963'
1967'
f."rr*"
BIBTIOGRAPHY
Barberton' Recnngular Headcts' Rabcock & Wilcox' Allovlable Working Presswes--square vnd Ohio, 1950 (private communicatlon) ' ed Mccraw-Hill' Young' Fom ulasfot Stess and Strai'' 5th ' Roark, Raymond J. andwaren ' New Yolk, 1975
35-)
sE
P=
(15,000)(0.4236)
(1500)
= 4.286
,!t
APPENDICES
635
VIII' DIV' I
fu|.fu4'A*dirr'.'cu^nno
1r
il
APPENDX
A
Lill:;ll;T;X;'i: . ,' ,"'
lt
I
I
il u
tl
ll
Is:s''x: **
:i;'-T,l'j'i-Ir"?
D
*.
'$ll r';:*::r;
*,,".',
**iir:'**';*:.::,
qgt:l.l**"
*,*::"";,";.*.1;t;," _"
.,
ffibv
ft e Amricon
637
1,---^-*--J:l
sb,ve-J'.tNol..
35!
rr.iriLon (o!u{n rdrcn
tribi
(,dud) dm
^o.B?-
-aos2
lB:i'",-,..*'
^D.s3srh..ic.rt
d'hd
11
lf$<
3:llll"ft-*-^""""" ii*ri*;;'::m*:::::*l
:liEEry,.+
i'drcnit G!-11::: PEumia Gi P'oo' rer
LEg
.ea.:
r#r:g:'liJ.Tffi:
-aY-:.-: ddd4e/od_ -'::;:;
-",..::::",""
Fif
"."f.";Y'
tmF
Fisuro
A.2
ffi
Germ
""i'
i3,'n- a n'***bon
D*
639
Netherlonds
lo,5-xozh..dorc.h.d
:ffll"
-i;;'
id,.,",--d--1'1.
*'-""---l1rli?..-i,-",".'--)
H:H
l*T'":il
-,"..?,r
":::7"
"x
il
sd..!
.,,,i.1
F*.
-.""
?9Tt
gtigffi
uwT
eli,
F.DrD
rxvl.vi|.
*f;?sl;ffi!ft: fi ;;,."",-..,.-_''.,,
x'.,Jffi
nnd.bl
;;;;
ilT:I$ll;:i
X;1;1
ssdd.c @ido3g1l,.
_Ooaqs.|s@or.Mr,o7oi
'"'
Sf{*,.*if
:i#lBffiil$rj#'1fiilj{ffilljlf;3$C*{E"F}::#'3'ff:U'ii
(Published bv Trvchkkorkkommi'3ionn Prccessins' DEc teTa')
fisu.6
cuid to Dukh Stoomw.zen Code, (Published for rhe Minisrry of Sociot AfidiB [Dinsr voor h6r Stoomwezenl by Govornmnr Publishing Offico, Chrisioffel Plonriinsrroot, The Hdgue, Nthendnds; courbiy ol Hydrea$on Processing, Oe<. l979.l
A.,{
A.5 Guide to Swsdi3h P'e$ure ve$er code ot ttdrcnrbon l":ti. l-iti;;1.anorm, sweden; courtesv
Fio'ire
lvA'
Box
&1
640
".!-$ll'#:'""'"'-
-a1..=1e-lAH{H'rud",.
rird
,itit
r\
-r,r.o2
;:.d.;;i#6i."!-?o?1r"
wdd oFrir
I
a
tt
\=lE!-T
-v.s.R.r.t,s
^l.t.iob-v.s'i''''i rrntu l'-G.n Bbi -v5e.r.F.3
Xl ;":;-.-,
atu6,d rul.
I=IHH
:tt'i= I
'5
-""-
"
-s3
ffi
% A.7 G!i& ro rory:a P:'*:"::::;;iln Fisur
the JoPon borrc r.rinirtrv oI I'obor, poblishd bv
5'
ur.
w.rd loiir
or.9
2'0
-s
Fisu.o A.6 Guide to ltolion Pres5ur6 Vossal Code. (pubtkhed by Co3o Ed;rrice tuisi Di G. piroto, vio CorFlico, P.O. Box 3680, Mifon, lt'j,ly 2468Ar <owtety ot Hdroc bon pro.essing, D... 197A., bv rhe Ab'irvoku Yo'iki Kouzou Kikohu' roPon' courtesv s-ss-r st'il'o r^ino'o-Ku,Iokvo,
"l
g2
&3
tAW
2..t
1?
i45..5.t
f-'ikhd{n@.|pr@[
-rh'cri..n.d..r
tru'.
.r. -^cj.cd.F
not
2c-^di.c-r oP-r.lt
i;;;;d;F;'-,.,5
5
cod,|6imn.!-..''4|
Ar- sor
t22r
r2..1-r'.n|lM (r.dd) d4
^r.rt4.
-rN?,*l'
il
-ir'tl 'nfi|*.i.n.''i.@-..
rhddh'dd9.dd.-1. thB|lA.eij'.d.-B
lJJt::l
-arrr
12
rv
dbH @
-senrk
;liliiffi
PF-.J
T-ffi
p,[*r-t3
n::,ffi;u:--"*.'.
tu:;;::
f,ll*1i:!l-=--'
Figur A.8 Guide to Jor,ono! Srondord pV Construction. (JtS B B2tg-IgT?, pubtished by rhe Jopcn Sfondor& A5.oiotion, 4-l-24 Akcoko, Minoto-Ku. Tokyo, Jopon; courrery oj Hydrccchon pft,cassing,
'{i=----------=1r'
,ffi
stud. l\
sq
Dc. 1978.)
hiu:rrv,
*l;::l:$:'J"T:J:1
Hvdrocorbon Procassing'
D*
1974'l
645 d44
APPENDX B
fi:--swc-
ttNGrH
Plrcrr
*n
." ot,t.,uluto,
u6
47
ol3
FlL No.
