Bhopal Institute of Technology New Lab Manual

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BHOPAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, BHOPAL(M.P)
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGG.

LAB MANUALS

S.N. SUBJECT
CODE
SUBJECT NAME SEMESTER PAGE NO.
1 BE-104 BASIC ELECTRICAL &
ELECTRONICS ENNG.
I & II
2 EX-303 ELECTRICAL INSTRUMENTION III
3 EX-304 ELECTONICS DEVICIES & CIRCUIT-I III
4 EX-305 NETWORK ANALYSIS III
5 EX-306 JAVA III
6 EX-404 ELECTRO MECHANICAL ENERGY CONVERSION-
I
IV
7 EX-405 ELECTONICS DEVICIES& CIRCUIT-II IV
8 EX-406 SOFTWARE LAB MATLAB IV
9 EX-502 MICRO PROCESSOR & MICHRO CONTROLLERS V
10 EX-503 ELECTRICAL MACHINE-II V
11 EX-504 POWER ELECTRONICS DEVICES & CIRCUIT V
12 EX-505 POWER SYSTEM -1 V
13 EX-506 ELE.ENGG.SIMULATION V
14 EX-602 CONTROL SYSTEM VI
15 EX-603 SWITCHGEAR & PROTECTION VI
16 EX604 ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENTATION VI
17 EX-701 POWER SYSTEM-2 VII
18 EX-708 ELECTRICAL SIMULATION LAB VII
19 EX-801 COMP.ADD ELE.M/C DESIGEN VIII
20 EX-802 ELECTRICAL DRIVES VIII

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BHOPAL INSTITUE OF TECHNOLOGY

LAB MANUAL

Version No. Basic Electronics and Electrical
Subject Basic Electronics and Electrical
Subject
Code
EX-104
Scheme New
Class/Branc
h
I & II Semester / all
Author Mr. Kritarth Shrivastav
Institution
Bhopal Institute of Technology

COURSE: BE104

Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering

List of Experiment

1.Verifications of Thevenins Superposition theorem.
2.Study of Transformer, name plate rating,Determination of ratio
and polarity
3.Determination of equivalent circuit parameters of a single phase
transformer by O.C. And S.C. tests and estimation of voltage
regulation and efficiency at various loading conditions and
verification by load test.
4. Separation of resistance and inductance of choke coil.


5.Measurement of various line & phase quantities for a
3-phase circuit.

6. Identification of different Electronics
components.

7.Observing input and output waveforms of
rectifiers .
8.Verification of truth table for various gates.
9. To study the transistor characteristics of CB,
CE , CC.

EXPERIMENT NO. 1
AIM: - To verify Thevenins theorem.
APPARATUS REQUIRED: - Experimental Kit, Connecting Probes.
THEORY: - Sometimes it is necessary to find a particular branch current in a circuit as the resistance
of that branch is varied while all other resistances, voltage sources and the current sources remain the
same.
This theorem states that, Any two terminal network containing a number of
e.m.f. sources and resistances can be replaced by an equivalent series circuit having a voltage source V
TH

in series with a resistance R
TH
.
Where, V
TH
= Open circuit voltage between two terminals.
R
TH
= The resistance between two terminals of the circuit obtained by looking in at the terminals
with removed and voltage sources replaced by their internal resistances, if any.
The load current is given by:
I
L
=


Fig no.1

Fig no.2

Fig no.3


Fig no.4

PROCEDURE:-
1. Connect the circuit as shown in fig 1. Measure the values of load current at different load
resistance. It is I
L1
, I
L2
& I
L3
.
2. Connect the circuit as shown in fig. 2. Disconnect the load resistor (R
L
) from output terminals
and measure the open circuit voltage (V
TH
) by connecting analog voltmeter. Open circuit voltage
will appear across 100 resistor:
V =
3. For measurement of Thevenins resistance across open circuit terminals X-Y, disconnect the
12V voltage source and short the voltage source open circuit terminals A-B as shown in fig. 3.
Connect the digital multimeter across terminal X-Y. Find the value of R
TH
.
Now measure the resistance across X and Y.
R
TH

4.Now, above circuit between X & Y can be replaced by Thevenins equivalent circuit as
shown in fig 4.
V
TH
= 1.8 V, R
TH
= 173.4

For R
L
= 25
I
L1
= = .mA
For R
L
= 50
I
L1
= = .mA
For R
L
= 75
I
L1
= = .mA
5. Compare the calculated and measured values.

OBSERVATION TABLE:-
S.NO.
EQUIVALENT
VALUES
MEASURED VALUES CALCULATED VALUES
1. RTH,VTH
2. RTH,VTH

3. RTH,VTH
RESULT:

PRECAUTIONS:
The positive & negative terminals of the power supply should not be connected together.
Supply for the experimental kit should be switched ON only after the connections are verified.
Avoid parallax error.
Check the polarities of the meter before the observations are noted down.


EXPERIMENT NO. 01
AIM: To verify Superposition theorem.
APPARATUS: Experimental Kit, Connecting Probes.
THEORY: When there is only one source of e.m.f. or only one current source, then it is very easy to
calculate the current or the voltage. But in a complex circuit where there are a number of sources acting
simultaneously, then it is very difficult to calculate the current or the voltages. In these situations
superposition theorem is used.
The theorem states that, If a number of current or voltage sources are acting simultaneously
in a linear network, the resultant current in any branch is the algebraic sum of the currents that would be
produced in it, when each source acts alone replacing all other sources by their internal resistances.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Fig. 01


Fig no.2

Fig no.3
PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in fig 1. Measure the current i
1
, i
2
and i
3
.
2. Connect the circuit as shown in fig. 2. Consider only one voltage source at a time, first 12V.
Short the second 5V source. Measure the current i
1
, i
2
and i
3
(One ammeter is connected at a
time, other ammeter is shorted).
3. Connect the circuit as shown in fig. 3. Consider only 5V voltage source. Short the second 12V
source. Measure the current i
1
, i
2
and i
3
.
4. Calculate the value of i
1
, i
2
, i
3
, i
1
, i
2
and i
3
.
5. Compare the calculated and measured values.

OBSERVATION TABLE:
Sr. No. Measured Value Calculated Value
i
1

i
2

i
3

i
1

i
2

i
3

i
1

i
2

i
3

CALCULATIONS:
Consider only one voltage source at a time, first 12V.
R
T
= 50 + = 50 + 8.33 = 58.33
I
TH
=
I
T
= i
1

i
3
=
i
2
= i
1
- i
3
=.
Therefore,
i
1
=.
i
2
=.
i
3
=.
Now, considering 5V voltage source only:
R
T
= 50 + = 50 + 8.33 = 58.33

I
TH
=
I
T
= i
3

i
3
=
i
1
= i
3
- i
2
=.
Therefore,
i
1
=.
i
2
=.
i
3
=.
According to superposition theorem,
Current through resistance R
1
= i
1
- i
1
=.
2
= i
2
i
2
=.
3
= i
3
i
3
=.

RESULT:
PRECAUTIONS:
The positive & negative terminals of the power supply should not be connected together.
Supply for the experimental kit should be switched ON only after the connections are verified.

EXPERIMENT -2

OBJECTIVE:- Study of transformer name plate rating.

Apparatus Required:-Transformer.

Theory:- The transformer specifications give the rating and performance expectations of the

transformer. These are broadly as below:
1.KVA rating 2. Rated voltage 3. Number of phases(1- or 3- ). 4. Rated frequency. 5. Connections(-
------). 6. Tappings if any 7. Type of core (core or shell). 8.Type (power or distribution). 9. Ambient
temperature (generally average 40
0
c) 10. type of cooling[(a) cooling medium -air ,oil or water (b)
circulation type -natural or forced (c) simple or mixed cooling].11. Temperature rise above ambient in
0
c
depending upon the class of winding insulation.12. Voltage regulation[(a) percent or pu (c) reactance -
percent or per unit] 13. No load Current in amperes or percent of rated current at rated voltage and rated
frequency.14. Efficiency -in percent or per unit
at full load,1/2 load,3/4 load at unity pf or .8 pf.

The specifications items and limitations are laid down by the following IS
specifications:
IS : 1180-1964: specifications for outdoor type three phase distribution
transformer upto and including 100 Kva and 11 kv.
IS :2026-(PART I,II,III.IV 1977: Specificatins for power transformers beyond
Kva.
(a) Outdoor type distribution transformers (IS : 1180-1964)
According to this the standard ratings for distribution type transformers are
16,25,40,50,63,80and Kva.
The no load voltage ratios are 3300/433v,6600/433v and 1100/433v.
The tapping shall be provided on hv side and shall be in 5 steps.
The ranges shall be + 2.5 and +5%.Off load tap changers are used.
CONNECTIONS :------- with neutral brought out to a seperate insulated terminal.
Cooling is by low viscocity transformer oil.
Conservator tank is provided on transformer of rating 50 Kva or above.
LIMITS OF TEMPERATURE RISE : The following temperature rises shall be permitted over the
ambient temperature of 45
0
c.
WC Temperature rise in winding mmeasured by resistance method -55
0
c.
Wp Temperature rise in oil measured by thermometer in the top oil-45
0
c.
The above temperature rises are for ON, OB AND OW type cooling.
IMPEDENCE: The percentage impedence at 75
0
c is 4.5% subject to the tolerence
limits of +10%.
Power transformers(IS 2026-1962)
The standard Kva ratings for 3- transformers are
25,40,63,100,125,160,200,250,315,400,500,630,800,1000,1250,1600,2000,2500,3125,4000,6300
,8000,10000,12500,16000,20000,25000,31500,40000,50000,63
000,and 80000 Kva.
The standard ratings for 1-phase transformers are 1,2,5,10,16 and 25 KVA.
Above 25 kva ,the standard rating for single phase transformers shall be one-third of
the value given for 3-phase transformers.
TAPPINGS : The standard tapping ranges are +2 1/2% and +5%.
Tap changing is carried out by means of an externally operated off-circuit
switch capable of being locked in positions.
If required ,the transformers may be equipped with on-load tap -changer.


EXPERIMENT NO.2

OBJECTIVE: - To find the polarity of primary and secondary winding on a single phase
Transformer.

PRE-REQUISITS:-
(1.) Basic knowledge about Xmers.
(2.) Concept of primary & secondary winding.
(3.) Concept of polarity.


DESCRIPTION OF APPARATUS:-

S.NO NAME TYPE RANGE QTY.
1. VOLTMETER M.I. 0-300 02
2. VOLTMETER M.I. 0-600 01
3. TRANSFORMER - 2KVA 01
4. VARIAC 1 260V 01
5. CONNECTING WIRE - - -

UNDERLYING CONCEPTS:-

POLARITY: - Each of the terminal of primary as well as secondary windings of a transformer is
alternately positive and negative with respect to each other . It is essential to know the relative polarities
at any instant of the primary and secondary terminals for making correct connections under the
following type of the transformer.
(I) When two single phase transformer are to be connected in parallel to share the total load on the
system
(II) For connecting the 3 single phase transformer to form a 3 phase bank with proper connections of
primary and secondary windings.
Referring fig , if at any instant , the induced emf E1 in the primary acts from the terminals marked A2 to
A1 the induced emf E2 in the secondary winding will act from a2 to a1 i.e. if at any instant A1 is
positive and A2 negative with respect to the applied voltage V1 across the primary winding then the
terminal voltage V2 across the secondary winding will be positive at a1 and negative at a2 .

If the two winding are connected by joining A
1
to A
2
as shows in fig, and an alternating voltage V
1

applied across the primary, then the marking are corrected if the voltage V
3
is less than V
1
. Such a
polarity is generally termed as. Subtractive polarity, in which the induced emfs in the primary and
secondary winding are subtractive. The standard practice is to have subtractive polarity for transformer
connections, because it reduce the voltage stress between the adjacent loads. In case V
3
is grater than V
1
,
the emfs induced in the primary and secondary windings have an additive polarity.


V
2
MI
(0 - 300)V
1- , 260 V
50 Hz
AC Supply
V
3
MI
(0 - 600)V
V
1
MI
(0 - 300)V
P
1
P
2
S
1
S
2

POLARITY TEST

PROCEDURE :- a) Polarity test:-
Connect the circuit as per fig.
Switch on single phase ac supply.

Record the voltages V
1
, V
2
and V
3
. It is advisable to use a single voltmeter with probes to
measure these three voltages. In case V
3
<V
1
, the polarity is subtractive.
Repeat step 3, after connecting the terminals A
1
and A
2
. The transformer should be disconnected
before making. This change in this case V
3
>V
1
, which indicates additive polarity.
Switch of the ac supply.

As V
3
> V
1
Additive Polarity
As V
3
< V
1
Subtractive Polarity

Observations: - May be tabulated as follows:-

S.No. (a). additive polarity S.No. (b).Subtractive Polarity
V
1
V
2
V
3
V
1
V
2
V
3

RATIO TEST

OBJECTIVES: - To measure voltage ratio of primary and secondary windings

PRE-REQUISITS:-
1) Basic knowledge of transformers.
2) Concept of voltage ratio.

DESCRIPTION OF APPARATUS:-


S.No. NAME TYPE RANGE QTY.
1. VOLTMETER MI. 0-300V 02
2. TRANSFORMER 1 1 KVA 01
3. VARIAC 1 0-270V 01
4. CONNECTING WIRE - - -

UNDERLYING CONCEPTS:-

Voltage Ratio:-
The induced emf per phase in the primary and secondary winding of a transformer is given by,
Induced emf in primary, E
1
= 4.44 f
m
T
1
.
Induced emf in secondary, E
2
=4.44 f
m
T
2

However, E
1
= V
1
and E
2
= V
2
Hence, the voltage ratio, V
2
/V
1
= T
2
/T
1

Circuit Diagram -: Given in fig

V
2
MI
(0 - 300)V
1- , 260 V
50 Hz
AC Supply
V
1
MI
(0 - 300)V
86.6%
50%
28.8%

RATIO TEST

Voltage Ratio test:-

Procedure:-
1. Connect the circuit as per fig.
2. Switch on ac supply.
3. Record the voltage V1 across the primary and V2 across various tapping of the secondary.
It will be preferred, if all the voltage are measured by the same voltmeter.
4. Switch off the ac supply.

Observation Table:-

SNO. V1 V2 V1/V2


EXPERIMENT No- 03

AIM: - To Perform Open Circuit and Short Circuit test on transformer.

APPARATUS REQUIRED: -

Sr. No. NAME RANGE QUANTITY
1 Ammeter 0-5AMP 1
2 Ammeter 0-1 AMP 1
3 Voltmeter 0-300V 1
4 Autotransformer 0-270V 1
5 Wattmeter 0-375Watt 1
6 Single Phase Transformer 2KVA,220V,50Hz 1

THEORY: - In various experiments, transformer is being operated normally under one of the
following condition.

1. NO LOAD OR OPEN CIRCUIT: - Generally high voltage Winding is open circuited is open circuited.
Such a test is performed at rated voltage applied to low voltage winding no load test is performed to
find out the no load / core losses.
2. LOAD:-Load on the secondary winding varied in steps to ascertain behaviour of transformer under
loaded conditions.
3. SHORT CIRCUIT: - Low voltage winding is generally short circuited and quite low Voltage applied to
high voltage winding. Such a test is normally performed under full Load current condition. This test is
performed to find out full load losses.
PROCEDURE:-

(a). Open circuited test :-
1 Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram.
2 Ensure that the setting of the variac is at now output voltage.

3 Switch on the supply and adjust rated voltage across the transformer circuit .
4 Record no load current, voltage applied and no load power, corresponding to the rated
voltage of the transformer winding.
5 Switch off the AC supply.

(b)Short circuit test :-
6 Connect the instruments as per the circuit diagram.
7 Adjust the setting of the variac so that the output voltage is zero.
8 Switch on the AC supply to the circuit.
9 Increase the voltage applied slowly till the current in the winding of the transformer is
full load rated value.
10 Record short circuit current, corresponding applied voltage and power with full load
current under short circuit condition.

A
V
M L
C V
L.V. H.V.
(0-150/300)W
(0-1/2)A
(0 - 300)V
1- , 260 V
50Hz
AC Supply

OPEN CIRCUIT TEST


A
V
M L
C V
L.V. H.V.
(0 - 375)W
(0 - 5)A
(0 - 300)V
1- , 260 V
50 Hz
AC Supply

SHORT CIRCUIT TEST

OBSERVATION TABLE:-

S.No Open circuit test Short circuit test
V
o
I
o
W
o
V
sc
I
sc
W
sc
1
2


CALCUATIONS:-
W] For open circuit test

Wo =V
o
I
o
Cos
o

Cos
o
= W
o
/ V
o
I
o

I
o
Cos
o
= I
c
or I
w

I
o
sin o = I

or I
m

(I
o
) = (I
c
2
+ I
2
)

R
o
= V
o
/ I
c

X
o
= V
o
/ I
m

W- For short circuit test

W
sc
= I
sc
2
Req.

Req. = W
sc
/ I
sc
2

Zeq. = V
sc
/ I
sc

(Xeq) = Z
2
R
2

Result: -

Precaution:-
1. Make the connection correct & according to the circuit diagram.
2. All connection should be made with power supply off.
3. Signal should not be applied to the input while the instrument power supply on.


EXPERIMENT NO: 04

Measurement of power in three phase circuits

OBJECTIVE: - To measure power by a 3 phase inductive load using two wattmeters

PRE. REQUISITES :- (1) Knowledge of measurement of 3- power by various methods
(2) Principle of working of wattmeter.
INSTRUMENTS REQUIRED:-

UNDER
LYING
CONCE
PT
Power
consumed
by a 3 phase balanced or unbalanced load (star or delta connected) Can be measured by using two
wattmeters properly connected in the load circuit . The current coils of the wattmeters are connected in
series with the load lines in any two lines, whereas the two pressure coils are connected between these
lines and the third line as shown in fig.

The phasor diagram of this circuit ,assuming balanced lagging load has been shown in fig. As such,rms
Sr. No. Name Type Range Quantity
1
Wattmeter Dynamometer 5/10A,200/400V 2
2 Ammeter MI 0-10A 1
3 Voltmeter MI 0-600 1
4 3-Phase Variac MI 400/0-400V,15 A 1
5 3-Phase inductive load Inductive -- 1


values of currents Ir,Iy,Ib are taken equal in magnitude and lagging by an angle with respect to its own
phase voltage .Similarly, rms values of phase voltages are also equal in magnitude but displaced by
120.The Phase sequence has been assumed as R,Y,B.Based in the phasor diagram, power consumed and
the power factor of load can be calculated from the readings of two wattmeters W1 and W2 as explained
below.

Power factor of the load

W1-W2 = V
L
I
L
Cos (30- ) - V
L
I
L
Cos(30+ )

Tan = 3 (W
1
-W
2
)/(W
1
+W
2
)

= Tan3 (W
1
-W
2
)/(W
1
+W
2
)
Cos = Cos [Tan3 (W
1
-W
2
)/(W
1
+W
2
)]

PROCEDURE:

Connect the circuit as per fig.
Ensure that the output voltage of 3 phase Variac is at zero or low.
Switch on the 3 phase ac supply.
Apply a certain voltage to the circuit and note down the regarding of all the meter connected in
the circuit.
Repeat step 4 for various values of applied load till the rated supply voltage.
Reduce the voltage applied to 3 phase load and then switch off the supply.


LAB MANUAL

Version no
Subject ELECTRONICS INSTRUMENTATION
Subject code EX/
Scheme NEW
Class/Branch VI SEMESTER/EX
Author Nirupa chaturbedi
Institution BHOPAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

LIST OF EXPERIMENTS

Experiment
No
NAME OF EXPERIMENT
1 (a) To Study of Input-Output characteristics of LVDT.
(b) Determination of sensitivity of LVDT.
2 (a) Study of Strain measurement using Strain gauges and
cantilever assembly.
(b) Determining sensitivity Strain Gauge.
3 To measure the value of unknown Resistance with the help of
wheat stone bridge.
4 To measure the value of unknown inductance with the help of
Maxwell's inductance bridge .
5 To measure the value of unknown capacitance with the help of
schering bridge .

6 To study the characteristics of photo voltaic cell.

7 To study and observe the characteristic of PIN Photo diode .


8 To study the characteristic of platinum RTD .

9 To study the operation of Analog to Digital converter .

10 To study the operation of digital to Analog converter .

Experiment : 1(a)
Objective :
Determination of sensitivity of LVDT

Theory :
Sensitivity : The ratio of the change in LVDT output to a change in the value of the
measure and (displacement). Sensitivity is the smallest change in displacement,
which
LVDT is able to detect. The output of LVDT is an alternating signal which is
rectified
and filtered to give DC output (Signal conditioner output). The DC output is
proportional to amplitude of alternating signal of LVDT.
Sensitivity S = AC output / Displacement (Vpp/ mm) OR
= DC output / displacement (Vdc/mm)

Procedure :
1. Switch ON the trainer.
2. Make micrometer to read 10 mm.
3. Note the reading of micrometer.

4. Measure the differential voltage between Test Point TP6 and TP7 with multi-
meter in mV range.
6. Repeat step 4.
(Differential voltage for 10 mm - Differential
voltage for 9 mm)
7. Calculate S = (10 mm - 9 mm)

= . mV/mm

Expe
riment 1(b)
Objective :
Study of Input-Output characteristics of LVDT

Apparatus Required:
LVDT kit
Multimeter
Connecting probes

Theory:
Linear variable differential transformers (LVDT) are used to measure displacement.
LVDTs operate on the principle of a transformer. As shown in figure 4, an LVDT
consists of a coil assembly and a core. The coil assembly is typically mounted to a
stationary form, while the core is secured to the object whose position is being
measured. The coil assembly consists of three coils of wire wound on the hollow
form. A core of permeable material can slide freely through the center of the form.
The inner coil is the primary, which is excited by an AC source as shown. Magnetic
flux produced by the primary is coupled to the two secondary coils, inducing an AC
voltage in each coil.

LVDT Measurement :

LVDT measures displacement by associating a specific signal value for any given
position of the core. This association of a signal value to a position occurs
through
electromagnetic coupling of an AC excitation signal on the primary winding to the
core and back to the secondary windings. The position of the core determines how
tightly the signal of the primary coil is coupled to each of the secondary coils.
The
two secondary coils are series-opposed, which means wound in series but in opposite
directions. This results in the two signals on each secondary being 180 deg out of
phase. Therefore phase of the output signal determines direction and its amplitude,
distance.

Displac
ing the
core to
the
left
causes
the first secondary to be more strongly coupled to the primary than the second
secondary. The resulting higher voltage of the first secondary in relation to the
second secondary causes an output voltage that is in phase with the primary voltage.

Procedure :
2. Make micrometer to read 10 mm .
3. Display will indicate 00.0. This is the position when core is at centre i.e
equal flux linking to both the secondary.
5. Rotating thimble again clockwise by 0.1mm. Reading will be taken after each
0.1 mm rotation until micrometer read 0 mm. This is positive end. At this point
secondary I have highest voltage and secondary II has lowest voltage.
6. Rotate thimble anticlockwise so that micrometer read 10 mm.
7. Rotate thimble anti clockwise so that micrometer read 10.1 mm. It will move
core 0.1 mm outside the LVDT and simultaneously observe reading on display.
It will indicate displacement from 10 mm position in negative direction. The
reading will be negative. It indicates that secondary II is at higher voltage
than
secondary I.

8.take reading of voltage generated in coil by connecting multimeter on output point
of LVDT kit.
9. Plot the graph between displacement (mm) indicated by micrometer and Display
reading (mm).The graph will be linear .
Observation Table:
S.no Displacement in micrometer Display displacement(mm) Generated voltage (mv)


Experiment 2(a)

Objective :

Determining sensitivity Strain Gauge

Theory :
Strain Gauge :
If a metal conductor is stretched or compressed, its resistance changes on account
of
the fact that both the length and diameter of the conductor change. There is also a
change in the value of resistivity of the conductor when it is strained and this
property
is called piezoresistive effect. This is the principle of strain gauge. Strain gauge

is a
device the electrical resistance of which varies in proportion to the amount of
strain in
the device. The most widely used gauge is the bonded metallic strain gauge.
A strain gauge of length L, area A, and diameter D when unstrained has resistance
R = (L)/ A
When a gauge is subjected to positive strain, its length increases while its area of
cross section decreases, resistance of gauge increases with positive strain.
lateral strain D / D
= strain = L/L
R / R
Gauge Factor = L / L

Sensitivity :
The ratio of the change in auxillary output to a change in the value of the
measurand
(strain). Sensitivity is the smallest change in strain, which the trainer is able to
detect.
Strain is directly proportional to weight.
Auxillary Output
Sensitivity S = Weight mV /gm

Procedure :
1. Switch On the trainer.
2. Measure the auxillary output.
3. Adjust Offset Null Adjust preset slowly to get 0 mV at auxillary output
terminal.
4. Place weight of 5 gm on cantilever and measure the auxillary output voltage by
multimeter in 200 mV range.
5. Repeat the above step by placing the weights of 10gm, 20 gms etc.
6. Calculate :Auxillary output for above specified weights.
Weight
S= . mV/gm
7.Compare value of sensitivity for different weights.


Experiment :2(b)

Objective :
Study of Strain measurement using strain gauges and cantilever assembly

Apparatus Required :
Strain gauge Kit
Connecting Probes

Theory:
Strain is the amount of deformation of a body due to an applied force. More
specifically, strain () is defined as the fractional change in length, as shown
below.

L
= L
Strain can be positive (tensile) or negative (compressive). Although dimensionless,
strain is sometimes expressed in units such as in/in or mm/mm. In practice, the
magnitude of measured strain is very small. Therefore, strain is often expressed as
micro strain (-strain), which is x 10 -6.
Types of Strain gauges :
1. Unbonded metal strain gauges.
2. Bonded metal wire strain gauges.
3. Bonded metal foil strain gauges.
4. Vacuum deposited thin metal film strain gauges.
5. Sputter deposited thin film metal strain gauges.

Procedure :
2. Observe reading of the display. It should be 000.
6. If the display reading is not 000 then adjust offset null.

7. Take reading of strain directly from display board .


8.
Observation Table:
S.no Weight in gm Strain

Result:


EXPERIMENT NO : 03
AIM :-To measure the value of unknown inductance with the help of Maxwell's
inductance bridge

Analog board
Dc power supply
function generator
2mm patch cord
Digital multimeter

Circuit
Diagram:

Theory :

This is the simplest method of comparing two inductance and to determine the values
off unknown inductance.Its first arm consist of a non inductive resistance R
1
second
arm consist of a standard in in series with the noninductive resistance R3 is used
for resistance balance control third arm consist of an unknown inductors with
internal resistance R
x
The balance can be obtained by varying resistance R
2
of third
arm


L1 = inductor with unknown inductance
R
x
= internal resistance
L
3
= standard inductor
R
1,
R
3
= non inductive resistance
At balance
Z
1
Z
x
=Z
2
Z3
the value of L
x
can be calculated by the formula
L
x
=L3R2/R1
Where Lis the value of unknown inductor and R is internal resistaance

PROCEDURE :-

(b)Connect external power supply
(c)Connect function generator probe in between Vin terminals
(d)Make connection as shown in figure
(e)Set 5Vpp,1 Khz input sinusoidal signal of function generator
(f)Rotate the potentiometer R2 to find null or minimum sound is generated
(g)Switch off the power supply and function generator
(h)Take the reading of potentiometer resistance R2 between test points TP2 and
TP3
(i)calculate the value of inductance Lxi and Rxi by there formula
(j)Take the reading of unknown internal resistance Rx1 at socket a and test
point Tp2
(k)Repeat the above steps for different values of Lx and Rx

OBSERVATION TABLE :
S NO RI R2 L3 L
X
=L
3
R
2
/R
1
R
x
=R
2
R
3
/R
1
1
2
3

CALCULATION :

Measured value of R
2
is .............ohm

Now measure the value of Lx by the formula

L
X
=L
3
R
2
/R
1

Measured value of resistance Rx by the multimeter between socket .........ohm

Now measure the values of Rx by the formula

R
x
=R
2
R
3
/R
1

Result :
The Inductance for Lx is measured to be =.............micro henry
The internal Resistance is =.................ohm

EXPERIMENT NO :04
Aim:- To measure the value of unknown capacitance with the help of schering
bridge
Apparatus Required :-
Analog board
DC power supply
Function generator
2mm patch cord
Digital multimeter

Theory :-
This bridge is the simplest method of comparing Two capacitance and to determine
unknown capacitance In first arm Z
x
consist of an unknown capacitor c
x
in series
with the resistance R
x
and second arm consist of capacitor c
3
and third arm consist
of variable resistance R
2
and forth arm consist of a parallel combinaation of
resistance R
1
and capacitor c
1
The balance can be obtained by varying the resistance
R
2
of third arm
At balance
Z
1
Z
x
=Z
2
Z
3
The value of R
x
can be calculated by formula
R
X
=R
2
C
1
/C
3
The value of C
x
C
x
=R
1
C
3
/R
2
Procedure :
W] Connect external powerr supply
W connect functioon generator probe in between vin termminals
W_ Make connectioon as shown in figure
W Set 5Vpp,1 Khz input sinusoidal signal of function generatorr
W) Rotate the potentiometer R2 to find null or minimum sound is

generated
W Switch off the power supply and function generatorr
Wg Take the readingg of potentiometer resistance R2 between test
points TP2 and TP3
W calculate the value of capacitance Cxi and Rxi by there formula
WO Take the reading of unknown internal resistance Rx1 at socket a
and test point Tp2
W Repeat the above steps for different values of Cx and Rx
Observaation table :-
S no R
1
C
1
C R R
X
=R
2
C
1
/C
3
C
X
= R
1
C
3
/R
2
1
2
3

Measured value of R
2
is ...............ohm /k ohm
Now measure the value of C
x
by the formula
C
X
= R
1
C
3
/R
2
Now measure the value of R
x
by the formula
R
X
=R
2
C
1
/C
3
Result :-
The capacitance of capacitor C
X
= ...........micro farad
The effective resistance R
x
= ...................ohm /K ohm

EXPERIMENT NO : 05

AIM:-To study the characteristics of photo voltaic cell

APPARATUS REQUIRED:-Experiment kit,connecting probes,digital multimeter.

