15 Fractals

UNIVERSIT DEGLI STUDI DI CAGLIARI Corso di Laurea Specialistica in Ingegneria delle Telecomunicazioni
Fractals I
Overview and applications
Elaborazione di Immagini e Video A.A. 2010-11
Brief history
1877 - George Cantor proved that the infinite number of points in a one-dimensional line segment is equal to the number of points inside any 3D cube. Cantor himself wrote: I see it but I dont believe it Late 1800 - the gallery of monsters unusual analytic structures such as the Weierstrass curve, the cantor dust, the Sierpinski gasket and the Menger sponge 1918 - Gaston Julia: Mmoires sur litrations des fonction rationnelles 1919 - Theory about Hausdorff-Besicovitch dimension (metrics) 1967 - Mandelbrot published how long is the coast of britain?
The gallery of monsters Cantor set (or dust) Hilbert-Peanos curve Kochs stars Sierpinski triangles
What are they?
Fractals are mathematical functions with some distinctive features: Invariance or self-similarity Thin structure Irregularity Hausdorff dimension topological dimension
Invariance or self-similarity
A fractal F is an object with subsets that look like (or are identical to) the whole i.e.: a fractal is a collection of zoomed parts of itself.
Thin structure
Fractals show details at every resolution They are resolution independent They cannot be represented with simple mathematical functions: they are recursive functions
E.g. fine resolution
Zoomed
Original image
First fractals: Cantor set

Is a construction involving only the real numbers between 0 and 1 Is defined by repeatedly removing the middle thirds of line segments
It starts by removing the middle third from the unit interval [0, 1], leaving [0, 1/3] [2/3, 1] Next, the "middle third" of each of the remaining intervals is removed This process is continued ad infinitum
The Cantor set consists of all points in the interval [0, 1] that are not removed at any step in this infinite process

Characteristics:
The nth iteration of the algorithm that produces the Cantor set yields 2n intervals, each of them of length 3n Since the actual Cantor set is the infinite intersection of these iterations, it follows that the intervals shrink to zero size as n approaches infinity One of the most fascinating properties of the Cantor set is that it is uncountable
10
First fractals: Sierpinski triangle

Its a fractal triangle Construction:
Start with any triangle in a plane (usually an equilateral triangle) Shrink the triangle by 1/2, make two copies, and position the three shrunken triangles so that each triangle touches the two other triangles at a corner Repeat step 2 with each of the smaller triangles
11
Affine transform
Fractals are usually created using affine transformations. A typical affine transformation in the {x,y} plane consist of a linear system:
X a 11 T = = Y a 21
a 12 x b1 y + b = A x + b a 23 2
Where ai are rotation and scaling coefficients while bi force translations

12
Some kind of affine transforms
Among infinite possibilities of affine transforms, those used by fractals are similar i.e. inner angles do not change:
Homothety Rotations Translations Symmetries
13
Homothety It is defined by a matrix A:

K A = 0 0 K
It is a scale shift: it transforms a geometrical figure into another congruent scaled geometrical figure
14
Example
15
Rotations
Are defined by a rotation matrix A:
cos A = sin
sin cos
It rotates a figure by an angle
16
Example
/6 rotation
17
Translations
They are defined by a matrix A=I and b0

1 A = 0 t1 b = t2 0 1
18
Example
Translation:
+ 1 b = 2
19
Symmetries
They are transforms that reflect figures by reference
e.g: Central Symmetry
20
Affine transforms composition Affine transform can be composed Using a known set of affine transforms and iterating them infinitely we produce a fractal
i T , n ( ) = { 1 ( ), 2 ( ),...., ( ) m }
=
n
( ), n
21
Why fractals?
They were born as a more precise representation of nature, when Euclidian geometry seems to be inappropriate. E.g.:
Coastlines Leafs Neural Networks Arteries & Veins
22
Measuring a coastline
Measuring a coastline using standard metrics is impossible because every time the measure unit become smaller, the size of the coastline increases. This happens because when we decrease the unit we discover other details, like gulfs, bays, harbors and so on. So it seems that length is dependent from the unit of measure chosen, which is not true in Euclidian geometry. A coastline is not a monodimensional curve, it is a FRACTAL!!
23
Example
As with any curve, the obvious answer for the mathematician is to approximate the curve with a polygonal path, each side of which is of length . Then by evaluating the length of these polygonal paths as 0, we expect to see the length estimate approach a limit. Unfortunately, it appears that for coastlines the approximated length l
24
Fractal dimension
Fractals can be thought as an object with fractional dimension Fractal dimension is not equal to topological (classical) dimension: it is defined by Hausdorff dimension
In fact, Mandelbrot defined fractals as geometrical entities with fractional dimension where: topological dimension < Hausdorff dimension
25
Example: Koch curve
26
Kochs stars
Infinite perimeter Finite area (limited inside circumscribed circle)