_---
APPENDIX
ol P|.'
|{d $rdld.le
ot -.-
Dlfi.
D-igo s!.dic Ot
vlty @
h.r.Ung T.inFnur.
lF(.d
fb.fitC
Rool APg H
t'ao
-&
--l{o
----_
h.
X pllllcrddr
Fer O.dc
tL
L.d:
h ld.dn
dllt
$finddit r (a!F
Ethclr:
rd/or 8.bin
-Ftrll, m.t"
39.9):Yr--t{o.-_ rs.
ht.
Rdtena
i!i!.
Co|EtL
u8
g9
ahrt
Conalnrc on On I Manul&arcr
Clty
I. (!t ttrutotur.,
rnr'o, Frxdr-r, ar
Ff.
^tDtb!b)
$ara
2 o.
0t:
8h.at 3 ol 3
Flh No.
q.l.
sli.I
Flulh-TYP.
grcton N@L
aq,
At
ll.
Mrnw|Y.:, i'lo.
Jd
a,|c
E2c
6'nrictuds
Slioll
hr Mrflty!. llo
(no. ot)
Coul!..
[:rJ
ta-
ttg.
I
a
ntch6
Si.
]e
'r'd
]10)
t
7
litdsEaa
hp
_
Ftg.
dr,
Str.ilO.rdt:
c Irbm.dhi. Wirdliidrr: yG
Fl
t{o
--
l{o
_
S.tt.SI
l?
ll
la
16
T.nk Bo(brn Cofdnt: ht do..yaa_ Applb.tio.t Sp.dtb.ton Prhi S-tn cturlt S.tr.t tih.-yar _
ll Fd rbrd..
o o
(lidt
*t
Flg. 3.4
'nd
$t4
_,itd.rld _
eir{or.y.r
Lo
ultarric
PDp.rty
It L.rt T.'dllgr
2l T.nk SLc: Dtr'l| tar.nd |htght i, tt. &| O.!. ot dt0on or R.trton ot Apt S||rd]d
A5O
Ji"t
ttr|y
!' d'dr.d
b cov'r
'9'd'l
nqulrmcnt3
650
651
ec.ktns pte6Bure:
VIII - Dlv. I
P"18
deg'
bcrl
APPENDIX
Uateltal
Speclf lcatlon8 :
! latcllel
sP.ct!1c!tlon8
E...1orra
GlP.
No.
2
lUooable 6t!e56
P61
No.
SAMPLE OF PRESSU
forAlnS6
sA-204, &ade
17,500
abl.
Tbl.
ucs-23
UCS-23
i5,000x0'8=12'000
17,500 20,000 15,000 y-3
UG-24(.)
cla.
70
Tbl. ucs-23
bolrl[g
PlPl!8
rbl. Ibr.
ucs-23
Itcs-23
l/16 lEch
asbe3to6
,700 Fz ,75
Tb1.2-5.1
sld,
unstayeal
flaige
flente
653
ata
.10
APPTNDIX
5P-t
(..rtir!e 8 -
?IiSdli-ffi6j:io-fi-3E -
lh. t'
o'7e1
|ild coEo.lo! rllosroc.s ,?9t + .053 . .8j4 ts. Z. Cb.cL pos! rold hcrt !t rtDtsr rlit r.dtoSrrpb rcqult sllrr. VCS-56, Ib1 I'CS-56 [o!. O)(r): port e!1it b!.t rrcrlE.lr r.qul..d lt .ac.!dr 5/3 t!; b.c.$. 0.8500.625r por! e.:.d b.rt !r.*!!ar t.qulr.it UFfI (a), IrCS_j7 cf D$-52): r.illotr.ph r.qstr.d t-3, Cr 1, 2, 3 1f t> O.?50 r!.; b.c.ur. 0.851D0. 750 rdll.ogrrpby tr !.!ulrcd r.crlcuLtc tl{cbcrr rrqut!.al orb8 f - 0.85 (rbl DT-12, 3Eot .tr6b.d)
' 'dn.0.3l8
t + c '?ir-s66++=ii?5ir
.ll'1,.,1'lll.Ll"l'l
UA-27
(c)(1)
;.i#
0,5r
0.688<(1'25)('750)' 0'937 cyundlr.cal 3k1!t: rr,l-13 (a) 6klrt b o9llorlat for Ehe h'ail buttalded to the Ehell' t A cyllDttrlssl b!e1 fot the butt rangeot of 1-112 In. 1e4!h l'tll be used to Provide a rnto the L^nuckl'' e.ld, lbtu uU1 rvoltt cultln8 th' bevd Skctch;f h.d lnil 3blL shotdng ?llDcipal dlo'Dslo!! and to!'!3nc'
5?2Oi 525<5720
forsutr fi
9.01
Aud frlct!..s: {EG-3ZI l. l dlrhld ie&! dll b. u..tt, !C-32 (J) r.qulr.r rlrt rb. tl|taL buckh lritltra rh.lll bc not 1,..r ri& 6t of rh. ou!.td. alr"o.tcl ot th. .t1!!, lor l.t. rha! tbr.. ct!c. th. h.|tl !hlct!.ra. rh. b.l.dc .touD E.iHtlt l. ro Dot .rc.ral !L. outr:litc (tt6.r6t ol tbc ^lro, lhur lsy: rldlt, llaill. crorrn r.dtr[, t - 27 i!.<37.3t5 t!. llllde l lcllc s.illu., Ir 4 tu.>(0.06 r 37.375 - 2.24 r!. tllcbcr. rqult.d: lrA-a (d) Ia . 1.00 fot rcalcrs t.rA (2SE)-(0.21) ---!I!-tot LIt - 2114 - 5.75, x. r.4o (tbl D^i.2)
t+
"o={i3t}*32}={i:4-rzsr
0.568 + 0.063 0.531 thu.!or.