Circuit Diagram:

THEORY :-

The photo voltaic cell is a two layer device,It generate a voltage by electron/hole
pair production when the junction is exposed to light.these diffuse across the

junction to set up voltage. A current will flow if a resistance is placed across the
terminal optimized for energy production are often called solar cells This is an
important class of photo detectors. They generate a voltage proportional to EM
radiation intensity. They are called photo voltaic cells because of their voltage
generating characteristic when light falls on them. They in fact convert the EM
energy into electrical energy. They are active transducers ie they do not need an
external source to power them instead they generating voltage .
The cell is a diode constructing a pn junction between appropriately doped
semiconductors Photons striking cell pass through the thin p doped under layer
and are absorbed by electrons in lower layer causing a difference of potential to
develop across the junction. All photo voltaic cell have low but finite internal
resistance .When connected in circuit having some load resistance
photo voltaic the cell voltage is reduced some what from rated value .
The photo voltaic cell can operate satisfactorily in temperature range of 100 to
125 c The temp. changes have little effect on short circuited current but affect the
open circuited voltage considerably .The main advantage of the photo voltaic cell
as name implies are its stability to generate a voltage without any form of bias
and its extremely fast responses ,This means that it can be used as an energy
converter directlY

CHARACTERISTIC:-


PROCEDURE:-
Connect the circuit as shown in figure
The socket C of wire wound pot to +12 v
The socket A of Wire wound pot to 0v
The socket B of wire wound pot to input of powerr amplifier
The out put of power amplifier to input of Lamp filament
The other input of filament lamp to +ve input of Moving coil meterr '
The -ve input of moving coil meter to 0 v
Output of photo voltaic cell to 0v through a digital multimeter connected as
an ammeter at 2 mA range to measure short circuit current of photo voltaic
cell
switch ON the power supply & set the 10 K ohm wire wound pot to minimum zero
output voltage from power amplifier
Place the opaque box over the plastic enclosure to exclude all the ambient
light Take reading of photo voltaic cell short circuit output current as
indicated on digital multimeter as lamp voltage is increased in 1 v steps
record the result in below table

OBSERVATION TABLE:-
Lamp filament
voltage

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Short circuit
output current
(Micro A)

Open circuit
output voltage

Procedure:
3) Switch off the power supply &set the digital multimeter as voltmeter

at 2/20 v dc range to read the open circuit output voltage

4) Switch on thee power supply and take the reading adding result to above table

5) switch off the power supply

6) Plot the graphs off photo voltaic cell short circuit current & open circuit
voltage against lamp filament voltage

RESULT :-characteristic of photo voltaic cell is plotted.

EXPERIMENT NO :06

AIM:-To study and observe the characteristic of PIN Photo diode .

Apparatus required :- Experiment kit,connecting probes

DIAGRAM:-

Theory :-

PIN photodiode differs from a standard PN photodiode by having layer of intrinsic
silicon.The intrinsic (I) region between normal P&N junction.The main improvement
of introuduction of I region is reducing capacitance of junction resulting
improvement of introuduction of I region is reducing capacitance of junction
resulting in fast response time .
When photodiode is reverse biased The reverse saturation current is depend
upon the intensity of incident light The photodiode Vs light relation ship is
linear over wide range in order to maintaine linearity the bias volatage
should be kept constant The output resistance of photodiode is very high of
the order of tens of mega ohms the DC resistance is the diode leakage
resistance and that too is very high This DC resistance depends upon the light
intensity.

CHARACTERISTIC:-


PROCEDURE:-

5. Connect the circuit as shown in the figure
socket c of wire wound pot to +12 v
socket A of wire wound pot to input of power amplifier
socket B of wire wound pot to input of power amplifier
Output of power amplifier to input of filament lamp
Other input of filament lamp to + ve input of moving coil meter
Connect -ve input of moving coil meter to 0v
Output of PIN photot diode to input of current amplifier this is used
to measure the current output of PIN photodiode
Output of current amplifier to input of DC amplifier

connect a digital multimeter as voltmeter on 20v dc range betwen output of DC
amplifier and 0v to measure the output voltage of DC amplifier

Place opaque box over the plastic enclosure to enclosure to exclude all ambient
light
Switch on the power supply and set the 10 k ohm wire wound pot.To minimum input at
DC amplifier

Take reading of Amplifier output voltage on digital multimeter as lamp voltage is
increased in 1v steps record the result in below table

Lamp filament
voltagee (v)

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
PIN Photodiode DC
amplifier output
voltage (v)


PIN Photodiode
Buffer output
voltage (V)

Switch off the power supply

Change the current Amplifier to Buffer to measure output of PIN photo diode Take the
reading of PIN Photodiode output voltage as the lamp voltage is increased in 1v
steps record the result in table 4 remember to adjust the offset of DC amplifier is
giving zero output for zero input

Plot the graph between PIN photodiode current amplifier output voltage,buffer
amplifier output voltage &Lamp filament voltage.It should resemble the one given
below

Result :

chaaracterisic of PIN photodiode is studied


EXPERIMENT NO :07

Aim :-
To study the characteristic of platinum RTD

Apparatus required :- Experiment kit connecting probes digital multimeter

Theory:-
The variation in resistance of metal with variation in temperature is the basis of
of temprature measuremet in platinum rtd The metal generally used is platinum or
tungsten Platinum is especially suited for this purpose.as it can show limited
susceptibility to contaminaation all metal produce a positive change in resistance
with temprature This of course is the main function of an RTD.This implies that a
metal with high value off resistance should be used for RTD the requirment of the
conductor material to be used in RTD .The change in resistance of material per
unit change in temperature should be as large as possible .The material should
have high value of resistance so that minimum volume of material is used for the
construction of RTD .The resistance of material should have continoous and stable
relation ship with temperatu.Platinum or tungsten wire is wound on a former to give
a resistance in range of 10 K ohm depending upon application

Procedure :-
connect the circuit as shown in figure
The socket 'c'of slide potentiometer to +5v
The socket 'b' of slide potentiometer to output of platinum RTD connect digital
multimeter as
voltameter on 200 mv orr 2v DC range in between output of platinum RTD &ground
Set the 10 K slider resistance midway
Switch on the instrument check the output of IC temperature sensor for ambient
temperature by temperorily connecting DMM in 20 v DC range and find out the
resissstance in ohm for this particular temperaturee
Say for example ambient is 25
0
c then platinum RTD reading as per chart is 109.73
switch on the power supply adjust the slider control of the 10 K ohm resistance to
the voltage drop across the platinum RTD is 109mv as indicatied by DMM This

calliberate the platinum RTD for an ambient temperature of 25
0
c since the
resistance at 25
0
c will be 109 ohms Note that the voltage reading across the RTD in
mV is the same as the RTD resistance jin ohms,since current flowing must be
0.109/109=1 mA
Connect the +12V supply to Heater element input and note the values of the voltage
across the RTD with the voltmeter to its 200mV or 2 Vrange (this representing the
RTD resistance ) and the output voltage from the IC temperature sensor with the
voltmeter set to its 20 v range (this representing the temperature of the RTD )
after each minute given in below table
Time (minutes)

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
RTD
Temperaaature

RTD resistance (OHM
)

Switch of the power supply and disconnect heater element supply (+12)

Convert RTD temperature into
0
c & add in above table
Plot the graph of RTD resistance in ohm against temperature in
0
c .It should
resemble the one given below
Temperature Vs resistance Table
0 100.00 30 111.67
1 100.39 31 112.06
2 100.78 32 112.44
3 101.17 33 112.83
4 101.56 34 113.22
5 101.95 35 113.61
6 102.34 36 114.99
7 102.73 37 114..77
8 103.12 38 115.15
9 103.51 39 115.15
10 103.90 40 115.54
11 104.29 41 115.93
12 104.68 42 116.31
13 105.07 43 116.70
14 105.46 44 117.08
15 105.85 45 117.47

16 106.23 46 117.86
17 106.62 47 118.24
18 107.01 48 118.63
19 107.40 49 119.01
20 107.79 50 119.40
21 108.18 51 119.78
22 108.57 52 120.17
23 108.57 53 120.55
24 109.34 54 120.94
25 109.73 55 121.32
26 110.12 56 121.70
27 110.51 57 122.09
28 110.89 58 122.47
29 111.28 59 122.86
60 123.24

EXPERIMENT NO : 08

Aim :-To study the operation of analog to digital converter

Apparatus required :-Experiment kit,connecting probes,oscilloscope

Theory :-
The analog to digital conversion is a logical process that requires conceptually
two steps the quantizing and the coding. Quantization is the process that performs
the transformation of continuous signal in a set of discrete level soon afterward
we combine through the coding each discrete levels with a digital word.The digital
to analog converter performs the conversion in n steps where n is the converter
settlement in bits .The working principle of this converter is analogous to that of
weighing an object on laboratory balance using standard weights as reference
according to the binary sequence ,1/8,1/16............1/n Kilograms to perform
accurately we start with largest weight and go on decreasing order to one of
smallest value.

PROCEDURE :-
Connect the power supply to the trainer

Make the connection as shown in the figure

Connect the dc supply to the V
i
of the converter

Keep the DC pot in counter clock wise position

Place the reset/count switch in reset position

Switch ON the power supply Keep the DC pot at mid position
To start conversion place the switch in count position the LED lit
accroadding to binary sequence
When the signal from the digital to analog converter goes over the input
signal the counter stops and LEDs show the binary conversion

Vary the DC pot and observe thee corresponding digital output. The converter
will follow the changes in analog signal without resetting the converter in
upward direction because the counter is configured as up counter only but to
observe the converted output when the input is decreased you have to reset
the converter

Observe on the oscilloscope the typical steps signal at the D/A output

Observe input voltage using digital multimeter and observe output LED

Repeat the test with the different values of input signal.

Result :- Analog to digital conversion is studied .

EXPERIMENT NO : 09

AIM :-

To study and observe the functional verification of a weighted resistor
digital to analog converter

APPARATUS REQUIRED:-Experiment kit, Connecting probes , Digital multimeter

THEORY:-
The simplest digital to analog converter is obtained by means of a summing
circuit with input resistance whose value depends on the bit weight that are
associated to. We obtain in this way the weighted resistors converter The switches
s3-s0 are driven from the digital information so that every resistance is connected

to reference voltage v ref or to ground in accordance with the fact that the
corresponding bit is at logical level 1 or 0

PROCEDURE:-

Connect the power supply to the board

Connect the D
0
-D
3
of the logic switches to the corresponding jacks B
0
-B
3
of
the converter
set the switches S
0
-S
3
to logic level 0

Connect the v Ref socket to +5v connect a multimeter as voltmeter for DC to
the output v0of the converters

Switch the logic switches in binary progression &measure &recorded the output
voltage in corresponding of every combination of the input code

With input code s3 s2 s1 s0=0000 the output voltage v0 has to be null
eventually little deviation against zero are due to operational amplifier
offset

Result :-
Digital to analog converter is studied and output is verified

EXPERIMENT NO : 10

Aim :-
To study of weign bridge oscillator and effect on output frequency with variation
in RC combination

Apparatus required :-
Experiment kit
Connecting probes
DC power supply
2 mm patch cord

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:-

Theory :-
The Weign Bridge is one of the simplest and best known oscillators and is used
extensively in circuits for audio applications Figure I shows the basic Wien bridge
circuit configuration On the positive side This circuit has only a few components
and good frequency stability Because of this simplicity and stability it is most
commonly used audio frequency oscillator The bridge has series RC network in one
arm and parallel RC network in the adjoining arm In the remaining two arms of the
bridge resistor R1 and Rf are connected .
The phase angle criterion for oscilaation is that the total phase shift around the
circuit must be zero
This condition occures only when the bridge is balanced that is at resonance.The
frequency of oscillation F
o
is exactly the resonant frequency of the balanced Wien
bridge and is given by

F
0
=0.159/RC


Procedure :-
1. Connect +12 v,-12 v DC power supply at their indicated position from
external source
2. Connect a 2mm patch cord between test point 1 and H
3. Switch on the power supply
4. Vary R
f
pot to make gain (R
f
/R
1
)greater than 2
5. Record the value of output frequency at test point G
6. Compare measured frequency with theoritically calculated value
7. Vary the gain pot of 470K to adjust the gain of the amplifier in case of
clipped wave form
8. Switch off the power supply
9. Connect a 2mm patch cord between test point A and B ,D and E
10. Repeat the above steps from step 3 to 8
11. Switch off the power suppy
12. Connect a 2 mm patch cord between test point B and C ,E and F

Result :-weign bridge oscillator is studied and wave form is observed



BHOPAL
INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTMENT
OF
ELECTRICAL
& ELECTRONICS ENGG.
ELECTRONIC DEVICES & CIRCUITS-I
(EX- 304)


LIST OF EXPERIMENTS

TO PLOT V I CHARACTERISTIC OF PN JUNCTION DIODE
TO PLOT V I CHARACTERISTIC OF LED DIODE
TO PLOTT VI CHARACTERISTIC OF ZENER DIODE
TO PLOT VI CHARACTERISTIC OF SCR
TO STUDY AND PLOT VI CHARACTERISTIC OF UJT
TO STUDY AND PLOT VI CHARACTERISTIC OF FET
TO STUDY OF OP AMP AS INVERTING AMPLIFIER
TO STUDY OF OP AMP AS NON INVERTING AMPLIFIER
TO OBSERVE OUTPUT WAVEFORM OF COLPITT OSCILLATOR
TO OBSERVE OUTPUT WAVEFORM OF WEIGN BRIDGE OSCILLATOR


EXPERIMENT NO: 1

AIM : To plot VI charateristic of pn junction diode
APPARATUS REQUIRED Experiment kit, Connecting probes,Multimeter
PRINCIPLE :
PN junction diode is a semiconducter device that act as switch when bias voltage is
applied to it .it turn on when forward bias condition .It act as closed switch in forward bias
condition. In reverse bias condition it act as open switch .
When positive terminal of battery is connected to P terminal of diode and negative
terminal of battery is connected to N terminal of diode then it act as forward bias PN junction diode.
PROCEDURE :
1 First we will make connection as shown in figure .
2 Then we will switch on the power supply
3 And measure input voltage using multi meter
4 Then measure output current using multimeter
5 Now plot graph using voltage along x axis and current along y axis

OBSERVATION TABLE :

V (Volt) I (mA)

RESULT :
Hence VI charateristic of PN junction diode has been plotted .


EXPERIMENT NO: 2

AIM: To plot VI charateristic of LED diode .
APPARATUS REQUIRED :
Experiment kit, Connecting probes,Multimeter
PRINCIPLE :
LED diode is a semiconducter device that act as switch when bias voltage is applied to it .it
turn on when forward bias condition .It act as closed switch in forward bias condition. In reverse
bias condition it act as open switch
When positive terminal of battery is connected to P terminal of diode and negative
terminal of battery is connected to N terminal of diode then it act as forward bias PN junction
diode.It emit light at forward bias condition

OBSERVATION TABLE :
V (Volt) I (mA)

PROCEDURE
First make connection as shown in figure
Then switch on the power supply
And measure input voltage using multi meter
Then measure output current using multimeter
Now plot graph using voltage along x axis and current along y axis

RESULT
Hence VI charateristic of LED diode has been plotted .


EXPERIMENT NO: 3

AIM: To plot VI charateristic of zener diode
Experiment kit, Connecting probes,Multimeter .
PRINCIPLE :
Zener diode is a semiconducter device which turn on under reverse bias condition. In
forward bias it act as normal pn junction diode.In reverse bias condition it turn on at particular
voltage known as reverse breakdown voltage
PROCEDURE
First make connection as shown in figure
Then switch on the power supply
And measure input voltage using multi meter
Then measure output current using multimeter
Now plot graph using voltage along x axis and current along y axis

OBSERVATION TABLE :
V (Volt) I (mA)

RESULT :
VI charateristic of zener diode is plotted .


EXPERIMENT NO:4

AIM:To plot vi charateristic of scr
Experiment kit, connecting probes multimeter
PRINCIPLE :
A Silicon Controlled Rectifier (or Semiconductor Controlled Rectifier) is a four layer
solid state device that controls current flow.The name silicon controlled rectifier is a trade name for
the type of thyristor commercialized at General Electric in 1957.An SCR can be seen as a
conventional rectifier controlled by a gate signal It is a 4-layered 3-terminal device.When the gate
to cathode voltage exceeds a certain threshold, the device turns 'on' and conducts current.The operation
of a SCR can be understood in terms of a pair of tightly coupled Bipolar Junction Transistors
SCR has three states:
1 Reverse blocking mode,
2 forward blocking mode,
3 forward conducting mode

PROCEDURE :
Make connection as shown in figure .
1 First switch on the power supply
2 Then measure input voltage
3 And measure output current
4 Now plot VI charateristic of SCR

RESULT :
VI CHARATERISTIC OF SCR IS PLOTTED


EXPERIMENT NO:5

AIM: To study and plot vi characteristic of UJT
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
Power electronics board PE 01., dc power supplies (+ 15 v),digital multi-meter.2mm patch cord .

THEORY:
The uni-junction transistor (UJT) is a three terminal device Emitter (E), base l
(BI) andbase2 (B2). Between base l & base2 it behaves like an ordinary resistance. Rb1 & Rb2are
internal resistance respectively from base 1 & base2.
UJT characteristics are very different from the conventional 2 junction, bipolar transistor. It is a
pulse generator with the trigger or control signal applied at the emitter. This trigger voltage is a
fraction (n) of interbase voltage, Vbb
It operates in three different regions :
1. Cut-off region
Let voltage Ve be applied between E and B 1 where E is positive with respect to B1. Now
increase this voltage from zero up to (Ve < VBB) E to B1 unijunction is reversed bias & emitter
current is negative as shown by the curve in figure 2.So up to this when Ve =VBB + VD at point R in
figure 1 it operates in cut off region, corresponding voltage & current at this point are Vp (peak
voltage) & Ip(Peak current).

2. -VE resistance region
At point R in figure 1 when Ve= VBB + VD emitter starts to inject holes into lower base
region B1. This is because of increased number of carrier in base region. So, resistance Rb1 of E-B1
junction decreases.

PROCEDURE
Connect + 15V DC power supply at their indicated position from external
Source.
1. To plot the emitter characteristics proceed as follows:
2. Rotate both the potentiometer P1 and P2 fully in counter clockwise direction.
Connect one voltmeter between test point 6 and ground to read VBB and other between test
point 1
4. Connect ammeter between point 2 and 3 to measure the emitter current
5. Vary potentiometer P2 and set a value of voltage VBB = 5 V.
6. Increase the emitter voltage Ve in steps.
7. Keep increasing Ve until it drops on voltmeter, UJT fires and emitter current flows rapidly.
8. Record the corresponding Emitter current for each value of Emitter voltage
9.. Repeat the above procedure from step 8 for VBB = 10 V and 15 V.

RESULT
UJT characteristic is plotted .

EXPERIMENT NO:6

AIM: To study of field effect transistor
THEORY :
Field effect devices are those in which current is controlled by the action of an electron field,
rather than carrier injection.Field-effect transistors are so named because a weak electrical signal
coming in through one electrode creates an electrical field through the rest of the transistor. The FET
was known as a unipolar transistor.The term refers to the fact that current is transported by
carriers of one polarity (majority), whereas in the conventional bipolar transistor carriers of
both polarities (majority and minority) are involved.
The family of FET devices may be divided into :
Junction FET
Depletion Mode MOSFET
Enhancement Mode MOSFET

Symbol of JFET
PROCEDURE
Connect + 15V DC power supply at their indicated position from external
Source.
1. To plot the emitter characteristics proceed as follows:
2. Rotate both the potentiometer P1 and P2 fully in counter clockwise direction.
3. Connect one voltmeter between test point 6 and ground to read VBB and other between
test point 1 and ground to read Ve.
4. Connect ammeter between point 2 and 3 to measure the emitter current
6. Vary potentiometer P2 and set a value of voltage VBB = 5 V.
7. Increase the emitter voltage Ve in steps.
8. Keep increasing Ve until it drops on voltmeter, FET fires and emitter current flows rapidly.
9. Record the corresponding Emitter current for each value of Emitter voltage Ve in an
observation table 1.
10. Repeat the above procedure from step 8 for VBB = 10 V and 15 V.
11. Plot the graph of Ve versus Ie with the help of observation table 1.used to plot different
characteristics of unijunction transistor is show

RESULT :
FET characteristic is plotted.
EXPERIMENT NO : 7

AIM: To study and observe output waveform of op amp in inverting

Analog board (ab ,42),dc power supply(+12 v,-12 v),ST2612,2mm patch cord ,
digital multi meter ,
THEORY :
Operational amplifier can be used as inverting amplifier .in this circuit r
1
i connected between
inverting input terminal of op amp. r
2
is connected between inverting input and output terminal of
opamp non inverting terminal is connected to ground it will produce phase shift of 180
0
from input
to output .

PROCEDURE :

1 Set the value of R
F
= 10 K (between E and F )
2 Set the value of R
OM
=5K (Between H and V
in2
)
3 Connect patch cord between F&G , V
in2
& gnd
4 From Function generator 1 v 1 Khz signal is applied to V
IN1

5 Measure the value of V
IN
&V
OUT

V
OUT
=( R
F
/R
1
)V
IN

OBSERVATION TABLE
Sno V
IN
R
F
R
F
/R
1
V
OUT
(calculated ) V
OUT
(measured ) Phase shift
1 1 10K 1 1 1 180
o
2 1 20K 2 2 1.8V 180
o
3 1 30K 3 3 2.8V 180
o
4 1 40K 4 4 3.5V 180
o
5 1 50K 5 5 4.7V 180
o
6 1 60K 6 6 5.4V 180
o

RESULT :
OP AMP as Inverting amplifier is studied

EXPERIMENT NO:8

AIM: Study of OP AMP as non inverting amplifier

digital multi meter , ,
THEORY :
Signal is applied to non inverting input terminal r i is connected to ground. r f is connected
between r1 and output output is measured across ouput terminal and ground output volatge
can be calculated by using equation
V
OUT
= (1+R
F
/R
1
) V
IN 1

PROCEDURE :

Set the value of R
F
Set the value of R
OM
in2
)
Connect patch cord between F&G , V
in1
& gnd
From Function generator 1 v 1 Khz signal is applied to H (non inverting input of op amp )
Measure the value of V
IN
&V
OUT

Calculate tthe value of V
OUT
using the equation
V
OUT
=( R
F
/R
1
)V
IN
Vary the value of R
F
and measure the value of V
OUT

OBSERVATION TABLE
Sno V
IN
R
F
1+R
F
/R
1
V
OUT
(calculated ) V
OUT
(measured ) Phase shift
1 1 10K 2 2 2 0
0
2 1 20K 3 3 2.5 0
0
3 1 30K 4 4 3.5 0
0
4 1 40K 5 5 4.2 0
0
5 1 50K 6 6 5.2 0
0
6 1 60K 7 7 6.2 0
0

RESULT :
Op amp as non inverting amplifier is studied.

EXPERIMENT NO: 9
AIM: To study and observe the output waveform of colpitt oscillator

APPARATUS REQUIRED
Colpitt oscillator trainer kit,connecting probes Power supply,Multimeter ,CRO

THEORY :
Oscillator circuit is the circuit that produces periodic waveform there is two classes of

oscillators they are Relaxation Oscillator and sinusoidal oscillator the relaxation Oscillator is the
circuit that produces saw tooth wave form on output and in the case of sinusoidal oscilator that consist
of an amplifier and external component to generate oscillation
The two condition for oscillation that
A
v
.B >1
The total phase shift =0
0
or 360
0

Colpit oscillator is the simplest and best known oscillator used in circuit which work at
Radio frequencies transistor circuit act as voltage divider bias which set up q point output voltage
across c
2
(v
out
) feed back to base of transistor
Resonant frequency = 1/2(LC)
1/2

Where C= C
1
C
2
/C
1
+C
2

starting condition for oscillation is AB>1
PROCEDURE
connect +12 power supply at their indicated position from external source or ST 2612 Analog
lab
Connect a Patch cord between points A &B and another Patch cord between points D&G really
Switch on the Supply
Connect oscilloscope between points F and G on AB 67 board
Record the value of Output frequency on Oscilloscope
Calculate resonant frequency using equation 1
Compare measured frequency with theoritically calculated value
Switch off the supply
Remove Patch cord connected between point a and b and connect it between point a and c
Remove the patch cord connected between points d and g1 and connect it between points e and g2
follow procedure from 4 to 8
Observe the waveform on CRO
OBSERVATION TABLE

RESULT :

output waveform is observed .

Resonant frequency is compared with measured frequency

EXPERIMENT NO: 10

AIM :

To study and observe output waveform of weign bridge oscillator

S NO
L C1 C2 C RESONANT FQY

MEASURED CALCULATED


Experiment kit ,Connecting probes, CRO

PRINCIPLE :

The weign bridge oscillator isone of the simplest and best known oscilator and is used
extensively in circuit foe audio application.this circuit have only few components and good
frequency stability.it is connected between amplifier input terminal and output terminal
the bridge has series rc network in adjoining arm in the remaining two arms or bridge resistor
r1 and rf are connected the frequency of oscillation fo is exactly the resonant frequency of balanced
weign bridge and given by
f0= 1/2 pirc

PROCEDURE :
1 Make connection as shown in figure
2 Switch on the power suply
3 Observe output frequency on cro
4 Measure output frequency
5 Compare it with calculated frequency

RESULT :
The weign bridge oscillator is studied and waveform is observed .

BHOPAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, BHOPAL(M.P
LAB MANUAL

Version no EX/3.5
Subject NETWOTK ANALYSIS
Subject code EX/305

Scheme NEW
Class/Branch III SEMESTER/EX
Author MR. Aman singh kushwaha
Institution BHOPAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS
NETWORK ANALYSIS LAB
Index
Exp. no Experiment Title
1
To verify Kirchhoffs current law & Kirchhoffs voltage law
2
To verify Maximum Power Transfer theorem
3
To verify Nortons theorem.
4
To verify Thevenins theorem.
5
To verify Superposition theorem.
6
To verify Millmans theorem
7
To verify Reciprocity Theorem.
8
To measure the Z parameter for SINGLE and CASCADED TWO PORT
NETWORK.
9
To measure the Y parameter for SINGLE and CASCADED TWO PORT
NETWORK.

10
To verify ABCD Parameter for SINGLE and CASCADED TWO PORT
NETWORK.

EXPERIMENT NO. 01
AIM: To verify Kirchhoffs current law & Kirchhoffs voltage law.
THEORY: In simple circuit, the current and voltages are calculated with the help of ohms law.
But in actual practice, where we have complex circuit with several resistors, voltage sources and
current sources, it becomes difficult to calculate the current and voltage.
In these situations KVL & KCL are used.
KIRCHHOFFS CURRENT LAW:
This law states, The algebraic sum of various current meeting at a
node in a closed electrical circuit is zero.
Current flowing towards the node is taken as
negative.
KIRCHHOFFS VOLTAGE LAW:
This law states, In a closed loop, the algebraic sum
of e.m.f.s is equal to the product of the resistances and
respective current flowing through them.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Fig. (1)

Fig. (2)

Fig. (3)

PROCEDURE:
CASE 1: For the calculation of current I
1
:
WE Connect the circuit as shown in fig. (1)
WO Connect the current meter (mA) across B & C points.
WO Point C & D will remain open.
W Apply KVL to closed mesh ABCA.
5I
1
+ 10I
1
= 2.5
15I
1
= 2.5
I
1
= 166.66 mA (Calculated value)
W Measure current I
1
from current meter (measured value).
W4 Compare the calculated and measured value.
CASE 2: For the calculation of current I
2
:
Connect the circuit as shown in fig. (2).
Connect the current meter (mA) across C & D points.
Point C & B will remain open.
Apply KVL to closed mesh ADCA.
22 I
2
+33 I
2
= 2.5
55 I
2
= 2.5
I
2
= 45.45 mA (Calculated value)
Measure current I
2
from current meter (measured value).
Compare the calculated and measured value.
CASE 3: For the calculation of total current I:
Connect the circuit as shown in fig. (3).

Connect B, C & D points.
Connect the current meter (mA) between the negative terminal of the battery and
point C.
Total Current I = I
1
+ I
2
I = 212.11 mA (Calculated value)
Measure current I from current meter (measured value).
Compare the calculated and measured value.
OBSERVATION TABLE:
S. No. Input Voltage
Current Through Total Current
(i)
Verification of
Voltages
ABCA ADCA
01.
02.
03.
04.