27
Proof
1 = 3l
l 3 l2 1 = l = 3 2 2 4
2 = 34 2 = 1
3
l 4 4 = 3l = 1 3 3 3
2
3 l h = l2 = l 2 2
(l 3 ) +
4
1 l2 3 = 1 + 3 9 4
4 3
2
3 3 = 1 1 + 9
42 l = 4 4 3 = 3l 2 = 1 9 3
3 = 2 +
(l 9 )
4
3 = 2
1 l2 + 34 2 9 4
3 4 3 = 1 1 + + 3 2 9 9

28
Proof
4 n = 1 3
n 1
4 = 3l 3
n 1
3 n = 1 1 + 9
4 9 n =1
n 1
Geometric series q<1, convergent!
29
Fractal dimension
When the fractal growing law is known, we can easily compute its fractal dimension i.e. Koch algorithm.
N=number of copies=4 R=scaled factor=1/3

Is replaced by..
D =log(N)/log(1/R)
=log(4)/log(3)=1.26
30
Deterministic fractals
They are completely defined by a known function. e.g.: Sierpinsky triangle
1. Take the half point of every side 2. Join them to form another triangle 3. Repeat step 1 for every sub triangle obtained
31
Probabilistic fractals
There is a probability p associated with the creating function e.g.: Sierpinsky random triangle
1. Take the half point of every side 2. Join them to form another triangle 3. Repeat step 1 with p probability for every sub triangle
32
Chaos theory
Fractal theory is strictly joined to chaos theory In fact, we can state that fractal is the geometry of chaos The chaos theory is a mathematical theory that tries to exploit extremely complex problems An event can be said chaotic when the results of its evolution are unpredictable:
E.g.:
Meteorological events butterfly effect Error propagation fixed digit math Quantistic effects subatomic movements
33
Chaos game
Select three non-colinear points to be the vertices of the largest triangle Randomly select one of these points and call its coordinates (x,y) Randomly select a point inside the triangle and draw a point halfway between (x,y) and the vertex Redefine (x,y) to be the coordinates of the new point and repeat the last step
34
Chaos game
35
Chaos game
i = 10 i = 100 i = 1000
i = 100000
http://trevorstone.org/applets/Chaos Game.html 36
Some fields in which fractals are used..
1.Reality representation
Neural networks Organic structures Mineral textures Landscapes
2.Synthetic Video 3.Games & virtual reality
37
Synthetic reality example

How to render a landscape with fractal theory?
Start with a single horizontal line segment. Repeat for a sufficiently large number of times { Repeat over each line segment in the scene { Find the midpoint of the line segment. Displace the midpoint in Y by a random amount. Reduce the range for random numbers. } }
2D 3D
38
Landscape generator
39
Fractals II
Iterated Function Systems Using fractal theory for image and video compression
40
From fractals to I.F.S.

I.F.S. (Iterated Function Systems) are the way to exploit fractal theory for image (or signal) compression purpose Affine transforms can be used to find hidden relationship between the image and its subparts These transformation are stored
41
An I.F.S. simple example