+ 0.053
(!) v.3!cl to bc Po.t e.lil hclt t:clted !t 1]'00'F fo! 3/4 hout (Un-33) (b) drxl.'tE Dclrtu.1bl. off.et of ctrc@fe!'nt1a1 JolEt' ' 3/16" UP-52 (c) .Pot cxllllitloE ot e'ldcd lotnts Pet (a)' u{-91(a) (1) @ 3/32" rclnfotctEg bc!d: w-35 n.cc!.mv bett'en hcld ind sh'll b'c'u!! thlckltlt'er No of!r.! P!.Pst!t1on ux-g(c) ' do no! illff.! bv Eolt lhrd 1/8 ln'
t +c-
0,688
b (tt/16)
1e
."'.-ir'i. lltO"
I
th.l.l. lulfrcG of h..d 'hrU not d'vlrtc rtoD 27'r rrdlus uG"81 (r)
6t6
Data Sheet for Relnforcement Calculafions (UG.3Z, -40)
She1l -r--s.d- (!ecrfv l
5tf
APPENDIX
d..crlption: (Iontltudhal butr Jcl.nt, dcJbte eelded, poEr vetd near treaEed, spct fBClotraphy) desi'" pr66'ore ........,,"....,.,....,,. p Jo1!! err1c1ncy ..,.. ...,,...,...,,..., E
.
,
5_gll!tl lu5
r".-,.
.;';;;:.",'..';;;;-;;",.';.,,."-
D@rnal,h1c'.!e.6, .,rc''ii.ve of ".,.J::':,i:,:::'.1,.1..i:: bhlEle lequlred thlcknels (!efere.(: U6-Z,) ... .....,.... ._
#*
;;;
0,137
r. R.1afore.r.!t lcqut.d: Itc-37 A - (a) (!!) (F) - (7.?50) (.550)(1) !t trl colslil.lctl !o h.v. t.LDfolc1ng vrLu:: !G-40(d) A- ' s.t..l lD th. 3h.Il . l! th. not!1c eru elthto lh' -f ;i.ii rlsll thtcb.i. rvrtlibt' fo! r'lEforc'E nt: .h.11: (15.50-8.525) ('r37) Dorzr!: (8.623-7.750) (.137) (15,000/17'500) (cf ttc-4b)
A- - Ectrl' ln th. aotrl. rlll oultlil' th' ' rv.ll.bl! fo! r!bfotc@'D!: (.438-,$e)
G) (.43S-.139) (2) (1.s95)
(2)
\ .
At -
1.045
xce8E 2,
'h11
h
!btcy!!t3
.J9Etr
thlckDea
"
rsr-;jta-o
....., ,...........,. r_t_
80)
x. i.r.
:-:913-cs.:-$.:b 'lircbo6t
.3.000 rq.
Norzle
tlalertal uEed: selless s.eet pt!, sA-i06. clede B (s3h toaxlD@ aUorable 6t!es3 . !.... <,.. ...
"".,r"r ndlnal thlcksess excluslr 6f co!!.ron 6Uoasn4. . . ,.. . .. ,. r thlcknese lequlled for hrrp.Ere6s ,U"-rtl ,.....,......... ,_] tTPR. 3.
skrch
r,.;,"r"; :"";r;;";'...::
:tr*
0.438 in.
oD)
(.50O) (r4.525-8.525)
;;;
o4-belt tnch fuU ftUt s'ld! 'losad o'rt3fi! of i.raiotcf"g Plrtc .!il srolad noztlc srll:
(.50) (.50) (.50) (4)
.50O
.q, b. 'o. b.
of
(W_15._X5._1E.1
4: -
g.soo
(2.s) ('587)
1.720 1D.
rn= O.l3b
Y6
(2,5) (.438)
.1.095
h - 1.595 (th13 toverD6) :-9=!9q
-- o,2q3
4. sr@rtY:
relDfotcco.!!
uacdt 1'045 Al: sli.U r[a aoz . .....".'""' 0'954 Lz' aorzle ............,".,..""" .ilahil letufoic.o.rt rod ttclds'. !:Eg
aee
g!LEgLl@{'
658
APPENDIT
APPINDIX
12,950
}rt
2,
E,560 ?.1
(b) (c)
6\
butt rr.ld
9E,500 1.20,500
lb.
lb,
(n)
(d) b!!! ultd b3rt'!.! aoz.tc ndl rlil t.bto!c!.!8 ph!. (n) (8.625/2) (0.500) (r2950) E$!: (r) .tt.!gEh 1n !.n.toD of rh. pL!. rroov.d firC-41(b)(2) (17500) (.550) (8.6?5) (b) .r!.Dgth of !.trt 1D vcrr.I rrtl .v.lhbl. for r.lnforc.r!.!t (17500) (.137) (15,50 - 8,625) (.) rclEJorc6!6r lord e.!tLd by rh! ro:rt.|'rtl (15000) (2) (.438) (.687) + (15000) (2) (.2ee) (1,59i) . (il) rclDfolc.o.a! 1o.dt c.rrLat by r.l.DforctoS lhtc E3!000 - (15,500 + 23,380) 4. -9.w.:
crrrt.d !y rltrcb.it r.hforc.onr - 16,500 rtr.Dtrh of rtt.clDllr - 98,500 + 120,500. (b) lord to b. clrrlcd by lorzh ritl atlen8th ol rttrchElDt (c) r6.d to bc c.Flcd bt r.hfofcllt ptrt .r!.n8th of rttrclE.nt Attr.hD.Dr elldl[g ls lrtlsf.ctor?