CALCULATIONS:

RESULT:

PRECAUTIONS:
(l) The positive & negative terminals of the power supply should not be connected
together.
(m)Supply for the experimental kit should be switched ON only after the connections are
verified.
(n) Avoid parallax error.
(o) Check the polarities of the meter before the observations are noted down.
EXPERIMENT NO. 02
AIM: To verify Maximum Power Transfer theorem.

THEORY: When the load is connected across a voltage source, power is transferred from source
to load. The amount of power transferred depends on the load resistance.
This theorem states, Maximum power is transferred from source to load when the load
resistance is made equal to the internal resistance of the source.
This theorem is applicable to A.C. as well as D.C. power.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

PROCEDURE:
(p) Connect 12V regulated power supply in the circuit.
(q) Connect R
i
and R
L
in the circuit. Also connect current meter and voltmeter in the
circuit.
(r) Now increase the value of load resistance R
L
(potentiometer) in steps and note down
the corresponding voltage and current. Calculate the power:
P = V I
(s) At a particular point when the load resistance is made equal to the internal resistance
of the source i.e., R
i
, maximum power is transferred from source to load.
(t) Plot the graph between power and load resistance.
OBSERVATION TABLE:
S.NO. R
i
= 100 R
i
=.

I (mA) V (Volts) P (watts) I (mA) V (Volts) P (watts)

GRAPH:

RESULT:

PRECAUTIONS:
The positive & negative terminals of the power supply should not be connected
together.
Supply for the experimental kit should be switched ON only after the connections are
verified.
Check the polarities of the meter before the observations are noted down

EXPERIMENT NO. 03
AIM: To verify Nortons theorem.
THEORY: This theorem states, Any linear, bilateral network containing a number of e.m.f.
sources and resistances can be replaced by an equivalent circuit having a current source I
N
in
parallel with a resistance R
N
.
Where, I
N
is the short circuit current flowing through the output terminals and R
N
is the
resistance measured across the output terminals with all other sources replaced by their internal
resistances, if any.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:


PROCEDURE:
(u) Open the load and measure the voltage across X and Y (fig. 2).
(v) Open circuit voltage V
OC
across R
4
= .V.
(w) Now short circuit the voltage source with R
L
open (fig 3).
(x) Now disconnect the voltage source and short A and B points as shown in fig 3.
(y) Now the measure the resistance at X and Y i.e. R
N
.
Short Circuit Current:
I
N
= =.mA.
Now the circuit may be replaced as:
I
N
=.mA.
R
N
=..
For R
L
= 25
=.mA.
For R
L
= 50
=.mA.
For R
L
= 75
=.mA.

(z) Measure the current through R
L
.
(aa) Compare calculated and measured values.
OBSERVATION TABLE:
S. No.
R
L
= 25 R
L
= 50 R
L
= 100
I
L
(mA) I
L
(mA) I
L
(mA)

CACULATIONS:

RESULT:

PRECAUTIONS:
together.
verified.

EXPERIMENT NO. 04
AIM: To verify Thevenins theorem.

THEORY: Sometimes it is necessary to find a particular branch current in a circuit as the
resistance of that branch is varied while all other resistances, voltage sources and the current
sources remain the same.
This theorem states that, Any two terminal network containing a number of e.m.f. sources
and resistances can be replaced by an equivalent series circuit having a voltage source V
TH
in series
with a resistance R
TH
.
Where, V
TH
= Open circuit voltage between two terminals.
R
TH
= The resistance between two terminals of the circuit obtained by looking in at the
terminals with removed and voltage sources replaced by their internal resistances, if any.
I
L
=
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Fig. 01


Fig. 02

Fig. 03

Fig. 04
PROCEDURE:
(bb) Connect the circuit as shown in fig 1. Measure the values of load current at
different load resistance. It is I
L1
, I
L2
& I
L3
.
(cc) Connect the circuit as shown in fig. 2. Disconnect the load resistor (R
L
) from
output terminals and measure the open circuit voltage (V
TH
) by connecting analog
voltmeter. Open circuit voltage will appear across 100 resistor:
V =
(dd) For measurement of Thevenins resistance across open circuit terminals X-Y,
disconnect the 12V voltage source and short the voltage source open circuit terminals
A-B as shown in fig. 3. Connect the digital multimeter across terminal X-Y. Find the
value of R
TH
.

Now measure the resistance across X and Y.
R
TH
=
(ee) Now, above circuit between X & Y can be replaced by Thevenins equivalent
circuit as shown in fig 4.
V
TH
= 1.8 V
R
TH
= 173.4
For R
L
= 25
I
L1
= = .mA
For R
L
= 50
I
L1
= = .mA
For R
L
= 75
I
L1
= = .mA
(ff) Compare the calculated and measured values.

OBSERVATION TABLE:
S. No. Measured Value Calculated Value
R
L
= 25
R
L
= 50
R
L
= 75
R
TH

V
TH

RESULT:

PRECAUTIONS:
together.
verified.


EXPERIMENT NO. 05
AIM: To verify Superposition theorem.
THEORY: When there is only one source of e.m.f. or only one current source, then it is very easy
to calculate the current or the voltage. But in a complex circuit where there are a number of
sources acting simultaneously, then it is very difficult to calculate the current or the voltages. In
these situations superposition theorem is used.
The theorem states that, If a number of current or voltage sources are acting
simultaneously in a linear network, the resultant current in any branch is the algebraic sum of the
currents that would be produced in it, when each source acts alone replacing all other sources by
their internal resistances.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Fig. 01

Fig. 02

Fig. 03


PROCEDURE:
(gg) Connect the circuit as shown in fig 1. Measure the current i
1
, i
2
and i
3
.
(hh) Connect the circuit as shown in fig. 2. Consider only one voltage source at a time,
first 12V. Short the second 5V source. Measure the current i
1
, i
2
and i
3
(One
ammeter is connected at a time, other ammeter is shorted).
(ii) Connect the circuit as shown in fig. 3. Consider only 5V voltage source. Short the
second 12V source. Measure the current i
1
, i
2
and i
3
.
(jj) Calculate the value of i
1
, i
2
, i
3
, i
1
, i
2
and i
3
.
(kk) Compare the calculated and measured values.

OBSERVATION TABLE:
Sr. No. Measured Value Calculated Value
i
1

i
2

i
3

i
1

i
2

i
3

i
1

i
2

i
3


CALCULATIONS:
Consider only one voltage source at a time, first 12V.
R
T
= 50 + = 50 + 8.33 = 58.33
I
TH
=
I
T
= i
1

i
3
=
i
2
= i
1
- i
3
=.
Therefore,
i
1
=.
i
2
=.
i
3
=.
Now, considering 5V voltage source only:
R
T
= 50 + = 50 + 8.33 = 58.33
I
TH
=
I
T
= i
3

i
3
=
i
1
= i
3
- i
2
=.
Therefore,
i
1
=.
i
2
=.
i
3
=.
According to superposition theorem,
1
= i
1
- i
1
=.
2
= i
2
i
2
=.

3
= i
3
i
3
=.

RESULT:

PRECAUTIONS:
together.
verified.

EXPERIMENT NO. 06
AIM: To verify Millmans theorem.
THEORY: This theorem states, If several voltage sources in series with admittance are connected
in parallel as shown in figure, the equivalent circuit can be shown as a combination of an
equivalent voltage source (V
eq
) in series with an impedance R
eq
.
Here, R
eq
=
Where, R = Resistance
V
eq
=
(From fig. 1)
R
eq
=
R
eq
=
R
eq
= 100


V
eq
=
V
eq
=
I
RL
(For 220 ) =
I
RL
(For 300 ) =
I
RL
(For 400 ) =

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Fig. No. 01

PROCEDURE:
(ll) Introduce the supplies (12V, 15V, 18V) in series with the resistance 300 by shorting
the dotted lines through patch chords as shown in fig. (1).
(mm) Switch ON the instrument using ON/OFF toggle switch provided on the front
panel.

(nn) Measure the V
eq
(equivalent voltage) with voltmeter as shown in fig. (1).
(oo) Now connect the current meter in series with load (RL).
(pp) Observe the different readings of current (I
R
) by introducing different load
resistances (R
L
= 220, 300 & 400 ) in the output by connecting dotted lines through
patch chord as shown in fig. (1). Compare the observed values with the calculated
values as given above. There may be a slight difference due to tolerance resistance of
resistance ( 10%).

OBSERVATION TABLE:
S. No. R
L
V I
PRACTICAL
01.
02.
03.

GRAPH:

RESULT:

PRECAUTIONS:
together.
verified.
Check the polarities of the meter before the observations are noted down

EXPERIMENT NO. 07
AIM: To verify Reciprocity Theorem.

THEORY: This theorem states, In any linear, Bilateral network connecting one or more
generators, the ratio of voltage (V) introduced in one mesh to the current (I) in any second mesh is
the same as the ratio obtained if the position of the voltage and current are interchanged, other
e.m.f. being removed.

Fig. 1(a)

Fig. 2(b)

PROCEDURE:
(qq) Connect the circuit as shown in fig 1(a).
(rr) Switch ON the instrument.

(ss) Note down the value of current I
3
.
(tt) Switch OFF the instrument and interchange the position of the voltage source and
current meter as shown in fig 1(b). Again switch ON the instrument.
(uu) Note down the value of current I
1
.
(vv) We observe that the value of current I
3
is equal to the value of current I
1
. This
proves the RECIPROCITY THEOREM.
(ww) Similarly we can prove the theorem for the combinations of resistors.

OBSERVATION TABLE:
S. No.
Circuit 1 Circuit 2
I
3
(mA) I
1
(mA) I
1
(mA) I
3
(mA)
01.
02.
03.

CALCULATIONS:

RESULT:

PRECAUTIONS:
together.
verified.

EXPERIMENT NO. 08

AIM: To measure the Z parameter for SINGLE and CASCADED TWO PORT NETWORK.
THEORY: A given two port network, with some degree of complexity, can be built up from
simple two port networks, whose ports are interconnected in certain ways. Conversely, a two
port network can be designed by combining two port structures as building blocks.
There are a number of ways in which two port networks can be interconnected. The
simplest possible interconnection is termed as Cascade or Tandem connection. Two port
networks are said to be cascaded if the output of first becomes the input of the second.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Fig. 01

Fig. 02
PROCEDURE:

(xx) Connect the circuit as shown in fig 1. It means, connect the variable voltage supply
to the input terminals of the network I.
(yy) Vary the input voltage to 10V (V
1
) and measure the open circuited output voltage
(V
2
). Note down the input current through current meter.
V
1
= Input voltage = 10V
V
2
= Output voltage
I
1
= Input current (Observed from current meter)
I
2
= 0 (because output is open circuited)
(zz) Now short the output terminals and measure input current
V
1
V
2
= 0
I
1
= Input current
I
2
= Output current
(aaa) With these values calculate Z Parameter for SINGLE TWO PORT NETWORK.
Z
11
= I
2
= 0) Z
12
= I
2
= 0)
Z
21
= I
1
= 0) Z
22
= I
1
= 0)

(bbb) Now connect the output of the first network to the input of the second network.
(ccc) Apply variable voltage to the input terminals and adjust the voltage to 10V.
(ddd) Now record.
V
1
= Input voltage
V
2
= Output voltage
I
1
= Input current
I
2
= Output current = 0

(eee) Interchange output and input terminals and measure the input voltage and
current and output voltage.
With these values calculate Z parameter for cascaded network (repeat step 4).
OBSERVATION TABLE:

CALCULATIONS:
Z
11
= I
2
= 0) Z
21
= I
2
= 0)
Z
21
= I
1
= 0) Z
22
= I
1
= 0)


RESULT:

PRECAUTIONS:
together.
verified.


EXPERIMENT NO. 09
AIM: To measure the Y parameter for SINGLE and CASCADED TWO PORT NETWORK.
THEORY: A given two port network, with some degree of complexity, can be built up from
simple two port networks, whose ports are interconnected in certain ways. Conversely, a two
port network can be designed by combining two port structures as building blocks.
simplest possible interconnection is termed as Cascade or Tandem connection. Two port
networks are said to be cascaded if the output of first becomes the input of the second.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Fig. 01

Fig. 02

PROCEDURE:
(fff) Connect the circuit as shown in fig 1. It means, connect the variable voltage supply
to the input terminals of the network I.
(ggg) Vary the input voltage to 10V (V
1
) and measure the open circuited output voltage
(V
2
). Note down the input current through current meter.
V
1
V
2
= Output voltage
I
1
= Input current (Observed from current meter)
I
2
(hhh) Now short the output terminals and measure input current I
1
.
V
1
V
2
= 0
I
1
= Input current = 0.0062 A
I
2
= Output current = 0.004 A
(iii)With these values calculate Z Parameter for SINGLE TWO PORT NETWORK.

Y
11
= V
2
= 0) Y
12
= V
2
= 0)
Y
21
= V
1
= 0) Y
22
= V
1
= 0)
(jjj) Now connect the output of the first network to the input of the second network.
(kkk) Apply variable voltage to the input terminals and adjust the voltage to 10V.
(lll)Now record.
V
1
= Input voltage
V
2
= Output voltage = 5012 V
I
1
= Input current = 0.0062 A
I
2
(mmm) Interchange output and input terminals and measure the input voltage and
current and output voltage.
With these values calculate Z parameter for cascaded network (repeat step 4).

OBSERVATION TABLE:
S. No.
R
L
= 25 R
L
= 50 R
L
= 50
I
L
(mA) I
L
(mA) I
L
(mA)

CALCULATIONS:
Z
11
= I
2
= 0) Z
21
= I
2
= 0)
Z
21
= I
1
= 0) Z
22
= I
1
= 0)


RESULT:

PRECAUTIONS:
together.
verified.


EXPERIMENT NO.10
AIM: To verify ABCD Parameter for SINGLE and CASCADED TWO PORT NETWORK.
THEORY: A given two port network, with some network of complexity, can be built up from
simple two port networks, whose ports are interconnected in certain ways. Conversely, a two-
port network can be designed by simple two port structures as building blocks.
simplest possible connection is termed as Cascade or Tandem connection. Two port networks are
said to be cascaded if the output of first becomes the input of second.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Fig. 01

Fig. 02
PROCEDURE:
(nnn) Connect the circuit as shown in figure 1. It means connect the variable voltage
supply too the input terminal of the network I.
(ooo) Vary the input voltage to 10V (V
1
) and measure open circuited output voltage (V
2
).
Note down the input current through current meter.
V
1
V
2
= Output voltage
I
1
= Input current (observed from current meter)
I
2
(ppp) Now short the output terminals and measure Input current I
1
.
V
1
= Input voltage
V
2
= 0
I
1
= Input current
I
2
= Output current
(qqq) With these values calculate ABCD Parameters for single port network.
A = (I
2
=0) B = (V
2
=0)

C = (I
2
=0) D = (V
2
=0)
(rrr) Now connect the output of the first network to the input of the second network.
(sss) Apply variable voltage to the input terminals and adjust voltage to 10V.
(ttt) Now record
V
1
= Input voltage
V
2
= Output voltage
I
1
= Input current
I
2
(uuu) Interchange output and input terminals and measure the input voltage, current
and output voltage.
(vvv) With these values calculate ABCD parameters for cascaded network (repeat step
4).
OBSERVATION TABLE:

CALCULATION (ABCD parameters):
A = (I
2
=0) B = (V
2
=0)
C = (I
2
=0) D = (V
2
=0)

RESULT:

PRECAUTIONS:
together.

verified.



LAB MANUAL

Version No. EX/3.6
Subject Java
Subject Code EX-306
Scheme New
Class/Branch III Semester
Author CS/IT Deptt
Institution

1. Write a program to show multiple statements in java.
Class statements
{
Public static void main (String args [ ])
{
System.out.println ("This is my program...");
System.out.println ("I have a copy right for it...");
}
}

Output
This is my program...
I have a copy right for it...


2. Write a program to accept a no. and check whether it is even or odd.
Cass check
{
public static void main (String args [ ])
{
int a= Integer.parseInt(args [0]);
if(a= =0)
{
System.out.println ("ZERO");
}
else if (a%2= = 0)
{
System.out.println (a+ "It is even");
}
else if (a%2= = 1)
{
System.out.println ("It is odd");
}
}}
Output
If enter a =0 then print ZERO
If enter a =2 then print even
If enter a =1 then print odd


3. Write a program to accept a character and check whether its constant or vowel. (Using switch
statements)
class paper
{
public void main(char character)
{
switch(character)
{
case 'a':
System.out.println ("It is a vowel");
break;
case 'A':
break;
case 'e':
break;
case 'E':
case 'i':
break;
case 'I':
System.out.println("It is a vowel");
break;
case 'o':

break;

case 'O':
break;
case 'u':
break;
case 'U':
break;
}
}
}

Output
If a was entered
It is a vowel
Any other character entered..
It is a consonant


4. Write a program to square root of any value.
Import java.lang.Math;
Class squareroot
{
public static void main(String args [ ] )
{
Double x = 25
double y=Math.sqrt(x);
System.out.println ("The square root is "+y);
}
}

Output
The square root is 5.0

5. Write a program to concept of multiple classes in java.
Class demo
{
public static void main(String args [ ])
{
System.out.println("**beginning execution**");
Greeter greeter = new Greeter();
System.out.println("**created Greeter**");
greeter.greet();
}
}
class Greeter
{
private static Message s_message = new Message("Hello, World!");
public void greet()
{
s_message.print(System.out);
}
}
class Message
{ private String m_text;
public Message(String text){
m_text = text;
}
public void print(java.io.PrintStream ps){

ps.println(m_text); } }
Output
**beginning execution**
**created Greeter**
Hello, World!
6. Write a program to show type casting in java.
Class casting
{
public static void main(String args [ ] )
{
float sum;
int i;
sum = 0.0f;
for (i=1; i<=10; i++)
{
Sum = sum+1 / (float)i ;
System.out.println("i="+i);
System.out.println("sum ="+sum);
}
}
}
Output
i= 1 sum =1
i= 2 sum =1.5
i= 3 sum =1.83333
i= 4 sum =2.08333
i= 5 sum =2.28333
i= 6 sum =2.45
i= 7 sum =2.59286
i=8 sum =2.71786
i= 9 sum =2.82897
i= 10 sum =2.92897

7. Write a program to show use and advantages of constructor.
Class Rectangle
{
int length, width;
Rectangle (int x, int y)
{
length = x;
width = y;
}
int rectarea( )
{
Return(length*width);
}
}
Class Rectangle area
{
Public static void main (String args [ ])
{
Rectangle rect1 = new Rectangle (15, 10); //calling

constructor
int area1 =rect.rect1.rectarea( );
System.out.println(Area1 = +area);

Output
Area1 = 150

8. Write a program to show how exception handling is in java.
Class error
{
Public static void main (String args [ ] )
{
int a =10,b=5,c=5,x,y;
try
{
x = a/(b-c); // exception
}
Catch (Arithmetic exception)
System.out.println("Division by zero");
}
y = a/(b+c);
System.out.println("y="+y);
}
}
Output
Division by zero
y = 1


9. Write a program to show method overloading in java.
Class Room
{
float length;
float bridth;
Room(float x ,float y ) // constructor 1
{
length = x;
breadth y;
}
Room(float x) // constructor 2
(Overloading of method)
{
length = breadth = x ;
}
int area ( )
{
Return (length*breadth);
}
}
Output
Room room1 =new Room (25.0, 15.0); //using constructor 1
Room room2 =new Room (20.0); //using constructor 1


10. Write a program to show Hello Java in explorer using applet.
import java.applet.*;
import java.awt.*;
class Hello Java extends Applet
{
public void paint(Graphics g)
{
setBackground(Color.GREEN);
g.setColor(Color.WHITE);
g.drawString("Hello Java", 10,100);
}
}
<html>
<applet code=" Hello Java t" width=10 height=100></applet>
</html>

Output

100
Hello Java_______



LAB MANUAL

Version No. EMEC-I (EX-401)
Subject EMEC-I (EX-401)
Subject Code EX-504
Scheme New
Class/Branch IV Semester / all
Author Pajan Gangele
Institution

E.M.E.C-I Lab.

Index

1 To perform open circuit and short circuit test on 1-phase and 3-phase
transformer and determine its equivalent circuit parameters.
2
To perform open circuit and short circuit test on 1-phase and 3-phase
transformer and determine its efficiency and regulation at.

i Full load at unity power factor.

ii Full load at zero power factor lead and lag.

iii Half the full load at 0.8 power factor lead and lag.
3 Perform Sumpners test on 2 Single phase Transformers.
4 To perform the parallel operation of two, 1-phase transformer and observe

load sharing.
5 To perform the No load and block rotor test of 3-phase induction motor and
to determine its equivalent circuit parameters.
6 To perform the No load and block rotor test of 3-phase induction motor to
draw the circle diagram.
7 To perform the load test on 3-phase induction motor and draw its
performance characteristic
8 Swinburns test on D.C. motor & determine its efficiency.
9 To perform speed control of D.C. motor.

10 To plot OCC on a separately excited D.C. Generator.
11 Perform load test on D.C. Generator.

EXPERIMENT-1

AIM:- To Perform Open Circuit and Short Circuit test on transformer.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:-

S.No.NAME RANGE Quantity
1Ammeter 0-5AMP 1
2Ammeter 0-1 AMP 1
3Voltmeter 0-300V 1
4Autotransfor
mer
0-270V 1
5Wattmeter 0-375Watt 1
6Single Phase
Transformer
2KVA,220V,50Hz 1


THEORY:-
In various experiments, transformer is being operated normally under one of the
following condition.

1 . OPEN CIRCUIT:-
Generally high voltage Winding is open circuited is open circuited . such a test is
performed at rated voltage applied to low voltage winding no load test is performed to find
out the no load / core losses.

2. SHORT CIRCUIT TEST:-
Low voltage winding is generally short circuited and quite low Voltage applied o high
voltage winding. such a test is normally performed under full Load current condition. This test
is performed to find out full load losses.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM :-

PROCEDURE :-
(www) Open circuited test
1 Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram.

2 Ensure that the setting of the variac is at ow output voltage.
3 Switch on the supply and adjust rated votage across the transformer circuit .
4 Record no load current , voltage applied and no load power, corresponding to
the rated voltage of the transformer winding .

(xxx) Short circuit test
1 Connect the instruments as per the circuit diagram.
2 Adjust the setting of the variac so that the output voltage is zero.
3 Switch on the AC supply to the circuit.
4 Increase the voltage applied slowly till the current in the winding of the
transformer is full load rated value.
5 Record short circuit current, corresponding applied voltage and power with full
load current under short circuit condition.

OBSERVATION TABLE:-

S.No Open circuit test Short circuit test
V
o
I
o
W
o
V
sc
I
sc
W
sc
1 220 V .34 A 14 Watt 18 V 9.5 A 120 Watt
2

CALCUATIONS:-
W4 For open circuit test

Wo =Vo Io Cos o

Cos o = Wo / Vo Io

Io Cos o = Ic or Iw

Io sin o = Im

Io = (Ic
2
+ Im
2
)

Ro = Vo / Ic

Xo = Vo / Io

W+ For short circuit test

Wsc = Isc
2
Req.

Req. = Wsc / Isc
2

Zeq. = Vsc / Isc

Xeq. = ( Z
2
R
2
)

Result:-
Transformer Equivalent parameters are obtained.

Precaution :-

EXPERIMENT-02

AIM:- Perform Sumpners test on 2 Single phase Transformers.
(a) To perform sumpner"s (Back to Back) test on two identical transformer
(b) Determine the efficiency at 1/4 1/2 3/4, full load 1.25 times the full load and at 0.85
p.f lagging
1. plot efficiency vs output characteristic.


1Ammeter 2.5-5A 1
2Ammeter 15/30 A 1
3Voltmeter 0-300V 1
4Voltmeter 0-600V 1
5Wattmeter 2.5 A/200 V 1
6Wattmeter 15 A/75 V 1
7Single Phase
Transformer
2KVA,220V,50Hz 2

THEORY :-
This test needs two identical transformer. The primary windings of these transformer
are connected in parallel and supplied at rated voltage and frequency, while the two

secondaries are connected in phase opposition as shown in FIg Thus the voltage across the
two secondaries is zero, when the primary windigs are energized as such,this test is also
called back to back test.in thes test, iron losses occur in the core and full load copper losses
occur in the windings of the two transformer, current flowing in the two secondaries is rated
fullload current of the transformer. thus heat run test can be conducted on the transformer
without acttually loding them and hence steady-state temperature-rise of the transformer can
be estimated.the current drawn by the primaries is twice the no load current of each
transformer. the watmeter w1 connected in thecircuit of the primaries measures the total core
losses of booth the transformers. Similarly wattmeter W2 connected in the secondary circuit
measures the total full copper losses of the two transformer.

PROCEDURE :-
Connect the circuit as per the diagram.
Ensure that swithes S2 and S3 are open.
Energize the primaries by closing the swith S1.
Observe the reading of voltmeter V1 which should be for correct connections of the
secondaries. incase, the voltmeter reted voltage of each transformer,open the swith
S1 and interchange the connection at the secondary terminals of one of the
transformer.close the switch S1 again and verify that the voltmeter V1 nowreads zero
important caution ; Eeven if the voltmeter V1 reads zero at the first instance, it is
advisable to chee the reading of voltmeter V1 by interchanging at the secondary
terminals of one of the transformer.
Adjust the setting of the varic to give nearly zero out pot voltage
Replacethe voltmeter V1 by alow range voltmeter.
Close the switch S3 and then S2.
Adjust the outpot voltage of the variec so that the current flowing in the secondaries is
full load secondary current of each transformer.
Record the reading of all the instruments conneted in the primary and secondary
current of each transformer.
Switch off the supply to primary and secondary circuits.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM :-

OBSERVATIONS :-

Result:-
Transformer Loss & Efficiency are obtained.

Precaution :-

EXPERIMENT-03

AIM:-
a) To operate the two transformers in parallel
b) To study the load sharing by each transformer


1Ammeter 0-15A 2
2Ammeter 0-30 A 1
3Voltmeter 0-300V 1
6Inductive
Load
250 V,7.5 KW 1

THEORY :-
Parllel operation of transformer is frequently necessary in the power system netwok,
which consist of number of transformer installed at geerating stations, etc. when operrating
two or more transformer in parallel (on the primary as secondary sides) their satisfactory
perfomance require that the following conditions be satisfied.

DIAGRAMS:-

S. No.
Primary Side Secondary Side
Vo Io Wo Vsc Isc Wsc

PROCEDURE:-

Polarity Check:-
1. Connect the circut as shown in Figure.
2. Swith on the supply to the primary cricuit, where the primaries of both the transfrormrs
are conneted in parallel.
3. The voltmeter connected in the secondary cricuit of the transformers will read either
zero or twice secondary terminal voltage of each Transformer.

Parallel Operation:-
1. Connect the cricuit as per the cricuit digram shown in figure. Ensure that the two
secondaries have been connected properly as per the polarity determined in part (A).
2. Close the switch S1 to energize both the primaries. ensure that the switch S2 is kept
opem. in case the voltage ratio of the two transformers are unequal there will be a
circulating current, which may be recorded.
3. Close the switch S2 Adjust a particular load on the secondaries and record the redings
of all the instruments conncted in the circyit.
4. Repeat step 3 for various values of load current upto the rated capcity of the two
transformer operrating in parallel.
5. Swicth off the load slowly. Open the swicth S2 and then swicth off the supply to the
primaries of the transformers.

OBSERVATIONS:-

Result:-
Parallel Operation of Transformer is done.

Precaution :-

S. No. V Line I Line Wline I1 W1 I2 W2

EXPERIMENT NO -04

AIM:-To perform the No load and block rotor test of 3-phase induction motor to draw the
circle diagram.


1Ammeter 0-10/20 A 1
2Voltmeter 0-300/600V 1
33-PHASE
Autotransforme
r
0-15A 0-400V 1
4Wattmeter 0-10 A,200/400V 1

THEORY:-

To draw the circle diagram of 3 phase induction motor,following data is essential.
No load current , Io and its power factor o.
Short circuit current, Isc' corresponding to rated voltage and its power factor angle
sc.

No Load test:-

To obtain no load current and its power factor angle o, no load test is performed at
rated voltage and frequency. Let the readings of ammeter, voltmeter and two wattmeter

connected in the circuit be, Io Vo, Wo1 and Wo2 respectively during the no load test. Then,

tan o = 3 Wo1 - Wo2
Wo1 + Wo2

Hence, No load power factor angle, o can be calculated from the readi ngs of the two
wattmeters. No load current , Io has been directly measured by ammeter.

