Something to Do with Demeter: Ritual and Performance in Aristophanes' Women at the Thesmophoria Author(s): Angeliki Tzanetou Reviewed work(s):

Source: The American Journal of Philology, Vol. 123, No. 3, Special Issue: Performing/Transforming Aristophanes' "Thesmophoriazousai" (Autumn, 2002), pp. 329-367 Published by: The Johns Hopkins University Press Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1561692 . Accessed: 17/11/2011 20:58
Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at . http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact support@jstor.org.

The Johns Hopkins University Press is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to The American Journal of Philology.

http://www.jstor.org

SOMETHING RITUAL AND

TO

DO

WITH

DEMETER: IN ARISTOPHANES'

PERFORMANCE AT THE

WOMEN

THESMOPHORIA Tzanetou

Angeliki

the Kinsman, character invades Athenian Aristophanes religious space. He puts onstage for the whole city a religious festival restricted to women. He suggests that women use this occasion to drink and plot against men, and he portrays them as carrying on adulterous affairs and duping their husbands. As a result of this negative por? Like his women's scholars have concluded that the play undermines trayal of women, women's position in the festival and in the city. Elizabeth Bobrick (1997), for example, argues that the play misrepresents women's experience in ritual. Lauren Taaffe (1993) insists the play shows that women are only men in disguise, that it is not really about women at all but rather uses them to highlight male concerns. And Angus Bowie (1993, 227) concludes that in this play Aristophanes demonstrates that comedy, not has the right to "give an accurate and fulsome picture of female tragedy, villainy." On the face of it, Women at the Thesmophoria satirizes women's real ritual experience and does not respectfully depict the Thesmophoria? a very important festival celebrated Greece, which promoted throughout agricultural and human fertility. And yet, despite and his mockery of women, the role of women undercut in this play. The female characters who and protest their portrayal in drama do not aim roles as wives and mothers. Instead, they use the to mount a successful attack against Euripides the Kinsman's in ritual invasion is not really inhabit the comic stage to redefine their social authority of their roles because he undermines

these functions. In fact, the play acknowledges and validates women's contribution to the fertility of the polis in two different ways. After the Kinsman is unmasked and taken captive by the women, four different for rescuing him are staged. After all these strategies strategies, derived from plays by Euripides, fail, a fifth strategy succeeds. As scholars have noted, the Kinsman's captivity and rescue parallel the festival, the story of Persephone's founding myth of the Thesmophoria American Journal Philology (2002) of 123 329-367 2002 The ? Press by Johns Hopkins University

330 abduction Demeter.1

ANGELIKITZANETOU

and imprisonment by Hades and her rescue by her mother builds on this My reading of Women at the Thesmophoria how each of the Euripidean analysis by demonstrating parodies moves with each of and Persephone. closer to the myth of Demeter Moreover, In the final scene feminized. the parodies the actors become increasingly of the play every character and onstage but one is wearing female dress. Ironically, structurally theatrically, Aristophanes' play in Demeter's women's power, as it is demonstrated rescue of her daugh? ter and the rebirth of human and agricultural fertility. the play affirms the centrality of women to the fertility Moreover, of Athenian drama. Earlier studies have seen Women at the Thesmophoria as a competition between Euripides and Aristophanes and between trag? and comedy Hubbard Henderson 1991, 1996, Zeitlin 1996b, edy (e.g., The play's movement from male to female, especially Gibert 1999-2000). in the arrangement of the parodies, is also a move from Dionysus to Demeter. The captivity/rescue is associated with not only Demeter plot the? deity of Athenian are different, however; in these the god rescues himself and punishes his captors (e.g., Pentheus and Lycurgus). As the rescue strategies in Women at the Thesmophoria 1Zeitlin offers a masterful analysis of the play and the Euripidean parodies (1996b, 375-416). She points out the parallelisms between Persephone's myth and the plot of the parodies as a starting point for her analysis of mimesis and its association with the feminine. This discussion is also based on the same premise but focuses instead on the internal theatrical competition between tragedy and comedy and the topic of composing dramas about women. Moreover, in tracing the relationship between narrative patterns of religious experience?the captivity/rescue pattern, which is related to Dionysus and Demeter and underlies plots of drama?and by seeking their theatrical equivalents, my approach is closer to Lada-Richards 1998, 1999, and to a certain extent to Bierl 2001. Bierl draws heavily upon J. L. Austin's and J. R. Searle's theory of speech-acts (51-61) in analyzing performance. His analysis offers a complex and novel treatment of the relationship be? tween ritual and theater by examining the following interrelated aspects (although it is not limited to them): a) the initiatory function of the chorus of comedy, whose choral perform? ance retains its autonomy and remains distinct from the action of the play; b) the chorus's civic performative function as choreuts and their dramatic role as female participants at the Thesmophoria; c) the metatheatrical aspect (males disguised as females) in connection with initiatory patterns in the Kinsman's performance of his role as female initiand. More specifically, the Kinsman's liminality as female performer, namely, as female participant of the Thesmophoria and as Helen and Andromeda is also examined in reference to male initiatory transitions. My own analysis focuses upon the common mythical and dramatic motifs in order to illustrate how spectators may have decoded Aristophanes' play, based on their knowledge of the myth of Persephone and Demeter. Text and translation from Henderson 2000b. and Persephone ater. The stories but also Dionysus, the presiding of Dionysus' captivity and rescue celebrates

RITUAL AND PERFORMANCE

331

and unfold, they move from the Dionysian pattern of self-liberation to a Demetrian of opponents one of cooperation and reconpunishment ciliation. This is also a movement from tragedy to comedy, in which tragedy fails to liberate while comedy succeeds. The four parodies and the the final scenario move from explicitly tragic situations, including threat dressing achieving of human as women sacrifice, to love/marriage plots and finally to men to deceive a parodically hypermasculine male, thereby a return to normality. By the end of the play, male cross-

dressing does not show how easy it is to become female, but how essential women are to comedy?not only to creating laughter but also to the basic function of comedy: the continuity of affirming and celebrating human life.

THE THESMOPHORIA The Thesmophoria, one of the major festivals in honor of Demeter and was widely celebrated women in Greece, Sicily, and Kore/Persephone, by Asia Minor.2 In Athens it took place on 11 to 13 of Pyanopsion, accord? to the Attic calendar,3 the time for fall sowing in late October.4 The ing

evidence were allowed to participate,5 suggests that only citizen-wives while men, who were strictly excluded (1150-51), undertook the financial costs of the festival on behalf of their wives.6 The festival lasted three days; its calendar followed a prescribed ritual program and was intended to recall "women's Table 1. ancient way of life" (Diod. Sic. 5.4.7), as illustrated in

2 On the Thesmophoria festival, see Farnell 1907, vol. 3, 75-112, 326-28; Deubner 1932,50-60; Dahl 1976 with comprehensive list of testimonia (104-47); Brumfield 1981,71103; Simon 1983,17-22; Burkert 1985,242-46; Detienne 1989,129-47; Dillon 2002,110-20; Sfameni Gasparro 1986,223-83; Versnel 1992,31-55; Zeitlin 1982,129-57. On the sanctuaries of Demeter and the cults of Demeter and Kore, see also Clinton 1992; 1993,110-24; Cole 1994,199-216; Kron 1992,611-50; Nixon 1995,75-96. On the name ofthe festival, see Brumfield 1981, 70-79. 3 As attested in IG II2 674 (Brumfield 1981, 96 n. 2 and 99 n. 41). 4 Kron (1992,616 n. 22) notes that in Delos and Thebes, for example, the Thesmophoria took place during the summer and was associated with the harvest. 5 For the exclusion of unmarried women (Callim. fr. 63 Pfeiffer), slaves (Ar. Thesm. and prostitutes (Isae. 6.49-50), see Brumfield 1981,86-87; Burkert 1985,242 and 442, 294), nn. 6, 7, who discounts the evidence in Lucian Dial. meret. 2.1. 6 Ar. Thesm. 1150-51. Athenian men, however, undertook the costs of the festival (Men. Epit. 749-50, Isae. 3.80). On the Thesmophoric liturgy, the only one supporting an exclusively female activity, see Wilson 2000,40-41.

332

ANGELIKI TZANETOU Table 1. The Thesmophoria Program Election of archousai, setting up of makeshift tents and festival preparations Ritual myth Demeter's withdrawal

Festival calendar Anodos (Ascent)

Nesteia (Fasting)

Fasting, sitting on the ground on anaphrodisiac plants, ritual obscenity Celebration, sacrifice, feasting, prayers for offspring

Demeter's mourning

Kalligeneia (Fair Offspring)

Reunion of Demeter and Persephone

the mourning of may have commemorated Thesmophoria over the loss of her daughter, Kore (Persephone/Pherrephatta; in the Homeric Clinton 1993, 113-16). The myth itself was recounted from the audiences Hymn to Demeter and was also known to Athenian Eleusinian Mysteries.7 The first day was called Anodos (Ascent); women The Demeter

7 It is necessary to state at the outset that we do not know the exact details of the ritual myth of the Thesmophoria. In Women at the Thesmophoria, the myth of Persephone is re-enacted as a captivity/rescue plot and takes the place of the ritual myth, which the women performed in the context of the actual festival. Ignorant of the specific rituals of the Thesmophoria, Aristophanes adapts the myth of Persephone's descent and ascent into a captivity/rescue story, which his male audience could understand. The myth of Persephone's abduction and descent into the Underworld was recounted in the Homeric Hymn to Demeter. The narrative motifs of Persephone's story in the Homeric Hymn to Demeter most relevant to the interpretation of the play and the dramatic parodies embedded within it are as follows: a) Persephone's violent abduction by Hades (Aidoneus/Pluto), the god of the Underworld [Horn. Hymn Dem. 1-3); b) Demeter's disguise and quest for Persephone (ibid. 93-94); c) Iambe's jesting (ibid. 200-5), which the mythographer Apollodorus as? sumes as the explanation for the ritual jesting at the festival of the Thesmophoria (1.5.1); d) the mother-daughter reunion (Hom. Hymn Dem. 384-89); e) Persephone's captivity; f) the mythical association between Persephone's death and rescue and agricultural renewal (Hom. Hymn Dem. 470-73).

RITUAL AND PERFORMANCE

333

and made preparations for on that day ascended to the Thesmophorion8 Two women, who were elected as the official magistrates the festival. presided over the festival as officials (Isae. 8.19). Women set (archousai) tents in which they spent the next couple of nights away up makeshift in women's religious life.9 On the from their homes, a unique experience second day, Nesteia (Fasting), women imitated the mourning of Demeter, by sitting on the ground on seats made of anaphrodisiac plants, fasting; are found both they also practiced ritual obscenity.10 All these elements in fertility and funereal contexts. The presence of anaphrodisiac plants women's women resymbolized chastity during the festival, because to their prior status as virgins (Versnel 1992,31-55), verted symbolically while ritual obscenity was associated with the promotion of fertility. On the third day, Kalligeneia the women offered sacrifices (Fair Offspring), the return of Persephone as a (see n. 16 below), feasted and celebrated renewal of their own fertility. The last day celebrated Demeter's symbolic role as promoter of human and agricultural fertility.11 Neither the specific religious rituals and procedures associated with the festival nor their precise order can be accurately reconstructed based on the existing evidence. ing to the Thesmophoria The most detailed account survives in a scholiast's to the (Schol. Lucian Dial meret. 2.1. [275. 23-76.28 Rabe]).12 According was abducted by Pluto, a swineherd named scholion, when Persephone Eubouleus and his pigs also disappeared under the earth. The central ritual act, which apparently recalls Eubouleus' story, is described as follows: at some previous time, sacrificed piglets are thrown into underground of the rituals pertainaccount of the festival

8We do not have sufficient evidence to determine exactly where in Athens the Thesmophorion was located. On the representation of the community of citizen-wives according to the model of the male assembly and its location on the Pnyx, see Henderson 1996, 92-94. Clinton (1996, 111-25) offers the most up-to-date survey of the evidence; he argues, moreover, that the Thesmophoria in Attica was probably held in the demes on the basis of inscriptions from demes (Peiraeus, IG II2 1177 [= SEG XXXVII 101]; Cholargos, IG II21184 [SEG XXXV 239], and Melite [see Broneer 1942, 250-64]). 9 At 795-96 we hear that women occasionally spent the night at a friend's house. 10 Plut. Mor. 378 d-e, Diod. Sie. 5.4, 5-7, Plin. HN 24.59. On sexual abstinence, see Parker 1983, 81-83; Versnel 1992, 39-41. On ritual obscenity, see Fluck 1931; Brumfield 1996, 69-73; McClure 1999, 47-52. 11Schol. Lucian Dial. meret. 2.1.: Kai xfjq Tcepi xcovKaprccov yeveaecoq xfjqtcovdvGpcorccov arcopat;. 12See further Brumfield 1981,73-79. The source is late (2d century a.d.), and Lowe (1998, 149-73) raises a number of objections concerning its accuracy.