E3,000
f1U! !r.1d b.tt'ecD lorrl. |!it r.lDforclDS phr. (1) (8.6?'s12> (0.500) (8550) .
38,000
r!.
87,600 rb.
831000
$.
tb.
It.
43,120 th.
(r)
16.d !o bc
55,500 219,000
cto
APPENDIX
661
^c
(24.525,
d.!tr! p!G..ur! S2S d.318n rt!.!i r ]2,OOO Dort d.8tgn .t!si . 2O.OOO try 1.250 ln. Dl.s!t.! bott! root .!e. 0.943 iq. tn, (8 ,! e6rtEar. - . i 8. 0.553 1n. B.crlon I radlar fo! f
:rrna!
'
19 lnch ID bv 22 I'ph @
K--
fi
olcttca6
frary.
W Y
hub
rlitth, b = (1'/z) -dffr = o'D3 rn' 2_5'2 ), locatlon of g.sk t load reaction' fabk G = 21'1?r in' d= 22'o'2(o.4)t) = 22'o ' 0'866
effective
,sk
sea,tjns
r. hub l.Drth, r, i-'JE . \\n r"-;;l;; . ,.0,,, 2. c.ntr 11n. bolt cilclc to hub l (r.j)Db _ o.j)(r,25) - r.875 3, DlntltlD bolr cllc]e itl.ecrcr for ! 4. bo,, Bpaclna - g rn. or (2.25ror):'.;Xn; ]',:,i'li:.', r. nu!b!! of bot!! . r(21.0)/2.Er r 26,s
Itr@. lhtt the hydrosEatlc.n.t fo!c. the ssskr r. dcal&r hydros$tl" leactron, .rd "-l'-1:.'lr*tl"'
to
22 lnch
''
5. 5.
:"ffi;:3df,?il,;ioi?o':;oii
24)
. ,.",o-
raBbr te.ctloD - L8,B6o_(U2a\ G/4) (zz2) <szsj 7. bendlEt Dooent at crlttcal lecrlon
"oo,"roro!
;;; rii.-iiii-tl,(,lj:'i:1,;,':.l;i(ii:ffiiiio.l.,";;
- (18,860) (Ll2) (24,o - 18.438) - (ro,53o)(r/2)(22,00 - 52,500 - 18,750 - 33,850 tb. tu.
(33850)
/(r/" u.,rii.t,,
JT'r]il"""' %'
:,
usrirr
uc/r'
1'l.
1n.
(UA_52)
estbateit ftange
aI - 2.00 h c. 15.875 + 2(2,00 + 1.875) R - 1.875 1n A - 24,525 + Z(t.25) h - (3)(2 -.563) .4.31 .ay 4.50 1!.
dlDcns1ons
-I25 tn.
663 APPiNDIX
I,
!r@
uG-34
(c)(2)r t -
',
F&'
uc-34(J)
( 2r.13-r
SZ
' 453'000 Ib' :!'c' QI2) (24 '625-2L'133) ' r'745 16' d ' G ' 21'$3 1!' B ' 184'000 lb'
17,500
3. rroD shcet 1: s -
?O
forSlot)
DESICT COIIDIIIOI{S
- O.3o
UG-34(d)
2.359
2.359 + 0.061
2.422
u6 2-112 thlcls"63
2-114
1/4 tn.
a,zt6
AT,LOI'A3II STRESSES
II'IESS
CAI,CI'IJITIONS
lolgl.tudtral
.tt.!3r
S"
S-
- (nt/
3,Zoo
664
APPTNDII
APPENDIX
66!
Manway Rinforcement Cslculations for l8'Inch D' Alternate Method: Load Calculations Based on Nozzle and Vessel O'
d..cllPtlod:
d..lar p!!!su!. ,.. .. .... .. p 525 e.r. loht .fflc1ncy , ,.. .,.... E 0.85 Drtbuo .llor,!bt. lticls ......,.,..... ,..,...., s 17.500 prt corroslon alloe.rc. 0.063 1n. lDltd. r.d1us of .h.Il,--elr-rr-qr erora r.Cr--, e- .lsr,-^t.-n .Fh.-1o.1 ---r.a&.-(!p.clfy) .bcfolc corro.io! atlorarc. 1. lddcd ..,,.,., a, L, K.D t8 1p. .. !oEl 1 thlchr.!3, .xclulive of corroslon ltloelnc. . . . . . . , . ....,..,. 0.687 ln. Elnlelr !qut!.d thtches3 (!.fe!cnce uc_27) .! .hc.r 4 . ... ., ,... . t! 0.550 1n.