Bloack rotor Test:-

To obtain short circuit current and its power factor angle ,block rator test is performed
on the moter. In this test rotor is not allowed to move and reduced voltage of rated frequency
is aplied to the stator winding.this test is performed with raed current flowing in stator
winding. Let the readings of ammeter, voltmeter and two wattmeter connected in the circuit
be, Isc Vsc, Wsc1 and Wsc2 respectively during the block rotor test. Then,

tan sc = 3 Wsc1 - Wsc2
Wsc1 + Wsc2

Thus short circuit power factro angle , sc can be calculated from the above equation.
Short circuit current, Isc observed during the block rotor test corresponding to reduced
applied voltage, Vsc which should be converted to rated voltage of the motor for plotting the
circle diagram. The relation between the short circuit current and the applied vol tage is
approximately a straight line. Thus, short circuit current, Isc' corresponding to rated voltage V
of the motor is given by,

Short Circuit Current Isc' = V*
Vsc

It may be remembered, that the power factor of the motor is quite low at no load as
well as under the block rotor condition. Thus,one of the wattmeter connected in the circuit will
give negative reading in both the test.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:-


PROCEDURE:-

NO LOAD TEST:-
connect the circuit as per fig
Ensure that the motor is unloaded and the variac is set at zer position .
Switch on the supply and increas the voltage gradually till the rated voltage of the
motor.
Record the reading of all the meters.
Switch off the AC supply.

BLOCK ROTOR TEST:-
5. Readjust the variac at zero position.
6. Change the range of all the instruments for the block rotor test.
7. Block the rotor by either by tightening the belt firmly or by hand.
8. Switch on the AC supply and apply reduced voltage, so that the input current drawn
by the motor block rotor condition is eqal to the full load current of the motor.
9. Record the readings of all the meters.
10. Switch off the AC supply.
11. Measure the resistance per phase of the stator winding following Ohm's Law
concept.

OBSERVATION :-

S. No.
NO Load Test Block rotor Test
Vo Io Wo1 Wo2 Vsc Isc Wsc1 Wsc2

Result:-

Precaution :-

EXPERIMENT-05


OBJECTIVES:- To perform the load test on 3-phase induction motor and draw its
performance characteristic.


S.N
o.
Name Type Range Quantity
1 Ammeter M.I. 0 10 A 1
2 Voltmeter M.I. 0 300/600V 1
3 Wattmeter Dynamometer 5/10 A,
150/300/600V
2
4 3- Variac Fully Variable 0 470 V 1
5 Tachometer Digital 0 2000rpm 1

THEORY :-
The load test on induction motor is performed to compute its complete performance
i.e. torque , slip , efficiency, power factor etc. During this test , the motor is operated at rated
voltage and frequency and normally loaded mechanically by brake and pulley arrangement
from the observed data, the performance can be calculated, following the steps given below.

SLIP:-
The speed of the rotor, Nr droops slightly as the load on the motor is increased. The
synchronous speed, Ns of the rotating magnetic field is calculated, based on the no. of poles,
P and the supply frequency , f i.e.

Synchronous speed, Ns = (120 f ) / P rpm
Then Slip, S = [ Ns- Nr / Ns] * 100

Normally, the range of slip at full load is form 2 5 %.

The output power in watts developed by the motor is given by,

Output Power, P
O
= 2 NT watts
60
Where, N is the speed of the motor in rpm

Input power is measured by the two wattmeters , properly connected in the circuit.

Input power = (W1+W2) watts
Where W1 and W2 are the readings of the two wattmeters.

INPUT POWER FACTOR:-
Input power factors can also be calculated from the reading of the two wattmeters for
balanced load.
If is the power factor angle , then

Tan = 3 ( W1 W2 )
( W1 + W2 )

Knowing the power factor angle , from the above ,power factor cos can be
calculated. It may be noted clearly at this stage, that the power factor of the induction motor

is very low at no load, hardly 0.1 0.25 lagging. As such, one of the wattmeter will record a
negative reading , till the power factor is less than 0.5, which may be measured by reversing
the connections of the current coil or the pressure coil of this wattmeter.

EFFICIENCY:-

% efficiency of the motor , = output power X 100 %
input power

Full load efficiency of 3-phase induction motor lies in the range of 82 % (for small
motors ) to 92 % (for very large motors).

PRO
CED
URE:
-

1. C
o
n
n
e
c
t the circuit as per the circuit diagram.
2. Ensure that the motor is unloaded and the variac is set at zero output voltage.
3. Switch on 3 phase ac mains and start the motor at reduced applied voltage. Increase
the applied voltage , till the rated value.
4. Observe the direction of rotation of the motor . In case it is reverse, change the phase
sequence of the applied voltage.
5. Take down the readings of all the meters and the speed under no load running.
6. Increase the load on the motor gradually by turning of the hand wheels, thus tighting
the belt. Record the readings of all the meters and the speed at every setting of the
load. Observations may be continued upto the full load current rating of the motor.
7. Reduce the load on the motor and finally unload it completely.
8. Switch of the supply to stop the motor.
9. Note down the effective diameter of the brake drum.
10.
OBSERVATIONS:-

S.
N
o.
.
I P input Torque P Output Slip Power
Factor
Efficiency


CALCULATIONS:-

Result:-

Precaution :-

EXPERIMENT-06

OBJECTIVES:-
(a) To perfor swinburns test on the dc machine runnig as shunt motor at no load.
(b) To measer the resistance of armature windig.
(c) Determine the effiency of the machine useed as 1/4th, 1/2,th, 3/4th, full and 1.25 time
the load and plot the efficency Vs load curve.
(d) Determine the efficiency of the machine used as generator atthe above and plot the
efficincy curve on the same graph.


S.NO NAME TYPE RANGE QUANTITY
1 Ammeter mc 0-2A 1
2 Ammeter mc 0-5a 1
3 Ammeter mc 0-25A 1
4 Voltmeter mc 0-300V 1
5 Voltmeter mc 0-30V 1

6 Rheostat single tube 290 ohm, 1.4A 1
7 Technometer digtal 0-2000rpm 1
8 Lamp bank load resistive 250 V 5kw 1

THEORY:- Swinburnes test is an indirect method (without loading) for finding out the
efficiency of dc machine. various losses are directly proportional to the square of armature
current or approximately load current , where as constant losses are independent of load
conditions. In this method constant losses are determined experimental by oproporting the dc
machine as motor runnig at no load variable losses occuring on load are caculated from the
known specifications of the machine.
Let the voltage applied to the shunt motor be V volts and the current folwing in the
armature and shunt field circuit under no load runnig be Iao and Ish respectively. Then,

Inpot power to the armature circuit = V X Iao watts

Inpot power to the shunt field circuit = V X Ish watts

Total inpot power to the motor atno load, Wo = V X (Iao + Ish )

Armature copper losses at load = Iao X Ra

Thus,
The constant losses of the machine, Wc = Wo- IaoRa watts.

Hence the constant losses of dc machinne can be determined expermentally by recording
Iao, Ish, V and measuring the armature resistance Ra.

The swinburnes test should be performed at rated voltage and at rated speed.

CALULATION OF EFFICIENCY AS SHUNT MOTOR

Let the output of the motor as taken from name plate specifications = Po watts
Appoximate value of full load efficiency assumed,& = 85 %
Thus, input power to the motor = PO/0.85 =V X Il
Hence, line current drawn by the motor under full load condition, Il = Po/0.85 x v

Armatur current under full load IA = il - Ish
Thus, armature copper losses at full load = IaRa
Total losses at full load = Wc + IaRa
Hence, efficiency of the motor at full load $ = Po/Po + Wc + IaRa x 100%

Similarly, efficiency at 50 % full load mf/2 = Po/Po/2 + Wc + (1/2) IaRa x100%
Efficiency at all other loads can be calculated in a similar way
CALCULATION OF EFFICIENCY AS A SHUNT GENERATOR

Full load outpot of the generator, Po and its rated terminal voltage, V are obetained from the
name plate specification of the machine.
Full load output of the generator, Po = V X Il watts

Thus full load current , Il = Po/V


Armature current at full load Ia = Il, + Ish

Full load armature copper losses = Ia Ra

Thus total losses at full load = Wc + Ia Ra

Hence, the efficiency of the generator at full load =

PROCEDURE

(a) For conducting swinburnes test

1 ; Connect the dcmotor as per
2 ; Ensurethat the external resistacein the field circuit is zero.
3 ; Switch on the dc supply to the motor and startar it with the help of staerter is not provided
with the motor , then arheostat of 45 ohm 5A can be fully inserted in the armature cricuit at
the instant of starting the motor and should be cut out after the motor has picked up the
speed Ensure that the voltage applied to the motor is of rated value
Adjust the speed of the3 motor to rated value by varying the resistance in the feld cricuit.
5 ;Record the readings of all the meter connected in the circuiting 6 ; To
stop the motor switch off dc supply

(b) For measurment of armature resistance ;


1 ; Connect the cricut as per fig
2 ; switch on the dc supply
3 ; switch on some bubls in the lamp bank load so that current flowing in the armature cricuit
is the rated full load current of the dc motor wait for 30 minutes with the full load current
flowing in the armature winding so that the temprature of the armature winding appoximately
becomes equivalent to that obtained under workig conditions
4 Record the readings of both the meters connected in this cricuit
5 ; switch off the dc supply.

OBSERVATION ; May be tabulated as follows.
FOR SWINBURNES TEST FOR ARMATURE RESISTACEIN

S. No V Iao Ish S.No Va Ia Ra

EXPERIMENT-07

AIM:- TO study the speed control of dc motor

1.Instrument :-

S.No. Name Range Quantity
1 DC motor 220Vdc,1500rpm 1
2 Rheostat 2250ohm,1.6amp 1
3 Techometer 0-10000rpm 1
4 Ammeter 0-1amp 1
5 Multimeter Ac/dc 1

2.Theory:- -
the motor can be increased by decreasing the flux or the shunt field current ,which can be
achieved by inserting a rheostat in the shunt field circuit of the motor .
circuit of the speed higher than the rated values is obtained y using this method of control.

Let the external resistance in the armature circuit of the dc shunt motor be R ohm , then the
speed equation modifies to
-

Hence the speed of the motor decreases with an increase in the value of external
resistance R. thus reduces the speed lower than the no load speed .can be obtain by
this method .however there is an excessive wastage of power in the additional
resistance ,which lowers the efficiency of the motor considerably.

4 Circuit diagram:-

5
Procedure:- For Field Control:-
Connection the dc motor as per the circuit diagram.
Insure that the external resistance is the armature circuit is maximum.
Insure that the external resistance in the field circuit is minimum.
After insuring 2, 3, switch on the dc supply as a result motor will start
running at a low speed .
Cut out the external resistance in the armature circuit and adjust the field
current ,so that the speed of the motor becomes rated speed .
The armature resistance is kept constant to the above value, very field
current by varying the external resistance in the field circuit . record the
field current and corresponding speed.
Switch off the main supply to stop the motor

For Armature Control:-
7) Connect the dc motor as per the circuit diagram
8) Insure that the external resistance is the armature circuit is maximum (starter
resistance)
9) Insure that the external resistance to the field circuit is constant.
10) After insuring 2,3,switch on the dc supply as are result motor will start running
at a low speed.
11) Cut out the external resistance in the armature circuit of starter and very the
rheostat.
12) The field current is kept cosecant to the above vaue ,vary the voltage
applied to armature by verging the external resistance in the armature
circuit record the applied voltage and corresponding speed.
13) Switch off the main supply to stop the motor.

5 .OBSERVATION TABLE(For Field Control):-

S Field current Speed (rpm)

.
N
O
.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

OBSERVATION TABLE(For Armature Control):-

S.NO.Armature current Speed (rpm)
1
2
3
4
5
6

6. Conclusion:-

As the field current is decreased speed of the motor is increased.
Result:-

Precautions:-
1. There should not be any loose connection.
2. Take the reading carefully


EXPERIMENT-08

AIM:- To plot OCC on a separately excited D.C. Generator.

APPARATUS:-

S.N
o.
1 Ammeter M.I. 0 2 A 1
2 Voltmeter M.I. 0 300V 1
3 Rehostat sigle tube 272 1.7 A 2
4 Tachometer Digital 0 2000rpm 1

Theory - The emf generated in the armature windiing of a DC generator under no load
operration is given by

Eg = PNZ
60A
= K N (p,z and A are constant for a particular generator)
Hence at constant given speed ,no load emf , Eg is directly proportional to the flux
per pole , which in turn depends upon the field current , If. The characteristic curve
showing the relationship between the field current If. And the generated EMF Eg at No
Load and at a constant speed is known as magnetization characteristic or Open
Circuit Characteristic (OCC) of DC generator. A small EMf hardly of the order of 10 to
15 V is generated by the generator when the field current is zero which is due to the
residual magnetism in the poles. This characteristic of DC shunt generator is obtained
by separately exciting the field.
Critical resistance of the field cricuit can be obtained by drawing a tangent to the intial
portion of the magnetization characteristic the slope of wich gives the value of the critical
resistance.

The plot the field resistance line on the megnetization curve record the voltage across
the shunt field during experimentation.
The magnetization characteristic of a particular
generator will be different for different speed. various points on the megnatization
curve corresponding to aspeed N2 can be obtained knowing the emf Eg
corresponding to the rated speed N1 and uttillzing the equation given by,

No load emf be speed N2 Eg x N2/ N1 (Eg = k N )
It may be noted clearly that Eg1 and Eg2 are the no load emf
corresponding to same field cuerrent but for different speeds N1 and N2 respectively.

CIRCUIT DIGRAM -
Fig shows the cricuit diagram, in which the field of the shunt
generator is separately excited to have awide vaariation in field current. V arious
instruments connted in the circuit daigram serve the function indicated against each.

DC MOTOR - Acts as aprme move for the generator.

Rheostat - used as variable resistance in the field circuit of the motor to maintain
the speed constant at rated valu during this experimentation.

Rheostat - Used as potential divider to feed the fied circuit of the genrator and
vary the field current in a wide range.

Ammeter - To measure the field current of the genrator.

Voltmeter - To measure the field current of genrator.

PROCEDURE -
1. Connet the dc motor and the dc genrator ( coupled together) as per fig
2. Adjust the rheostat inthe field cricuit of the motor so that the additional resistace
in this crircuit is zero.
3. Set the potential divider feeding the field cricuit of the genrator for zero output voltage.
4. swich on the dc supply to the dc motor and start it using the stater. move the stater arm
slowly till the motor builds up the speed and finally cut out all resistance steps of the stater.
stater are will then be hold up by the holding manet of the stater.
5. Adjust the speed ofthe dc motor to rated value by vaying the resistacein in the field
cricuit .
6. Record the genrated emf due to residual magentism
7. switch- on the dc supply across the field cricut of the generator.
8. Vary the field current of genrator in steps and record its value and the correspoding
genrated emf of the genrator. Observaions should be continued upto the generted voltag 25
per cent higher than rated voltage of the genrator.
9. To plot the field resistacein line record the voltage across the field of the genrator.
10. Switch off the dc supply, to stop the motor and also to disconnecct the generator field.
OBSERVAIONS : mAF


EXPERIMENT-09

AIM:- To study the load characteristics of DC shunt generator .

-
S.No.Name Range Quantity
1DC motor 220VDC 1
Ammeter 0-5amp 1
DC shunt
generator
220Vdc,1500rpm 1
Lamp 200w bulb 6
Volt meter 0-300V 1


BHOPAL

DEPARTMENT
OF
ELECTRICAL
& ELECTRONICS ENGG.
ELECTRONIC DEVICES & CIRCUITS-II
(EX- 404)


LIST OF EXPERIMENT

Study of OP-AMP characteristic
OP-AMP as inverting amplifier
OP_AMP as non inverting amplifier
OP_AMP as differential amplifier
Study of transister amplifier in CE configuration
Study of FET amplifiers
Study of feedback amplifiers
Study of Power amplifiers
Study of tuned amplifiers
Study of weign bridge oscillator


EXPERIMENT NO 1
AIM :Study of OP-AMP characteristic
PRINCIPLE :
An Operational amplifier ("op-amp") is a
DCcoupled high-gain electronic voltage amplifier with a differential input
and, usually, a single-ended output. An op-amp produces an output voltage
that is typically hundreds of thousands times larger than the voltage
difference between its input terminals.
Operational amplifiers are important building blocks for a wide range
of electronic circuits. They had their origins in analog computers ,where they were
used in many linear, non-linear and frequency-dependent circuits. Their popularity
in circuit design largely stems from the fact the characteristics of the final
elements (such as their gain) are set by external components with little dependence
on temperature changes and manufacturing variations in the op-amp itself.
Op-amps are among the most widely used electronic devices today, being
used in a vast array of consumer, industrial, and scientific devices. Many standard
IC op-amps cost only a few cents in moderate production volume; however some
integrated or hybrid operational amplifiers with special performance specifications

may cost over $100 US in small quantities. Op-amps may be packaged as components,
or used as elements of more complex integrated circuits.The op-amp is one type of
differential amplifier .

EXPERIMENT NO 2
AIM
TO STUDY AND OBSERVE OUTPUT WAVEFORM OF OP AMP IN INVERTING MODE
APPARATUS REQUIRED
digital multi meter ,
THEORY
operational amplifier can be used as inverting amplifier .in this circuit r
1
i connected
between inverting input terminal of op amp. r
2
is connected between inverting input
and output terminal of opamp non inverting terminal is connected to ground it will
produce phase shift of 180
0
from input to output

PROCEDURE
Set the value of R
F
Set the value of R
OM
in2
)
in2
& gnd
From Function generator 1 v 1 Khz signal is applied to V
IN1

IN
&V
OUT

V
OUT
=( R
F
/R
1
)V
IN

OBSERVATION TABLE
Sno V
IN
R
F
R
F
/R
1
V
OUT
(calculated
)
V
OUT
(measured ) Phase
shift
1 1 10K 1 1 1 180
o
2 1 20K 2 2 1.8V 180
o
3 1 30K 3 3 2.8V 180
o
4 1 40K 4 4 3.5V 180
o
5 1 50K 5 5 4.7V 180
o
6 1 60K 6 6 5.4V 180
o


RESULT
OP AMP as Inverting amplifier is studied

EXPERIMENT NO:3
AIM
Study of OP AMP as non inverting amplifier
APPARATUS REQUIRED
digital multi meter , ,
THEORY
Signal is applied to non inverting input terminal r i is connected to ground. r f is connected
between r1 and output output is measured across ouput terminal and ground output
volatge can be calculated by using equation
V
OUT
= (1+R
F
/R
1
) V
IN 1

PROCEDURE

Set the value of R
F
Set the value of R
OM
in2
)
in1
& gnd
From Function generator 1 v 1 Khz signal is applied to H (non inverting input
of op amp )
IN
&V
OUT

Calculate tthe value of V
OUT
using the equation
V
OUT
=( R
F
/R
1
)V
IN
Vary the value of R
F
and measure the value of V
OUT

OBSERVATION TABLE
Sno V
IN
R
F
1+R
F
/R
1
V
OUT
(calculated
)
V
OUT
(measured ) Phase
shift
1 1 10K 2 2 2 0
0
2 1 20K 3 3 2.5 0
0
3 1 30K 4 4 3.5 0
0
4 1 40K 5 5 4.2 0
0
5 1 50K 6 6 5.2 0
0

6 1 60K 7 7 6.2 0
0

RESULT
OP AMP AS NON INVERTING AMPLIFIER IS STUDIED

EXPERIMENT NO:5
AIM:
Study of transister amplifier in CE configuration
PRINCIPLE
In the bipolar transistor the most common circuit configuration for an NPN
transistor is that of the Common Emitter Amplifier and that a family of curves known
commonly as the Output Characteristics Curves, relates the Collector current (Ic),
to the output or Collector voltage (Vce), for different values of Base current (Ib).
All types of transistor amplifiers operate using AC signal inputs which alternate
between a positive value and a negative value so some way of "presetting" the
amplifier circuit to operate between these two maximum or peak values is required.
This is achieved using a process known as Biasing. Biasing is very important in
amplifier design as it establishes the correct operating point of the transistor
amplifier ready to receive signals, thereby reducing distortion to the output
signal.
We also saw that a static or DC load line can be drawn onto these output
characteristics curves to show all the possible operating points of the transistor
from fully "ON" to fully "OFF", and to which the quiescent operating point or Q-
point of the amplifier can be found. The aim of any small signal amplifier is to
amplify all of the input signal with the minimum amount of distortion possible to
the output signal, in other words, the output signal must be an exact reproduction
of the input signal but only bigger (amplified). To obtain low distortion when used
as an amplifier the operating quiescent point needs to be correctly selected. This
is in fact the DC operating point of the amplifier and its position may be
established at any point along the load line by a suitable biasing arrangement. The
best possible position for this Q-point is as close to the centre position of the
load line as reasonably possible, thereby producing a Class A type amplifier
operation, ie. Vce = 1/2Vcc. Consider the Common Emitter Amplifier circuit shown
below.

The Common Emitter Amplifier Circuit

EXPERIMENT NO :6

AIM :Study of FET amplifiers

PRINCIPLE :
a common-source amplifier is one of three basic single-stage field
effect transistor (FET) amplifier topologies, typically used as a voltage or
transconductance amplifier . The easiest way to tell if a FET is common source,
common drain, or common gate is to examine where the signal enters and leaves. The
remaining terminal is what is known as "common". In this example, the signal enters
the gate, and exits the drain. The only terminal remaining is the source. This is a
common-source FET circuit. The analogous bipolar junction transistor circuit is
the common emiter amplifier .
The common-source (CS) amplifier may be viewed as a transconductance

amplifier or as a voltage amplifier. . As a transconductance amplifier, the input
voltage is seen as modulating the current going to the load. As a voltage
amplifier, input voltage modulates the amount of current flowing through the FET,
changing the voltage across the output resistance according toOhm's law However,
the FET device's output resistance typically is not high enough for a reasonable
transconductance amplifier , nor low enough for a decent voltage amplifier .
Another major drawback is the amplifier's limited high-frequency response.
Therefore, in practice the output often is routed through either a voltage follower
(common drain or CD stage), or a current follower (common gate or CG stage), to
obtain more favorable output and frequency characteristics. The CSCG combination
is called a cascode amplifier.

EXPERIMENT NO:7
AIM ; Study of feedback amplifiers

PRINCIPLE
A negative feedback amplifier (or more commonly simply a feedback amplifier)
is an amplifier a fraction of the output of which is combined with the input so that
a negative feed back opposes the original signal. The applied negative feedback
improves performance (gain stability, linearity, frequency response, step response )
and reduces sensitivity to parameter variations due to manufacturing or environment.
Because of these advantages, negative feedback is used in this way in many
amplifiers and control systems.A negative feedback amplifier is a system of three
elements .an amplifier with gain AOL, an attenuating feedback network with a
constant < 1 and a summing circuit acting as a subtractor

Amplifiers use current or voltage as input and output, so four types of amplifier
are possible. See classification of amplifiers Any of these four choices may be the

open-loop amplifier used to construct the feedback amplifier. The objective for the
feedback amplifier also may be any one of the four types of amplifier, not
necessarily the same type as the open-loop amplifier.
Feedback amplifier
type
Input
connec
tion
Output
connection
Ideal feedback
Current Shunt Series CCCS
Transresistanc Shunt Shunt CCVS
Transconductance Series Series VCCS
Voltage Series Shunt VCVS

EXPERIMENT NO :8
AIM:Study of Power amplifiers
Power amplifiers are used to deliver a relatively high amount of power, usually to a low
resistance load. Typical load values range from 300W (for transmission antennas) to 8W (for audio
speaker). Although these load values do not cover every possibility, they do illustrate the fact that power
amplifiers usually drive low-resistance loads. Typical output power rating of a power amplifier will be
1W or higher. Ideal power amplifier will deliver 100% of the power it draws from the supply to load.
In practice, this can never occur. The reason for this is the fact that the components in the amplifier will
all dissipate some of the power that is being drawn form the supply. The total amount of power being
dissipated by the amplifier, Ptot , is Ptot = P1 + P2 + PC + PT + PE

The difference between this total value and the total power being drawn from the supply is the power
that actually goes to the load i.e. output power.

Amplifier Efficiency q
A figure of merit for the power amplifier is its efficiency, q .
Efficiency ( q ) of an amplifier is defined as the ratio of ac output power(power delivered to load) to dc
input power .
By formula : As we will see, certain amplifier configurations have much higher efficiency ratings than
others. This is primary consideration when deciding which type of power amplifier to use for a specific
application.
Amplifier Classifications
Power amplifiers are classified according to the percent of time that collector current is nonzero. The
amount the output signal varies over one cycle of operation for a full cycle of input signal.

P
1
=I
1
2
R
1
P
2
=I
2
2
R
2
I
CQ
R
C
R
E
R
1
R
2
V
CC
I
1
I
2
I
CC
P
C
=I
CQ
2
R
C
P
T
=I
TQ
2
R
T
P
E
=I
EQ
2
R
E
I
EQ
v
in
v
out
A
v Class-A
v
in
v
out
A
v Class-B
v
in
v
out
A
v Class-C

The maximum theoretical efficiency ratings of class-A, B, and C amplifiers are:

EXPERIMENT NO :9
AIM :Study of tuned amplifiers
PRINCIPLE :

1st stage is tuned RF amplifier gives some selectivity to choose
one station from many in band IF stage provides most of the
frequency slectivity
High adjacent channel selectivity Tuned IF amplifiers (multistage)
fixed tuned & provided with sufficient to reject adjacent channels.

Tuned amplifiers can be constructed from either discrete
components (FETs and BJTs) or op-amps. Discrete tuned amplifiers
normally employ LC (inductive-capacitive) circuits to determine
frequency response. Op-amps are normally tuned withRC (resistive-
99% Class C
78.5% Class B
25% Class A
Maximum Theoretical Efficiency, qmax Amplifier

capacitive) circuits
Tuned Amplifier Characteristics
There are many types of tuned amplifiers. A tuned
amplifier may have a lower cutoff frequency ( ), an upper cutoff
frequency ( ), or both. An ideal tuned amplifier would have zero (
) gain up to . Then the gain would instantly jump to until it
reaches , when it would instantly drop back to zero. All the
frequencies between and are passed by the amplifier. All others are
effectively stopped. This is where the terms pass band and stop
band come from. The gain of the practical tuned amplifier does not
change instantaneously,

EXPERIMENT NO: 10
AIM
To study and observe output waveform of weign bridge oscillator
APPARATUS REQUIRED
Experiment kit ,Connecting probes,c.r.o
PRINCIPLE
The weign bridge oscillator isone of the simplest and best known
oscilator and is used extensively in circuit foe audio application.this circuit
have only few components and good frequency stability.it is connected between
amplifier input terminal and output terminal the bridge has series rc network in
adjoining arm in the remaining two arms or bridge resistor r1 and rf are connected
the frequency of oscillation fo is exactly the resonant frequency of balanced weign
bridge and given by
f0= 1/2 pirc

PROCEDURE
Make connection as shown in figure
Switch on the power suply
Observe output frequency on cro
Measure output frequency
Compare it with calculated frequency
RESULT
The weign bridge oscillator is studied and waveform is observed




DEPARTMENT
OF
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGG.
LAB MANUAL
OF
MATLAB
(Ex406)

LIST OF EXPERIMENT

1.How to use MATLAB as a calculator
2.To Plot Elementary Function
3.To Creat simple plots
4.To plot Multiple data sets in one plot
5.To study matrix operations using matlab
6.Plot the cosine functions
7. To Plot the surface defined by the function f (x, y) = (x
3)
2
(y 2)
2
8.To Plot the surface defined by the function f (x, y) = xye
2(
x + y2 )


EXPERIMENT NO 1

AIM: INTROUDUCTION TO MATLAB

The name MATLAB stands for MATrix LABoratory. MATLAB was written originally

to provide easy access to matrix software developed by the LINPACK (linear system
package)

and EISPACK (Eigen system package) projects.

MATLAB is a high-performance language for technical computing. It integrates

computation, visualization, and programming environment. Furthermore, MATLAB is a

modern programming language environment: it has sophisticated data structures,
contains

built-in editing and debugging tools, and supports object-oriented programming.
These factors

make MATLAB an excellent tool for teaching and research.

MATLAB has many advantages compared to conventional computer languages (e.g.,

C, FORTRAN) for solving technical problems. MATLAB is an interactive system whose

basic data element is an array that does not require dimensioning. The software
package

has been commercially available since 1984 and is now considered as a standard tool
at most

universities and industries worldwide.

It has powerful built-in routines that enable a very wide variety of

computations. It

also has easy to use graphics commands that make the visualization of results
immediately

available. Specific applications are collected in packages referred to as toolbox.
There are

toolboxes for signal processing, symbolic computation, control theory, simulation,
optimiza-

tion, and several other fields of applied science and engineering.

Starting MATLAB

After logging into your account, you can enter MATLAB by double-clicking
on the MATLAB shortcut icon (MATLAB 7.0.4) on your Windows desktop. When you start
MATLAB, a

special window called the MATLAB desktop appears. The desktop is a window that
contains

other windows. The major tools within or accessible from the desktop are:

The Command Window

The Command History

The Workspace

The Current Directory

The Help Browser

The Start button

When MATLAB is started for the first
time, the screen looks like the one that shown
in the Figure 1.1. This illustration also shows the default configuration of the
MATLAB
desktop. You can customize the arrangement of tools and documents to suit your
needs.

Now, we are interested in doing some simple calculations. We will
assume that you
have sufficient understanding of your computer under which MATLAB is being run.
You are now faced with the MATLAB desktop on your computer, which contains the
prompt
(>>) in the Command Window. Usually, there are 2 types of prompt:

>> for full version

EDU> for educational version

Note: To simplify the notation, we will use this prompt, >>, as a standard prompt
sign,

though our MATLAB version is for educational purpose.