334 passages

ANGELIKITZANETOU

known as "bailers" (megara).13 During the festival, women the ritual purity for three days, undertake observed (antletriai), having in these passages to recover the piglets' remains.14 mission of descending Once they retrieve them, they place them upon the altars of Demeter and along with cakes in the mold of snakes and male genitalia, Persephone also symbols of fertility. These remains, mixed with seeds, were thought to Finally, the scholiast describes guarantee a good crop (Price 1999,99-100). shrines as imitating the bailers' journey to and from the underground descent and ascent. the story of Persephone's mythical ritually features that The Thesmophoria contains a number of important set it apart from both the norms of women's daily lives and the requireother religious rituals. In Athens, women stayed at ments for women's home and had no say in political matters, while men dominated public space and carried out the important business of the city at the assembly. In the Thesmophoria women left men behind at home during their threeat the festival and day sojourn. The exclusive admission of citizen-wives15 the election of official magistrates offered a rare opportunity to envision women?who members otherwise lacked a political share in the city?as of a religio-political association. In addition, ritual obscenity marks a reversal of the model of the modesty and silence expected of complete

wives. Moreover, the requirement for chastity and the use of anaphrodisiac plants suggest a symbolic reversal of women's social status from wives to virgins for the sake of promoting fertility. The meaning of the festival has been interpreted variously. Structhe marked inversion of gender roles: turalist interpretations emphasize Athenian Froma women's criticism Zeitlin ment within on the representation of women's empowerconcentrates the Thesmophoria, while Marcel Detienne on concentrates in sacrifices.16 Feminist uncommon involvement and gender on the role of ritual obscenity (aischrologia) as

has focused

13 Burkert 1985, 242-43. 14Simon (1983,19-20) argues that the remains of the pigs and cakes (thesmoi) were laid down during the Stenia and recovered on the second night of the festival, namely, before the Kalligeneia. On the association between piglets, Demeter, and human and animal fertility, see Foley 1994,73. 15But see also Winkler's (1990,193-202) critique of Detienne 1989. 16Zeitlin (1982,129-57) argues that the Thesmophoria, despite its importance to the prosperity of the city, nevertheless did not rank as high as other Athenian women's civic rituals such as the arrhephoria, which were associated with the celebration of the city's origins. On women's exclusion from sacrifices, see Detienne 1989,129-47. He is countered by Osborne's arguments that women were not strictly excluded from sacrifices (1993,392405).

RITUAL AND PERFORMANCE evidence for a distinctly female voice. For a daring thesis, that the 209) formulated their sexual and procreative superiority to as inferior to those of women. genitalia Allaire a function

335

example, Winkler (1990,188? women may have celebrated men through mockery of male In her analysis of aporrheta,

Brumfield (1996,67-73) points out that women's ritual license is of the normative gender roles associated with a shame-culture is no contradiction of ritual between obscenity.

the modesty of citizen wives Her point of view functions in an to any interpretation that presents women's auimportant counterpoint as problematic or uses the tonomy in the context of the Thesmophoria festival primarily as evidence for women's actual social power. Also, Lucia Nixon (1995, 75-96) suggests the possibility of a dichotomy be? and the practice men's and women's perception of the festival. For men, the em? was on the production of citizens. For women, on the other hand, phasis the presence of anaphrodisiac the power to plants may have suggested control their own fertility with reference to a mythical model of Demeter and Persephone that commemorated the strong mother and daughter even after marriage. relationship between tween

and that there

ARISTOPHANES' Women

THESMOPHORIA and the Festival

Parody of sacred elements of the festival is limited. For all its mockery of the rituals of the Thesmophoria, women, the play does not undermine from which men were excluded. The Kinsman imitates the women's ascent (Anodos) and offers mock-prayers to Demeter and (279-81) He also uses ritual obscenity, when he asks that his daughter Persephone. Khoirion (literally, "piglet"?appropriate sacrifice for Demeter?but also and that his Xoipoq: "female sexual organ") find a rich husband (289-90) son Posthaliskos of nooQr\: male sexual organ) have good (diminutive (291).17 Women in this play are east as participants in the assembly and at first appear to be acting out male roles. In fact, some have argued that, by staging the festival as a political assembly, Aristophanes presents women as men in disguise. Angus Bowie notes some of the salient elements: speakers address the demos of women (e.g., 335, 353); there is a parody 17 The Kinsman's undressing by the women may recall the women's handling of phallic objects (636-48) (Bowie 1993, 212). sense

336

ANGELIKITZANETOU

of the arai (curses) that were part of the opening of the Boule proceedand a parody of the minutes of the Boule (372-79).18 The ings (331-51) as an assembly citizen-women (293-94, 329-30) are indeed represented (84, 277): they camp near the Pnyx (623, 658; see note 8 above), where the Athenian assembly met regularly, on the middle day of the Thesmo? and phoria, the day of Nesteia, a time when regular assembly meetings were suspended court proceedings (78-80, 376-77). of the women's gathering as a political The play's characterization association, however, comes directly from the structure of the festival. Critylla, who leads the prayers, fulfills the function of the priestess of the two goddesses 1994 on 295). Unlike Aristophanes' (759; Sommerstein Women at the Assembly where women take over men's roles, the particiin this play under the leadpation of citizen wives at the Thesmophoria ership of Critylla is rooted in the reality goal is not to intervene in men's business to stop men from meddling Elizabeth who argues Bobrick, citizen-wives at the Thesmophoria that of the festival. These women's of running the polis, but rather in their own business of running the oikos.

the representation of women as is restrictive, emphasizes that the play does not afford women the possibility of redefining their social roles those of wives or mothers (a characterization that she considers beyond

to be negative). The women in Women at the Thesmophoria, however, do not set out to emancipate themselves from these roles. Even in Lysistrata and Women at the Assembly, where female characters take the lead, women's social redefinition is short-lived; each play ends with an affirmation of women's traditional roles. Their position in the oikos and the polis is thus depicted positively; for women's contributions as wives and moth? ers are represented as valuable within the theatrical performance of the their fertility and civic presence. very festival that celebrated The women in Aristophanes' play construct a reality that is wellsuited to the comic stage. They put Euripides on trial because his tragic illicit affairs arouse suspicion in their husbands, portraits of women's the smooth functioning of the oikos. In the comic universe disrupting to be tragic heroines like Phaedra and nor to share in their grand passions. They want to Melanippe (544-48) silence Euripides, because his plays threaten to upset their domestic their households as wives, even if they arrangements; namely, running in a bit of drinking and a little hanky-panky themselves on the indulge side. The latter is affirmed in Critylla's parody of the curses at the beginAthenian women do not want

JSee Bowie 1993, 205-12, especially 209.

RITUAL AND PERFORMANCE ning of the assembly against state enemies, by listing as an enemy demos of women whoever might reveal their private misdemeanors as adultery, drinking, and The parabasis most ing a share in the city's praise the "female race" the "evil" in their house

337 of the such

even baby-swapping (335-51). women in this play claimstrongly exemplifies fortunes. In the parabasis women (785-845) (786) and refute men's criticisms of women as

(785-99)19 by praising instead the women of Athens for their civic contributions its parodic as? Despite (799-845). pects, the parabasis makes a number of valid points. Women first parody as to kakon (787, 789, 791, 794, male-speak by referring to themselves and expose male 796,797, 799). They then counter this characterization "Come on now, if we're a bane, why do you marry us, if we misogyny: truly are a bane, why do you forbid caught peeking out of the window?" the house or even get As a result, they reveal (788-90). women as well as the hypocrisy inherent For men, on the one hand, keep their us to leave

men's obsessive need to control within this repressive context. women inside (792-94) and, on the other, break their own rules by fixing their eyes on any other man's woman as soon as she appears in public (797-99). As a result, men, and perhaps the system that they seek to keep in place, appear far more ridiculous than the "errant" wives. their critique of men by offering Further, the women augment evidence of the women's civic excellence: they cite women's names that recall Athenian for example, evokes the victory victories?Aristomache, at Marathon (806). And they argue, just as Lysistrata does (Lys. 488-500), that they would manage public spending much better than men do, just as they do at home (810-29). They protest strongly against a system that does not recognize their civic contributions Men earn titles adequately. in their field of action: "taxiarchs" and "generals" are recognized by rank. No such distinctions, however, are in place for the mothers who give their

sons to the city; such honors, they suggest, ought to be instituted at the women's festivals, the Stenia and the Skira (832-35). Women here speak as citizen-wives within a religious context that validated and promoted their contributions as wives and mothers.20

19Gardner 1989,51-62. 20Blok 2001,109-16. For a fuller discussion of women's representation in the play and of women in Aristophanes' play, see Henderson 1996b, 20-29,90-97; my remarks are based on his discussion. On the use of negative comic stereotypes, see Loraux 1991,203-44. On the topic of male impersonation of female characters, see Sai'd 1987, 217-48; Taaffe 1993, 74-102.

338

ANGELIKITZANETOU Ritual and Theater

between mythical and audiences could discern correspondences to ritual patterns, because they related theatrical and ritual performance each other. As David Wiles has noted, "there is no dividing line between ritual and theater," because tragedy and comedy were viewed as "com? Ancient rituals, on the other petitive rituals" in honor of Dionysus.21 Religious nature. Athe? hand, often included events of a theatrical or paratheatrical of the theater and in the nians, who were versed both in the conventions religious culture of their city, were more attuned to the affinities between ritual and theatrical performances than we are today. The audience paror actors not only in the annual dramatic compeas spectators ticipated titions but also in the religious rituals of the city, many of which shared important elements with theatrical performances (choral dancing, use of The traits that religious and masks, various disguises and role-playing).22 theatrical the audience to recognize practice share enabled potential connections between religious rituals and their dramatic representation. and Per? Bobrick, on the other hand, subjects the myth of Demeter in this play to an analysis of gender roles and downplays the sephone that the impact of ritual in shaping drama. She has argued categorically parodies adapt the female myth to male concerns, because "Mnesilochus and Euripides gradually supplant the women" and distort the represen? tation of the myth of Demeter and Persephone23 the by submerging in favor of a male-female that mother-daughter relationship partnership leads to marriage (e.g., Andromeda-Perseus). Women at the However, does not end in marriage, as do the female rescue dramas Thesmophoria of Euripides, and this renders the deployment of Demeter's and Persephone's story more complex than Bobrick allows. More specifically, in Women at the Thesmophoria there are signifi? cant correspondences between the structure of the Thesmophoria and the theatrical program embedded in the Thesmophoria in Aristophanes' 21Wiles 2000, 29. For important recent work on the interaction between ritual and dramatic patterns, see Segal 1982; Bowie 1993; Seaford 1994; Zeitlin 1996a, 285-340, 375416; Lada-Richards 1998,1-19,1999; and Foley 2001. 22This is not to say that there are no differences between theatrical and ritual performance. See Lada-Richards 1998,15-17 with relevant anthropological bibliography. The bear mask from the sanctuary of Artemis Brauronia (Simon 1983, p. 25) and the masks from the sanctuary of Artemis Orthia (Carter 1988,88-98) exemplify masks used in a ritual setting. 23Bobrick 1997, 182 and 182-89. On women's definition in drama through rituals, see further McClure 1999; Wiles 2000,76-77; Foley 2001.