The Barnsley I.F.S. copy machine: 1. 2. 3. Take a sheet with a picture as input Make 3 copy (properly scaled) of it, placed on the vertex of an equilateral triangle Take this copy as output and repeat step 1
Barnsley et al., US patent No.5,065,447, Nov.12 1991 http://www.pat2pdf.org/patents/pat5065447.pdf A.E.Jacquin Image Coding Based on a Fractal Theory of Iterated Contractive Image Transformations, IEEE Transactions on Image Processing , Vol.1, No.1, Jan 1992
42
I.F.S. copy machine
43
I.F.S. Machine
We can notice some peculiarities:
Copies converge to a stable image (attractor) Source image (the smile) does not have influence on the target image (Sierspinski triangle) Different transforms lead to different attractors Images obtained with this method leads to images which have details at every resolution. In this sense these images can be called fractals Chosen transforms must be contractive
44
Inverse problem
We can use IFS for compression purpose solving the inverse problem. i.e.:
Identify the image to be compressed as attractor Look for affine transforms that lead to this attractor
J.Kominek, Advances in Fractal Compression for Multimedia Applications, Multimedia Systems, Vol.5,No.4, July 1997
45
Inverse problem
So, the inverse problem is how to build a contractive transform which has the image as the attractor Attractor
(.)
k iterations
source image
N.B.: a linear transform is said to be contractive if we can take any 2 point from the transform domain, P1 and P2 and their distance is: d(w (P1 ) ; w (P2 )) < s d(P1 ; P2) with s < 1
46
Inverse problem
Does the inverse problem always leads to a stable solution?
i.e.: do we ALWAYS find a set of transforms that applied to a whatever source image lead to the wished target image?
The answer for this question came from the Barnsley collage theorem that state:
if we use a set of contractive affine transforms and iterate them infinitely we are assured that those transforms leads to the desired image
47
Inverse problem
Premises: Inverse problems have no simple solution With the actual state of art it cannot be performed automatically SOLUTION: P.I.F.S.
48
P.I.F.S.
Rather than force self-similarity to the whole image itself, we allow the self-similarity to be found only for subpart of the image. These concept leads to P.I.F.S. which is an acronym that stands for Partitioned Iterated Function Systems
49
P.I.F.S.
We consider an image to be composed by a set of copies of subparts of itself properly transformed (see affine transforms) What we obtain with this technique is usually an approximation of the desired image. So this is a LOSSY technique
50
Self-similarity
51
Partitioning
To process images with PIFS, we first need to partition it the image is partitioned into a set of range blocks usually non-overlapping A D partition of domain blocks is settled up using blocks greater than range blocks
52
Domain pool
For each domain block we build a set of contractive transform The union of those transformed domains is called domain pool Let suppose we have n domain blocks and m transforms, the dimension of the domain pool is: nxm
53
The goal
Approximate every range block with a domain block properly transformed Store only information about which domain and transform is used
54
Simple PIFS
The image is partitioned into n RxR range blocks (usually square) For each range block, we look for the domain block DxD that best matches
55
Distortion measure
How can we say that a domain block is better than another one? We use a distortion distance:
MSE RMS EMD
56
Standard transforms used

Affine transforms
Generally 8 isometries + homothethies and translations
Massive transforms
Luminance shift () Contrast scaling () Color reversal
57
Affine transforms
Identity Vertical reflection (mirroring)
Horizontal reflection
Rotation 180
Rotation 90
Rotation 90
Reflection 1. diag
Reflection 2. diag
58
Massive transforms
g0 - absorption - contrast scaling - luminance shift

59
Transforms
Given an image , we can divide transform into 3 main parts:
M (massive) S (shuffle) G (geometric)
so:
= M o S o G = M (S (G (
))) = ( G ( )) +
60
How to search domain blocks

Once the range and domain block dimension is chosen, for every range block a DxD window scans the image for each position, the resulting domain block with all its transformations is compared to the range block through a distortion measure
When the best set of domain&transform is found the code is stored.
61
Searching methods
Due to the huge amount of data to be compared, a good search policy is needed
62
Block definition
To speed up searching algorithm, blocks are defined into 3 classes:
Shade blocks: mainly composed by uniform areas (a). They are build at decoding time using only massive transforms Edge blocks: there is a big gradient thru the block (c). For those an exhaustive searching is needed. Midrange blocks: middle way between edge and shade (b). A good policy should be chosen to keep a good quality/compression ratio.
63
Feature space
To limit coding time, we can restrict the search area to a portion of the image usually a surrounding of the range block This area is called feature space
64
Quadtree subdivision
To speed up encoding, another useful technique is the quadtree subdivision. The goal of this technique is to use range block with no fixed dimension, and to decrease dimension only for strong edge parts of the image. With this technique we usually obtain some big shade blocks and a lot of smaller edge block.
65
Quadtree
Subdivision must not always be squared Other polygons can be used, generally improving quality
66
Decoding
The fractal code is a collection of transformation parameters, e.g.:
For the range block n take the domain block with offse t 4 (10,48), rotate it by 90and apply a luminance shift of +80
NB: there is no range or domain block size definition We start with any image and iterating the process the initial image converges to the desired (previously coded) image
67
Comparison
BMP: 901KB Original JPG: 56 KB dB PSNR: 46.79
STN (PIFS): 56KB PSNR: 53.97 dB
IFS: 153KB 27.00 dB
PSNR:
68
Fractal zoom
Probably the most important feature of fractal encoding is the possibility to easily produce scaled image versions Once coded the original image, fractal code has all the information to be expanded
69
Fractal zoom
In fact, due to the fact that fractal code isnt anything else than linear transforms:
X = Ax + b
Zoom can be achieved just by multiplying it by a scaling factor! In practice, zoom is obtained during the decoding process using domain and range blocks bigger than those used at encoding time
70
Fractal zoom
The technique used for zooming images are usually interpolative or though replication Fractal zoom results, at big scaling factor, more realistic than those techniques
71
Fractal zoom
Lena 5x bicubic
Lena 5x fractal
72
Fractal zoom
NB: using fractal zoom we cannot obtain information that was unknown at encoding time! We might achieve a more realistic zoom than that obtained though replication or interpolation Information storage is limited by the Nyquist theorem; once digitized, an image is bound to the information caught by the frequency samples. So, for example, if we fractalize a face, we wont be able to see cells or atoms by zooming it!!!
73
Infinite compression?
Fractal zoom is the origin of the misunderstanding about fractal compression Because an IFS generates detail down to the infinitesimal, one can claim infinite compression. However, the legitimate use of compression ratio applies in the reverse direction - in beginning with a digitized image and seeking an alternate representation that requires less information. We are not generating an image, we are approximating it
74
Fractal compression issues