*:f+:+:i*tr!lsr,-_cr!!b""1d.d.,.,t ""1@,
1.
roral(load
i:r5!iliig,r'"-
rld
of !'rEfolcaleEt
or retiro'!c'eit
. . -
''
""'tfi.9i HTlJ:li",S:$,*'a ,.'.'""til,?i ?fi:l:;:li ii::tt.;'*' salr'!hlcraeE6 .. -* E*i"tJd ""-t. ".u['j..'i,;'e6su!' ln Dozzl
(s25) (18) (1.72)
]!.
v'63'r r'au
tbtckncss
.
. .
1!. co!r. lb, .6t. $' cor!. lb. .5t. t!. cor!' h.2 cst'
.,.,..r
5A_106. clad
!_r,
0.137
2. Nozzl.
ln
" t- Lo.it to b csrrlcd by rdd'd r'hfolc'Dent 333.000 - 192'300 - 15'660 iillooo - rsz'loo - 19'850 (h ' 1'72
8. Are! tcqul!.d of add'd !'b!o!co'dt
124,840/17,500
1D')
lrtellal
.
,o'b o! . .-.^. ('75) ('7s) (2) (1/2)
?.13
(Sch 40)
r.5.000
ln3td. dl.roete! of flnt6hed oping h colrodd cordltlon . .. . ,.. .,... d roElnat thlcltless a(clualv of colloslon aUorance , , . ...,...,,..... t thich.sr r!qu1!ed for hoop .t!.Bs (UG-27). ,. ..,. .. .. ..... ,.. ,..... . '
17,0 1n,
rD bv 27'5
r'e1d6
'
'
7't2 ta'Z
:
.
+*16.l!_
134,400
.." - rci:+fu:ilt
StllDarh of lebforclacnt rdded (7,58) (u,s00) tudth of 6ta of r!bfo!c'D!Dl' h "---"(i:5t(.e87) (Eh16
oa
(
lb.
Skerch
of lltnforceE.rt slrh
dtuen6lopE
and,eldlnr detall
(Uw_15._15._18)
'
'
1.72
1'25
1r'
tover's)
bE
1.72 1n.
2.5) (.500)
p1u6
rdd.d
tr, =.SoO
t-r.=.'b4
,60
tl+ DIA
snlo|Al!
lb.
fo! reinfotc'ocot
19,860
r!,
lotal 6t!$tth - I9?,-0!!-l!. the load calculated to b.cau6e the total 6tt'ngth trced6 the il.31F 16 GatlgfactorY hsr,e :(16t.d 1n th. lcta1 r'oov'o t
134.400 1b.
c66
APPENDIX
&,
ln Dished Head Relnforcement Calculatlon for 4'Inch Nozzle *ca of !'lhfolc'Dent
rolnt rrlcr".cy . . . . . . . . . . . . . :. . : ::: ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' P E E'<ite .lro$sbte . .....,,,................. ".,""",... ",.,... :,'''''''''''''''''''''''''''' s corlos1on ellorance . .....,.,.....,.. c rnsl.e redlu. or she11, o! ,,",." ;;;';;;;";: ;_.;;;;;"'.. tphellca]
p.{l h,
t7.500 prl
0.063
. h .
56,600
Ib.
3t,200 tb.
5,110 Lb. 2,350h
not'le
Ib.
1s
' r, !t. 1
"""'
:: t'#*
t! ll*
15.000
6. 6tt.Ee!h of Dozzl. r.11 rvrtl'bl' fo! r'1Efolc'Deal ('3!' h'1) "' .'i,iii"iielito--
z,rso)c')
cxce88
t-t! 2. Nozzl """"1"" eat.riat used: saplss ,tett ptpe. S4_106, clade B, schedule 80 Da:(letrD aUoralte st!!3s .. ,...,.. s lns1i'e i,rsDete! of frEtshi, .".,,;;.;;.;;;;.; ;;;;;;;;.....:..: d DcelDar. thrck..s. e*.lusive or ..r;""r"" "rr*"--^:-,hlcknes. rqu1led
thlckle6.
''
.rE!ffi:E - i-#-4j+Ar=-sEi
load to b.
33:333 : 8i:i331*;13!'10,400/15,000
{4,740
!!
0.694 6q.
p.r
a'eldt Fc! of rclDfolc.lcnt u!.d: ts 5/8 tnch f1l1'! of h'rd cxtcnsto! on Eo22]' Inlld iiJa.'.iii'i-rr""
3.9s1 1p.
ldcldEr aor21.:
.781
.342 sq.
18,810
tq. b. b.
lb'
,.
.,
**,"'iiXl,i']lllll......:.
:..
"ii98il tii,iSS'i'iS?i,iili3',
(274) i loril crlcul.t.d to h|vc 'ttl!!'d 1r !b' E !!I t'Dovil G2s\ /.rl2' (27 + 1.25)(4.50) .r?.nrrh of Dc!41 h herd rve1llble to! lelnfolc'ocnt - -i,z-igl
<t. poz
sr@s!,
Ib.
t'50)(17t5oo)
14.
.!rc!8th of Dozzlc aall tv'tlablc strcaEth of !.ld.il r.l.folcr[clt b.ciuse th. tot.l strGrtth of thc dlsis! ls .!!l3f'ctorY
to! t"nfo!"o'Dt
411020
. ^to
APPENDIX
,
APPENDX E
r,ow ALLoY
T**
i:MB it-?33;
,o**
o"u".
specify grade'
A[oY ASME 5B-163' specify alloy and and ASME SB-234' specify alloy AND ALLl4I\ruM ALI'oY
temPer'
temper'
ALLoy
Welded
CARBoN
ShelIs,Chonne|s,Covers,F|ootingHeods,TubesheEts,ondF|onges
PtPe CARBoN
G^rade B or Grade A' STEEL ASME 5A-106 seamless' A' ASME SA-53 Grade B or Grade
A[oY'
temPer.