RITUAL AND PERFORMANCE of play. The performance The Demeter's mourning. propriately placed during Persephone's captivity. On results in the Kinsman's

339

of to the re-enactment tragedy corresponds are apfour parodies of Euripides' tragedies re-enact Nesteia (Fasting).24 These parodies which the other hand, the comic performance, to the third the transition liberation, suggests

The end of mourn? the return of Persephone. and final day (Kalligeneia), comic obscenity in the parody of Aning is signaled by the increasing dromeda, which marks the shift from tragedy to comedy as well as the between the ritual transition from Nesteia to Kalligeneia. Tht parallelism plot may be seen in Table 2. of the ritual and As the schema in Table 2 indicates, the conclusion the male and female partnership comic plot also highlights through Just as the and the women (1160-71). between Euripides reconciliation and Zeus suggests the return of fertility to of Demeter reconciliation and dramatic between so does the reconciliation {Hom. Hymn Dem. 320-41), and the women at the end of the play ensure dramatic fertility. Euripides Euripides succeeds in liberating the Kinsman by assuming the role of the of the myth of comic adaptation female rescuer through a successful nature rescue. In the end, fertility returns, Euripides succeeds, and Persephone's in favor of comedy. By re-enacting the myth must be abandoned tragedy of Demeter the comic finale offers a special tribute to and Persephone, the myth women's religious service at the Thesmophoria by integrating of the festival into the comic plot.

THE When the women

DRAMATIC

PROGRAM

that the Kinsman is an intruder, they strip and imprison him. The Kinsman's plight now recalls the myths about men who spied on women: Battus of Cyrene is for attempting said to have been nearly castrated to violate women's female disguise and infiltration secrets.25 The Kinsman's also religious discover him of his female costume resembles that of Pentheus dismembered even though subsequently Thesmophoria, in Euripides' Bacchae, who is caught and the maenads.26 But in Women at the by the Kinsman infiltrates the festival and is

24On Nesteia, see also Bierl 2001,117-18 with n. 19,161,177, 247 n. 390. 25The sources are collected by Bowie 1993, 212-13 (Hdt. 6.16. 2, 6.75. 3, 6.134-36, Aen. Tact. 4.8-11; Plut. Sol. 8; Paus. 4.17.1; Ael. fr. 44 [Hercher]). 26While Bacchae is a later play (406 b.c), there are earlier dramatizations of myths pertaining to Dionysus and his opponents. The Proboulos scene in Aristophanes' Lysistrata

340

ANGELIKI TZANETOU Table 2. Aristophanes' Women at the Thesmophoria and the Myth of Demeter/Persephone

to death, he does not die.27 Instead, he pursues four strate? to liberate himself. When these fail, Euripides devises a fifth and gies rescues him. The first four stratagems are parodies of Euripides' plays, while the fifth is a comedy. The performance of the tragic parodies plus the comic finale in this sequence a tetralogy followed represents by a condemned of two plays whose central character followed based on Palamedes), (Telephus, by two parodies female rescue dramas (Helen and Andromeda). Euripides' Tragedy is in accordance with the underlying rescue pattern gradually transformed and Persephone. of Demeter This is signaled by the Kinsman's changes comedy. is male of costume?he as a male actor in Telephus and Palamedes performs "naked" costume, but puts on his female costume for the female paro? dies. Tragedy's repeated at performing the female story fail; attempts success is reserved for comedy. In other words, a competition between tragedy and comedy appears to be based on the adaptation of the female rescue pattern: comedy wins because it re-enacts Persephone's rescue via the Kinsman's liberation on tfye other hand, by Euripides.28 Tragedy, offers only partial adaptation of the ritual plot of captivity/rescue, beThe tetralogy is composed

also evokes the scenario of the maenads and Pentheus in Euripides' Bacchae. An excerpt from Aeschylus' Edonians, for example, in which Lycurgus corresponds to a Pentheus-like figure, is quoted earlier in the play (130-45). See also Bierl 2001,209-13. 27Zeitlin 1996b, 402-3. 28One may of course object that the audience would not be able to discern the quick changes in genre in the course of the parodies. Two general points are relevant in this regard. First, the audience of comedy was probably particularly attuned to differences between comedy and tragedy (e.g., dramatic technique, staging, language). Second, the repeated performance of the specific pattern of Persephone's story would most likely alert the audi? ence to the generic variations of the successive dramatic versions placed before them.

RITUAL AND PERFORMANCE cause

341

all four parodies end in failed rescues.29 Table 3 schematizes the between the rescue attempts and the ritual myth. The arrelationship that comedy is the of the parodies also creates the impression rangement from tragedy to comedy. Even though end product of a linear progression share different and comedy conventions, plot and staging tragedy that some arranges the plays so as to create the impression Aristophanes rescue dramas, and comedy are on a par types of tragedy, particularly with the female because they both evoke the ritual motifs associated myth performed at the Thesmophoria.

Telephus

and Palamedes

In the first two parodies, the Kinsman acts the part of a male character in to bring about his own liberacaptivity. He first attempts unsuccessfully the hostage-scene of Telephus and then devises a tion by impersonating trick, borrowed from Palamedes, hoping to effect the arrival of Euripides. and presumably had a happy ending. Telephus featured a near-sacrifice on the other hand, was probably more somber, because it Palamedes, dealt with the death of Palamedes at the hands of the Greeks and Oiax's attempts to avenge his brother's murder. Both plays are recast along the lines of a captivity/rescue plot, as the schema in Table 3 indicates. The since parody of Telephus evokes Dionysus' captivity and self-liberation the Kinsman is impersonating a male character and attempts to bring by acting in this case against female antagonists. and punishment motif, which we find time and again in Dionysiac Pentheus and Lycurgus), was enacted in tragedy myths (cf. and is also well known from the Homeric Hymn to Dionysus (11-14), in which Dionysus over the Tyrrhenian his captors, by prevails pirates, The self-liberation miraculously breaking his bonds. Vines and ivy spread and entangle the while the pirates dive in the sea and are transformed into dolphins. ship, More specifically, in Euripides' the Mysian king, Telephus, Telephus, In the parody of the scene that we goes to the court of Agamemnon.30 infiltrates Agamemnon's court disguised as a beggar. witness, Telephus the revelation of his disguise by Achilles, he snatches and threatUpon ens to kill the infant Orestes at the altar, should his demands not be met. about his own rescue

29On the use of dramatic patterns as a basis for genre definition, see Mastronarde 1999-2000,23-39. 30On the reconstruction of Euripides' Telephus, see Collard, Cropp, and Lee 1995, 17-52; Preiser 2000.

342

ANGELIKI TZANETOU Table 3. Dramatic Program and Ritual Myth

RITUAL AND PERFORMANCE

343

In the parody of the hostage-scene (688-764),31 the baby is not a boy, but is slain, the presumed human victim is safely a girl, and, even though it substituted by a wineskin, dressed in Persian booties, as illustrated on the well-known plate 11.4).32 Sacrifice Wtirzburg krater (Taplin 1993,36-41, is a hallmark of tragedy, and as a result the Kinsman's rescue-plot begins realm of tragedy.33 The in a setting that distinctly evokes the Dionysian affinities with rescue-drama of death demonstrates avoidance plots that and averted as in the case of Orestes' revolve around violence threatened in Tauris. The plot unfolds along near-sacrifice in Euripides' Iphigeneia of abduction/near-sacrifice/survival, and yet the parody pera more "tragic" and thereby more Dionysian version because the even victim is slain and presumably is not thwarted?the "sacrifice" the Kinsman, At this particular moment in the performance, consumed. to escape the women who wineskin in hand, a naked male attempting the lines forms to the audience as more him, may have appeared for the part of a satyr. After the women and Cleisthenes appropriate the Kinsman is left naked, that is, with padded undress him (635-48), leotards and hanging phallus.34 It is true that his costume is not satyric in limp phallus and lack of a loin cloth any strict sense of the word?his him for the part of satyr. And yet, earlier in the play at perhaps disqualify have surrounded house, the Kinsman Agathon's himself, implying that Agathon picks the role of actor in satyr-play would not fit the part: for

oxocv caxbpovq xofvov Tcoifiq,Koctaiv eui, ivoc cruuTtoicb Govmcdev earuKcbqeycb Well, let me know when you're writing about satyrs; Fll get behind you with my hard-on and show you how.

(157-58)

31The play is more broadly parodied in Women at the Thesmophoria (see Rau 1967, 42-50); it is also parodied in Aristophanes' Acharnians (Rau 1967,19-42).Jn Women at the Thesmophoria the adaptation of the hostage-scene lies closer to the dramatic plot of the original than in Acharnians. 32 Iphigeneia in Euripides' IT is not sacrificed but replaced by a deer. 33On the Dionysiac patterns of Greek tragedy, see Seaford 1994. 34Stone 1984, 407-10: "The disguise leaves Mnesilochus in ruddy, bearded mask, padding, and phallus, over which are worn feminine headgear, clothing, and shoes; we suggested earlier (p. 119 n. 68) on the basis of a phlyax painting, that the hanging phallus is visible through the thin krokotos. It should be stressed that Mnesilochus is not an effeminate, and that the humor of these scenes depends on the incongruity of his masculine person (mask and phallus) with his feminine garments."

344

ANGELIKITZANETOU girl/wineskin, time since the setting of the of celebration

Mica's answer regarding the age of the baby Furthermore, as three to four pitchers old plus the which is estimated the connects the City Dionysia, last Dionysia (745-47), with the Anthesteria, a time of Dionysian competition, wine. This makes ence to a time

perfect sense in the context of comedy, but the refer? such as the Anthesteria also of Dionysian celebration evokes the participation of satyrs, who were imagined as being strongly on the choes evidence as the iconographic among the god's procession, indicates.35 ofthe parody of Telephus, the Kinsman's Following the performance attempts to escape explicitly remind the audience that he is performing, dramatic devices in search of as he self-consciously turns to Euripidean act is drawn rescue (jirixocvfi Gcoxripiac; 765). His first improvisational from Palamedes, which was part of Euripides' Trojan trilogy, produced in 415, and the Kinsman introduces his performance by referring to the title of Euripides' play (ek iov naA,ocjif|S(n)(;, 770). Like Oiax, who inscribed a message on the oars of the departing ships to inform his father, Nauplius, murder at the hands of the Greeks, the for Euripides on the wooden votive tablets message The situation which he has taken refuge (775-80). captivity and his attempt at rescue does not conform of Palamedes' Kinsman carves a near the altar on of the Kinsman's to the plot of the

by the Greeks and original, which centered on the murder of Palamedes Oiax's plan to avenge his brother's death.36 The Kinsman's performance

35Simon (1983, 92-96) discusses the presence of satyrs in the iconography of the Choes-jugs associated with the Anthesteria and rightly remarks that it is difficult to sepa? rate myth from ritual practice in connection with the Anthesteria, because the myth and ritual form an entity when it comes to Dionysiac art. The presence of Satyrs, however, on the choes that depicted Dionysian subjects is well-attested (p. 96). On the latter, see Seaford 1994, 266-67: "At the Attic Anthesteria it seems that people dressed up as satyrs . .. In the depictions of Dionysos in the ship-cart he is closely escorted by satyrs playing pipes. This is a public procession, and so the painters were probably inspired by men dressed as satyrs?rather than merely imagining satyrs, as they did when depicting female rituals they had not seen." This is controversial; Burkert (1985, 166) speaks of masked mummers based on Plato Laws 815b. But Hamilton (1992, 52) views this as stretching the evidence too far. 36On the reconstruction of the plot of Euripides' Palamedes, see Scodel 1980,43-63. Oiax is the author of the message according to the scholion on Ar. Thesm. 771 and Scodel 1980, 58-59. I do not think, however, that it is necessary to infer on the basis of the Kinsman's captivity in Women at the Thesmophoria, as Scodel suggests, that Oiax also was held captive and that he resorted to the trick of writing on oars, because he was unable to send a messenger to his father (p. 58). Sommerstein (1994 on lines 776-84) notes that "the passage should be regarded as a Euripidean pastiche with comic elements incorporated."