Promising lossy technology but: does not meet initial expectations
promise of 10,000:1 compression (real: 8:1 to 50:1) very slow, compared to other techniques image dependant Barnsley's patent referred to:
Graduate Student Algorithm 1. Acquire a graduate student. 2. Give the student a picture and a room with a graphics workstation. 3. Lock the door. 4. Wait until the student has reverse engineered the picture. 5. Open the door.
The technology is patented

75
Fractal video
We can extend the fractal compression technique for video processing. There are two ways to do that:
1. Predictive compression 2. 3D PIFS (Partial iterated function system) compression
76
Predictive compression
PIFS predictive compression tries to use the previous frame as the domain pool for the next in a video sequence exploiting high correlation between adjacent frames to achieve high compression ratios Range & domain blocks are still 2-dimensional
77
Predictive compression
Frame #2 Frame #1
78
Full 3D coding
Range and domain blocks (cubes) are considered in a 3D space
2 dimension for image plane 1 dimension for time axis
This is the real extension from PIFS for images to PIFS for videos
Range Cubes
Domain cubes
Range Cube
x
79
3D fractal zooming
Exactly like the 2 dimensional case, we can extend the fractal zoom technique for 3D coding We can expand a three-dimensional fractal code of a video sequence
80
3D fractal zooming
Exactly like 2D, we can extend the fractal zoom technique for 3D coding we can expand a 3D fractal code of a video sequence:
1. Zoom the frame 2. Get an implicit interpolation of the frame sequence
81
Fractal video expansion

Original sequence Coding Fractal code
Void sequence
Fractal zoom
decoding
Expanded sequence
82
Main applications
Slow motion replay
Using 3d fractal zoom, we obtain a bigger number of frames, and the effect achieved is a slow motion replay of the sequence (keeping frame rate constant)
Video summarization & presentation

Only some frames of the sequence are stored in a web server, and a preview of the sequence can be created by a client using fractal zoom web Fractal zoom samples
83
and what about quality?
Since fractal-created frames are not real, we can say nothing about objective quality. We can only discuss about subjective quality
84
Problems with fractal expansion
Main problems with fractal zoom of video sequences are:

Spatial discontinuity Temporal discontinuity
In addition, fractal 3D encoding is a great cpu-time consuming algorithm
85
Spatial discontinuity
It is a innate problem of PIFS Since code is generated by partitioning images in block, once decoded there is a blockiness effect, that is proportional to the expansion rate
86
Time discontinuity
The effect of time discontinuity is jerkiness along time axis

jerkiness
120 100 M (S SE ) 80 60 40 20 fractal 0 1 6 11 16 21 26 31 36 41 46 51 56 61 frame
87
Solutions
Actual techniques to solve those problems are:

Overlapped range block coding (ORB) Ordered square overlapping (OSO) Filtering Wavelets
88
ORB and OSO

In 2dimensional coding we use 4 partition of the image with range block of difference Those partition are fractal encoded separately They are decoded using a median filtering
O.R.B. O.S.O.
Overlapped partition
windowed median reassembly