668
ato
Plat
APPENDIX
Foryings
671
CARBoN STEEL.
ASME SA-105 Grade I or II' ASME SA-181 Grade I or tr' ASME 5A-266 Class I or 2'
Low Au.oy STEEL. ASME SA-204 fuebox quality, speciry grade. ASME SA_203 Grade B firebox quality ior plates to 6 ft thick. ASME SA_387, specifi grade. ASME SA.357
IIrcH Au.,oy STEEL. ASIVIE SA_240, specify type.
NTCKEL AND
'
AIr-oY
Nrcrcr Ar,roy. ASME 58_162, specify ternper. ASME SB-127, specifu temper. ASME 58-168, specig temper.
and
Bolting
Stu/s artd Stttd Bolts
Aury.
Emper.
CoppER AND CoppER
Arioy.
ASME SB_ll, specify type. ASME 58_96, specify alloy. ASME 5B-169, speci$ alloy and temper.
oY
ASME 58-160' specify temper' ASME 58-164, specify temper and class' ASME 58-166, sPecifY temPer.
Nurs
CARBoN STEEL. ASME SA-194 Grade
ASME SA-352.
ALLoy. ASME
Class 30.
APPENDIX
A. Code PolicY to ASME 1. It is ttle policy of the s""ti* Boiler and Pressure Vessel.Commiftee '' n onlv such Specifications that have been
;d.il;.'i;;il.ion
in
APPENDX F REQUIRED DATA FOR MATERIAL APPROVAL IN THE ASME SECTION VIII CODE
2.
for Testing and Materials adopted by the Amencan Society will normally be for lt is expected that requests foi Coat approval For other materials' Sp#fication. materials for which tn.r. ,.'t'nSiV to develop a Specification which can request should be rnuO" to 'CiTN{ Le^oresented to the Code Codmittee'
B.
MechonicolProPerlies
fumish the material'-the inquirer shall Together with the Specification for sfess values for to but" ailoyalte the Committee with uO"qout" ouil-on-*ttl"h ible' The data shall include values of ultimate inclusion in the applicable stress and stress-
l.
strength' il;;;;dd."l.futh, reductio;i;a' elongation' creep and welded joints over the.lang:-1f-.temperatures rupture strength of base metar etty at which the materiut i, to u" ot"O' ue'fuiii the tensile properties strouto toushness in the proposed
healt
'ung" temp;;a;iunge
ii"titt
Ott"tiu"o'
treatment that is required to produce Adequate data,on the notch temperatures must he furnished' contimpluted witl be usetul to the
"t
C.
WeldobilitY
intended data on the weldability^of material The inquirer shall furnish complete tests and performance 'qlalification for welding including <lata on piocedure secton w-etaing tests shall be or made in accordanc" *itr' t'" "qliitt"nis which the material is to be used'
672
characteristics and the degree of -^i It is important to know the structural stability i"tpttutut". of new materials' The retention of properties *itft "-pJt*t treatas forming' welding' and thermal influence of fabricution p'""ui"i totft of the material Jo"iiltty' .-d ti'tt":At:: ments of the mech*i""f p"p"tt[t ' encouni"r'"i" a degraclarion in eroe-el::.Tav be coolor heat Eeatment' *n'ges of exposure tered. Where particot' t"tp"'ut*"
;fi.i,ilil;il"'i"irv
6f4
ing r0tcs, combinetions of mechanical working and thermal treatmenh, cotion practices, and so on, cause significant changes in the
material.
properties, microstructure, resistance to brittle fracture, and so on, it is of prima importance to call attention to those conditions which should be avoided seryice or in the manufacture and fabrication of parts or vessels from
E.
Potenls
The inquirer shall state whether or not the material is covered by patents and whether or not it is licensed and if licensed the limitations on its manufacturt.
APPENDIX
G
G
F.
Code Cose
In exceptional circumstances, the Code Committee will consider the issuance of a Code Case effective for a period of three years permitting the use of a material provided that the following conditions are mec
l.
ments described in B.
The inquirer provides evidence that a specification for the material ic before ASTM. The material is commercially available and can be purchased within tho specified range of chemical and tensile requiements and other require-
The inquirer shows that there will be a reasonable demand for the materif by industry and that there exists an urgency for approval by meang
of a Code Case.
conditions for delivery, heat teatment, chemical and tensile requ Ements, bending properties, testing specifications and requirements, workmanship, finish, marking, inspection and rejection.
5.
The inquirer shall furnish the Code Committee with all the data specified
The request for approval of the rnaterial shall clearly describe it in ASTM Spelincatiol including such items as scope, process, manufacturc,
foll,
inB0oE.
675
676
APPENDI
aPPENDIX
677
reliable data.
develop or evaluate the required data. Consequently, the SGDE recommends thc following procedures to be followed in providing the SG with adequate and
On occasion the ASME Boiler and pressure Vessel Committee is rcqucsrctr ((r provide for a new material chan for external pressure design such ai thosc irr Appendix V of Section VIII, Division l. The SGDE/SCD requires reliable rlttu upon which to base the construction of charts. The SG is not in a position to
l.
2.