RITUAL AND PERFORMANCE

345

of Oiax's trick is designed to alert Euripides that he needs rescue, not vengeance against the women. As such, the Kinsman's plight resembles the bondage of satyrs in satyr-drama.37 Satyrs, as is well-known, were often captives or slaves of an ogre (e.g., Isthmiastae, Ichneutae, Cyclops), whose servitude they must often escape to return to Cyclops the satyrs' servitude ends example, in Euripides' and sets the satyrs free. arrives, punishes Polyphemus of Palamedes lends itself to satyric treatment:39both parody are male. Without seeing man) and rescuer (Euripides) Dionysus.38 For when Odysseus The Kinsman's

formed, it is difficult to judge whether the Kinsman's ders as composer and adapter were perceived as satyric by the audience. At the very least, this interpretation for a suggests that the elements were at the Kinsman's This Euripidean satyric production disposal. consists of four tragedies and lacks a satyr-play40 This mock-tetralogy was possible that included parodies since Euripides had already written a tetralogy in 438 B.c. the prosatyric^/cesf/s.The satyric ambience ofthe first two offers the closest approximation to a satyr-play in the "rescue"

captive (Kins? the parody per? efforts and blun-

of the satyric here serves a specific purpose: to tetralogy. The evocation effect a gradual transition from Dionysian rescue plots to the female rescue scenario of Persephone and Demeter.

On the fragments, see also Jouan and van Looy 2000, 487-507. On the parody, see Rau 1967,51-53. 37 Similarly, Dionysus is also envisioned as a liberator of women in the context of Dionysian cults (e.g., the servant's description of women's miraculous liberation, Eur. Bacch. 434-50). 38On major themes in satyr-play (e.g., captivity and rescue, use of tricks, anodos), see Seaford 1994, 33^4; Krumeich, Pechstein, and Seidensticker 1999, 28-32. 39For the transformation of tragic myths in satyr-drama, consider the satyr-plays in the thematically coherent Aeschylean tetralogies such as the Oresteia (Proteus) and the Danaid tetralogy (Amymone). Amymone's rejection ofthe advances ofa satyr in Aeschylus' Amymone recalls the Danaids' rejection of their Egyptian cousins in Suppliants, while Amymone's marriage to Poseidon possibly parallels that of Hypermestra to her Egyptian suitor in the lost part of the trilogy. But the themes of rape and courtship, which link the trilogy with the satyr-drama that follows, are translated into satyric terms. The absence of violent murder in Amymone is one of the major traits that differentiate the treatment of the mythical material in satyr-play from its dramatization in tragedy (Winnington-Ingram 1961,147). A satyric Palamedes is known by title and attributed to Theudotus. We do not know whether the satyric Palamedes dramatized the events at Troy as its tragic counterpart did or whether it treated the events of Palamedes' visit to Ithaca to enlist Odysseus into the Trojan War. 40Bowie (1993,224-25) suggests that Andromeda takes up the place of a satyr-play, but see Gibert's reservations (1999-2000, 88n. 50). We also know of a nonextant satyric lambe that featured Persephone's descent to and ascent from the Underworld.

346

ANGELIKITZANETOU Helen and Andromeda

The tetralogy culminates Kinsman acts the "new parodies dramatic of two female

in two tragedies with female victims. Now the Helen" in his female costume The (850-51).

rescue dramas (Helen and Andromeda) bring the pattern closer to the Demeter-Persephone story.41 By focusing on the plight of a female captive heroine, these parodies strongly evoke descent into Persephone's story.42 The familiar sequence of Persephone's and ascent from the Underworld is adapted in an analogous sequence of which parallels more clearly the Kinsman's captivity/rescue, imprisonment. Moreover, each of the parodies serves a different dramatic pur? attention to the connections between the pose. Helen calls the audience's dramatic plot and the ritual setting of the festival. The parody of An? on the other hand, includes more comic elements, which in dromeda, turn usher in comedy. The shift from the Dionysian of captivity/rescue scenario to the female rescue scenario is signaled through performance, when the Kins? man decides to slip back into his female costume (851) and perform the fall into the lead roles of Helen and Andromeda. Helen and Andromeda of plays that feature female heroines in danger in distant for? category to the story of eign lands. These plays, which end happily, are analogous whose descent-ascent ritual survival from Persephone, pattern emphasizes two female are introduced parodies by the which highlights women's civic role and is punctuparabasis (see above), ated by cult-songs fit for the occasion (947-1000,1136-59). This creates a between the female parodies and the festival of the closer connection Moreover, cannot recreate authentic female ritual expe? Thesmophoria. Aristophanes of the parodies by choral hymns commurience; and yet, the punctuation nicates the solemn and religious of the aspects of the representation Thesmophoria through choral performance.44 death.43 the

41On connections between female myths and rituals and Euripidean drama, see Guepin 1968,120-22 (Helen JT); Foley 1992,133-60 (Helen and Alcestis); Zweig 1999,15880 (Helen); Tzanetou 1999-2000, 199-216 (IT). Bierl (2001, 251-76) discusses these two parodies in light of models of female initiation. 42The similarities between the story-pattern of Helen and Andromeda with that of Persephone are evident: the captivity and rescue sequence is adapted to dramatic plots, which end in either marriage (Andromeda) or remarriage (Helen). 43Such plays also looked back to the Odyssey and other tales of adventure, as Mastronarde points out (1999-2000, 36-37). 44Zeitlin 1996b, 403. For the distinct nature and function of choral performance within the play, see Bierl (2001,105-50). For a different perspective on non-Thesmophoric elements in the choral songs, see Habash 1997,19-40.

RITUAL AND PERFORMANCE

347

The parodies reduce the plots of their originals to the essentials by The plot of Helen the structure of imprisonment-liberation. reproducing tradition of Stesichorus and Herodotus, follows the alternative according of Helen went to Troy instead of the "real" to which a ghost (eidolon) to Egypt by Hermes. All references to the Helen, who is transported are omitted in the original. The philosophical and tragic underin the original are not part of the comic adaptation. In the pinnings the captivity/rescue focuses on the recognition scene sequence parody, between Helen and Menelaus, the scene most familiar to the probably audience from its performance the year before. Similarly, the parody of Andromeda revolves around the pivotal point of its original, Perseus' eidolon Both parodies therefore draw upon the falling in love with Andromeda. romantic encounter/rescue scenes of their originals. In his "Helen," Aristophanes draws on the setting of Euripides' Helen's sojourn in Egypt and Menelaus' arrival after the end of the play: war.45 The connections between Helen and the myth of Persephone Trojan are clearly marked in Euripides' original play. For example, Egypt is as the Underworld; Helen explicitly draws attention to simiimagined larities between herself and Demeter's and daughter (175-76, 244-46) finally there is a long ode to the Great Mother's shift from mourning to of the recog? joy (Zeitlin 1996b, 404). The parody itself is a performance as Helen and Euripides as Helen's plight as emphasizes to shun the advances of Theoclymenus captive-suppliant attempting by at Proteus' tomb (877-80, 885-89) and directs the script by taking refuge to take "her" away, choosing the moment of recogni? asking Euripides tion for the purpose of escape: (Hel. 528-96) Menelaus (Rau 1967,53-65). The Kinsman co xpovux; eAflwv orj<;da^iapxoq eaxapaq, A,aPe jae A,aPe jae rcoai, 7tep(paA,e 8e yzpaq. cpepe, ae ktlkjcd.anaye ja' aKay, anaY arcaye [ie rcdvo. A,apa)v xa%X) O timely come into your own wife's charms! O hold me, hold me, husband, in your arms! Come, let me kiss you! Take, oh take, oh take me away posthaste! 45 Foley (1992,133-60) and Zeitlin (1996b, 403-4, 406-16) argue that the interrelationship between the myth of Persephone and its dramatic representation in Helen, for example, offers a useful framework for exploring issues of female reputation and marital identity (Foley) or for exposing the affinities between imitation, illusion, and the feminine in Greek literature (Zeitlin). nition scene with the Kinsman

(912-16)

348

ANGELIKITZANETOU who is guarding the Kinsman

and does not recognize the the performance. She parody being performed, repeatedly interrupts draws attention to the Kinsman's theatrical acting by accusing him of the woman" yet again (862-63). "playing Critylla objects to the designaCritylla, tion of the Thesmophorion as Egypt (877-90) and of the altar as the of Proteus, where Helen took refuge in the original play (886-88). Men try to turn the Thesmophorion into the theatrical space of perform? insistence sets in relief the reality of the women's festi? ance; Critylla's val?serious what men are doing: playing (880). As a business?against and theatrical space, the Thesmophorion links the performance religious tomb of the parody of Helen both to the performance of the festival and to the ritual pattern of Demeter's underlying mourning and rescue of her daugh? ter. When Critylla refuses to participate as actor in the parody, the performance makes the connection between the parody and its ritual This is one of the most important moments in the play; underpinnings. for Critylla's interventions the function of the clarify for the audience ritual setting of the Thesmophoria. The women's festival retains its integrity, as a ritual space reserved for women, even though it is being used as a theatrical space for male performance (Bierl 1991,172-76). The tragic plot oi Andromeda dramatizes the story of Andromeda's as an exposure by her father Cepheus, king of Ethiopia, to a sea-monster victim for Poseidon, followed expiatory by the arrival of Perseus, his rescue.46 The Kinsman/An? failing in love with her, and Andromeda's dromeda is east in the role of the captive maiden and Euripides/Perseus in the role of male rescuer. The economy of adaptation again follows the and rescue sequence. The parody offers yet another version of captivity the female rescue story. In addition to female captive (Andromeda) and male rescuer (Perseus), a third character, however, is added: the Scythian Archer plays the part of the blocking character, the sea-monster, and on the level of the ritual myth he evokes Hades. The Kinsman receives his cue from Euripides/Perseus to perform "Andromeda" using his chains to evoke his/her captivity: avfjp eoiKev o\) rcpoScoaeiv, 6Xka um ar|U?iov i)7ie8riAxDae nepaetx; 8K8pa|Jxbv, oxt 8ei jae YtyveaB' 'Av8po|ji8av. rcavxax; 8e jjxh xa 8ea|i' vrcapxei. 8fjA,ov ow (xoux') ea0' oxt ? fj^ei jae acoacov ov yocp av 7tape7txexo.

(1010-14)

5On Euripides' Andromeda, see Klimek-Winter 1993, 55-315.