Quitting MATLAB

To end your MATLAB session, type quit in the Command Window, or select File Exit

MATLAB in the desktop main menu.


EXPERIMENT NO 2
AIM: How to use MATLAB as a calculator
PROGRAMME
Basic arithmetic operators

Symbol Operation Example

+ Addition 2+3
- Subtraction 2-3
* Multiplication 2*3
/ Division 2/3

SAMPLE PROGRAMES

S no Programme Result
1 >>1+2 3
2 >>2*40 80
3 >>2/2 1
4 >>2-2 0
5 >> a=pi a = 3.1416
6 >> x=-13; y=5+x, z=x^2+y y = -8

z = 161

7 >> 1:4 1 2 3 4
8 >> 3:7

3 4 5 6 7

9 >> w = [1 -2 3] w = 1 -2 3
10 >> w' ans = 1

-2

3

11 >> x=[1+3i,2-2i] x = 1.0000 + 3.0000i
2.0000 - 2.0000i
12 >> x'

ans = 1.0000 - 3.0000i

2.0000 + 2.0000i

Result: arithmentic operations are performed
EXPERIMENT NO 3

AIM:- To Plot Elementary Function

Exercise:-To plot a graph of y = sin3x for 0x1.

>> N=10; h=1/N; x=0:h:1;
>> y=sin(3*pi*x);
>> plot(x,y)

THEORY :-
Suppose that we want to plot a graph of y = sin3x for 0x1. We
do this by sampling the function at a sufficiently large number
of points and joining up the points (x,y) by straight lines.

Suppose that we take N+1 points equally space a distance h
apart:

>> N=10; h=1/N; x=0:h:1; defines the set of points x=0,h,2h,....,1-h,1. The
corresponding

y-values are computed by

>> y=sin(3*pi*x); and finally, we plot the points with

>> plot(x,y)
The result is shown in the figure below where it is clear that
the value of N chosen above is too small.

On changing the value of N to 100:

>> N=100; h=1/N; x=0:h:1;


>> y=sin(3*pi*x);

>> plot(x,y)

we get the picture shown below:

To put a title and label the axes, we use

>> title('Graph of y = sin(3*pi*x)')

>> xlabel('x-axis')

>> ylabel('y-axis')

A dotted grid may be added by

>> grid

The default is to plot solid lines. A solid black line is

produced by

>> plot(x,y,'k-')

The third argument is a string whose first character specifies
the color (optional) and the second character is the line style.
The options for colors and styles are:

RESULT:
Graph is plotted


EXPERIMENT NO:4
AIM: To Creat simple plots
THEORY
The basic MATLAB graphing procedure, for example in 2D, is to take a
vector of x-

coordinates, x = (x1 , . . . , xN ), and a vector of y-coordinates, y = (y1 , . . .
, yN ), locate the

points (xi , yi ), with i = 1, 2, . . . , n and then join them by straight lines.
You need to prepare

x and y in an identical array form; namely, x and y are both row arrays or column
arrays of

the same length.

The MATLAB command to plot a graph is plot(x,y). The vectors x = (1, 2, 3, 4,
5, 6)

and y = (3, 1, 2, 4, 5, 1) produce the picture shown in Figure 2.1.

PROGRAMME:

>> x = [1 2 3 4 5 6];

>> y = [3 -1 2 4 5 1];

>> plot(x,y)


EXPERIMENT NO: 5
AIM:- To plot Multiple data sets in one plot

THEORY:
Multiple (x, y) pairs arguments create multiple graphs with a single call to plot.
For example,

these statements plot three related functions of x: y1 = 2 cos(x), y2 = cos(x), and
y3 =

0.5 cos(x), in the interval 0 x 2.

>> x = 0:pi/100:2*pi;

>> y1 = 2*cos(x);

>> y2 = cos(x);

>> y3 = 0.5*cos(x);

>> plot(x,y1,--,x,y2,-,x,y3,:)

>> xlabel(0 \leq x \leq 2\pi)


>> ylabel(Cosine functions)

>> legend(2*cos(x),cos(x),0.5*cos(x))

>> title(Typical example of multiple plots)

>> axis([0 2*pi -3 3])

The result of multiple data sets in one graph plot is shown in Figure 2.3.

EXPERIMENT NO:6
AIM; To study matrix operations using matlab
PROGRAMME
S
NO
OPERATION PROGRAMME RESULT
1 Entering a vector >> v = [1 4 7 10 13]

v =

1 4 7
10 13

2 >> w = [1;4;7;10;13] w =

1

4

7

10

13

3 To enter a matrix A >> A = [1 2 3; 4 5 6; 7
8 9]

1 2 3

7 8 9

4 divides the interval [0, 2]
into 100 equal subintervals
>> theta =
linspace(0,2*pi,101)

5 To extract a submatrix B >> B = A([2 3],[1 2]) B =

4 5

7 8

6 To delete a row or column of
a matrix,
>> A(3,:) = [] A =

1 2 3

4 5 6

7 To restore the third row >> A = [A(1,:);A(2,:);[7
8 0]]
A =

1 2 3

4 5 6

7 8 0

Elementary matrices

eye(m,n) Returns an m-by-n matrix with 1 on the main diagonal

eye(n) Returns an n-by-n square identity matrix

zeros(m,n) Returns an m-by-n matrix of zeros

ones(m,n) Returns an m-by-n matrix of ones

diag(A) Extracts the diagonal of matrix A

rand(m,n) Returns an m-by-n matrix of random numbers

instructions for Matrix arithmetic operations

A+B or B+A is valid if A and B are of the same size

A*B is valid if As number of column equals Bs number of rows

A^2 is valid if A is square and equals A*A

*A or A* multiplies each element of A by

Array operators

.* Element-by-element multiplication

./ Element-by-element division

.^ Element-by-element exponentiation

U. V produces [u1 v1 u2 v2 . . . un vn ]

U./V produces [u1 /v1 u2 /v2 . . . un /vn ]

U.V produces [u
1
v1
u
2
v2
. . . u
n
vn
]

Summary of matrix and array operations

Operation Matrix Array

Addition + +


Subtraction

Multiplication .

Division / ./

Left division \ .\

Exponentiation .

EXPERIMENT NO: 7
AIM :- Plot the following cosine functions, y1 = 2 cos(x), y2 = cos(x),

and
y3 = 0.5 cos(x), in the interval 0 x 2.

PROGRAMME
Create a file, say example2.m, which contains the following commands:

x = 0:pi/100:2*pi;

y1 = 2*cos(x);

y2 = cos(x);

y3 = 0.5*cos(x);

plot(x,y1,--,x,y2,-,x,y3,:)

xlabel(0 \leq x \leq 2\pi)

ylabel(Cosine functions)

legend(2*cos(x),cos(x),0.5*cos(x))

title(Typical example of multiple plots)

axis([0 2*pi -3 3])

RESULT
Programme is verified.


EXPERIMENT NO 8
AIM: -To Plot the surface defined by the function

f (x, y) = (x 3)
2
(y 2)
2

PROGRAMME

on the domain -2 x 4 and 1 y 3.

>> [X,Y] = meshgrid(2:0.2:4,1:0.2:3);

>> Z = (X-3).^2 - (Y-2).^2;

>> mesh(X,Y,Z)

>> title('Saddle'),xlabel('x'),ylabel('y')

now repeat the previous example replacing mesh by surf.

EXPERIMENT NO;9
AIM:- To Plot the surface defined by the function

f (x, y) = xye
2( x + y2 )

PROGRAMME
on the domain -2 x 2 and -2 y 2. Find the values and
locations of the maxima and minima of the function.

>> [X,Y] = meshgrid(-2:0.1:2,-2:0.1:2);

>> f = -X.*Y.*exp(-2*(X.^2+Y.^2));

>> figure(1)

>> mesh(X,Y,f),xlabel('x'),ylabel('y'),grid


>> figure(2)

>> contour(X,Y,f)

>> xlabel('x'),ylabel('y'), grid, hold on

To locate the maxima of the "f" values on the grid:

>> fmax = max(max(f))

fmax = 0.0920

>> kmax = find(f == fmax)

kmax = 641

1041

>> Pos = [X(kmax), Y(kmax)]

Pos = -0.5000 0.5000

0.5000 -0.5000

>> plot(X(kmax), Y(kmax),'*')

>> text(X(kmax), Y(kmax), ' Maximum')

>> hold off




LAB MANUAL

Version No. EX/5.2
Subject
MICRO PROCESSOR & MICHRO CONTROLLERS
Subject
Code
EX-502
Scheme New
Class/Branc
h
V SEM
Author Mr.Vinay Pathak
Institution

BHOPAL

DEPARTMENT
OF
ELECTRICAL
& ELECTRONICS ENGG.

LAB MANUAL
Microprocessors & Microcontroller
EX-502


LIST OF EXPERIMENTS

(1) PROGRAMMS USING MICROPROCESSOR 8086
1. ADDITION OF 2 BINARY NO OF 8 BYTE LENGTHS
2. TO FIND LARGEST NUMBER IN GIVEN STRING
3. SORT STRING OF BYTES IN DESCENDING ORDER
4. CONVERT THE STRING OF DATA TO ITS 2 COMPLEMENT FORM
(2) PROGRAMMS USING 8051MICROCONTROLLER
5. TO FLASHING DISPLAY OF WELCOME M51-02 KIT
6. HEXA DECIMAL ADDITION OF TWO NUMBERS
7. STUDY OF INTER FACING CARD 8255


EXPERIMENT NO 1

AIM : PROGRAMMING USING 8086 MICCROPROCESSOR TRAINER KIT
ADDITION OF 2 BINARY NO: OF 8 BYTE LENGTHS

APPARATUS REQUIRED : MICRO PROCESSOR TRAINER KIT, KEY BOARD

PROGRAMME :

Addre
ss
Op Code Mnemonic Comments
0400 F8 CLC Clear Carry Flag
0401 B9,04,00 MOV
CX,0004
load counter register with no. of times
addition to be performed(i.e. initialize the
counterregister).
0404 BE,04,00 MOV
SI,0500
load source index reg. with
starting address of ist binary no
0407 BF,08,05 MOV
DI,0508
load destination index reg. withdest.
address (where the resultof add. is to be
started storing).
also its the starting address o
040A 8B,04 MOV
AX,[SI]
load data bytes (which are in location 0500
and 0501 in 16 bit acc. i.e. (0500) ah
(0501)
040C 11,05 ADC[DI],AX Add the contents (MS Bytes) of 0508, 0509
with the contents (lsbytes) of 0500 +0501
and store the result in location 0508
040E 46 INC SI Point at 0502 LOCN (Next rele vant source
LOCN
040F 46 INC SI Point at 0502 LOCN (Next rele vant source
LOCN
0410 47 INC DI Point at next relevant LOCN, i.e. 0504.
0411 47 INC DI Point at next relevant LOCN, i.e. 0504
0412 49 DEC CX Decrement the counter
0413 75,F5 JNE 040A If not zero (i.e. CX =0000) then continue
addition.
0415 F4 HLT Else, halt.

OBSERVATION TABLE :

BEFORE EXECUTION AFTER EXECUTION
ADDRESS INPUT DATA ADRESS INPUT DATA ADRESS OUTPUT
DATA
0500 01 0508 0A 0508 0B
0501 02 0509 0B 0509 0D
0502 03 050A 0C 050A 0F
0503 04 050B 0E 050B 12
0504 05 050C 0F 050C 14
0505 06 050D 10 050D 16
0506 07 050E 11 050E 18
0507 08 050F 12 050F 1A

RESULT :PROGRAMME IS VERIFIED .


EXPERIMENT NO:2
AIM :TO FIND LARGEST NUMBER IN GIVEN STRING

APPARATUS REQUIRED: MICRO PROCESSOR TRAINER KIT, KEY BOARD
PROGRAMME:

Address Op Code Mnemonic Comments
0400 BE,00,0
5
MOV SI,0500 load si reg:with starting address of
string
0403 B9,10,0
0
MOV CX,0010 initialize counter register with
length of string
0406 B4,00 MOV AH,00 initialize the 8 bit accumulator
0408 3A,24 CMP AH,[SI] the first data byte of the string with
00
040A 73,02 JAE 040E if both bytes match then branch to (1)
040C 8A,24 MOV AH,[SI] else move the content of (0500)into 8
bit acc i.e.a real no in ah
040E 46 INC SI point at the next address of string
040F E0,F7 LOOP NE,408 decrement the counter value if not
zero,continue processing
0411 88,24 MOV[SI],AH maximum no in 0510 address
413 F4 HLT halt

OBSERVATION TABLE :

BEFORE EXECUTION AFTER EXECUTION
ADDRESS INPUT DATA ADRESS INPUT DATA ADRESS OUTPUT
DATA
0500 01 0508 12 0510 18
0501 02 0509 18
0502 03 050A 11
0503 04 050B 0A
0504 05 050C 0B
0505 06 050D 0C
0506 07 050E 0D

0507 08 050F 0E

RESULT :PROGRAMME IS VERIFIED AND RESULT IS OBSERVED

EXPERIMENT NO:3

AIM: SORT STRING OF BYTES IN DESCENDING ORDER
APPARATUS REQUIRED :MICRO PROCESSOR TRAINER KIT, KEY BOARD
PROGRAMME :

0400 BE,00,05 MOV SI,0500 InitializeSI Register with
Memory location 0500
0403 8B,1C MOV BX,[SI] BX has the no:of bytes (to be
used for sorting )LOCNS
0500&0501
0405 4B DEC BX Decrement the no of bytes by one
0406 8B,0C(3) MOV CX,[SI] Also CX has the no of bytes in
LOCNS 0500&0501
0408 49 DEC CX Decrement the no of bytes by one
0409 BE,02,05 MOV SI,0502 Initialise SI register with the
starting address of strinf
(having data bytes )
040C 8A,04 MOV AL,[SI] Move the first data bytes of
string into AL
040E 46 INC SI Point at the next bytes of the
string
040F 3A,04 CMP AL,[SI] Compare the two bytes of string
0411 73,06 JAE 0419 If two bytes are wqual or fist
byte is above that the second
byte branch to (1)
0413 86,04 XCHG AL,[SI] Else
0415 73, DEC SI Second byte is less than first
byte and swap the two bytes
0416 86,04 MOV [SI],AL
0418 4E, INC SI Point at the next LOCN of the
string
0419 88,04 LOOP 040C Loop if CX is not zero (i.e
continue procsssing till z=0)
041B 46 DEC BX At this juncture first sorting

will be over i.e first no is
logically
041C E2,F1 MOV SI,0500 Compare with the rest of the
numbers for the correct sorting
all the numbers must be compared
with other logically i.e above
processing should be carried out
number of times
041F 4B JNZ 0406
0421 F4 HLT HALT

OBSERVATION TABLE :

ADDRESS DATA ADDRESS DATA
0500 05 0502 28
0501 00 0503 25
0502 20 0504 20
0503 25 0505 15
0504 28 0506 07
0505 15
0506 07

RESULT :PROGRAMME IS VERIFIED


EXPERIMENT NO:4

AIM :CONVERT THE STRING OF DATA TO ITS 2 COMPLEMENT FORM

APPARATUS REQUIRED :MICRO PROCESSOR TRAINER KIT, KEY BOARD

PROGRAMME :
Address Op
Code
Mnemonic Comments
0400 BE,00,
05
MOV SI,0500 LOAD SI WITH STARTING ADDRESS OF DATA
STRING
0403 BF,00,
06
MOV DI,0600 LOAD DI WITH STARTING OF RESULT LOCNS
0406 B9,10,
00
MOVCX,0010 LOAD CX WITH THE NO OF BYTES IN STRING
0409 AC(1) LODSB LOAD AL WITH DATA BYTE ACCESSED BY SI
REGISTER AND INCREMENT THE ADDRESS
LOCN IN SI REGISTER
040A F6,D8 NEG AL THE CONTENT OF AL ARE 2 S
COMPLIMENTED
040C AA STOSB STORE AL CONTENT IN LOCN POINTED TO BY
DI REF &INCREMENT CURRENT LOCATION IN
DI REGISTER
040D E0,FA LOOP NZ 0409 IF CX = 0000 CONTINUE 2S
COMPLIMENTING THE DATA IN STRING
040F F4 HLT HALT

OBSERVATION TABLE :

ADDRESS
DATA
I/P
ADDR: DATA
I/P
ADDRESS DATA
O/P
ADDRESS DATA
O/P
0500 01 0508 09 0600 FF 0608 F7
0501 02 0509 0A 0601 FE 0609 F6
0502 03 050A 0B 0602 FD 060A F5
0503 04 050B 0C 0603 FC 060B F4
0504 05 050C 0D 0604 FB 060C F3
0505 06 050D 0E 0605 FA 060D F2
0506 07 050E 0F 0606 F9 060E F1
0507 08 050F 10 0607 F8 060F F0

RESULT :PROGRAMME IS VERIFIED.

EXPERIMENT NO:5
AIM :
PROGRAMMES USING MICROCONTROLLER TRAINER KIT
TO FLASHING DISPLAY OF WELCOME M51-02 KIT
PROGRAM:
Address Code Label Mnemonics Operand Comments
3000 90 30 1E HERE MOV DPTR#301E MESSAGE DISPLAY
3003 12 0A 3C LCALL OA36
3006 7B 00 MOV R3#0 DELAY CODE
3008 7A 00 LOOP2 MOV R2#0
300A DA FE LOOP1 DJNZ R2,LOOP1
300C DB FA DJNZ R3,LOOP2
300E 90 30 32 MOV DPTR#3032 BLANK MESSAGE
3011 12 0A 3C LCALL OA3C DISPLAY ROUTINE
3014 7B 00 MOV R3#0
3016 7A 00 LOOP4 MOV R2#0
3018 DA FE LOOP3 DJNZ R2,LOOP3 DELAY CODE
301A DB FA DJNZL R3,LOOP4

301C 80 E2 SJMP 3000 DISPLAY MESSAGE

301E 57 45 4C 43 4F
4D
DFB 57H, 45H, 4CH, 43H, 4FH, 4DH,
3024 45 20 4D 35 31
2D
DFB 45H, 20H, 4DH, 35H, 31H, 2DH
302A 30 32 20 4B 49
54
DFB 30H, 32H, 20H, 4BH, 49H, 54H,
3032 20 20 20 20 20
20
DFB 20H, 20H, 20H, 20H, 20H, 20H.
3038 20 20 20 20 20
20
DFB 20H, 20H, 20H, 20H, 20H, 20H.
303E 20 20 20 20 20
20
DFB 20H, 20H, 20H, 20H, 20H, 20H.

RESULT :MESSAGE IS DISPLAYED .

EXPERIMENT NO:6

AIM :HEXA DECIMAL ADDITION OF TWO NUMBERS

APPARATUS REQUIRED: MICRO CONTROLLER TRAINER KIT ,KEY BOARD

PROGRAMME:
ADDRESS CODE LABEL MNEMONICS OPERAND COMMENT
3000 12 0A C1 START LCALL 0AC1H READ 1
ST
OPERAND
3003 A3 INC DPTR
3004 E0 MOV X A@DPTR
3005 F5 0A MOV 0AH,A
3007 12 0A C1 LCALL 0AC1H READ 2
nd
OPERAND
300A A3 INC DPTR
300B E0 MOV X A@DPTR

300C 25 0A ADD A,0AH ADD HEX
300E 90 4E 00 MOV DPTR,#4E00H
3011 F0 MOV X @DPTR,A
3012 90 4E 00 MOV DPTR,#4E00H
3016 54 F0 ANL A,#0F0H
3018 C4 SWAP A
3019 90 4E 00 MOV DPTR#4E01H
301C F0 MOV X @DPTR,A
301D 90 4E 00 MOV DPTR,#4E00H
3020 E0 MOV X A,@DPTR
3021 54 0F ANL A#0FH
3023 90 4E 02 MOV DPTR,#4E02H
3027 12 15 58 LCALL 1558 DISPLAY RESULT
302A 90 4E 01 MOV DPTR#4E01H
302D E0 MOV X A,@DPTR
302E 12 0B 77 LCALL 0B77H GET CODE
3031 12 15 91 LCALL 1591H WRITE
3034 90 4E 02 MOV DPTR,#4E02H
3037 E0 MOV X A,@DPTR
3038 12 0B 77 LCALL 0B77H GET CODE
303B 12 15 91 LCALL 1591H WRITE
303E 12 0A A1 LP:1 LCALL 0AA1H GET KEY SPACE
3041 B4 20 FA CJNE A#20H,LP1
3044 02 30 00 LJMP START

On executing program from 3000h enter the address message displayed
,Enter the first two digit operand then press enter enter next two digit
operand sum of two numbers is displayed if sum is greater than two digit .

RESULT:HEXA DECIMAL ADDITION IS PERFORMED .


EXPERIMENT NO :7

AIM: STUDY OF INTER FACING CARD 8255

APPARATUS REQUIRED :8086 MICROPROCESSOR TRAINER KIT,KEYBOARD, INTERFACE CARD 8255.

PROGRAMME:
IN THIS PROGRAMME WE WILL BE USING 8255 IN MODE 0 WHICH IS A
SIMPLE INPUT/OUTPUT MODE HERE PORT A IS SET AS AN INPUT PORT .THE DATA WHICH IS
INPUT THROUGH PORT A WILL BE DISPLAYED ON SEVEN SEGMENT DISPLAY DEVICE THE
STATUS CAN BE VIEWED AS ON LED

0400 B0,90 MOV AL,90H INIT 8255 CWR
0402 E6,60 OUT 66H,AL SET PORT A AS
INPUT
0404 E4,60 IN AL,60H READ PORT A DATA
0406 9A,7C,F0,00,F0 CALL F000:F07C CALL CLEAR DISPLAY
040B B4,00 MOV AH,OOH MOV REG AH =00
040D B3,80 MOV BL,80H DISPLAY RAM
LOCATION OF LCD
040F 9A,94 ,F0,00,F0 F000:F094 CALL DISPLAY
ROUTINE
0414 EB,EE START JUMP TO START

OBSERVATION TABLE

STEP I:90 is the control word for 8255 in mode o using port a as input port b and
port c are not used in this experiment .

D7 D6 D5 D4 D3 D2 D1
D0
1 0 0 1 0 0 0
0

STEP II:Read the data from port a.store this data at memory location.

STEP III: Display the content of memory location on the led/lcd display of the kit
.

STEP IV: Go to start to make programe in loop so it is ready to read next data at
port a following result can be seen on LED.

DATA BUS CS RD WR
A0 A1
STEP I 90 1 0 1
1 1
STEP II DATA 1 1 0
0

RESULT :PROGRAMME IS VERIFIED .


EXPERIMENT NO: 8

AIM :STUDY OF INTER FACING CARD 8253

APPARATUS REQUIRED :SC 02,MICROPROCESSOR KIT.

PROGRAMME :


Address Op Code LABEL Mnemonic Comments
0400 B0,30 START MOV AL,30H INIT 8253
0402 E6,66 OUT 66H,AL SET FOR COUNTER 0
0404 B0,20 MOV AL,20H MOVE ACC DATA 20H
0406 E6,60 OUT 60H,AL LSB COUNT FOR COUNTER 0
040A E6,60 OUT 60H,AL LSB COUNT FOR COUNTER 0
040C B1,10 MOV CL,10H
040E FE,C9 DL1 DEC CL
0410 75,FC JNZ DL 1
0414 E6,66 OUT 66H,AL LATCH CWR COUNT
0416 E4,60 IN AL,60H READ COUNTER-0
0418 EB,E6 JMP START JUMP TO START

OBSERVATION TABLE :

DATA
BUS
CS RD WR A0 A1
START 30 1 0 1 1 1
STEP I 20 1 0 1 0 0
STEP II 00 1 0 1 0 0
STEP
III
00 1 0 1 1 1
STEP IV XX 1 1 0 0 0
STEPV AGAIN REPEAT STEP I

RESULT:8253 INTERFACING CARD IS STUDIED

EXPERIMENT NO: 9

AIM : STUDY OF INTER FACING CARD 8251

APPARATUS REQUIRED :STUDY CARD KEY BOARD,PERSONEL COMPUTER .

PROGRAMME:

THIS PROGRAMME IS TO TRANSMIT THE CHARACTER FROM PC KEY BOARD TO
8251 STUDY CARD AND THE SAME DATA WILLTRANSMITT FROM 8251 STUDY CARD TO THE PC
IN 9600 BAUD RATE THE BAUD RATE GENERATED USING 8253

ADDRESS OPCODE MNEMONICS COMMENT
0400 B0,B6 MOV AL ,B6H INIT 8253
0402 E6 06 OUT 06H,AL FOR BAUD RATE GENERATION
0404 B0,07 MOVAL,07H
0406 E6,04 OUT 04H AL LOAD LSB COUNT
0408 B0 00 MOV AL,00H
040A E6 04 OUT 04H,AL LOAD MSB COUNT
040C B0 4E MOV AL 4EH INIT MODE WORD FOR 8251
040E E6 66 OUT 86H AL OUT ON MODE WORD
0410 B0 05 MOV AL,05H MOVE ACC DATA 05H
0412 E6 66 OUT 66H,AL OUT AT COMMAND WORD
0414 E4 66 IN AL,66H
0416 24 02 AND AL,02H CHECK RECIEVER RECEIVING FLAG
0418 74 FA JZ LP2 CHECK UNTIL FLAG = 1
041A E4 60 IN AL,60H READ THE INPUT DATA (PRESSED KEY
)
041C 88 C3 MOV BL,AL MOV REG AL DATA TO BL
041E 90 NOP
041F E4 66 IN AL,66H
0421 24 01 ANDAL,01H CHECK TRANSMITTER RECEIVING FLAG
0423 74 FA JZ LP1 CHECK UNTIL FLAG =1
0425 88 D8 MOV AL,BL MOV REG BL DATA TO AL
0427 E6 60 OUT 80H,AL OUT AT DATA WORD
0429 EB E9 JMP LP2 JUMP TO LP2

RESULT :8251 STUDY CARD IS STUDIED .

EXPERIMENT NO:10
AIM :STUDY OF INTER FACING CARD 8259

APPARATUS REQUIRED :MICRO PROCESSOR TRAINING KIT,KEY BOARD, INTERFACING CARD 8259.

PROGRAMME :

0400 B8 00 00 MOV AX,0000H MOV REG AX WITH 0000H

0403 8E D8 MOV DS,AX LOAD DATA SEG AS AX
0405 B8 00 20 MOVAX,2000H INIT INTERRUPT ASSRESS
2000H
0408 89 06 00
00
MOV [0000]AX
040C B8 00 00 MOV AX,0000H
040F 89 06 02
00
MOV [0002],AX
0413 B0 17 MOV AL,17H MOV AL REG WITH DATA 17H
0415 E6 60 OUT 60H,AL ICW 1-EDGE TRIGERED
SINGLE
0417 B0 00 MOV AL,00H ICW 2
0419 E6 66 OUT66H,AL
041B B0 01 MOV AL,01 ICW4-NON BUFFERED
041D E6 66 OUT 66H,AL
041F B0 FE MOV AL,0FEH MOV ACC WIYH 0FEH
0421 E6 66 OUT 66H,AL ENABLE IR-00
0423 9A 7C F0
00 F0
CALL F000:F07C CLEAR DISPLAY
0428 B3 80 MOVBL,80H SET FIRST LINE LOCATION
RAM
042A 9A 78 F0
00 F0
CALL F000:F078 CLEAR FIRST LINE
042F B0 86 MOV AL,86H SET DISPLAY RAM LOCATION
0431 9A 44 F0
00 F0
CALLF000:F044 CALL DISPLAY
0436 0E PUSH CS
0437 1F POP DS
0438 BE 00 05 MOV SI,0500H SET MEMORY POINTER
043B B9 05 00 MOV CX,0005H COUNTER OF 5 DIGIT
DISPLAY
043E FC CLD CLEAR DIRECTION FLAG
043F AC LODSB CALL DISPLAY ROUNTINE
0440 9A 48 F0
00 F0
CALL F000,F048H LOOP TILL CX= 0
0445 E2 F7 LOOP L3
0447 FB ST1
0448 EB FE JMP HERE JUMP TO HERE
0500 48 45 4C
50 20
DB 48H, 45H ,4CH ,50H
,20H
HELP
0520 49 52 30
30 20
DB 49H, 52H, 30H 30H,
20H
IR00

INTERRUPT SERVICE ROUNTINE:

2000 9A 7C F0
00 F0
CALL F000:F07C CLEAR DISPLAY
2005 B3 80 MOV BL,80H SET FIRST LINE LOCATION RAM
2007 9A 78 F0
00 F0
CALL F000:F078 CLEAR FIRST LINE
200C B0 86 MOV AL,86H SET DISPLAY RAM LOCATION
200E 9A 44 F0
00 F0
CALL F000:F044 CALL DISPLAY RAM LOCATION
2013 0E PUSH CS
2014 1F POP DS
2015 BE 20 05 MOV SI,0520H SET MEMORY POINTER
2018 B9 05 00 MOV CX,0005H COUNTER OF 5 DIGIT DISPLAY
201B FC CLD CLEAR DIRECTION FLAG
201C AC LODSB CALL DISPLAY ROUTINE
201D 9A 48 F0
00 F0
CALL F000:F048 LOOP TILL CX=0
2022 E2 F7 LOOP L3 ICW2-NON SPECIFIC EOI
2024 B0 20 MOV AL,20H
2026 E6 66 OUT 66H,AL
2028 EB FE JMP HERE JUMP TO HERE

STEPS OF PROGRAMME FOR 8086:

STEP 1 :INITIALIZE STACK POINTER AND GIVE INITIALIZING COMMAND WORD

STEP 2 :ENABLE INTERRUPT 0 ONLY

STEP3:DELAY AND CLEAR DISPLAY

STEP 4:DISPLAY MESSAGE

THE RESULT ON LED WILL BE AS FOLLOWS :

DATA
BUS
RD WR INTA A0 CS COMMENT
STEP 1 17 0 1 0 0 1 icw 1
STEP 2 00 0 1 0 1 1 icw 2-the isr upper address
byte= 21h
STEP 3 01 0 1 0 1 1 icw 4
STEP 4 FE 0 1 0 1 1

STEP 5 FF 0 0 0 1 0 now cpu will be free runing
indicated by freshly glowing
leds and help displayed
waiting for interrupt
NOW CONNECT IR0 TO Vcc BY THE PATCH CORD

RES
ULT
:82
59
STU
DY
CAR
D
IS
STU
DIE
D .