The nrinirnurn specilied yield strength or yield point (statc which) as given in the specifications for the material. Stress-strain curves representative of the material at the following temperarures:
1,
The compiling and evaluation of material data are rightfully the responsibility of the Subcommittee on hoperties of Me1ds. The threc
(a) Ambient (room) temperature. (b) The highest temperature for which coverage is desired' (c) One or more intermediate temperatures as may be desirable
facilitate interpolation on the chart. Temperatures at some multiple of 100'F are preferred'
The shess-strain curves should extend to at least the 0'37o offset point (to ensure being able to obtain reliable values of the tangent modulus to O.2Vo offset). Consideration should be given to extending tests to higher values of strain for possible future use with stress intensity values in the elasto-plastic range. (This is much less expensive than to run additional tests at a later date.) Stress-strain curves in compression are preferred. It is recomrnended that compression tests be made in accordance with ASTM Specification E-9, Standard Methods of Compression Testing of Metallic Materials' Stress-strain curves from tension tests will be acceptable if there is sufficient background of information to show that there is no substantial
to
2.
the SG Strength-Steel and High Temperature Alloys, and the SC Strength-Nonferrous Alloys.
Upon receipt of an inquiry for a new chart, the secretary should refer the inquiry ro the appropriate SG of SCp. The SG shall ditermine whether or not adequate data are available or whether the inquirer shall be requested to supply the required data. The SG should screen and evaluate the data and forward them to the SGDE with their commenrs or recom_ mendations. The Materials SG should clearly identify the material and define its use as to product form and, where applicabie, any restrictions on the method of fabrication of the completed pressure vesiel (i.e., heat
3.
heatment or welding limitations). It is sugested that, to expedite processing of inquiries, a specific individ_ ual might in some cases be designated as the member iesponsible for liaison with SGDE. This member would be responsible for the transmission of approved data to SGDE.
3.
tension and compression. Data should indicate whether tension or compression tests were made. The expected properties of the material at the temperatures described above, for material having the minimum specified properties, are as
description of the data required for proper preparation of the design charts _ _A follows. It is felt that these are minimum requirements for the preparation of reliable charts. The use of so-called typical stress-strain curves based on a statistically significant volume of data may be satisfactory if the region between the proportional limit and the yield shength is accurately reprisented. The developrnent of the tangent modulus in this region is a critical step. It is suggested that this description be prepared in a form suitable for attachment to any requests for material data from an inquirer. A copy follows of a description of the method used to derive the material curves on the charts directly from the laboratory stress-strain curves. It was felt
that this procedure might enable the Materials Subgroups to better evaluate our data requirements. The balance of the lines on the chart are functions of the geometry of the vessel, and so do not change with material of construction.
follows:
(a) Yield strength or yield point (state which). (b) Proportional limit. (c) Elastic modulus (state whether by the dynamic method
4. 5.
or from
stress-strain curves). The condition of the material as stated in the specifications, for example, annealed, hot finished. cold drawn. temper. and so on' Stated whether intended for welded construction. The above data should properly include the effect of the heat of welding on the properties of the rnut".iut. It it acceptable in such cases to use data for the material in the
annealed condition
.
6.
DATA NEEDED BY THE SG EXTERNAL PRESSURE FOR THE PREPAMTION OF CODE CHARTS FOR EXTERNAL PRESSURE DESIGN
For the use of the SG on Strength Properties and the SG on Nonferrous Mate_ nals.
The inquirer should supply data from at least three specimens at each temperature and that these specimens should preferably be taken from more than one "production lot" or "heat."
,.Q
^i
iiri .t:
ir
APPENDX
H
"i?
CORROSION CHARTS
I
i:t
i:t
trl
t"t
I
I rl 1"t
t"l
|
8l
31
l;t
l3l tl
rl
t^t
3l
!l il
't"l tI
,t .:t
't"l
.-".;*,
'" ,,",^, .,
"
'
"..
""
678
679
': l.
:X:l'..i::
,,i..'-:''l':
6l
tt
iI
;tl
ri
':
ti
rlll r ll'i il i
'1.'ll
il I i
i !
;
.:-ll
ill:il:lilt
ti
i
t::
t^""
lr ti lit
i
tw I
,G
li
li tl
ti
i
.i
ii
rii ^",1
*l :l
Ti
;r*l%
Ti
it tl
IT
il
680
t; t:
68r
;{
APPENDIX
i..
:l!:9,
l
lrl
ll
l
642
683
u'^
El sl
ol +l* 6dt l
r..t |
ql ol
ill =l vl
+l&
I :l 8
c.l
I
qt ol
JI[.l
I
t-.
nl al ol*
@l
oll
^l
C]
-:t wl
q,l
U^ \l
/rl
cr
il r-l c-l
?l
RI
xl ..
oqlg
o16
lle.l I
el
Tl
EI
AI
{il
Fd
li
9^ ='d fte
sl?
ta(
l.E le
*F $l? IE la
l&
lo -lg
11
ul*
q)
afu
fr.
r* ls "l;
lll @lo
ro
gII FII
sl*
lft
R
ri)
3
cil
lr-
lu lR
El* Fl+
tca
t?
lR
l+
ltrl
l?r
lc.l
g, F* F,
gest
$e
685
6U
Toble
J.l
Roundobouf
S
lt
Full X-Royed
FULL
F
L
POT
X-RAY
X RAY
SEAMLESS SEAMLESS
SEAMLESS SEAMLESS
L
FULL
X-RAY
SPOT
X_RAY
J, E.
t.o
.85
t.o
looo/o
t.o
too,/o
Ot
HEAD
s, .R
too%
loo%
I.O
APPENDIX
,=
qQ
Y,',
J.E
5r
t.o too%
t.o
l.o
.85
too%
t.o
rco%
t.o
looY.