89
ORB & OSO
Noise due to blockiness
Noise reduction using overlapped technique
90
Wavelets
Wavelet transform is used to speed up fractal encoding since: 1. We can neglect high frequencies 2. We can use high approximation on low information bands 3. Images are subsampled 4. The process is parallelized
Original sequence
Wavelet transform (1st level)

Wavelet inverse transform

91
Advanced fractal video coding
We can use all those techniques together:

WAVELET + ORB + FRACTAL + OSO
92
Advanced fractal video coding
Fractal Encod. ORC Fractal Encod.
Fractal decoding O.C.O. Fractal decoding
Indirect Direct Wavelet T Fractal Encod. Fractal decoding O.C.O. Fractal Encod. Fractal decoding Wavelet T
Stream IN
ORC
Stream OUT
93

15 Fractals

Caricato da

Informazioni sul documento

Copyright

Formati disponibili

Condividi questo documento

Condividi o incorpora il documento

Opzioni di condivisione

Hai trovato utile questo documento?

Questo contenuto è inappropriato?

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

15 Fractals

Caricato da

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

UNIVERSIT DEGLI STUDI DI CAGLIARI Corso di Laurea Specialistica in Ingegneria delle Telecomunicazioni

Elaborazione di Immagini e Video A.A. 2010-11

What are they?

Elaborazione di Immagini e Video A.A. 2010-11

Elaborazione di Immagini e Video A.A. 2010-11

Elaborazione di Immagini e Video A.A. 2010-11

E.g. fine resolution

Elaborazione di Immagini e Video A.A. 2010-11

First fractals: Cantor set

First fractals: Cantor set

Elaborazione di Immagini e Video A.A. 2010-11

First fractals: Cantor set

Elaborazione di Immagini e Video A.A. 2010-11

First fractals: Sierpinski triangle

Elaborazione di Immagini e Video A.A. 2010-11

Where ai are rotation and scaling coefficients while bi force translations

Some kind of affine transforms

Elaborazione di Immagini e Video A.A. 2010-11

Homothety It is defined by a matrix A:

Elaborazione di Immagini e Video A.A. 2010-11

Elaborazione di Immagini e Video A.A. 2010-11

Are defined by a rotation matrix A:

It rotates a figure by an angle

Elaborazione di Immagini e Video A.A. 2010-11

They are defined by a matrix A=I and b0

Elaborazione di Immagini e Video A.A. 2010-11

Elaborazione di Immagini e Video A.A. 2010-11

Elaborazione di Immagini e Video A.A. 2010-11

Elaborazione di Immagini e Video A.A. 2010-11

Elaborazione di Immagini e Video A.A. 2010-11

Elaborazione di Immagini e Video A.A. 2010-11

Example: Koch curve

Elaborazione di Immagini e Video A.A. 2010-11

Infinite perimeter Finite area (limited inside circumscribed circle)

Elaborazione di Immagini e Video A.A. 2010-11

Geometric series q<1, convergent!

Elaborazione di Immagini e Video A.A. 2010-11

N=number of copies=4 R=scaled factor=1/3

Elaborazione di Immagini e Video A.A. 2010-11

Elaborazione di Immagini e Video A.A. 2010-11

Elaborazione di Immagini e Video A.A. 2010-11

Elaborazione di Immagini e Video A.A. 2010-11

Elaborazione di Immagini e Video A.A. 2010-11

Some fields in which fractals are used..

2.Synthetic Video 3.Games & virtual reality

Elaborazione di Immagini e Video A.A. 2010-11

Synthetic reality example

Elaborazione di Immagini e Video A.A. 2010-11

Elaborazione di Immagini e Video A.A. 2010-11

From fractals to I.F.S.

Elaborazione di Immagini e Video A.A. 2010-11

An I.F.S. simple example

I.F.S. copy machine

Elaborazione di Immagini e Video A.A. 2010-11

Elaborazione di Immagini e Video A.A. 2010-11

Elaborazione di Immagini e Video A.A. 2010-11

Elaborazione di Immagini e Video A.A. 2010-11

Elaborazione di Immagini e Video A.A. 2010-11

Elaborazione di Immagini e Video A.A. 2010-11

Elaborazione di Immagini e Video A.A. 2010-11

Elaborazione di Immagini e Video A.A. 2010-11

Elaborazione di Immagini e Video A.A. 2010-11

Elaborazione di Immagini e Video A.A. 2010-11

Elaborazione di Immagini e Video A.A. 2010-11