LAB MANUAL

Version No. 1
DATA
BUS
RD WR INTA INTR A0 CS COMMENTS
STEP 1 CD 0 0 1 1 1 0 first inta cycle with cd
STEP 2 60 0 0 0 1 1 0 second inta lower adder
byte of isr
STEP 3 21 0 0 1 1 1 0 3
rd
inta upper address byte
of isr
STEP 4 20 0 1 0 0 0 1 ocw2 eoi
iroo will display on seven
segment
STEP 5 - - - - - - -- free running cpu
displayingir0with some
delay and again display
reverts to help after
returning to main


Subject
ELE. M/C -2
Subject
Code
BE-503
Scheme New
Class/Branc
h
V SEM
Author Mr.Pajan Gangele
Institution


E.M.E.C-II Lab.

Index
1
To Determine Equivalent circuit parameters by No load & Block
Rotor test on Single-phase induction motor.
2
V-I Characteristics of Synchronous motor
3
To perform open circuit and short circuit on a 3 phase alternator
4
To measure direct axis synchronous reactances (X
d
) & Quadrature
axis synchronous reactances (X
q
) of a synchronous machine.
5 To study the synchronizing of a 3-phase alternator with the bus
bar .
6
REGULATION BY SYNCRONOUS IMPEDANCE METHOD
7
V-CURVES OF SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR
8
SLIP TEST TO MEASURE STEADY STATE REACTANCES (X
d
,X
q
)


EXPERIMENT NO: 1

AIM: To Determine Equivalent circuit parameters by No load &
Block Rotor test on Single-phase induction motor.

INSTRUMENTS REQUIRED:

S.No
.
1 Ammeter MI 0-5A/10 A 1
2 Voltmeter MI 0-150/300 V 1
3 Wattmeter Dynamometer 5/10A,200/400
V
1
4 Lamp bank load Resistive 10 A,250 V 1
5 Techometer digital 0-2000 1

THEORY:
No load & block rotor tests are performed on 1- phase
Induction motor to determine the parameters of the equivalent
ckt.
The motor consists of a stator winding, represented by its
resistance R1 & leakage reactance X1 & two imaginary rotors
called forward & backward rotors. Exciting branch has been shown
with exciting reactance with one half the total magnetising
reactance assigned to each rotor. If forwad rotor operates at
slip S, backward rotor operates at 2S.

1. Measurement of AC resistance of stator main winding:


The DC resistance of the main winding of the stator i.e
R
dc
is measured by voltmeter ammeter method at full load
current. The effective value of the resistance at line
frequency may be taken 1.1 to 1.3 times the DC voltage.

2. Parameters from block rotor test:

Using the information of block rotor test, the parameters
can be established as..

Equivalent impedance (Ze) = Vsc/ Isc.

Equivalent resistance (Re) = Wsc/ Isc.

Equivalent reactance in terms of stator, Xe = X1 +
X2
More over X1 can be taken equal to X2
X1=X2=1/2 Xe

Thus X2f = X2b = X2
Lly, R2f = R2b = R2

3. Parameters from No Load test:

No load equivalent impedance, Z
0
= V
0
/ I
0
Z
0
= (R1+ R2/ 4) + j(X1 + Xm/ 2 + X2/ 2)

Cos
0
= W
0
/ V
0
I
0


PROCEDURE :

(a). No Load test:

4. connect the ckt as shown.
5. Switch on the AC supply.
6. Adjust the voltage applied to the ckt to a low value.
7. Centrifugal switch will get open automaticlally at 75 % of
the rated speed, disconnecting the stator winding.
8. Record the applied voltage, the no load current & power
for various values of applied voltage.
9. Switch off the supply to stop the motor.

(b). Block rotor test:

4. connections are the sameexcept the meters are replaced with
proper range suggested.
5. Adjust the variac in the ckt such that its o/p voltage is
quite lowapproximately 5% to 10% of the rated voltage.
6. Switch on the ac supply.
7. Adjust the applied voltage, such that the I drawn by the
motor is full load rated current. Record the applied
voltage, I/P current & power.

8. Switch off the AC mains to stop the motor.

(c) Resistance of the main winding:
Measure the DC Resistance of the main stator winding, using the
voltmeter- ammeter method.

Observation table:

EXPERIMENT NO.02

V-I CHARACTERISTICS OF SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR

OBJECTIVE :- To study the effect of field current upon the
stator current and power factor with synchronous motor running
at no/on load , hence to draw V and inverted V-curves of the
motor.
APPARATUS REQUIRED :-

S.
No
.
Item Type Specification Quantity
1 Ammeter MI 0-10/20A 1
2 Ammeter MC 0-5/10A 1

3 Wattmeter DY 10/20A,200/400V 2
4 Voltmeter MI 0-300/600V 1
6 Voltmeter MC 0-300V 1

UNDERLYING CONCEPT :-
With constant mechanical
load on the synchronous motor, the variation of field current
changes the armature current drawn by the motor and also its PF.
As such behavior of synchronous motor is described by three
different modes of field excitation.
Normal excitation: The armature current is minimum at a
particular value of field current which is called the
field excitation. The operating PF of the motor is unity
ie it is equivalent to resistive load.
Under excitation :When the field current is decreased below
normal excitation the armature current increases and the
operating PF of the motor decreases. The PF under this
condition is lagging.
Over excitation : When the field current is increased
beyond normal excitation the armature current again
increases and the operating PF of the motor decreases.
However the PF is leading in this condition.
If the above variation of field &
armature current are plotted for a constant mechanical load a
curve of the shape V is obtained.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM :

PROCEDURE :
14) Connect the circuit as shown in fig.
15) Switch on the supply & start the motor using starter.
16) In this case field winding is automatically excited
with the help of exciter provided on the shaft of main
motor.
17) Set rheostat in the field circuit of the motor to the
position of normal excitation . under this condition
armature will draw minimum current from the mains. Note
down readings of all the meters connected in the circuit .
18) Reduce the excitation in steps & note down the


corresponding armature current and reading of both watt
meters. Excitation may be reduced till the current in the
armature winding is of rated value. Under this condition
armature should increase on reducing the excitation .
19) Again adjust the rheostat in the field circuit to
normal excitation .Now increase the excitation in steps
and note down the reading of all the meters at each setting
of increase excitation .
20) Adjust the voltage of dc generator coupled to
synchronous motor to rated value by varying the field
current of the generator.
21) Load the DC generator to half load /Full load & repeat
steps 4,5,6.
22) Remove the load on the dc generator gradually.
10 . Switch off the supply .

OBSERVATION TABLE :-

S.No V I
f
I
a
W
1
W
2
V
dc
I
dc
COS
1
2
3
4
5

RESULT:-


CONCLUSION:-

EXPERIMENT NO.: 03

OBJECTIVE :-
(a) perform open circuit and short circuit on a 3 phase
alternator
(b) Perform load test on 3 phase alternator with highly lagging
load (approximately zero power factor ) and at rated voltage
with rated current flowing in the stator winding
(b) Draw open circuit and zero power factor saturation
characteristics of the alternator on the same graph .
(c) Calculate the regulation of alternator by drawing the
proper phasor diagram connected with the above characteristics
.


S.No Item Type Range Quantity
1 Ammeter MI 0-10/20 A 1
2 Ammeter MC 0-2.5/5 A 1
3 Voltmeter MI 0-300/600
V
1
4 Rheostat Single 272 , 1.7 1

tube A
5 Rheostat Single
tube
300 2.2 A 1
6 3 Phase Highly
inductive load
Lagging 15 A ,400
V
1
7 Tachometer Digital 0-2000 rpm 1


Zero power factor saturation curve
method is most reliable for determining the regulation of
alternator , because it properly takes into account , the effect
of armature leakage reactance drop and the saturation .The
following experimental data is needed to determine the
regulation by this method .
Open circuit characteristics at the rated speed of the
alternator .
Field current corresponding to full load short circuit
current i.e. only one reading of short circuit test .
Field current corresponding to full load rated voltage zero
power factor i.e. again only one reading of zero power
factor full load characteristics.
AC resistance of the stator winding per phase of the
alternator .

Plotting of zero power factor , full load characteristic:-
To plot zero power factor full load characteristic from the
experimental data proceed as follows

(yyy) Draw the open circuit characteristic to proper scale
and also draw the air gap line
(zzz) Draw the field current , If sc corresponding to full
load short circuit current ,This has been represented by the
line OB in fig .
(aaaa) Draw the field current If Z
p
at rated voltage (line
TP) which correspond to full load zero power factor thus
obtaining a point P on the zero power factor full load
characteristic.
(bbbb) From the point P draw a horizontal line PC
representing the field current corresponding to full load
short circuit current i.e. PC = OB .
(cccc) From the point C draw a line CD parallel to air gap
line .
(dddd) Join D to P Now PCD is a triangle which is normally
called as Potier triangle .
(eeee) Points P and P on the zero power factor full load
curve can be obtained by tracing the Potier triangle as shown
in fig.

(ffff) Zero power factor full load characteristic can now be
drawn from the points B, P, P and P, which are in this
characteristics .

DETERMINATION OF LEAKAGE REACTANCE
Drop a perpendicular from the point D
meeting the PC at the point E then line ED represents the
leakage reactance drop which is also called as Potier reactance
drop (E
z
)
DETERMINATION OF REGULATION
Regulation of alternator can be determined following the
various steps given below .
4. Draw the current phasor , I
a
horizontally which is a
reference phasor , fig
5. Terminal voltage phasor V (line OA) is drawn at power factor
angle with respect to current .
6. Add armature resistance drop I
a
R
a
(line AB) to the terminal
voltage phasor V.
7. Potier reactance drop Ex is added in quadrature to the

current phasor.(line BC)
8. Join O and C , line OC represents the internally generated
emf. E
g
.
9. Phasor OA and OC are projected by arc to the vertical line .
10. Intercept DE shown by dotted horizontal line in fig
represents the field current I
fg
corresponding to no load
rated voltage .
11. The portion GH to the intercept FH represents the field
current Ifs which takes into account the effect of
saturation .
12. Draw the field current I
fg
horizontally (line OS) a shown
in fig.
13. Add the field current I
fsc
(line ST) at power factor angle
with the vertical as shown in fig.
14. Join OT and the field current Ifs (line TU) thus giving a
total field current If.
15. No load emf E
o
corresponding to field current , I is found
out from the open circuit characteristic
Then regulation =
E V
V
100
percent
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM :-

Fig shows the circuit diagram for conducting open circuit and
short circuit tests on 3 phase alternator which have already
been explained in art gives the circuit diagram for performing
load test (with highly inductive load ) on the alternator .the
following instruments connected in the circuit serve the
function indicated against each .
1.Rheostat R
1
to vary the field current of dc motor coupled
with alternator to adjust and maintain the rated speed of
alternator .
2. 3 Phase highly inductive load to load the alternator at
rated current and at approximately zero power factor .
3. Ammeter , A to record the load current of alternator .
4. Voltmeter to measure phase voltage of the alternator .
5. Rheostat R
2
to vary the field current of alternator so as to


obtain rated voltage at full load .
6. Ammeter A
1
- to record field current of alternator
PROCEDURE.
W For zero power factor test :-
12. Connect the circuit as per figure .
13. Set the rheostat R
1
so that the field current of the motor
is maximum possible at the instant of starting the motor
(fully out of field circuit ).
14. Set the rheostat R
2
so that the field current of
alternator is minimum .
15. Ensure that the alternator is on no-load.
16. Switch on the dc supply and start the dc motor with the
help of starter .
17. Vary the field current of the motor by rheostat R
1
so as
to obtain rated speed .
18. Switch on the dc supply to the field of the alternator .
19. Vary the field current of the alternator gradually in
steps and adjust the rated terminal voltage across the load
at each step by increasing the field current till full load
of the alternator .Record field current of the alternator

.The complete zero power factor characteristics can be
plotted based in one reading only.
20. Decrease the load on the alternator gradually and side by
side , reduce the field current of the alternator .
21. Switch off the dc supply to the field of the alternator
and dc motor .
22. Measure the dc resistance of the stator phase by
voltmeter .ammeter method and convert it to ac resistance
by multiplying the same with a factor 1.3 which takes into
account the skin effect ..
OPEN CIRCUIT AND SHORT CIRCUIT TEST :
Procedure for open circuit and
short test on alternator has already been explained in
experiment -01 , which may be referred for performing these
tests.

OBSERVATION : May be tabulated as follows :
(a) For ZPF Test

S.No Stator current Terminal
voltage
Field current

WE For open and short circuit test

Open circuit test Short circuit test
S.No Field
current
E.M.F. S.N
o
Field
current
Short circuit
test

RESULT :-

CONCLUSION:-

EXPERIMENT NO:04

AIM: To measure direct axis synchronous reactances (X
d
) &
Quadrature axis synchronous reactances (X
q
) of a synchronous

machine.

INSTRUMENTS REQUIRED:

THEORY:

X
q
& X
d
are the steady state reactances of the synchronous
machine.

(gggg) Direct axis synchronous reactance, X
d
:

X
d
of a syn. machine in per unit is equal to
the ratio of field current, I
fsc
at the rated armature current
from the short circuit test, to the field current, I
fo
at the
rated voltage on air gap line.

Direct- aixs synchronous reactance, X
d
= I
fsc
/ I
fo

per unit.

(ii) Quadrature axis synchronous reactance, X
q
by slip
test :

For the slip test, the alternater should
be driven slightly les than the synchronous speed with its field
current open. 3 phase balanced voltage of rated frequency is

applied to armature (stator) terminals. Now in the wave graph,
when the crest of the stator mmf wave coincides with the direct
axis of the rotating field, the induced emf in the open field is
zero, the voltage across the stator terminals will be maximum &
the current drawn by the stator winding is minimum.

Thus, approximate value of X
d
:

(X
ds
) =E
max
/ I
min

When the crest of the stator
mmf wave coincides with the quadrature axis of the rotating
field, the induced emf in the open field is maximun, the voltage
across the stator terminals will be minimum & the current drawn
by the stator winding is maximum.

hus, approximate value of X
q
:
(X
qs
) =E
min
/ I
max

Now, the Quadrature- axis synchronous reactance, X
q
= X
d
(X
qs
/
X
ds
) = X
d
[E
min
/ I
max
][E
max
/ I
min
] per unit.

Note: For synchronous machines, X
d
is greater than X
q
i.e X
d
> X
q
.

PROCEDURE:

(a). open ckt test:

WE connect the ckt.
W= Swith on dc supply to dc motor & the field of
alternator.
WCC Start the dc motor with the help of starter.
Wpp The starter arm should be moved slowly, till the speed
of the dc motor builds up & finaly all the resistance steps
are cut out & the starter arm is held in on position by the
magnet of no volt releasse.

W]] Record the field current of the alternator & its open
ckt voltage per phase.
W-- Increase the field current in steps by decreasing the
resistance & record the field current & open ckt voltage of
the alternator for various values of field current.
W]] Increase the field current upto 30 % higher than the
rated voltage.
W Now Decrease it to minimum by inserting rheostat fully
in field ckt.

(b). short ckt test :

with the dc motor running at rated speed & with
minimumfield current of alternator, close the switch s,
thus short-ckting the stator winding of alternator.
Record the field current of the alternator & the short ckt
current.
Increase the field current till the rated full load short-
ckt current.
Take 4-5 observations.
Decrease the field curent of alternator to minimum & also
decrease the speed of dc motor by field rheostat of the
motor.
13. Switch off the dc supply.

(c). slip test :
23) connect the ckt.
24) Keep the resistance in the field current of the dc
motor minimum.
25) switch on dc supply & repeat the step in (a).
26) Ensure that the setting of 3-phase variac is at zero
position.
27) Switch on 3-phase ac supply to the startor winding of
alternator.
28) Ensure the direction of rotation of alternator, when
run by dc motor & when by 3-phase induction motor is the

same.
29) Adjust the voltage applied to the stator winding, till
the current in the stator winding is approx full load rated
value.
30) Reduce the applied voltage & switch off the ac supply.
31) Decrease the speed of dc motor & switch off dc supply.

Observation table :

EXPERIMENT NO :-05

SYNCHRONISATION OF ALTERNATOR

OBJECTIVE :- To synchronise a 3 phase alternator with the bus
bar .


S.No Name Type Range Quantity
2
Rhesostat Single tube Consisting
of 3 set of bulbs and

290 1.7 A
2

a 3 phase switch
3
Synchronisin
g
Switch board
---------------
-

290 1.7 A
1

UNDERLYING CONCEPT:-

A single generating station normally consist of several ac
generators to supply the total load on the station .During light
load on the station only a few generators are operated to supply
the demand .When the load on the station increases heavily other
ac generators are also to be operated to run in parallel with
the existing generator in order to cope up the increased load on
generating station.

Synchronising of ac generators is the process of
switching on an incoming alternator to the bus bar so that it
can operate in parallel with other alternators already connected
to the bus bar to share the load on the generating station.
Before an incoming alternator can be synchronised to the bus
bars the following conditions must be fulfilled .

a) The voltage generated by the incoming generator
is equal to the bus bar voltage .It is advisable
to check this condition using the same voltmeter
for measuring both the voltage .
b) The phase sequence of the generated voltage of
incoming alternator is the same as that of bus
bar voltage.
c) The frequency of the generated voltage of
incoming alternator is the same as the bus bar
frequency .

Condition (i) can be satisfied by equalising the two voltage
which are indicated by a voltmeter .Other conditions of
synchronisation are indicated by a synchroscope and by lamp

method .Before using any one of the above method to ascertain
condition (ii) and (iii) the speed of the incoming alternator
is adjusted to its rated value by varying the field current of
the dc motor which is the prime mover for this alternator .

Synchronoscope is a device by means of which we can correctly
detect the frequency or the speed the incoming alternator with
respect to the busbar .The device is fed by the generated phase
voltage of incoming alternator on one side and by the bus bar
phase voltage on the other side .It clearly indicates by a
pointer whether the incoming alternator is running fast or slow
.As per the indication obtained by this device the speed of the
alternator can be increased or decreased as the case may be to
equalise the frequency to this alternator with that of bus bar.

To indicate the correct equalization of frequency and the same
phase sequence of incoming alternator and bus bar lamp
synchronizing or bright lamp synchronising are generally used
in laboratories .In dark lamp method of synchronizing all the
three sets of bulbs become dark at the same time and at a
different instant become bright at the same time .The three sets
of lamps are connected directly across the R-R , Y-Y , and
B-B phase of incoming alternator and that of bus bar , so that
synchronizing of incoming alternator is carried out while all
the three sets of lamps are dark .This method of synchronizing
is preferred , because it is easier to; judge the instant of
the bright period than the instant of dark period at the time
of synchronizing .Hence bright lamp method is commonly used for
synchronizing the incoming alternator with the bus bar .

In bright lamp method one set of lamp is directly
connected between the similar phases of incoming alternator and
bus bar where as other two sets of lamps are cross connected
between the phases of incoming alternator and bus bar as shown
in fig ., so that at the instant of synchronizing one set of
lamp which is directly connected would be dark while the other

two sets should be equally bright .In this set of synchronising
if the frequency of the alternator and the bus bar are not
equal , lamp will flicker the alternation is brightness being
rapid when there is a large difference in frequencies and slow ,
when the frequencies are nearly equal .Hence the speed of the
incoming alternator is adjusted until the set of lamps go in and
out very slowly This method gives a clear indication of the same
phase sequence also that of the voltage of alternator and of bus
bar .

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM :-

Fig
sho
ws
the
cir
cui
t
diagram for synchronising an alternator with the bus bar .The
prime mover of the alternator is dc motor whose speed can be
adjusted bu the rheostat provided in its field circuit .The
generated voltage of the alternator is adjusted equal to the bus
bar voltage by varying the field current of alternator with the
rheostat provided in its field circuit .Synchronising switch
board consisting of three set of lamps (each set with 2 lamps in
series ) and a switch forms the proper link between the

incoming alternator and the bus bar .

PROCEDURE ;-

1. Connection are made as per circuit diagram.
2. ensure that the synchronising switch is open ,
external resistance in the field circuit of the motor
is zero and external resistance in the field circuit
of alternator is maximum.
3. Switch on dc supply to the dc motor and start it using
the starter.
4. Adjust the speed of the dc motor to rated speed of
alternator by varying the rheostat in its field
circuit .
5. Switch on the dc supply to the field of the
alternator and adjust the field current so that the
generated voltage of the alternator is equal to the
bus bar voltage .
6. Switch on the bus bar voltage .Now the three set of
lamps will flicker .In case flickering is fast adjust
slowly the speed of the incoming alternator , so that
its frequency become equal to the bus bar frequency
.Check the equality of two voltage that of alternator
and bus bar again. Under such condition the set of
lamps will of in and out very slowly
7. Observe that the phase sequence of the alternator is
the same as that of bus bar which can be checked by
the order of the sets becoming dark and bright .As per

the connection of the set of lamps , one set which is
directly connected between the same phase should be
dark and at the same instant the other two set of
lamps which are cross connected should be bright
8. Watch for the correct instant of sychronising switch
in hand and close this switch when the directly
connected set of lamps is dark and the other two set
of lamps are equally bright thus synchronizing the
incoming alternator with the bus bar .
9. Switch off the synchronizing switch , bus bar switch
and then the dc main to stop the dc motor and the
alternator .

EXPERIMENT NO :- 06

REGULATION BY SYNCRONOUS IMPEDANCE METHOD

OBJECTIVES :-
(a) Perform, no load and short circuit tests on a 3 phase
alternator .
(b) Measure the resistance of the stator winding of
alternator .
(c) Find out regulation of alternator at full load and at (i)
unity p.f. (ii) 0.85 p.f. lagging (iii) 0.85 p.f. leading ,
using synchronous impedance method .

PREREQUISITE :-


UNDERLYING CONCEPT:-

To find out the regulation of
alternator by synchronous impedance
method , following characteristics and data has to be
obtained experimentally ,

9. open circuit characteristics at synchronous speed.
10. Short circuit characteristics at synchronous speed.
(iii) Ac resistance of the stator winding per phase i.e.
Ra .

Figure shows the open circuit and short circuit
S.No
.
1 Ammeter MC 0-1/2 A 1
2 Ammeter MI 0-10/20 A 1
3 Voltmeter MI 0-300/600 V 1
4 Rheostat Single
tube
272O, 1.7 A 2
5 Tachometer Digital 0-2000 rpm 1


characteristics of a 3 phase
alternator plotted on the phase . To find out the synchronous
impedance from these characteristics open circuit voltage , E
1

and short circuit current I
1
(preferably full load current ) ,
corresponding to a particular value of field current is obtained
.Then synchronous impedance per phase is given by,

Synchronous impedance , Z
O
= E
1
/I
1

Then , Synchronous reactance , X
s
= Z
s
R
s

Figure shows the phasor diagram of the alternator supplying full
load current of I
s
ampere lagging the terminal voltage V by an
angle .The open circuit voltage E of the alternator is given by

E = V +I
a
R
a

+I
s
X
s
(Phasor sum)
The diagram has been drawn with the current as the reference
phasor and is self explanatory .The open circuit voltage is
finally obtained from the phasor diagram corresponding to this
loading condition is E volts .Then the regulation of the

alternator under the above loading condition is given by
Regulation =
E V
V
100
percent
An approximate expression for the open circuit voltage can be
established referring to the phasor diagram
Open circuit voltage , E = (OD +DC)
= ( OF +FD) +(DB +BC)
or E = (V cos| +I
a
R
a
) + (V sin| +I
a

X
a
) (for lagging p.f. load )
The above expression is lagging power factor load .In case
alternator is operating at leading power factor open circuit
voltage , E can be found out in a similar way and is given by ,
E = (V cos| +I
a
R
a
) (Vsin |+ I
a
X
a
)
(for lagging p.f. load )
The value of regulation obtained by this method is higher than
obtained from as actual load test , as such it is called the
pessimistic method .
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM :-

It is essential to include the following equipments
/instruments of proper type and range to serve the function
indicated against each ,
4. DC motor used as a prime mover for the alternator i.e.
coupled with the alternator
5. Rheostat R
1
used as a variable resistance and connected
in the field circuit of dc motor to obtain and maintain the
speed of the motor and hence the alternator .
6. Rheostat R
2
connected in field circuit of alternator as a
variable resistance to vary the field current of alternator
.
7. Ammeter A
1
connected in the field circuit of alternator
to measure the field current
8. Voltmeter Connected across a stator phase to measure open
circuit voltage .
9. Ammeter A
2
To measure the short circuit current of


alternator
Complete circuit diagram drawn on the basis of above
discussion has been shown figure.
PROCEDURE :
Connect the circuit as per figure.
Adjust the position of rheostat R
1
for maximum possible
current in the field circuit of dc motor to ensure (i) low
starting speed (ii) high starting torque
Set the position of rheostat R
2
for minimum current in the
field circuit of alternator to ensure low value of
generated emf at starting .
Switch on the dc main feeding the dc motor and the field
circuit of alternator .
Start the dc motor using the starter properly .Various
resistance steps of the starter should be cut out slowly so
that the motor does not draw high current during starting
Set the speed of the motor and hence the alternator at its
rated speed value by varying rheostat R
1
provided in the

field circuit of motor .
Note down the open circuit voltage of the alternator and
the field current .
Repeat step 7 for various value of field current (can be
obtained by varying the rheostat R
2
provided in the field
circuit of the alternator ).Observation should be contained
till the open circuit voltage is 25 to 30 percent higher
than its rated value
Set the position of rheostat R
2
again for minimum possible
current in the field circuit of alternator .
Short circuit the stator winding of the alternator , by
closing the switch provided for this purpose in the circuit
diagram.
Note down the short circuit current and the field current .
Repeat step 11 for various value of field current till the
short circuit current becomes equal to the full load
current of alternator .
Readjust the setting of rheostat of rheostat R
1
and R
2
to

their initial position and then switch off the dc supply to
stop the dc motor .Measure the dc resistance of the
stator winding by usual voltmeter ammeter method .To obtain
ac resistance skin effect must be taken into account .As
such ac resistance may be taken approximately 1.3 times the
dc resistance measured.

OBSERVATION : May be tabulated as follows.

Open circuit voltage
Short circuit
voltage
S.No I
f
E I
f
I
sc

RESULT:-
CONCLUSION :-


EXPERIMENT NO.07

V-CURVES OF SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR

OBJECTIVE :- To study the effect of field current upon the
stator current and power factor with synchronous motor running
at no/on load , hence to draw V and inverted V-curves of the
motor.

S.
No
.
1 Ammeter MI 0-10/20A 1
3 Wattmeter DY 10/20A,200/400V 2
6 Voltmeter MC 0-300V 1

With constant mechanical
load on the synchronous motor, the variation of field current
changes the armature current drawn by the motor and also its PF.
As such behavior of synchronous motor is described by three
different modes of field excitation.
Normal excitation: The armature current is minimum at a
particular value of field current which is called the
field excitation. The operating PF of the motor is unity

ie it is equivalent to resistive load.
Under excitation :When the field current is decreased below
normal excitation the armature current increases and the
operating PF of the motor decreases. The PF under this
condition is lagging.
Over excitation : When the field current is increased
beyond normal excitation the armature current again
increases and the operating PF of the motor decreases.
However the PF is leading in this condition.
If the above variation of field &
armature current are plotted for a constant mechanical load a
curve of the shape V is obtained.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM :


PROCEDURE :
32) Connect the circuit as shown in fig.
33) Switch on the supply & start the motor using starter.
34) In this case field winding is automatically excited
with the help of exciter provided on the shaft of main
motor.
35) Set rheostat in the field circuit of the motor to the
position of normal excitation . under this condition
armature will draw minimum current from the mains. Note
down readings of all the meters connected in the circuit .
36) Reduce the excitation in steps & note down the
corresponding armature current and reading of both watt
meters. Excitation may be reduced till the current in the
armature winding is of rated value. Under this condition
armature should increase on reducing the excitation .
37) Again adjust the rheostat in the field circuit to
normal excitation .Now increase the excitation in steps
and note down the reading of all the meters at each setting
of increase excitation .
38) Adjust the voltage of dc generator coupled to
synchronous motor to rated value by varying the field
current of the generator.
39) Load the DC generator to half load /Full load & repeat

steps 4,5,6.
40) Remove the load on the dc generator gradually.
10 . Switch off the supply .