RITUAL AND PERFORMANCE It seems the man won't give up on me: he just popped up as Perseus, meaning I'm supposed to be Andromeda. Fve certainly got the requisite chains, and he's obviously on his way to rescue me; otherwise he wouldn't have zipped by.

349

theatrical

draws attention to his role as actor by referring to the to play the part of the props (the chains) that he employs Andromeda's plight, a maiden bound to a cliff at captive Andromeda. the edges of the earth, evokes obvious similarities to the Kinsman, who is The Kinsman and to on a board against the wail of the skene (1001-7), Andromeda's as a captive in the Underworld. lyric monody Persephone with the chorus47 form part of the parody, when and her lyric exchange "her" the Kinsman as Andromeda performs a lament that emphasizes and exclusion from the ritual choruses of her co-evals and from captivity shackled wedding celebrations (ya|Lir|X{cp |Ltevoi) tpv namvx, 1034-35):

opaq, o\) xopoiaiv o\)8' txp' tjAakcdvveavi5cov Krjuov earr)K' e'xoixj', dAA,'ev nvKvolq 8eauoiaiv

eiinen'keyiie.vT] icr|T8iPopa rA,ai>Kerr) rcpoKeium.48

(1029-33)

Behold, not now in dances nor with girls my own age do I stand wielding a votive funnel; nay rather enchained in tight bondage am I set out as fodder for the monster Glauketes! aptly named the "girl's tragedy," of a girl's violent death before her story pattern inherent in such stories marriage (Burkert 1979). The ritual overtones since the latter is the bride of Hades. link Andromeda to Persephone, These which refers to a familiar The Kinsman first plays the role of a married woman a transition takes the role of a maiden as Andromeda, as Helen, but then that subtly evokes lines evoke what has been

47See Stehle in this volume on the parallelism between Agathon's and the Kinsman's performance. 48In the passage quoted above, as Sommerstein (1994 on line 1031) points out, the Kinsman uses Knuovexcma' ("holding a voting urn by the funnel") instead of kcouovaycmaa ("leading a group of singers"), a pun that reminds us that women's civic role was expressed within the ritual sphere and men's in politics (Bierl 2001,153-54, who argues that through his lament, the Kinsman joins mimetically the chorus' role as Nymphs).

350 the citizen the festival. wives' reversal

ANGELIKITZANETOU of status from wives to virgins in the context of becomes an integral part of the language and Per? with that

Women's

ritual

the connections between Andromeda parody and enhances sephone, especially as the Kinsman's lament becomes conflated of Andromeda.49 Andromeda

I limit my remarks to the increasing comic tone of the parody of since other aspects of this parody have been examined in detail.50 The main goal of the parody appears to be the distortion of great the scene of Perseus' which brings failing in love with Andromeda, tragedy to an end and leads to comedy. The Scythian guard misinterprets "Andromeda's" effect on "Perseus" as lust instead of love.51 The increas? of obscenity at the end of this parody underscores the ing presence from tragedy to comedy. The Archer first draws attention transition to the Kinsman's and then concentrates on his proktos and phallus (1114) on anal sex (nvyi^Eiq, 1119-20, nvyxao ... e^67ciaxo 7cpcoKTiaov, 1123-24). He fails to recognize as a Euripides' "lofty" address to "Andromeda" for him "Perseus"' theatrical eros for "Andromeda" sug? performance; gests that Euripides wants to have anal sex with an old man! As a result, the Archer's interventions have an additional effect: they tip the perform? toward comedy. The Archer's ance of the festival of the Thesmophoria confusion between the maleness of the Kinsman and the female role that he performs humor routinely directed by evoking produces laughter humor against Agathon, against "pathics" (cf. the Kinsman's aggressive are also relevant to hetairai and however, 200-201, 206). Pyge-jokes, their customers and evoke not only a sexual, but perhaps more specifically a sympotic atmosphere.52 Viewed from this angle, it is perhaps the Scythian Archer's interest in sex that suggests to Euripides the idea for the final comic trick. This is no ordinary Hades: his concern is not for marriage,

49There is also an interesting parallel between ritual and theatrical acting. The Kinsman's dressing and undressing himself with the saffron robe to act the female parts is reminiscent of a woman's preparation for ritual service (1043-46). On the krokotos and its connection with Brauron and girls' rites, see also Bierl 2001,254. 50Rau 1967, 65-89; Zeitlin 1996b, 404-5; Gibert 1999-2000,75-91. 51On the Archer scene, see Hall 1989, 38-54. But /ryge-displays and fairness of buttocks, however, were also highly prized among hetairai (Alex. 103.10-12). 52At a later date there is even evidence of competitive displays ofpyge between two hetairai at a drinking party (Alciphr. 14. 4-6). See also Ath. 12.554c regarding Aphrodite Kallipygos. I owe this point and the references to pyge-disp\ays to Laura McClure. For earlier and contemporary references for pyge, see also Olson 1998 on 868-70. On the pederastic overtones of this scene, see Bierl 2001, 264-66.

RITUAL AND PERFORMANCE but for immediate nied by Elaphium Enter gratification. and Teredon. as Artemisia,

351

Euripides

accompa-

Comedy Within of the festival, the tragic parodies with their the ritual framework of Persephone's to Nesteia. The ap? re-enactment captivity correspond of obscenity in the parody of Andromeda signals the end of pearance the transition to Kalligeneia. Demeter's and prepares The mourning of obscenity the practice of ritual obscenity at the suggests presence and marks a parallel progression from tragedy to comedy Thesmophoria as from Nesteia to Kalligeneia. as well Comedy thereby comes closer to of ritual fertility by imitating women's ritual obscenity, the celebration even though male rather than female characters use obscene language.53 The connection between ritual and comic obscenity suggests broadly the arrival of Kalligeneia and that aspects of comic obscenity may have within the ritual female context. originated In the final scene, Euripides enters as an old hetaira and brings onstage a dancing girl, Elaphium, whom he has instructed to dance proand a piper by the name of Teredon, whom he keeps vocatively (1172-74), to prompting to perform (1175,1186). Euripides offers live entertainment the Scythian Archer as a means of distracting him so that he can liberate the Kinsman. In this way, Aristophanes forces Euripides to resort to a are basic: the use of sex to outwit an truly comic script; its ingredients an ethnic character against whom actors and audience unite by "outsider," placing him in the position of the "evil" blocking character.54 The myth of and Persephone Demeter is now finally enacted though parodically by female characters: Euripides, disguised as Artemisia/ to hoodwink the Scythian Archer/Hades and liberate the Kinsman/Persephone from bondage. The final shift from tragedy to Demeter playing manages two males

53The study of the differences between male and female obscenity in comedy is a separate topic. On comic obscenity, see Henderson 1991b. McClure (1999, 228-35) pointedly draws attention to the fact that women do not utter a single obscenity in the Thesmophoria, because doing so on stage might have amounted to sacrilege (230-31). It is true that obscenity within the ritual context was practiced by women only, whereas here obscene language is used for the most part by male characters. The relationship between women's ritual dramas and the origins of comedy may be alluded to in the play, but this is a separate topic that requires extensive study. 54See Elizabeth Scharffenberger's paper in this volume.

352 comedy Scythian

ANGELIKITZANETOU is conveyed in terms of gender; everyone on stage except the Archer is in female costume. The final scene therefore concludes

story. The switch from male to female rescuer suggests a Persephone's more faithful and thereby successful adaptation ofthe Demeter-Persephone acts the part of Demeter, and the Kinsman, story. Euripides/Artemisia who is stripped of any other tragic fictional persona, re-enacts Persephone's part and remains silent while the "plan" is put in motion. Careful examination, however, suggests that the means (Elaphium's dance on the Archer/Hades' lap and the offstage sex) employed to justify are more Dionysian the end (the release of the Kinsman/Persephone) The play ends with release from bondage and the temthan Demetrian. from her marriage to Hades.The ending porary liberation of Persephone is both typical and atypical of comedy.55 There are no weddings (e.g., Birds, Peace) banquets (e.g., Lysistrata) or processions (e.g., Frogs), which often crown the victorious of a male comic enterprise. The conclusion device is the last dramatic 1132) that (mechanen, mini-symposium com? own rescue plots?into Euripides devises, by merging tragedy?his that she is on When Elaphium comes onstage, Euripides announces edy. her way to entertain other customers and this first dance is just a "warmThe Scythian Archer admires the dancer's breasts (1185) up" (1178-88). and buttocks (1187); she proceeds to dance on his lap, and then they have sex offstage and it is not for free (1193-99)! role is not split Persephone's in two, as Bowie (1993) suggests. Elaphium is no Persephone, nor is she victimized She conspires to save an? by marriage to the Archer/Hades. and soon flees the scene to fulfill other engagements. In one respect, hetairai and female performers were better off than Athe? nian wives: because they were more independent. Their exclusion from Athenian society tells of a bondage of a different sort, but, in the world of the play, they cannot be trapped by men or Hades. flavor rescue The Dionysian of the scene celebration, and becomes therefore, blends in with the Demetrian assimilated within the mold of female other "woman"

dramas. The comic finale is plotted around the Kinsman's rescue, and the comic east appears to be drawn from a more typically female for the sake of emphasizing the female comedy, the hetaira-comedy,56 55See Stehle in this volume, who emphasizes that the ending is uncharacteristic of comedy. She specifically underscores the absence of sex. The Myrrhine-Cinesias scene of Lysistrata features "sex" as a weapon against a blocking character (830-979). For return to normative roles at the end of the play, see further Bowie 1993. Bierl 2001,270-73 empha? sizes the return to marriage: the Kinsman's return to his wife underscores the theme of marriage, which concludes most of the plots of Old Comedy. 56Henderson 2000a, 135-50.

RITUAL AND PERFORMANCE character enactment

353

comedy's end. The Kinsman's

of its adaptation. The east and plot of the scene offers the best of the female rescue plot, and with that the play ends with comes to an victory over tragedy. The theatrical experiment

of female roles female costume and his performance fail to feminize him: Euripides instructs the Kinsman to run away "like a man" (1204), a reminder that he should abandon his role as "Persephone" and his feminine theatrical persona and resume his real nature. Comedy, however, under the auspices of the Thesmophoria, is feminized.

CAPTIVITY The movement

AND from

RESCUE:

DIONYSUS

AND

DEMETER

liberation

(Telephus,

(Helen, Andromeda) edy (Artemisia and Elaphium). As the play progresses, the female rescue of pattern is gradually revealed, and the space of the ritual performance the Thesmophoria is transformed into the theater of Demeter. This transition suggests a substitution for Dionysus, of Demeter the god of the associated with agriculture and fertil? traits?gods their theatrical partnership. Zeitlin has argued that Women ity?support at the Thesmophoria sustains "a dialogue between Demeter and Dionysos, a mode that defines the feminine and each furnishing each representing a mythic scenario that can be related to both genres, comedy and trag? on her thesis, I argue further that Demeter edy."57 Building replaces as patron of comedy, based on similarities of their attributes. Dionysus Even though Dionysus and Demeter are not often joined in cult,58 both are closely related with fertility and agriculture: the former with the of wine, the latter with grain agriculture. the Moreoever, production practice of ritual obscenity, which is an integral ingredient of Aristophanic comedy, phoria, may be traced to both Dionysus the Haloa, and the Stenia).59 and Demeter's festivals (Thesmo? theater. Their similar

the Dionysian of captivity and selfpattern to that of Demeter and Persephone Palamedes) a move from tragedy toward com? also represents

57Zeitlin 1996b, 400. 58Burkert (1985,436 n. 62) cites only one example of Demeter Phylaka and Dionysus Kaprios. Demeter and Dionysus are seated next to each on the north side of the Parthenon frieze. See Harrison 1996, 206 and Neils 2001,164,188. 59Iambe's jesting (Hom. Hymn Dem. 200-205) explains the ritual jesting at the festival of the Thesmophoria (Apollod. 1.5.1). On Baubo and ritual obscenity, see O'Higgins 2001,139-42. McClure (1999, 204-59) elaborates on distinctions between male and female obscenity with reference to the cults of Dionysus and Demeter.