.85
too%
2!) J.E 2
z
9
too%
o/ IOO/o
too%
Toble
J.2
n
L
SEAMLESS
FULL
X'RAY
SPOT
X.RAY
SEAMLESS SEAMLESS
FULL
POT
X-RAY I,O
X. RAY
LJtrAN
J. E.
t.o
t.o
.85
I,O
too%
ia
6
too%
t.o
too%
.85
too%'
l.o
rco%
LO
too% .85
J.E
s,
''E-
t.o
rco%
.85
,=
29
too%
.85 too%
too%
.85
na%
Q5
SHELL
=ii
o
J.
E,
== tz
no%
too%
rco%
too%
697
Tobb
J.3
Roundqbout
lr
Spor X-Royed
ll-
NO
X-RAY
SEAMLESS
L
5EAIVLEsS SEAMLESS
FULL
X-RAY
SPOT X-RAY
HEAD
J, E. sf .R
.85
LO
t.o
too%
LO
^-O/ 6) /o
6)./o
R5
APPENDX
J.E
>=
q
u-,
^t^
SHFI
roo%
zi" J.E
.85
.85
56
too%
too%
too%
Toble
J.4
tA
D
SEAMLESS
X- RAY
tL SEAMLESS SEAMLESS
LL
SPOT X-RAY
X- RAY
J. E.
TI-EAD
t.o
6U /o
.85
t.o ^-o/ 6) /o
85
t.o
too%
t.o
^- o/ 6a /o
.85
tww /o
taao./
cio J.E
qHFI
g<D
I
t.o
== J.E
80%
.70 too%
^-o/ 63 /a
.85 too%
too%
.85
2 i,"
R5
lOOo/o
689
fi
1
G6 2
688
too%
.,Vr|!-.'dp...
"
f{tr
| I tttl
| | ttl
t.o
,,",,'_
Nr
M,
/\,'^ /No : \:
\"
3
z
Bending str$s =
J
Mambrane 3tres =
I(,
[,| tt".ottd"tMcD
#,
K,lNv,i)ld"Tll'l"ll
= -_//
/
0.001
0.
7l-
t0
0.q)1
1.0
|
0.0
0,r0
'1.0
10.o
Figut
K.
'' ,/D-r
t'{o.crt tl6 a @"/ tn)
duc to
figurc
K,2 ,
(d"/'{i.) luc
to on
on o cird,,lor
qlindr'
690
691
'.,Mm*--
.,
?rL!!4.
.rrlllltrtr
rrtttttl
| | lll
llrr
t4s
Mo
0.t 0
'".,,**j"ilj;*N
\o
Bendins strels =
c q {
ff, t,nr',
"
lr,rr.,,
* \t
*"t*,,,, to.rtr7lffi
\T \\''1
0.001
0.10
0.001
0.10
0.0
1.0
r = --js-
,E_r
ro.,girudinor mom.nr
F'o'rrcK'3,{om*r,{k,(d./roducroon.xtlmor
/lt
on o cir.oror cy'indor.
Fig!ru
X.,t
(d"t/r.)
'/D.r
doe to on xlrrnol nomcnl 14 on o circulor Eylindar.
692
693
."'!M'RF'*..-
t.o
I -
| | | lll
=\
\
D!,lT
0.10
Eenditg rtre$ =
0.01
tr,
{it(,
N
'lo
Bonding gtre$ =
,(, (ttt',
,00f
;a
\
2(x)
T
'6m
0.001
0.r0
1.0
-
I tl
to.o
0.10
1.0
I ttl
a=
,/DF
Fi$r. K.5 Lnding
mornnt
7"1./6)T
rodiol lood on o cirorhr cylinder' 't'l'/Pon longi|vdlnol
frunwrn <uit.
tl/p
on
ir(,,it.lu.lo on.xtornol
694
695
'!U;|F
F*--
., --,
"a?.e!.r,ry@!
1.0
I tt
tl
tttl
\.",
ri
t--
0.00t
0.10
1.0 0.001
0.10
1.0
,/aA
Figuro
K.7
./87
p on a cirorlor cylind.r
t/p
due io on
(rqnw.r.. orh).
Figure
K.8
P on
arir).
696
697
.,.._.-*".- *rr'w'|
To Get SI Units
Metr
Factor
Ilch
U.S. gallon Foof
Pound mass Pound force psi pressure Bar
APPENDIX
Btu
Horsepower (550
Fracture toughness (ksi
ftlb/s) V-in)
0.0254 0.003785 0.02832 0.4536 4.448 6,894.8 100,000 1,055.056 745.7 1.1 x 106
cF
Metef Metef
Kilograrn
Newton
Pascal Pascal
Joule
Watt
Pa
Vm
CONVERSION TABL
"F
- 32)/1.8 'c
To get
Multiply
Foot3
By
Factor
7
.48
U.S. gallon
psi Foot
Bar
14.50
Mile
5280
Multiply SI Units
Meter
By Factor
39.370
264.201
35.311
Metef Metef
Kilogram mass
Newton
Pascal Pascal
2.205
0.225
0.m0145
0.00001
Bar
Joule
0.0m9478
0.001341
Btu
Horsepower (550 ft-lbh)
10-6
\6
0.9091
ksi
Vin
"c
l.8c +
32
T'
699