OBSERVATION TABLE :-

S.No V I
f
I
a
W
1
W
2
V
dc
I
dc
COS
1
2
3
4
5

RESULT:-

CONCLUSION:-

EXPERIMENT NO
:-8

SLIP TEST TO MEASURE STEADY STATE REACTANCES (X
d
,X
q
)

OBJECTIVES :
(a) To measure direct axis synchronous machine.
(b) To measure quadrature- axis synchronous reactance
by slip test.


S.NO
.
1 Ammeter MI 0-15 A 1
2 Ammeter MC 0-2A 1
3 Voltmeter MI 0-150V 1
4 Voltmeter MI 0-600V 1
5 3-phase variac - 400/0-
400V,15A
1
6 Rheostat Single
tube
272, 1.7A 2

UNDERLYING CONCEPT:

Direct-axis synchronous reactance and quadrature-axis
synchronous reactance are the steady state reactances of the
synchronous machine. These reactances can be measured by
performing, open circuit, short circuit tests and the slip test
on a synchronous machine.
4. Direct- axis synchronous reactance of synchronous machine
in per unit is equal to the ratio of field current I
fac

at rated armature current from the short circuit test,
to the field current, I,
fo
at rated voltage on the air
gap line.
Direct-axis synchronous reactance, X
d
= I
fac

I
fo
Thus direct-axis synchronous reactance can be found out by
performing open circuit and short circuit test on an alternator.

5. Quadrature-axis synchronous reactance, X
q
by slip test:
For the slip test, the alternator should be driven at a speed,
slightly less than the synchronous speed with its rated
frequency is applied to armature (stator) terminals of the
synchronous machine. Applied voltage is to be adjusted, so that
the current drawn by the stator winding is full load rated
current. Under these conditions of operation, the variation of
the current drawn by the stator winding, voltage across the
stator winding and the voltage across the field winding will be
as shown in fig. The wave shapes of stator current and stator
voltage clearly indicate that these are changing between minimum
and maximum values. When the crest of the stator mmf wave
coincides with the direct axis of the rotating field, the
induced emf in the open field is zero, the voltage across the
stator terminals will be maximum and the current drawn by the
stator winding is minimum as shown in fig. Thus approximate
value of direct-axis synchronous reactance, X
ds
is given by,
X
ds
= E
max
I
min

When the crest of stator wave coincides with the quadrature-axis
of the rotating field, the induced emf in the open circuit field
is maximum, the voltage across the stator terminals will be
minimum and the current drawn by the stator winding is maximum
as shown in qudrature- axis synchronous reactance ,X
qs
is given
by, X
qs
is given by,
X
qs=
E
min

I
max

For best results, these values are not taken as final values.
The most accurate method for determining the direct axis
synchronous reactance, X
d
is the one, that has already been
described in (i) above. The most accurate value of qudrature-

axis synchronous reactance, X
q
can now be found out using the
above information i.e X
ds,
X
qs
and X
d.
Quadrature axis synchronous reactance ,X
q
= X
qs
X
d

X
ds
=
[E
min
] [I
max
]

X
d
per unit.

I
max
E
min

Hence the accurate value of X
q
can be found out by recording
minimum and maximum values of the above quantities.Accurate
results can be obtained, if the oscillograms are taken during
experimentation for statorv current,stator voltage and injected
voltage across the field.
It may be noted that for synchronous machine,X
d
is greater than
X
q
i.e. X
d
>X
q.
Important caution for conducting slip test
9. Slip should be extremely low during experimentation. In
case of high slip (more than about 50%), following effects
may be observed.
6. Currents induced in the damper winding of alternator will
produce an appreciable error.
7. Induced voltage in the damper winding of alternator will
produce an appreciable error.
10. It should be assured that the induced voltage in the
field circuit is less than the rating of the voltmeter
connected in this circuit.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:-


Fig(10.4) and (10.13) show the circuit diagrams to perform the
open circuit, short circuit and slip test respectively on
synchronous machines, which are self explanatory. Fig. (10.40
has already been given in art, 10.5 and hence not repeated.

PROCEDURE :-

open circuit test

11. Connect the circuit as per fig. (10.4).
12. Ensure that the external resistance in the field of dc
motor acting as a primover for alternator is minimum and
the external resistance in the field circuit of alternator
is maximum.
13. Switch on dc supply to dc motor and the field of
alternator.
14. Start the dc motor with the help of starter. The
starter arm should be moved slowly, till the speed of the

motor builds up and finally all the resistance steps are
cut out and the starter arm is held in on position by the
magnet of no volt release.
15. Adjust the speed of the dc motor to rated speed of the
alternator by varying the external resistance in the field
circuit of the motor.
16. Record the field current of the alternator and its
open circuit voltage per phase.
17. Increase field current of alternator in steps by
decreasing the resistance and record the field current and
open circuit voltage of alternator for various values of
field current.
18. Field current of alternator is increased, till the
open circuit voltage of the alternator is 25 to 30 percent
higher than the rated voltage of the alternator.
19. Decrease the field current of alternator to minimum by
inserting the rheostat fully in the field circuit.
Short circuit test
20. With the dc motor running at rated speed and with
minimum field current of alternator, close the switch s,
thus short-circuiting the stator winding of alternator.
21. Record the field current of alternator and the short
circuit current.
22. Increase the field current of alternator in steps,
till the rated full load short-circuit current. Record the
readings of ammeters in both the circuit at every step. 4
to 5 observations are sufficient, as short circuit
characteristic is a straight line.
23. Decrease the field current of alternator to minimum
and also decrease the speed of dc motor by field rheostat
of the motor.
24. Switch off the dc supply to dc motor as well as to
alternator field.

c) Slip Test

6. Connect the circuit of alternator as shown in fig.(10.13),
keeping the connections of the dc motor same.
7. Ensure that the resistance in the field circuit of dc motor
is minimum.
8. Switch on the dc supply to the motor.
9. Repeat steps 4 described in (a).
10. Adjust the speed of the dc motor slightly less than
the synchronous speed of the alternator by varying the
resistance in the field circuit of the motor. Slip should
be extremely low, preferably less than 4 percent .
11. Ensure that the setting of 3 phase variac is at zero
position.
12. Switch on 3 phase ac supply to the stator winding of
alternator.
13. Ensure that the direction of rotation of alternator,
when run by the dc motor and when run as a 3 phase
induction motor) is the same.
14. Adjust the voltage applied to the stator winding, till
the current in the stator winding is approximately full
load rated value.
15. Under these conditions, the current in the stator
winding, the applied voltage to the stator winding and the
induced voltage in the open field circuit will fluctuate
from minimum values to maximum values, which may be
recorded by the meters included in the circuit. For better
results, oscillogram may be take of stator current, applied
voltage and induced voltage in the field circuit.
16. Reduce the applied voltage to the stator winding of
alternator and switch off 3 phase ac supply.

17. Decrease the speed of dc motor and switch off dc
supply.

OBSERVATIONS: May be tabulated as follows:

Open circuit
test
Short circuit test Slip test
S.
No.
I
r
V
o
I
f
I
ac
I
min
I
max
V
min
V
max

RESULT :-

CONCLUSION:-

BHOPAL INSTITUE OF
TECHNOLOGY

LAB MANUAL

Version No. POWER ELECTRONIC (EX-504)
Subject POWER ELECTRONIC (EX-504)
Subject
Code
EX-504
Scheme New
Class/Branc
h
I & II Semester / all
Author REETA PAWAR
Institution


POWER ELECTRONIC

EXPERIMENT :- 1

STATIC CHARACTERISTICS OF SCR

Aim : Study static characteristics of SCR.

Apparatus Required:
Sl. No. Components Quantity Range
1. Connecting wires 1 -
2. SCR module 1 -

Procedure :
A variable DC power supply, using LM 317 regulator to vary the Anode voltage from 2.5
Volts to
35 volts approximately. One more variable DC power supply using LM 317 regulator to
vary the
Gate Voltage from 1.5 volts to 15 volts approximately. Switch and fuse is provided in
series with
both the power supplies. A potentiometer of 25 watts is provided to vary the load
current. A
potentiometer of 3 watts is provided to vary the Gate current. A Digital Voltmeter is
provided to
measure the Voltage. Two digital Ammeters are provided to measure Anode current and
Gate
current.

Definitions:-

Holding Current (IH): Minimum value of anode current below which the current must
fall for turning Off the SCR.

Latching Current (IL): Minimum value of anode current that SCR must attain during
turn On process to maintain conduction when gate signal is removed. Latching current
is two to three times higher than holding current.

Ckt Diagram:


Proced
ure:

1. Set
VG to
minimu
m,
adjust
Vak to
VA
10
Volts.
1. To
find
IG:
2. Slowly increase VG till SCR conducts. Note down the corresponding IG.
3. Repeat the procedure 2-3 times to accurately get the IG values
1. Make the connections as given in the circuit diagram including meters for SCR
1.
2. V I Characteristics:
2. Now switch ON the mains supply to the unit and initially keep VA &VG at
minimum.
3. Set load potentiometer R1 in the minimum position. Adjust IG to the value
found
in procedure 1.
4. Slowly vary VA and note down Vak and IA readings for every 5 Volts and
entered
the readings in the tabular column. Further vary VA till SCR conducts, this
can be
noticed by sudden drop of Vak and rise of IA readings note down this
readings
and tabulate. Keep multi meter in mili-volts range and connect across VA
terminals. Note down the variation of IA for small variations in VA.
5. Draw the graph of Vak v/s IA. Repeat the same for IG=IG2 /IG3 and draw the
graph.
3. To find latching current:
1. Apply about 20 V between Anode and Cathode by varying VA. Keep the load
potentiometer R1 at minimum position. The device must be in the OFF state
with
gate open.
2. Gradually increase Gate voltage - VG till the device turns ON. This is the
minimum gate current (Igmin) required to turn ON the device.
3. Adjust the gate voltage to a slightly higher.
4. Set the load potentiometer at the maximum resistance position. The device

should comes to OFF state, otherwise decrease VA till the device comes to OFF
state. The gate voltage should be kept constant in this experiment.
5. By varying R1, gradually increase load current IA in steps. Open and close the
Gate voltage VG switch after each step. If the anode current is greater the
latching current of the device, the device stays on even after the gate
switch is
opened. Otherwise the device goes into blocking mode as soon as the gate
switch
is opened. Note the latching current.
6. Obtain the more accurate value of the latching current by taking small steps
of IA
near the latching current value.
4. To find holding current:
1. Increase the load current from the latching current level by load pot R1 or
VA.
2. Open the gate switch permanently. The Thyristor must be fully ON.
3. Now start reducing the load current gradually by adjusting R1. If the SCR does
not turns OFF even after the R1 at maximum position, then reduce VA. Observe
when the device goes to Blocking mode. The load current through the device at
this instant is the holding current of the device.
4. Repeat the steps again to accurately get the Ih. Normally Ih < Il.
5. Repeat the same procedure for other SCR SCR 2. Note down the different
ratings of both the devices.

Tabular Column:
a) V-I Characteristics Reading
Sl. No V AK IA V AK IA

b) IG = ______________ mA
c) Latching Current Il = ______________ mA
d) Holding Current Ih = _______________ mA

Result:
Static characteristics of SCR are determined.

EXPERIMENT 2 &3 :

STATIC CHARACTERISTICS OF MOSFET AND IGBT

Aim: To study the static characteristics of MOSFET and IGBT.
Apparatus Required:
Sl. No. Components Quantity Range
1. External meters 1 -
2. Connecting wires 1 -
3. IGBT/MOSFET module 1 -

Details of the module: This unit mainly consists of the following Power
Semiconductor devices
a. IGBT - IRGBC20S
b. MOSFET - IRF 740

whose characteristics are to be studied.

A variable DC power supply, using LM 317 regulator to vary the load voltage from
2.5Volts to 35 volts approximately. One more variable DC power supply using LM 317
regulator to vary the Gate Voltage from 1.5 volts to 15 volts approximately. Switch
and
fuse is provided in series with both the power supplies. A potentiometer of 25 watts
is
provided to vary the load current. A potentiometer of 3 watts is provided to vary the

Gate current.

Front Panel Details:
Mains Power ON/OFF switch to the unit with built-in indicator

For MOSFET:
Trans conductance Drain
V1= VDS1 = 10 V V1 = VDS2 = 15 V V2 = VGS = 3.5 V V2 = VGS = 3.8 V
VGS Volts ID mA VGS Volts ID mA VDS Volts ID mA VDS Volts ID mA

Trans
condu
ctanc
e
Chara
cteri
stics
Drain
Chara
cteri
stics

Obsev
ation
Table
:

s.no. VDS VGS
25V 3.6 V
15V 3.55 V
3.5 V

Procedure:
1. Make the connections as shown in the circuit diagram with meters.
Trans Conductance Characteristics:
2. Initially keep V1 and V2 zero. Set V1= VDS1= say 10V.
3. Slowly vary V2 (VGS) and note down ID and VGS readings for every 0.5V. and
enter in the tabular column. The minimum gate voltage VGS which is required
for
conduction to start in the MOSFETis called Threshold Voltage VGS (Th). If VGS
is
less than VGS (Th) only very small leakage current flows from Drain to
Source. If
VGS is greater than VGS (Th), the Drain current depends on magnitude of the
Gate Voltage. VGS varies from 2 to 5Volts.
4. Repeat the same for different values of VDS and draw the graph of I D V/S VGS.
Initially set V2 to VGS1= 3.5 Volts.

Drain Characteristics :
2. Slowly vary V1 and note down ID and VDS. For a Particular value of VGS1 there
is
a pinch off voltage (Vp) between drain and source as shown in figure. If VDS
is
lower than Vp, the device works in the constant resistance region and ID is
directly proportional to VDS. If VDS is more than Vp, constant ID flows from
the
device and this operating region is called constant current region.
3. Repeat the above for different values of VGS and note down ID V/S VDS
4. Draw the graph of ID V/S VDS for different values of VGS.

Transfer Characteristics Collector Characteristics

Obsevation Table :
s.no. VCE VGE
VCE1 = 10 V 3.5 V
15 V 3.8 V
25V = 5.2 V

Procedure:

. Initially keep V1 and V2 zero. Set V1= VCE1= say 10V.Slowly vary V2 (VGE) and
note down IC and VGE readings for every 0.5V. and enter in the tabular
column.
The minimum gate voltage VGE which is required for conduction to start in the
IGBT is called Threshold Voltage VGE (Th). If VGE is less than VGE (Th) only
very
small leakage current flows from Collector to Emitter. If VGE is greater than
VGE
(Th), the Collector current depends on magnitude of the Gate Voltage. VGE
varies

from 5 to 6Volts.
Repeat the same for different values of Vc and draw the graph of Ic V/S VGE.
Initially set V2 to VGE1= 5 Volts.

Collector Characteristics:
2. Slowly vary V1 and note down IC and VGE. For a particular value of VGE1 there
is
a pinch off voltage (Vp) between Collector and Emitter as Shown in figure. If
VGE
is lower than Vp, the device works in the constant resistance region and IC
is
directly proportional to VGE. If VGE is more than Vp, constant IC flows from
the
device and this operating region is called constant current region.
3. Repeat the above for different values of VGE and note down IC V/S VGE.
Draw the graph of I C V/S VGE for different values of VGE.

Result : Input and output characteristics of MOSFET and IGBT are determined.


EXPERIMENT 4:

STUDY OF UJT FIRING CIRCUIT

Aim: To turn-on SCR circuit using synchronized UJT relaxation oscillator.

Apparatus Required:
Serial
no.
Apparatus required no.s Quantity range
1 Connecting probes 1
2 Resistor 1 45 ohm
3 CRO 1
4 Multimeter 1

Details
of UJT
Firing
Module

This unit
consists
of the
following
component
s to
study
firing of
SCR using
UJT
relaxatio
n
oscillato
r. This
can also
be used
to study
UJT relaxation oscillator in
unsynchronized mode.
a) A step down transformer 20V / 1A.
b) UJT relaxation oscillator circuit.
c) Pulse transformer isolation for SCR triggering.
d) SCR.

Procedure:

Firing of SCR using UJT:
1. Switch ON the mains supply, observe and note down the wave forms at the
different points in the circuit and also the trigger outputs T1 & T11.
2. Now make the connections as given the circuit diagram using AC source, UJT
relaxation Oscillator, SCR and a suitable load.
3. Now switch ON the mains supply, observe and note down the output waveforms
across load and SCR. Draw the wave forms at different firing angle 120, 90
&
60.

In the UJT firing Circuit the firing angle can be varied from 150 30
approximately.
We cannot vary exactly from 0 - 180 as we vary in single phase converter firing
circuit.

Result: The input and output waveforms are observed.


EXPERIMENT 5:

SCR DIGITAL TRIGGERING CIRCUIT FOR A SINGLE
PHASE CONTROLLED RECTIFIER

Aim: To turn-on single phase controlled rectifier using SCR digital triggering
circuit.

Apparatus Required:

Sl. No Apparatus no.
Quantity Range
1. Digital Firing Circuit 1
-
2. Single phase half & fully controlled power circuit 1
-
3. CRO
1 -
4. Multimeter
1 -
5. Connecting probes

Circuit
Diagram:

Single
Phase
Full
Controll
ed
Bridge
Converte
r:


Proced
ure:
1.
Switch
ON the
Mains
Supply
to the
Firing
circui
t.
Observ
e all
the
test
points
by

varying the firing angle and trigger outputs ON/OFF key. Observe the trigger
outputs and phase sequence. Make sure that all the trigger outputs are proper
before connecting to the power circuit. The trigger output pulse width varies
as
we vary the firing angle.
2. Make the connections in the power circuit.
3. Connect 30V tapping of the transformer secondary to the power circuit.
4. Connect the R-load between load points.
5. Connect firing pulses from the firing circuit to the respective SCRs in the
power
circuit. Switch ON the MCB, switch ON the trigger outputs and note down
output
voltage, output current and the voltage wave forms across load and devices.
6. Draw the waveforms across load and device for different firing angle.
7. Repeat the same for different input voltage up to maximum voltage as provided
in the isolation transformer.
8. Repeat the same for R-L load with and without freewheeling diode and note
down the waveform.

Parameters and Observations :
1. Input voltage wave form.
2. Output voltage wave form (across the load)
3. Output current wave form (through the shunt)
4. Voltage wave form across thyristors (make this measurement only if isolations
is

used)
5. Study of variation of voltage and current wave forms with the variation of
firing
angle.
6. Study of effect of freewheeling diode in case of inductive loads.
Result: All waveforms are verified.

EXPERIMENT 6:

SINGLE PHASE FULL WAVE RECTIFIER WITH R AND R-L
LOADS
Aim: To turn-on single phase full wave rectifier using Single Phase Converter Firing
Unit or Microcontroller Firing Unit.
Apparatus Required:

Sl. No Apparatus
no. Quantity Range
1. Single Phase Converter Firing Unit or C Firing Unit
2. Single phase half & fully controlled power circuit module 1
-
3. CRO
1 -
4. Multimeter
1 -
23.Connecting probes
- -
24.

Circuit Diagram:

Tabular column:


Sl No. Input Voltage-
Vin
Firing
angle
Output voltage

Procedure:
1. Switch ON the Mains Supply to the Firing circuit. Observe all the test points
by
varying the firing angle and trigger outputs ON/OFF key. Observe the trigger
outputs and phase sequence. Make sure that all the trigger outputs are proper
before connecting to the power circuit. The trigger output pulse width varies
as
we vary the firing angle.
2. Make the connections in the power circuit.
3. Connect 30V tapping of the transformer secondary to the power circuit.
4. Connect the R-load between load points.
5. Connect firing pulses from the firing circuit to the respective SCRs in the
power
circuit. Switch ON the MCB, switch ON the trigger outputs and note down
output
voltage, output current and the voltage wave forms across load and devices.
6. Draw the waveforms across load and device for different firing angle.
7. Repeat the same for different input voltage up to maximum voltage as provided
in the isolation transformer.
8. Repeat the same for R-L load with and without freewheeling diode and note
down the waveform.
Parameters and Observations:
1. Input voltage wave form.
2. Output voltage wave form (across the load)
3. Output current wave form (through the shunt)
4. Voltage wave form across thyristors (make this measurement only if isolations
is
used)
5. Study of variation of voltage and current wave forms with the variation of
firing
angle.

6. Study of effect of freewheeling diode in case of inductive loads.
Result: Waveforms of single phase full wave rectifier were observed.

EXPERIMENT 7:
LAMP DIMMER CIRCUIT USING TRAIC DIAC

Aim: To control the AC voltage using Triac Diac combination
Apparatus Required:

Sl. No Apparatus Quantity Range
1. Lamp Dimmer Module 1 -
2. Lamp 1 60w
3. CRO 1 -
4. Multimeter 1 -
5. Connecting probes -

Details of the Module:

This unit consists of 50V AC supply, R-C phase shifting components, a diac, a Triac
and a
lamp to construct lamp dimmer circuit using Triac Diac by controlling AC supply.
The
circuit works on the phase control method. It consists of phase shifting network
comprising of R and C. The firing of Triac is determined by the relative phase
difference
between line and gate control voltage. Adjusting the value of R changes the phase
difference between line and gate control voltage and this changes the firing instant
of
TRIA
C
and
the
load
volt
age.
Diac
is
used
to
trig
ger
the
TRIA
C.

Lamp
Dimm
er
Circuit Using Triac- Diac:

Procedure:
1. Make the connections as given in the circuit diagram.
2. Switch ON the mains supply, vary the firing angle potentiometer and observe the
variation in lamp brightness and also note down the voltage variation across
the
lamp.
Result: AC voltage using Triac Diac combination was controlled.


EXPERIMENT 8:
DC-MOTOR SPEED CONTROL UNIT USING POWER
MOSFET / IGBT CHOPPER

Aim: To control the speed and direction of stepper motor.
Apparatus Required:

1. DC motor module 1 -
2. DC motor 1 -
3. Multimeter 1 -
4. Tachometer 1 -

Details of the Module
This trainer kit consists of two parts.(a) Power circuit and (b) Control circuit to
study
speed control of DC motor.
a) Power circuit :- The power circuits mainly consists of Power MOSFET, IGBT, a
freewheeling diode, and built in DC source for the chopper circuit and
Digital
meters to measure DC voltage and current.
A POWER MOSFET (IRF-460), an IGBT (IRGPH20KD) and a free wheeling diode are
mounted on a suitable heat sink and protected by snubber circuit and fuses. All the
device terminals are brought out on the front panel.
A built in DC source is provided in the unit for input to the chopper circuit. AC
mains
supply of 230 Volts is step down using a transformer with tappings and different AC
output voltage is selected using a rotary switch. The selected AC voltage is fed to a
diode
bridge rectifier to get rectified DC voltage and filtered using filter capacitor. A
glass fuse
is provided in series with the DC supply for protection. Different DC voltages of
24V,
48V, 110V and 220Volts can be selected using the rotary switch. Different DC voltages
are required to run DC motors of different ratings like 24V, 48V, 110V and 220 Volts.
One more diode bridge rectifier is provided to get 220 V 10% DC voltages from
230
Volts AC mains for field supply of DC shunt motor. The field supply is not required
for
speed control of permanent magnet DC motor. A digital voltmeter and Ammeter are
provided to measure DC voltage and current.

Front Panel Details for MOSFET:
1. Vdc Digital Voltmeter to measure DC voltage.
Sl. No Terminals Description
2. Adc Digital Ammeter to measure DC current.
Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistot-IRGPH20KD
IGBT
International Rectifier make
3.
Collector, Gate & Emitter IGBT terminals.

MOSFET IRF 460 (International Rectifier make)
4.
Drain, Source & Gate MOSFET terminals.
Dfw Free wheeling diode - SPR 12PB.
5.
Cathode, Anode Free wheeling diode terminals.
Field Field supply 220 V 10% @ 2Amps for field of
DC
6.
220V DC shunt motor with neon lamp indicator.
Volt-Select Rotary switch to select DC supply as follows.
OFF DC supply is OFF.
1 24 V DC.
7.
2 48VDC.
3 110VDC.
4 220V DC
Step down transformer with tappings @ 20V, 40V,
8. Transformer 80V and 170Volts to get different DC output
Voltages.
Diode bridge rectifier -10Amps/600V to rectify
9. Rectifier
input AC supply to DC supply.
11.C Capacitor filter.
12.

TABULAR COLUMN (Motor control):

Sl.
No.
Duty cycle Vout Io Speed

Note: Since the DC supply is unregulated DC supply, the input will slightly drop as
the
Draw the graph of Duty Cycle V/S Vo.
current increases.


Control Circuit :
The control circuit is 89C51 microcontroller based to accurately generate the
control output. The duty cycle can be varied from 0-100%, Frequency of the

chopper can varied from 50Hz to 500Hz.
2 line x 16 character LCD display to indicate the parameters and their
values.
4 keys to increment & decrement the chopper frequency or Duty cycle and to

Run/Stop the output with soft start and stop feature.

Opto coupler based driver circuit to drive MOSFET/IGBT.

Procedure:
1) Keep the volt select switch at OFF position and switch on the mains supply to
the
unit.
2) The LCD display shows
POWER MOSFET/IGBT CHOPPER
0FF DCY 0 FRQ 50
Digital volt meter and ammeter shows 000 000
3) Measure the Field voltage using digital voltmeter. It should be 220V 10%
approximately and the neon lamp glows.
4) Now keep the voltage select switch at position 1 and measure the voltage at VDC
terminals. It should be 24 volts. The output voltage should be 48V when VOLT-
SELECT switch at position 2, 110V when the VOLT-SELECT switch at position
3, 220V when the VOLT-SELECT switch position at 4 approximately.
5) Make sure that the DC supply is correct. Now observe the driver output using a
CRO by varying duty cycle and frequency.
6) Make sure that the driver output is proper before connecting to the gate/emitter
or gate/source of IGBT or MOSFET.
7) Now all the outputs are proper. Make the connections as given in the circuit
diagram.
8) Initially select 24 volts DC. Connect a Rheostat 100/2 Amps.
9) Apply the driver output pulses.
10)Vary the duty cycle and observe the load voltage and tabulate the Voltmeter and
Ammeter readings.
11)Now change the frequency to some other value and change the duty cycle and
note down the readings.
12)Repeat the same procedure for 48 volts, 110 volts and 220 volts.

13)In case of DC shunt motor experiment, connect field supply to the field
terminals
before connecting to the armature supply. And the field supply should be
removed
only after switch OFF the armature supply.
14)Use higher value of Rheostat 470 /1Amp to work at 110 volts / 220 volts DC
supply.
15)External DC supply can also be used as input to the chopper to get regulated DC
Supply.
Result: The Speed increase and Speed decrease of DC motor was studied.

EXPERIMENT 8:
STEPPER MOTOR CONTROLLER

Aim: To control the speed and direction of stepper motor.
Apparatus Required:

1. Stepper motor module 1 -
2. Connecting probes -
3. Stepper motor 1 -

Details of the Module
This unit is microcontroller based, controller circuit to accurately generate pulses
to energize
the stepper motor winding in the desired sequence. Power transistor based driver
circuit to
drive the Stepper motor. From this controller we can set the speed of the stepper
motor in RPM,
set the number of steps the motor can move. We can set the direction of rotation
forward and
reverse direction. We can also set Half step and full step mode.

Front panel details:

1. Mains Power ON/OFF switch on the unit with built-in indicator
Sl. No Terminals Description
2. Display LCD display to display the parameter & values.
Key Board
SET To set the Parameter.
3. INC To increment the set parameter values.
DEC To decrement the set parameter values.
RUN/STOP To start and stop the stepper motor.
4. +V 5V @ 2Amps DC supply for stepper Motor (Built in)
5. +5V 5V for control circuit (Built in)
6. GND Supply ground point.
7. FUSE 2 Amps fast blow glass fuse for short circuit protection.
A1, A2, B1,
8. Output points to connect to the A1, A2, B1, & B2 leads of
stepper motor.
B2
9. LEDs To indicate the status of output.
Back Panel Details
2 pin Mains cable and Fuse holder with 500mA Glass fuse.

Circuit Diagram:
SWITCHING LOGIC SEQUENCE:
Full step
A1 A2 B1 B2
0 1 0 1
Red Black Blue Green
0 1 1 0
1 0 1 0
1 0 0 1
Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4
Half step
A1 A2 B1 B2
0 1 0 1

Red Black Blue Green
0 0 0 1
1 0 0 1
1 0 0 0
1 0 1 0
0 0 1 0
0 1 1 0
0 1 0 0
Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4

To change the direction read sequence from bottom to top.