354

ANGELIKITZANETOU

One might argue that Dionysus does not necessarily a represent male model for drama, given the god's connections with female cults as well as his own ambiguous masculine gender identity.60 But Dionysus' side is asserted with the phallos, which through his close association the god's fertility and was a symbol of the "extraordinary" symbolized were paraded in the procession of the City (Burkert 1985,166)?phalloi Dionysia.61 Dionysus' the god was honored in comedy: masculine side is especially prominent by the komos, whose members in the performance, the comic actors and chorus, wear costumes with prominent phalluses attached to them.62 In dramatic terms, the similarities between Demeter and Dionysus of the captivity and liberation through the performance The salient aspect of the Dionysian and myths. pattern is self-liberation while the story of Persephone and Demeter, which is prepunishment, served in the Homeric Hymn to Demeter, stresses cooperation between the sexes (Foley 1994).The women and reconciliation between latter is in which men (Menelaus/Perseus) found in several Euripidean tragedies are also shown rescue lands (Helen/Egypt, Andromeda/ a blocking a barbarian character, Libya) by triumphing against king in Helen) or even an ogre (sea-monster in Andromeda). (Theoclymenus These plays often end in marriage. In comedy, the same pattern surfaces in Aristophanes' Peace, in which Peace is held captive in a cave by and is set free by Hermes (Olson 1998, xxxvCerberus/Cleon (313-15) xxxviii).63 As Helene Foley has shown for Helen and Alcestis, Euripides' women held captive in far-off

60The bibliography on Dionysus and his cults is very extensive. On Dionysus' ambiguity, see for example, Burkert 1985, 222-25. Most relevant to this discussion are Henrichs 1982, 1984; Segal 1982; Jameson 1993, 44-64 and Bierl 1991, 1-25. Jameson, in particular, concentrates precisely on the contradiction between the different facets of Dionysus (effeminate conduct, ability to dissolve social and sexual controls imposed on men and women, his own detachment from sexual pursuits). He in turn cautions against attempting to construct a consistent whole and argues that the whole set of these attributes is not manifest in every context. 61As attested in one fragmentary inscription (IG I2 46.). See Pickard-Cambridge, Gould, and Lewis 1988, 61-62 with n. 4. 62Ibid., 220-23. 63Women feature less often in the role of rescuer. Iphigeneia in IT, which, like Alcestis, belongs to the pattern of female captive/male rescuer, plays an integral role in rescuing her brother from sacrifice, but both Orestes and Pylades are also responsible for her escape from the land of the Taurians. Procne and Philomela's story is one of the few examples in which women act as rescuers. But because Procne's help comes too late after her sister's rape and mutilation by Tereus, this story tells more a tale of vengeance than one of rescue.

RITUAL AND PERFORMANCE female rescue

355

60). And

dramas are patterned upon Persephone's story (1992,133? Per? audience the contemporary might well have identified captivity and rescue in this type of rescue drama. In Women at sephone's the ritual setting evokes the female rescue pattern the Thesmophoria between the ritual pattern even more readily and hence the connections of the ritual and the rescue dramas parodied. In fact, faithful adaptation seems Thesmophoria, this play, Euripides' at Aristophanes' to be the key to a successful performance the Kinsman. As they are depicted in namely, liberating

pattern

Andromeda

of the female rescue story in Helen and adaptations are presented as inappropriate for the Thesmophoria. Both the playwright features a male in the original and in the parodies, or Perseus) rather than a female rescuer. Thus, while a male (Menelaus for a female rescuer "works" in the original plays and Helen and An? dromeda in the parodies the male rescuer, namely, Euripides fails to bring about the liberation of the Kinsman as Menelaus/Perseus, Here, only when both the rescuer and the acting as Helen/Andromeda. are saved, are in female rather

costume does the rescue succeed. Consequently, than tragedy interprets the female rescue myth of the more cogently of the Thesmophoria by offering a faithful adaptation scenario. Persephone-Demeter captive comedy

TRAGEDY VERSUS COMEDY: A DRAMATIC AT THE THESMOPHORIA? CONTEST at the Thesmophoria concerns a competition be? and Aristophanes and between tragedy and comedy is Euripides not new.64 Jeffrey Henderson (1996) has argued recently that Aristophanes on trial because his psychologically realistic portraits of puts Euripides women have violated the rule that tragedy must distance its fictions from tween reality. Imitation of contemporary contemporary reality is the domain of and Aristophanes transultimately sets out to defeat Euripides' into the comic genre. gression comedy, Hubbard and John Gibert have promoted aspects of the is vying with Euripides over the thesis, namely, that Aristophanes shared territory of composing about women. Aristophanes plays presents women as the central characters for the first time in Lysistrata and Women same Thomas The idea that Women

64Bierl 1991, especially 176;Hubbard 1991,182-99; Bowie 1993,217-25;Taaffe 1993, 98-99; Henderson 1996, 96-97; Zeitlin 1996b, 387-99; Gibert 1999-2000,75-91.

356

ANGELIKITZANETOU

at the Thesmophoria, in 411.65 Because both of which were produced were produced Euripides' female rescue dramas, Helen and Andromeda, in 412, both critics suggest that they influenced Aristophanes' treatment in terms of characterization.66 of his new subject matter, especially I suggest further that the dramatic imitation of Persephone's story in the parodies and in the comic rical solution for communicating between women.67 edies the two genres The similarities cannot women finale alike provides an effective theat? to the audience the rivalry concretely of dramas about over the shared territory between tragedy and comedy in their treat?

ment of women about

because Aristophanes' com? easily be evidenced, differ markedly from Euripides' rescue dramas. In as being "on top" and making decisions comedy, women are represented on behalf of the city instead of men because the depiction of them often social and political system aims at critiquing aspects of the contemporary Women at the Assembly). On the other hand, the typical (Lysistrata, rescue plot of Euripides revolves around the return of a female heroine, whose wanderings or captivity in an exotic locale ends with the arrival of a male rescuer In Women in Tauris, Helen). (Iphigeneia at the Thesmophoria Euripides' depiction as a misogy-

65On the dating, see Sommerstein (1994,1-3). Lysistrata was probably performed at the Lenaea (see Henderson 1987, xv-xxv) and Women at the Thesmophoria at the City Dionysia. It was uncommon for two comedies by the same author to be produced at the same festival. 66Hubbard (1991,182-99) concentrates on an intertextual reading of Lysistrata and Women at the Thesmophoria. In his analysis of Women at the Thesmophoria, he aptly notes that "the new, softer, more romantic portrayals in Helen and Andromeda of 412 probably influenced Aristophanes in turning his attention to women's themes in 411; however, Aristophanes felt that he could be more successful than Euripides in using female dramatic figures to influence dominant social, political and literary values" (186). Gibert (1999-2000, 75-91) interprets the parody of Andromeda in light of its similarities with Lysistrata and argues that Aristophanes' play is indebted to Euripides, especially for his treatment of eros as well as for the positive delineation of female characters. Both scholars acknowledge their debt to Henderson's discussion of Aristophanes as innovator in his women plays. See further, Henderson 1987,1996. Whether Aristophanes actually aimed at critiquing Euripides' characterization of women or choice of subject matter and orientation in his female dramas, or whether this "rivalry" concerns a perceived competition over the use of lan? guage, illusion and other aspects of tragic and comic representation, remains a matter of lively scholarly debate. 67 Agathon's comments on issues of mimesis regarding gynaikeia dramata (151) address the representation of female characters by male actors. However, the emphasis on "female dramas" may be programmatic in light of Euripides' and Aristophanes' recent productions.

RITUAL AND PERFORMANCE nist68 becomes closer a pretext assimilated

357

to women's

into the play's implicit strategy that comedy is than tragedy. The trial of Euripides offers experience

his dramatic skill in portraying women, judged for evaluating against the skill of comedy. The women put Euripides on trial because his of "bad" heroines such as Phaedra and Melanippe portraits impugn women's and because Euripides' slander disrupts reputation (544-48) the normal rhythms of life in the oikos and succeeds in awakening husbands' suspicions regarding their own wives' misbehavior (395-432). women as bonding with each other and contrast, comedy represents By and reconciliation offers the prevailing suggests that cooperation para? of women's conduct in the oikos and polis. Comedy "wins" over digm of the power? tragedy because its script is based on a faithful adaptation ful story Demeter's bond with her daughter Just as Persephone. to negotiate a deal in a man's world with Zeus that ability benefits herself and her daughter underscores her power, so does the of her story in comedy, because here, too, women are granted depiction the opportunity to negotiate with men. Within this framework, I suggest that the rivalry between Aristoph? and Euripides is staged as a dramatic contest between the two major dramatic genres.69 The model for the contest is the program of the with which spectators were familiar during the PeloponCity Dionysia nesian war: tragedy in the morning, comedy in the afternoon (if one takes ?(p' fipixc; in Ar. Birds 789 to refer to comic performers).70 Tragic and comic contests were jointly held during the war, yet separately judged. Because tragedy and comedy were produced in the same day, however, Aristophanes suggested to the audience that they competed against each other. The grouping of parodies from four Euripidean together plays anes of Demeter's

68First attested in Ar. Lys. 283, 368-69 (Henderson 2000b, 307 n. 27). 69 Aristophanes' rivalry towards Euripides is attested by Cratinus (schol. Pl. Ap. 19c, PCGIII2, test. 3). See further, Rau 1967; Rau 1975,339-56. For the rich and ongoing debate on genre as well as relevant bibliography, see most recently, Depew and Obbink 2000. 70First suggested by A. Korte, RE "Komodie," 1229, based on the arguments to Ar. Clouds,Peace, Birds (City Dionysia) and Acharnians,Knights, Wasps,Frogs (Lenaia); PickardCambridge 1988, 66,83 with nn. 1 and 2 and followed by Mastromarco (1975,469-73), who argues that the restriction in the number of comedies performed was operative only in 426421 and 415-402 b.c); Slater 1988, 44 with n. 7. Against this view are Luppe 1972, 53-75; Luppe 1982,147-59; 2000,19-20; and Dunbar 1995, 786-89. There is no extant hypothesis for Women at the Thesmophoria. See also Sommerstein 1996 on Ar. Frogs. 376, who points out that the reference "after lunch" indicates that: "Aristophanes knew that his play would be performed in the afternoon."

358

ANGELIKI TZANETOU

Helen, Andromeda). may suggest a tragic tetralogy (Telephus,Palamedes, The Kinsman stages Euripidean "rescue" scenes to escape from captivity. of Palamedes As soon as his performance fails, the Kinsman is inspired with female rescue dramas?both Helen by Euripides' recent experiments in the previous year, following the and Andromeda had been performed of trilogy in 415.71 The parodies suggest a contest between two genres (even tragedy via parody) and the two playwrights though tragedy is represented (even if "Euripides" and performs the final comedy).72 Dramatic virtuscripts and variations on osity is judged according to free dramatic adaptations of the Thesmophoria: and a set theme, fit for the occasion captivity failure of Palamedes followed and the Trojan by comedy rescue. the story in this play becomes plot of Persephone's for evaluating dramatic success in "female dramas." Women at constitutes a unique example because the perform? the Thesmophoria within the ances of the parodies and of the comic finale are embedded there? of the festival of the Thesmophoria. The re-enactment, framework in tragedy and comedy of the story of Demeter and Persephone fore, The ritual standard alike functions broadly as the equivalent the rivalry between By presenting of the ritual drama. comedy and tragedy as a dra? engineers the inevitable victory of com? which is contrived in every respect by

matic competition, Aristophanes edy in this internal competition, the poet himself! Because val re-enacts

of tragedy and comedy within the festi? the performance the parodies and the and Persephone, the story of Demeter as the religious rituals that women per? comic finale serve symbolically retain their formed in the festival. Nonetheless, tragedy and comedy rituals within the setting of the festival. As a character as competitive of parodies of Euripides' plays within result, the Kinsman's performances a different in the the festival mobilize chain of symbolic associations mind with festival of the parodies The performance within the to the one spectators a setting equivalent associated reproduces at the festivals of Dionysus. the annual dramatic competitions of the audience.73

71Bowie (1993,224-25) briefly suggests that the four parodies constitute a tetralogy. He does not consider further that this set-up suggests an actual contest between the two genres. Many have argued that comedy wins: Bowie 1993; Taafe 1993; Zeitlin 1996b; Bierl 2001,159. 72Metatheatrical interpretations of this play include Bonanno 1990, 241-76 and Slater 2002,150-80, who weaves metatheater into a political interpretation of the play with special reference to the events of 411 b.c. 73On the Aristophanic comic audience, see Slater 1999, 351-68.

RITUAL AND PERFORMANCE

359

the audience's experience by staging its double: reproduces Aristophanes constitute that is, the parodies plays within a play, but they are also itself. As a result, the theat? framed by the festival of the Thesmophoria of the audience who were rical spectacle calls attention to the experience at of the comedy at the theater of Dionysus watching the performance festival imitation of the Dionysian and the audience's knowledge competition engages in two specific ways. of the spectacle of the theatricality consciousness for the to the substitution of City Dionysia First, it draws attention and and, second, to the rivalry between Aristophanes Thesmophoria the City Dionysia. and the dramatic The metatheatrical contest that as a theatrical Euripides dramas about women. Figure 1 clarifies audience. on becomes focused gradually of the the theatrical experience

CONCLUSION This attempt to relate what can be recovered and meaning of Aristophanes' play to the Athenian joins the de? Thesmophoria the play on a number of significant issues: the repre? bate surrounding in drama, the competition of women between sentation tragedy and and the intricate relationship between ritual and theatrical rep? comedy, the action about resentation sis.74 Studying within the play's larger commentary the theatrical connections between on the nature of mimeritual and drama offers

The play's insights into a variety of levels of Women at the Thesmophoria. of male actors' impersonation metatheatrical attention to the convention of female roles sets in relief, certainly for modern audiences, the inconthe male actor's female costume and men's attempt to gruity between in ancient drama. For women in Athe? women's reproduce experience nian drama are "really" men in disguise: men author and play women's men in female costumes can only imitate what parts. More importantly, echo Agathon.75 Aristophanes, like the they don't have by nature?to Kinsman, intrudes on the festival and breaks the code of secrecy and silence. Ignorant of women's secrets, he offers instead the male view of women's ritual secrets and speech.

74On Agathon's theory of mimesis, see Muecke 1982, 41-55; Stohn 1993, 196-205. On mimesis in general, see Sorbom 1996. 75On men's failure to perform women's ritual roles, see Stehle's incisive discussion in this volume.

360

ANGELIKITZANETOU

Audience's

reality

City

Dionysia

Theater of Dionysus festival program in 411?: tragic tetralogy (morning) + one comedy (afternoon) Aristophanes' Women at the Thesmophoria

Thesmophoria festival Theater of Demeter program : tetralogy + one comedy of scenes from Euripides, Telephus, Palamedes, Helen, parodies Andromeda and a scene from a comedy written and directed by Aristophanes/"Euripides" featuring a rescue scene in a "hetaira" comedy. Theatrical

Theatrical/onstage

reality

Figure 1. The Theatrical Context of the Thesmophoria

And yet, the parallelisms between the ritual myth, the events of the festival, and the complex dramatic structure of the play are striking. The women's dissatisfaction with Euripides causes "infertility"; when paro? dies of Euripides' plays are produced on the comic stage during Nesteia, of Kalligeneia they fail. Success and dramatic fertility as the equivalent return when Euripides and the women are reconciled. will Euripides continue to write plays. Their reconciliation parallels the return of fertil? with Zeus. reconciliation ity on earth after Demeter's Once Euripides the final scene is successful but this capitulates, final success is credited to comedy. Aristophanes Demeter and stages between a strong Persephone's story, a model of a powerful relationship and independent mother and her daughter within the patriarchal para? of the ritual myth in comedy digm of Athenian society. The adaptation of women's role in Athenian yields a positive representation society that counterbalances the appropriation of their functions in drama. For the

RITUAL AND PERFORMANCE play affirms not only women's to the status elevates women roles

361

within the oikos and the polis but of purveyors of dramatic fertility. That status in accordance with official ideology is comedy affirms women's not a novel idea. But in this play, the entire action revolves around the imitation of a ritual myth that celebrated women's unique contributions

to the community. Unlike the women in Lysistrata and Women at the who abandon their status as political Assembly, agents and return to their homes at the end of the play, in Women at the Thesmophoria it is men who must abandon their female roles and return to "normality": the Kinsman flees from the theater to his oikos. This serves as a reminder that here, too, the inversion of male for female does not threaten the status quo, but rather Aristophanes' plan to join ranks with the women mutual antagonist, appears solely opportunistic. roles is temporary and reinforces it. Initially against Euripides, their

But the performance under the pretext of exposing women's ritual secrets and defeating itself, Euripides, ironically discloses comedy's true affinity with women's ritu? als; for both affirm, celebrate, and promote the continuity of human life.76 Case Western Reserve University e-mail: axt31@po.cwru.edu

BIBLIOGRAPHY Bierl, Anton. 1991. Dionysos und die griechische Tragodie: Politische und "metatheatralische" Aspekte im Text. Classica Monacensia l.Ttibingen: Gunter Narr. -. 2001. Der Chor in der Alten Komodie: Ritual und Performativitat (unter besonderer Berucksichtigung von Aristophanes' Thesmophoriazusen und der Phalloslieder fr. 851 PMG). Beitrage zur Altertumskunde 126. Munich: K. G Saur. Blok, Josine. 2001. "Virtual Voices: Toward a Choreography of Women's Speech in Classical Athens." In Making Silence Speak: Women's Voices in Greek Literature and Society, ed. Laura McClure and Andre Lardinois, 95-116. Princeton: Princeton University Press. 76 My warmest thanks go to Mary-Kay Gamel for her invaluable and incisive critique of the arguments presented in this article. I also want to thank Anton Bierl, Barbara Gold, Jeffrey Henderson, Nanno Marinatos, Mare Mastrangelo, Jenifer Neils, Vassiliki Panoussi, and the anonymous referees for comments and suggestions that helped me sharpen my argumentation. Finally, I wish to thank the audiences at the Aristophanes Conference at Case Western Reserve University and at the University of Illinois at UrbanaChampaign where I presented earlier versions of this paper.

362 Bobrick, Elizabeth.

ANGELIKITZANETOU

1997. "The Tyranny of Roles: Playacting and Privilege in Aristophanes' Thesmophoriazusae." In The City as Comedy: Society and Representation in Athenian Drama, ed. Gregory Dobrov, 177-97. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. Bonanno, Maria Grazia. 1990. L'allusione necessaria: Ricerche intertestuali sulla poesia greca e latina. Filologia e critica 63. Rome: Edizioni dell' Ateneo. Bowie, A. M. 1993. Aristophanes: Myth, Ritual and Comedy. Cambridge: Cam? bridge University Press. Broneer, Oscar. 1942. "The Thesmophorion in Athens." Hesperia 11:250-74. Brumfield, Allaire Chandor. 1981. TheAttic Festivals of Demeter and Their Rela? tion to the Agricultural Year. Monographs in Classical Studies. Salem, N.H: Arno Press. -. 1996. "Aporreta: Verbal and Ritual Obscenity in the Cults of Ancient Women." In The Role of Religion in the Early Greek Polis: Proceedings of the Third International Seminar on Ancient Greek Cult, Organized by the Swedish Institute of Athens, 16-18 October 1992, ed. Robin Hagg, 67-73. Acta Instituti Atheniensis Regni Sueciae, 80, 24. Stockholm: P. Astroms Forlag. Burkert, Walter. 1979. Structure and History in Greek Mythology and Ritual. Sather Classical Lectures 47. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. -. 1985. Greek Religion: Archaic and Classical. Trans. J. Raffan. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. Carter, J. B. 1988. "Masks and Poetry in Early Sparta." In Early Greek Cult Practice: Proceedings of the Fifth International Symposium at the Swedish Institute at Athens, 26-29 June, 1986, ed. R. Hagg, N. Marinatos, and G. C. Nordquist, 88-98. Acta Instituti Atheniensis Regni Sueciae 40, 38. Stock? holm: P. Astroms Forlag. Clinton, Kevin. 1992. Myth and Cult: The Iconography ofthe Eleusinian Mysteries; The Martin P Nilsson Lectures on Greek Religion, delivered 19-21 November 1990 at the Swedish Institute at Athens. Acta Instituti Atheniensis Regni Sueciae 80,11. Stockholm: P. Astroms Forlag. -. 1993. "The Sanctuary of Demeter and Kore at Eleusis." In Greek Sanctuaries: New Approaches, ed. Nanno Marinatos and Robin Hagg, 110-24. London: Routledge. -. 1996. "The Thesmophorion in Central Athens and the Celebration of the Thesmophoria in Attica." In The Role of Religion in the Early Greek Polis: Proceedings of the Third International Seminar on Ancient Greek Cult, organized by the Swedish Institute of Athens, 16-18 October 1992. ed. Robin Hagg, 111-125. Acta Instituti Atheniensis Regni Sueciae 80,24. Stockholm: P. Astroms Forlag. Cole, S. G. 1994. "Demeter in the Ancient Greek City and Its Countryside." In Placing the Gods: Sanctuaries and Sacred Space in Ancient Greece, ed. Susan E. Alcock and Robin Osborne, 199-216. Oxford: Clarendon Press.

RITUAL AND PERFORMANCE

363

Collard, Christopher, Martin J. Cropp, and Kevin H. Lee. 1995. Euripides: Selected Fragmentary Plays. Vol. 1 of The Plays of Euripides. Warminster: Aris & Phillips. Cropp, Martin J., Kevin H. Lee, and David Sansone, eds. 1999-2000. Euripides and the Tragic Theatre in the Late Fifth Century. ICS 24-25. Dahl, Katrin. 1976. Thesmophoria: Ein graesk Kvindefest. Opuscula Graecolatina 6. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum. Depew, M., and D. Obbink, eds. 2000. Matrices of Genre: Authors, Canons and Society. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. Detienne, Marcel. 1989. "The Violence of Wellborn Ladies: Women in the Thesmophoria." In The Cuisine of Sacrifice among the Greeks, trans. R Wissing, ed. Marcel Detienne and Jean-Pierre Vernant, 129-47. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Deubner, Ludwig. 1932. Attische Feste. Berlin: Heinrich Keller. Dillon, Matthew. 2002. Girls and Women in Classical Greek Religion. London: Routledge. Dunbar, N. 1995. Aristophanes: Birds. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Farnell, L. R. 1907. The Cults ofthe Greek States. Vol. 3. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Fluck, Hans. 1931. "Skurrile Riten in griechischen Kulten." Ph.D. diss., University of Freiburg. Endingen: Emil Wild. Foley, Helene P. 1982. "The 'Female Intruder' Reconsidered: Women in Ari? stophanes' Lysistrata and Ecclesiazusae." CP 77:1-21. -. 1992. "Anodos Dramas: Euripides' Alcestis and Helen." In Innovations of Antiquity, ed. Ralph Hexter and Daniel Selden, 133-60. London and New York: Routledge. (Reprinted in Foley, H. P. 2001. Female Acts in Greek Tragedy, 301-32. Princeton: Princeton University Press.) -. 1994. The Homeric Hymn to Demeter: Translation, Commentary, and Interpretative Essays. Princeton: Princeton University Press. 2001. Female Acts in Greek Tragedy. Princeton: Princeton University -. Press. Gardner, Jane F 1989. "Aristophanes and Male Anxiety: The Defence of the Oikosr G&R 36:51-62. Gibert, John. 1999-2000. "Failing in Love with Euripides (Andromeda)." In Euripides and Tragic Theatre in the Late Fifth Century, ed. Martin J. Cropp et al. ICS 24-25:75-91. Guepin, J.-P. 1968. The Tragic Paradox: Myth and Ritual in Greek Tragedy. Amsterdam. Adolf M. Hakkert. Habash, Martha. 1997. "The Odd Thesmophoria of Aristophanes' Thesmophoriazusae." GRBS 38:19-40. Hall, Edith M. 1989. "The Archer Scene in Aristophanes' Thesmophoriazusae." Philologus 133:38-54. Hamilton, Richard. 1992. Choes and Anthesteria: Athenian Iconography and Ritual. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. Harrison, Evelyn B. 1996. "The Web of History: A Conservative Reading of the

364

ANGELIKITZANETOU

Parthenon Frieze." In WorshippingAthena: Panathenaia and Parthenon, ed. Jenifer Neils, 198-214. Wisconsin Studies in Classics. Madison: University of Winsconsin Press. Henderson, Jeffrey. 1987. Lysistrata. Oxford: Clarendon Press. -. 1991a. "Women and the Athenian Dramatic Festivals." TAPA 121:133? 47. -. 1991b. The Maculate Muse: Obscene Language inAttic Comedy. Oxford: Oxford University Press. -. 1996. Three Plays by Aristophanes: Staging Women. New York: Routledge. -. 2000a. "Pherecrates and the Women of Old Comedy," In The Rivals of Aristophanes: Studies in Athenian Old Comedy, ed. David Harvey and John Wilkins, 135-50. London: Duckworth. . 2000b. Aristophanes: Birds, Lysistrata, Women at the Thesmophoria. Cam? bridge: Harvard University Press. Henrichs, Albert. 1982. "Changing Dionysian Identities." In B. F. Meyer, ed. Jewish and Christian Self-Definition, III. Self-Definition in the GraecoRoman World, 137-60, 213-36. Philadelphia: Fortress Press. -. 1984. "Loss of Self, Suffering, Violence: The Modern View of Dionysus from Nietzsche to Girard," HSCP 88:205-40. Hubbard, Thomas K. 1991. The Mask of Comedy: Aristophanes and the Intertextual Parabasis. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. Jameson, Michael. 1993. "The Asexuality of Dionysus," In Masks of Dionysus, ed. Thomas H. Carpenter and Christopher. A. Faraone, 44-64. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. Jouan, Fran?ois, and H. van Looy. 2000. Euripide: Fragments, Bellerophon-Protesilas. Vol. 8. Paris: Belles Lettres. Klimek-Winter, Rainer. 1993. Andromedatragodien: Sophokles, Euripides, Livius 21. Stuttgart: Andronikos, Ennius, Accius. Beitrage zur Altertumskunde Teubner. Das Thesmophorion von Kron, U. 1992. "Frauenfest in Demeterheiligtumern: Bitalemi."yL4:611-50. Krumeich R., N. Pechstein, and B. Seidensticker. 1999. Das griechische Satyrspiel. Texte zur Forschung 72. Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft. Lada-Richards, Ismene. 1998. "Staging the Ephebeia: Theatrical Role-Playing and Ritual Transition in Sophocles' Philoctetes." Ramus 27.T-19. -. 1999. Initiating Dionysus: Ritual and Theatre in Aristophanes' Frogs. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Loraux, Nicole. 1991. "Aristophane, les femmes d'Athenes et le theatre." In Aristophane, ed. Olivier Reverdin and Grange Bernard, Entretiens sur TAntiquite Classique 38:203-44. Geneve: Vandoeuvres. Lowe, N J. 1998. "Thesmophoria and Haloa: Myth, Physics, and Mysteries." In The Sacred and the Feminine in Ancient Greece, ed. Sue Blundell and Margaret Williamson, 149-73. London and New York: Routledge. Luppe, W. 1972. "Die Zahl der Konkurrenten an den komischen Agonen zur Zeit des Peloponnesischen Krieges." Philologus 116:53-75.

RITUAL AND PERFORMANCE -. -.

365

1982. "drcecoaOrj naXw eiq xovq Ar|vaiKo\)q." ZPE 46:147-59. 2000. "Ein weiteres Zeugnis fiir fiinf Konkurrenten an den Komodien Agonen wahrend des peloponnesischen Krieges." ZPE 129:19-20. Mastromarco, G. 1975. "Guerra Peloponnesiaca e Agoni Comici in Atene." Belfagor 30:469-73. Mastronarde, D. J. 1999-2000. "Euripidean Tragedy and Genre: The Terminology and Its Problems." In Euripides and Tragic Theatre in the Late Fifth Cen? tury, ed. Martin J. Cropp et al. ICS 24-25:17-39. McClure, Laura. 1999. Spoken Like a Woman: Speech and Gender in Athenian Drama. Princeton: Princeton University Press. McClure, Laura, and Andre Lardinois, eds. 2001. Making Silence Speak: Women's Voices in Greek Literature and Society. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Muecke, Francis. 1982. "A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Woman." CQ 32:4155. Neils, Jenifer. 2001. The Parthenon Frieze. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Nixon, Lucia. 1995. "The Cults of Demeter and Kore." In Women in Antiquity: New Assessments, ed. Richard Hawley and Barbara Levick, 75-96. New York: Routledge. O'Higgins, D. M. 2001. "Women's Cultic Joking and Mockery: Some Perspectives." In McClure and Lardinois 2001,137-60. Princeton: Princeton Uni? versity Press. Olson, S. D. 1998. Aristophanes: Peace. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Osborne, Robin. 1993. "Women and Sacrifice in Classical Greece." CQ 43:2:392405. Padilla, Mark, ed. 1999. Rites of Passage in Ancient Greece: Literature, Religion, Society. Bucknell Review 43 Lewisburg, Pa.: Bucknell University Press. Parker, R. C. T. 1983. Miasma: Pollution and Purification in Early Greek Religion. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Pickard-Cambridge, Arthur. 1988. The Dramatic Festivals of Athens. 2d ed. Rev. by J. Gould and D. M. Lewis. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Preiser, Claudia. 2000. Euripides: Telephus; Einleitung, Text, Kommentar. Spud? asmata 78. Zurich: Georg Olms Verlag. Price, Simon. 1999. Religions of the Ancient Greeks: Key Themes in Ancient History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Rau, P. 1967. Paratragodia: Untersuchung einer komischen Form des Aristophanes. Zetemata 45. Munich: Beck. -. 1975. "Das Tragodienspiel in den 'Thesmophoriazusen.'" In Aristophanes und dieAlte Komodie, ed. H.-J. Newiger. Wege der Forschung 265,339-56. Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft. Said, Susan. 1987. "Travestis et travestissements dans les Comedies d'Aristophane." In Anthropologie et theatre antique, ed. Paulette Ghiron-Bistagne. Actes du colloque international, Montpellier 6-8 Mars 1986. Cahiers du Gita 3:21748.

366

ANGELIKITZANETOU

Schechner, Richard. 1988. Performance Theory. New York: Routledge. Scodel, Ruth. 1980. The Trojan Trilogy of Euripides. Hypomnemata 60. Gottingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. Seaford, R. A. S. 1984. Euripides: Cyclops. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. -. 1994. Reciprocity and Ritual: Homer and Tragedy in the Developing CityState. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Segal, C. P. 1982. Dionysiac Poetics and Euripides' Bacchae. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Sfameni Gasparro, G. 1986. Misteri e culti mistici di Demetra. Storia delle Religioni 3. Rome: "L'Erma" di Bretschneider. Simon, Erika. 1983. Festivals of Attica: An Archaeological Commentary. Wiscon? sin Studies in the Classics. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press. Slater, Niall W 1988. "Problems in the Hypotheses to Aristophanes' Peace." ZPE 74:43-57. -. 1999." Making the Aristophanic Audience." AJP 120:351-68. -. 2002. Spectator Politics: Metatheatre and Performance in Aristophanes. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. Vol. 8 of The Comedies of Sommerstein, Alan H. 1994. Thesmophoriazusae. Aristophanes. Warminster: Aris & Phillips. -. 1996. Frogs. Vol. 9 of The Comedies of Aristophanes. Warminster: Aris & Phillips. Sorbom, G. 1996. Mimesis and Art: Studies in the Origin and Early Development of an Aesthetic Vocabulary. Stockholm: Svenska Bokforlaget. in den 'Thesmophoriazusen' des Stohn, Giinther. 1993. "Zur Agathonszene Aristophanes." Hermes 121:196-205. Stone, L. M. 1984. Costume in Aristophanic Poetry. Monographs in Classical Studies. Salem, N.H.: Ayer. Taaffe, Lauren K. 1993. Aristophanes and Women. London: Routledge. Taplin, Oliver. 1993. Comic Angels and Other Approaches to Greek Drama through Vase-Paintings. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Turner, Victor. 1986. The Anthropology of Performance. New York: PAJ Publications. Tzanetou, Angeliki. 1999-2000. "Almost Dying, Dying Twice: Ritual and Audi? ence in Euripides' Iphigenia in Tauris." In Euripides and Tragic Theatre in the Late Fifth Century, ed. Martin J. Cropp et al. ICS 24-25:199-216. Versnel, H. S. 1992. "The Festival for Bona Dea and the Thesmophoria." G&R 39:31-55. Whitman, Cedric H. 1964. Aristophanes and the Comic Hero. Martin Classical Lectures 19. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. Wiles, David. 2000. Greek Theatre Performance: An Introduction. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Wilson, Peter. 2000. The Athenian Institution of the Khoregia: The Chorus, the City, and the Stage. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

RITUAL AND PERFORMANCE

367

Winkler, J. J. 1990. "Listening to the Laughter of the Oppressed: Demeter and the Garden of Adonis." In The Constraints of Desire: The Anthropology ofSex and Gender in Ancient Greece, ed. J. J. Winkler, 188-209. New York: Routledge. Winnington-Ingram, R. P. 1961. "The Danaid Trilogy of Aeschylus." JHS 81:14152. Zeitlin, Froma I. 1982. "Cultic Models of the Female: Rites of Dionysus and Demeter." Arethusa 15:129-57. -. 1996a. Playing the Other: Gender and Society in Classical Greek Litera? ture. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. -. 1996b. "Travesties of Gender and Genre in Aristophanes' Thesmophoriazusae." In Zeitlin 1996a, 375-416. (First published in Critical Inquiry 8 [1981], 301-27; also in Reflections of Women in Antiquity, ed. H. Foley, 169217. New York: Gordon and Breach Science Publisher.) Zweig, Bella. 1999. "Euripides' Helen and Female Rites of Passage." In Rites of Passage in Ancient Greece: Literature, Religion, Society, ed. Mark Padilla, 158-80. Bucknell Review 43. Lewisburg, Pa.: Bucknell University Press.