1. Connect A1, A2, B1 and B2 leads of stepper motor to the corresponding output
Procedure:
terminal points. And two common terminals to +V supply.
2. Switch ON the mains supply to the unit. Check the Power supplies.
The unit displays STEPPER MOTOR

After few seconds it displays STOP S/R R/F H/F
RPM 1 FOR FULL
Stop - Corresponds to RUN/ STOP selection.
S / R - Corresponds to Step / RPM (Continuous rotation) selection.
R / F - Corresponds to Reverse / Forward - direction selection.
H / F - Corresponds to Half step / Full step selection.
Now RPM blinks. Press INC / DEC key to select STEP or RPM (Continuous
rotation) mode.
After selecting RPM / STEP mode press SET key to select the mode. Now 1
3.
blinks. This corresponds to number of rotation or number of steps selected.
4. Press INC / DEC key to select the speed or steps. Press SET key to set the
rpm /
number of steps. Now FOR blinks. This corresponds to direction of rotation -
Forward.
5. Press INC / DEC key to select the direction of rotation and press SET key to
select. Now FULL blinks. This is corresponds to Full step. Press INC / DEC
key to
select Half step / Full step mode and press SET key to select Half / Full
step
mode.
6. Now the setting is over. Press RUN / STOP key, the stepper motor rotates at
the
set speed if RPM is selected or it moves the number of steps set and stops.
Again
pressing RUN/ STOP key the motor stops if it is in RPM mode or it again moves
the number of set steps and stops.
7. Set the step mode, 1 step, FORWARD and Half step mode. Check the output
status
by LED indication for each step and verify with the switching logic sequence
as
given in the below truth table.
8. Repeat the same for Full step mode. Repeat the same for Reverse direction.
Result: Speed control and direction of stepper motor was observed and studied.

EXPERIMENT 10:

STUDY OF UNIVERSAL MOTOR & INDUCTION MOTOR
SPEED CONTROL UNIT - 0.5 HP/220V AC/DC

Aim: To control the speed of a universal motor ad a single-phase induction motor
using
A. C. voltage controller.

Module Details:
This unit consist of two parts:
(a) Firing Circuit and
(b) Power Circuit.
This unit, generates line synchronized 2 pulse transformer isolated trigger
pulses.
(a) Firing Circuit :
These trigger pulses can be used to trigger :
Single phase AC phase control using SCRs (Anti-parallel SCRs)
Single phase AC phase control using Triac.
Single phase Half wave rectifier (Single SCR)
i)
Single phase Full wave rectifier (Two SCRs)
ii)
Single phase Half controlled bridge rectifier (Two SCRs & Two diodes)
power
iii)
circuits.
iv)
v)
The firing circuit is based on zero crossing detector, ramp generator, op-amp
comparator and amplifier/pulse transformer isolation method.

THEORY:
1. Speed control of universal motor using ac voltage control:

a. Using SCR
b. Using Triac

S
p
e
e
d
c
o
n
t
r
o
l
o
f
D
C
m
o
tor using DC control
Single phase Full controlled bridge rectifier

OBSERV
ATION
DETAIL
:
Sl. No. Input Output Firing angle Output Speed

Voltage Voltage Current

(b) Power Circuit:
The power circuit consists of 2 SCRs, 3 diodes and a Triac. The power devices are
mounted on suitable heat sink for power dissipation. The snubber circuit is connected
for dv/dt protection. A fuse is also provided in series with the devices for short
circuit
or over current protection. In the input side a MCB is provided to switch ON/OFF the
supply to the power circuit.
A digital voltmeter and an Ammeter is provided to measure the Input / Output voltage
and current with ac / dc selector switch.

Procedure:
1. Make the inter connections in the power circuit as given is the circuit
diagram.
2. Switch ON the firing circuit and observe the trigger outputs. Make sure that
the
firing pulses are proper before connecting to the power circuit.
3. Then connect the trigger output from firing circuit to corresponding SCRs /
Triac.
4. In the power circuit initially set the AC input to 30 volts. Switch ON the
MCB.
Switch ON the Trigger outputs switch. Select the SCR / Triac selection
switch and
observe the output wave forms across R load by varying the firing angle
potentiometer.
5. If the output wave form is proper then you can connect the motor & increase
the
input voltage to rated value 0 230V gradually.
6. Vary the firing angle and note down O/P voltage and speed of the motor.
NOTE: If you are not getting the O/P after all proper connections interchange AC O/P
terminals, by turning OFF the MCB. This is just to synchronize the power circuit with
firing circuit.

Result: Speed control of universal motor and single phase induction motor was
studied.

EXPERIMENT 10:
STUDY OF SINGLE PHASE PWM INVERTER IGBT
BASED
Aim: To study the behavior of MOSFET or IGBT based single-phase full-bridge inverter
connected to R load.
Apparatus Required:
1. PWM module 1 -
2. CRO 1 -
3. Multimeter 1 -
4. Connecting probes
Details:
This unit consist of two parts :
(a) Control Circuit and
(b) Power Circuit.

a) Control Circuit :
This is based on 89C52 Microcontroller. 2 X 16 line LCD display to indicate and
monitor
the Parameters and type of modulation. The following modulation techniques are
incorporated:
a) Single pulse modulation
b) Sine triangle modulation
c) Multi pulse modulation
d) Trapezoidal modulation
e) Stair case modulation
5 keys: SET, INC, DEC, FRQ/DTY and RUN/STOP to vary and set the parameters.
Optocoupler based isolation circuit to drive 4 IGBTs connected as 1-ph. Bridge
Inverter.
b) Power Circuit:
This unit consists of 4 IGBTs unit built in diodes of rating 19A/600V. All the
devices are
mounted on proper heat-sink and protected by snubber circuit and fuse. All the
terminals are brought out on the front panel. In the input side a switch and a fuse
are
provided for DC input 24V @ 2A. The frequency can be varied from 20Hz to 100Hz. The

duty can be varied from 0% to 100%. Carrier frequency 9 pulses per each half cycle.

Result: The behavior of MOSFET or IGBT based single phase full bridge inverter was
studied.

LAB MANUAL

Version No. POWER SYSTEM -1
Subject POWER SYSTEM -1
Subject
Code
EX-505
Scheme New
Class/Branc
h
V SEM
Author
Institution


BIT, BHOPAL

LAB MANUAL
Power System-I

List Of Experiment

1.
Study Of Power Flow Diagram.

2
Study of Transmission line design.

3
Study of Advanced Transmission Technologies.

4
To study the Tower and Support for Over Head Transmission
line.

5
Study of line insulator used in transmission line.
6 To study the Electrical Design of Overhead Lines.


EXPERIMENT NO: 1

OBJECT:
Study Of Power Flow Diagram.

Customer service Drop
120/240 volt
Primary distribution
4KV - 46KV
Step down
Transformer

EXPERIMENT NO: 2

OBJECTIVE:
Study of Transmission line design.

The electric lines that generate the most public interest are high-voltage
transmission lines. These
are the largest and most visible electric lines. Most large cities require several
transmission lines for
reliable electric service. Figure 2 shows two 345-kV double-circuited transmission
structures sharing
the same right-of-way (ROW). Double-circuited means that the transmission structure
is carrying
two sets of transmission lines, each with three conductors.

Transmission lines are larger than the more common distribution lines that exist
along rural roads
and city streets. Transmission line poles or structures are between 60 and 140 feet
tall. Distribution
line structures are approximately 40 feet tall.
There are several different kinds of transmission structures. Transmission structures
can be
constructed of metal or wood. They can be single-poled or double poled. They can be
single-
circuited carrying one set of transmission lines or double-circuited with two sets of
lines. Figure 3
shows a close up of a commonly built double-circuited, single-pole transmission
structure. Figure 4
shows diagrams of different types of transmission structures.

Diff
eren
t
tran
smis
sion
stru
ctur

es have different material and construction costs, and require
different right-of-way widths, distances between structures (span length), and pole
height. These
issues also vary with different voltages. In the past, many transmission lines were
constructed on H-
frame wood structures and metal lattice structures. New lines are most often
constructed with single
pole structures because of right-of-way width limitations and environmental
considerations. Current
right-of-way widths vary between 80 to 140 feet. A typical right-of-way is diagrammed
in Figure 5.

EXPERIMENT NO: 3

OBJECTIVE:
Study of Advanced Transmission Technologies.

Not all new power transmission technologies are currently ready for commercial use.
Many are still
in the experimental and prototype stage. The new technologies mostly fall into two
categories new
materials that may increase the amount of power that can be safely transferred
through right-of-
ways, and devices that more finely control the flow of power. New power control
devises improve
the capacity of existing lines. New material advances include high-temperature super-
conducting
technology and advanced composite conductors. New technologies that better manage the
flow of
power include high-voltage direct current systems, superconducting magnetic energy
storage, flexible
alternating current transmission system devices, and real-time ratings on
transmission lines. The
disadvantage of many of these new technologies is that they are still being
researched and their cost
is extremely high.

High-Temperature Superconducting (HTSC) technology
The conductors in HTSC devices operate at extremely low resistances. However, they
require
refrigeration (generally liquid nitrogen) to super-cool the conductors, increasing
maintenance costs
and the complexity of the system. The benefits are cables that can carry five times
as much power
as traditional copper wires with the same dimensions. This greatly reduces the number
of new
transmission lines and the amount of new right-of-way required.
Composite conductors
Usually transmission lines contain steel-core cables that support strands of aluminum
wires which
are the primary conductors of electricity. New cores developed from composite
materials reduce
sagging with high temperatures associated with more power going through transmission
lines. Life-
cycle costs of the experimental conductors are high. The installation and maintenance
procedures
continue to be developed.

Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage (SMES)
SMES devices would be strategically located in a transmission grid to damp out
disturbances. SMES
systems use a cryogenic technology to store energy by circulating current in a super-
conducting coil,
advanced line-monitoring equipment to detect voltage deviations, and inverters that
can rapidly
inject the appropriate combination of real and reactive power to counteract voltage
problems. By
correcting for potential stability problems, these systems permit the operation of
transmission lines
at capacities much closer to their thermal limits than currently possible. However,
the expense of
these cooling systems is a disadvantage. American Transmission Company currently has
six SMES
devices in use on its system to address low-voltage and grid instability issues.

Flexible AC Transmission System (FACTS) devices
Currently, the transmission grid relies mostly on slow, electromechanical switches
and human
operators. Mechanical switching creates split-second delays in responding to
problems. A variety of

power-electronic power switching and other devices are being developed that will
operate much
faster, along with sensors capable of spotting disturbances instantly. These systems
will improve
control and stability of the transmission grid and permit transmission lines to
operate closer to their
thermal limits, making better use of existing wires. However, these FACTS devices are
very
expensive, costing several hundred million dollars for the conversion of a single
line.
Real-time ratings of transmission lines

This is another use of advanced information technologies to expand the capacity of
existing
transmission systems. Special devices can measure the real time tension in
transmission lines,
ambient temperature and wind speed, or cable sag. The results of the measurements are
telemetered
to the control center, which then adjusts the line rating accordingly. Once again the
drawback with
this technology is the high cost relative to the incremental potential increase in
capacity.


EXPERIMENT NO: 4

OBJECTIVE:
To study the Tower and Support for Over Head Transmission line.

Theory:
The support for an overhead line must be capable of carrying the load due to the
conductors and insulators together with the wind load on the support itself.
Types of line support-
(a) Wooden poles
(b) RCC poles
(c ) Steel tubular poles
(d)Steel towers.

(a) Wooden poles :
poles made of chemically treated treated wood are used for distribution lines .
specially in ares where ample supplies of good quality of wood are available. They
are very economical but susceptible to decay. To reduce decay Wooden poles are
protected by an aluminum or zinc cap at the top and bitumen coating over the portion
of the pole in the ground. One pole used for low voltage line and two poles are used
for 33 kv lines two poles in A or H formation are uesd.

(b) RCC poles :
Poles made of reinforced cement concrete are stronger but more costly then wooden
poles. They have very long life and need little maintenance. However , They are bulky
and heavy . They are widely used for distribution lines up to 33 kv in urban area.
Prestressed concrete poles are less bulky and lighter then RCC poles.

(c ) Steel tubular poles :
These may be stepped or swaged type . A stepped pole is manufactured from a single
tube, the diameter being reduce in parallel step by passing the tube through a series
of dies . A swaged pole is made of different diameter which are swaged together when
hot They posses the distinct advantages of light weight high strength to weight ratio
and long life .the use of cap at the top of the concrete muff in the ground and
regular painting prolongs their life. They are very widely used for lines up to 33
kv.

Two Angle Structures and a Transmission Line Crossing a Road
(d)Steel Towers :

Lines of 66 kv and above are invariably supported on steel towers. They are
fabricated for painted or galvanized angle which can be transported separately and
the erection done on site . Steel tower have the advantage of a very long life and
high degree of reliability. They can stand very severe weather conditions.
They can very suitable for double ckt lines. Tower many shape and sizes are used for
different types of lines.
The common configurations are
narrow base single ckt up to 33 KV
Broad base single ckt up to 66 KV
Double ckt 132 KV

Cats head single ckt for 220 KV
Single ckt with two sub-conductors per phase for 400 KV .


EXPERIMENT NO: 5
OBJECTIVE :

Study of line insulator used in transmission line.

Theory:

The insulator used for transmission lines are classified as
Pin Insulators
Suspension type
Post type
Strain insulators


Pin type insulator :

A pin type insulator is small, simple in construction and cheap. It is used on lines
up to and including 33 KV lines. The conductor is bound into a groove on the top of
the insulator which is cemented on to a galvanized steel pin attached to the crossarm
on the pole or the tower .To avoid the direct contact between porcelain and the metal
pin , a soft metal thimble is uesd . line conductor and An adequate length of leakage
path is obtain by providing the insulator with two or three petticoats or rain sheds.
These are so designed that even when the outer surface of the insulator is wet due to
rain sufficient leakage resistance is still given by the inner dry surface.
In its electrical behavior the pin insulators may be compared to a complicated series
of condenser
with series resistance and shunt resistance.
Pin type insulator are used only upto about 33 KV because for higher voltage they
tend to be very heavy and more costly than suspension type insulators.

Suspension type Insulators:
The cost of a Pin Insulators are rapidly with increase in line voltage. Therefore,
suspension insulators are used for line above 33 KV. They are also known as Disc type
insulators or string insulator
A suspension Insulator consists of porcelain disc units mounted one above the other.
Each disc consists of a single shed of porcelain grooved on the under surface to
increase the creepage distance . The upper surface of each disc is inclined at the
suitable angle to the horizontal in order to ensure free drainage of water. Each disc
is provided with a metal cap at the top and a metal pin underneath. The cap is
recessed so as to take the pin of another unit and thus a string of any required
number of units can built up.

Post Insulators:
These are used for supporting the bus bars, and disconnecting switches in supporting
bus bars, and disconnecting switches in substation . A post insulator is similar to a
pin type insulators but has a metal base and the frequently a metal cap so that more
than one unit can be mounted in series.
In extra high voltage sub station 400 kv above polycon post insulator are used. Also
known as multi cone insulator . These insulator is puncture proof, solid core
insulator for outdoor use. In these insulator the porcelain elements are in the form
of cones smugly fitting one one inside the other and boded by special cement . The
path is through many layers of porcelain cones and the voltage required to puncture
this path is many times the external flash over voltage so that the insulator is
almost puncture proof.

Strain insulator:
these are special mechanically strong suspension insulators and are used to take the
tension of the conductor at the line termination and at position where there is a

change in the direction of line .
The discs of a strain insulator are in a vertical plane as compared to the discs of
suspension insulator which are in a horizontal plane. One extra long span like river
crossing Two or three strings of strain insulator .arranged in parallel, are often
used.


EXPERIMENT NO: 6
OBJECTIVE:
To study the Electrical Design of Overhead Lines.

Theory:
The Design of transmission line involves a number of technical and economic aspects.
The capacity and distance of transmission are specified the voltage regulation and
efficiency are also specified. The design detail include line voltage, size of phase
conductor, span , specing and configuration of conductor , number and size of earth
wire .

Selection of Conductor :

Types of conductors used in overhead transmission lines.

Hard drawn Copper

Hard drawn Aluminium

Steel cored Aluminium Conductors

Cadmium Copper Conductors

Steel Cored Copper Conductors

Copper weld conductors

All Aluminium Conductors

Aluminium Conductor Steel Reinforced

Expanded ACSR Conductors

All Aluminium Alloy Conductors

ACAR Conductors

Alumoweld Conductors

Phospher Bronze Conductors

Galvanized Steel conductors

1 Hard drawn Copper:
Copper for overhead lines is hard drawn to give a high tensile strength. It has a
high electrical conductivity , long life, and high scrap value. Other property of
hard drawn copper conductivity are given table along with the properties of hard
drawn Aluminium . Copper conductor is most suitable for distribution work where spans
are short and tapping are more.

Electrical and Mechanical charactersics of Hard drawn Aluminium and Copper wires.

Cadmium Copper Conductors:

The tensile strength of copper is increased by approximately 50 percent by adding
about 0.7 to 1/0 percent cadmium to it . The conductivity is , However, reduced by
about15 to 17 percent. The property of higher tensile strength enable it to be
erected on longer spans with the same sag. Like hard drawn copper this alloy posses
the advantage of easy jointing. The small diameter render these conductor unsuitable
to be used on high voltage lines where corona losses are serious.

Steel Cored Copper Conductor:

One or more layers of copper strands a steel core to make a steel cored copper

conductor . The steel core added to tensile strength of the conductors. The core is
provided with bituminised cotton tape in order to protect the conductors from the
galvanic action .

Copperweld Conductor:
Copper is welded on to a steel wire by hot rolling and cold drawing a billet of steel
coated with copper. It is ensured that the uniform thickness of copper is welded .the
conductivity of copperweld conductors varies from 30 to 60 percent of that of a solid
copper conductor with the same diameter .the conductivity of the standard grade is
about 40 percent . The modulus of elasticity is about 16800kgf/mm
2
. And coefficient
of linear expansion is 1.296x10
-5o
C . Copperweld conductors may be used for longer
spans such as river crossing.

All Aluminum Conductors:
The increasing trends in the cost of copper has resulted in replacement of copper and
adoption of aluminum for transmission work. At least 99.5 percent electrolytically
refined aluminum is rolled and hard drawn for conductor use. For a given resistance
the cross-section of the aluminum conductor is 60 percent greter then that of copper
and its weight is only 48.3% of that of copper conductor .
ACC are used for distribution lines in urban ares and short transmission lines with
the lower voltage.
Where high winds are frequent, aluminum conductors due to their lightness, large
diameter and greter sag, are more likely to swing resulting in inter phase faults.

Aluminum Conductors Steel Reinforced (ACSR):
Conductors made of all aluminum are not sufficiently strong mechanicaly for
construction of long span lines. The deficiency in strength can be compensated by
adding a steel core to the conductor.such a conductor is called Steel cored aluminum
SCA or ACSR.
It has 7 steel strands forming a central core around which there are two layer of
24 aluminumstrands. The conductor stranding is specified as 24A1/7 St.
The important advantages of ACSR is it high tensile strength and light weight. The
sag is therefore small and the line can be design with shorter supports or longer
spans for a given sag.
The presence of steel in ACSR conductor create a difficulty in making splices and
dead ends. In urban construction this is particularly important..
In industrial and coastal areas this galvanic corrosion may be serious to effect the
life of conductor , but this is now avoided due to CORONA.

Expanded ACSR:
sometimes a plastic or fibrous material is introduced between the steel core and
aluminum strands to make the diameter of the conductor large to reduce corona loss
and radio interferencesss



LAB MANUAL

Version No. CONTROL SYSTEM
Subject CONTROL SYSTEM
Subject
Code
EX-602
Scheme New
Class/Branc
h
VI SEM
Author Gaurav Shrivastav
Institution


Control System LAB.

Index
1 Study of ON- OFF controller.
2 Study of Prportional controller.
3 Study of Integral controller.
4 Study of Derivative controller.
5 Study of P-I controller( Prportional + Integral controller)
6 Study of P-D controller ( Prportional+ Derivative controller)
7 Study of PID( Prportional + Integral +Derivative )controller.
8 Study of PID in close loop system.
9 Study of Open Loop system.
10 Study of Close Loop system.
11 Study of Close loop with disturbance.
12 To study and observe Voltage to frequency converter
13 To study and observe Frequency to Voltage converter
14 To study and implement Light intensity control using PWM method
15 To study and observe Characteristics of Photoconductive Cell
(LDR)
16 To study and implement Characteristics of DC Motor (Speed / Vin).
17 To study and implement Bidirectional motor speed control

18 To study and implement Tachogenerator.
19 To study and implement Motor control using PWM method
20 To study and observe Position control of DC Servo Motor
21 To study and implement DC Motor Control-Open Loop
22 To study and observe DC Motor Control-Close Loop
23 To study and implement Temperature Control-Open Loop
24 To study and observe Temperature Control-Close Loop
25 To study and implement Light intensity control-Open Loop
26 To study and observe Light intensity control-Close Loop
27 Calibration of RTD Characterstics
28 Study of RTD characteristics
29 Study open loop response of the process
30 Study of On/Off controller
31 Study of Ziegler- Nichols PID controller tuning
32 Study of P-control action using the software
34 Study of PI-control action using the software
35 Study of PID-control action using the software
36 Study of the Industrial PID controller as On/Off
Controller
37 Study of the Industrial PID controller as P Controller
38 Study of the Industrial PID controller as PI Controller
Study of the Industrial PID controller as PID Controller


Experiment:1

Object:
Study of ON- OFF controller.

Apparatus Required:
(1)PID Kit
(2)Multimeter
(3)connecting wire probes

Procedure:
Connet the ckt as shown in fig.
On the power supply .
Set 1 volt at TP 1 and apply it to SetPoint of On/Off controller.
From disturbance block , apply to variable input of On/ Off controller and vary
the disturbance knob as required.
Now measure the voltage at variable input of On/Off controller by digital
multimeter


Conclu
sion :
When
knob
of
On/Off
contro
ller
at min
positi
on you
will
find
that
LED
will
glow
voltage of variable goes slightly above the set point ,But if knob of On/Off
controller at max position you will find that LED will glow voltage of variable
goes slightly above then the min set
voltage value .
So the differential gap in min position is less than the max position setting of On
/Off controller.

Experiment: 2

Object:
Study of Proportional controller.

Apparatus Required:
(1)PID Kit
(2)Multimeter

Procedure:
1 Make connection as shown in fig.
2 On the power supply .
3 Ground PV and input of summing Blocks that are not used.
4 Set .5 volt at TP 1.
5 Apply set point to proportional input.
6 Check the output of proportionsl block with digital voltmeter.

7 Vary slowly the value of Kp and find out the proportinal band.
8 we can check the effect on Kp on CRO. also

Obse
rvat
ion
:
S.no Input voltage Kp O/p voltage
1 .5 .2 0.819
2 .5 .3 0.920
3 .5 .4 1.54
4 .5 .5 1.86
5 .5 .6 2.58

Conclusion :
as we vary the value of Kp the Out put voltage vary in magnitute of voltage will
increase by varying Kp.

Experiment:3

Object:
Study of Integral controller.

Apparatus Required:
(1)PID Kit
(2)Multimeter

Procedure:
4 Apply square wave to the input of Integrator.
5 Check the out put of integrator block on CRO

6 Vary slowly the Ki and observe the changes in the output.

Conclu
sion :

By
changi
ng the
value
of Ki
we
observ on CRO that the slope of the wave will increase with increment in the value of
Ki.

Experiment: 4

Object:

Study of Derivative controller.

Apparatus Required:
(1)PID Kit
(2)Multimeter

Procedure :


4 Apply square wave to the input of Derivative .
5 Check the out put of Derivetive block on CRO.
6 Vary slowly the Kd and observe the changes in the output.

Conc
lusi
on :

By
chan
ging the value of Kd we observ on CRO that the tip of the of wave will increase with
increment in the value of Kd.

Experiment: 5

Object:

Study of P-I controller( Prportional + Integral controller)

Apparatus Required:
(1)PID Kit
(2)Multimeter

Procedure:
4 Apply square wave to the Set Point SP .
5 Check the output TP 10 of summing block on CRO that will look like as shown in
fig.

6 Vary slowly the value of Kp and Ki and observe the changes in waveshape.

Conclusion :
When we vary the value of Kp the
mag of square wave increase and by
vary the Ki the slop will add at
the top of the square wave shape .

Experiment: 6

Object:

Study of P-D controller ( Prportional+ Derivative controller)

Procedure:
1 Make Connection as shown in fig.
2 Switch On the power supply .
fig.
6 Vary slowly the value of Kp and Kd and observe the changes in waveshape.

Conclusion :
When we vary the value of Kp the mag of square wave increase and by vary the Kd , the
tip of the first edge is in slightly greater than the last edge and these
decrement is in the shape of exponentialy decrement shape at both side this effect
seen at upper side as well as lower side of wave shape.

Experiment: 7

Object:

Study of P-I-D controller ( Prportional+Integral+ Derivative) controller

Procedure:

fig.
6 Vary slowly the value of Kp ,Ki and Kd and observe the changes in waveshape.

Conclusion :
When we vary the value of Kp the mag of square wave increase and by vary the Kd , the
tip of the first edge equal of the last edge and Kd effect add the Right mark
shape between two edges .


Experiment: 8

Object:
Study of PID in close loop system.

Apparatus Required:
(1)PID Kit
(2)Multimeter

Procedure:
fig.
6 Vary slowly the value of Kp ,Ki and Kd and observe the changes in waveshape.


Experiment: 9

Object:

Study of Open Loop system.

Apparatus Required:
(1)PID Kit
(2)Multimeter

Procedure:
4 By controlling the knob of set point , we can set +/- 10 volt at TP 1 and find
the relation ship between input and output variable .
5 After finding the relationship between output and input voltage , measure the
overall gain gain proportional block Kp.
6 Now note the value of TP1 to which output at TP 10 repeat the measurement for 2
volt .
7 The chain amplification is defined as the ratio of the output difference to
input difference.

Observati
on :
s.no i/p voltage o/p voltage Diffrece in sequencial o/p
1 1 0.7 0.48
2 2 1.18 0.63

3 3 1.81 0.60
4 4 2.41 0.58
5 5 2.99
Conclusion :
the output variable can be manualy controlled by reading the instrument connected to
the output and varying the amplitude of input until the output variable reaches the
required value . With thiconcept open loop system is cleared.

Experiment: 10

Object:

Study of Close Loop system.

Apparatus Required:
(1)PID Kit
(2)Multimeter

Procedure:
4 set the feedback rate by adjusting the feedback knob.
5 To set the feed back rate first apply 2 volt at i/p of feedback and measure the
o/p of that block such that output is 1 volt so the feedback rate is 0.5 , repeat the
process for different outputs.

Obse
rvat
ion
:
s. no Input voltage Output voltage Feedback rate
1 2 1 0.5
2 2 0.5 0.25

3 2 0.4 0.20
4 2 0.25 0.12
5 2 0.20 0.12

Conclusion :

Experiment: 11

Object:

Study of Close Loop system with disturbance .

Apparatus Required:
(1)PID Kit
(2)Multimeter

Procedure:
4 Read out the output voltage once with connect feedback and once with out connect
the feedback.
5 these all value is in presence of disturbance.

Observation
:

s.no Out put voltage with
feedback
o/p voltage without feedback
1 0.4 1.08
2 0.808 2.07

3 1.24 3.62
4 1.56 4.18
5 2.01 5.39

Conclusion:

Experiment 12

Aim: To study and observe Voltage to frequency converter

Apparatus required :
1. NV3000-Control System Lab
2. Oscilloscope/ Frequency counter
3. Voltmeter
4. 2 mm patch cords (3)

Circuit diagram :

Proc
edur
e :
1.
Make
the
conn
ecti
ons
acco
rdin
g to
the Figure 23
2. Connect the NV3000-Control System Lab to AC mains.
3. Switch ON the trainer by Power switch.
4. Set the potentiometer in such a way that it gives 0.5V output at tp2 and measure
the frequency at tp3 using oscilloscope/ frequency counter.
5. Set the potentiometer in such a way that it gives 1.0V output at tp2 and measure
the frequency at tp3 using oscilloscope/ frequency counter.
6. Now repeat the step 4 and 5 for 1.5V, 2.0V up to 5.0Vand measure the frequency

at tp3 using oscilloscope/ frequency counter.
7. Switch OFF the power switch.
8. Now make a observation table and plot a graph between voltage (Vin) and
frequency (Fout).
Observation table :
s.no voltage (Vin) at tp2 Frequency(Fout) at tp3
1 0.5 55 Khz
2 1.0 60 Khz
3 1.5 64.30 Khz
4 2.0 68.45 Khz
5 2.5 72.10 Khz
6 3.0 79.1 Khz

Experiment 13
AIM: To study and observe Frequency to Voltage converter

2. Voltmeter
3. Oscilloscope/ Frequency
4. 2mm patch cords (2)

Circuit
diagram
:
Procedu
re :
1. Make
the
connect
ions
accordi
ng to
the
Figure 24
4. Set the clock frequency at 5 KHz and observe the voltage at socket 5 using Digital
Voltmeter.
5. Tune the potentiometer and increase the clock frequency for every 5 KHz (5 KHz,
10 KHz, 15 KHz .) and observe the change in voltage with respect to
frequency.

7. Now make an observation table and plot a graph between frequency (Fin) &
voltage (Vin).

Experi
ment
14
AIM:
To study and implement Light intensity control using PWM method


Circuit diagram :

Proc
edur
e :
1.
Make
the
conn
ecti
ons
acco
rdin
g to the Figure 25.
2. Connect the NV3000-Control System Lab to AC mains
4. Slowly tune the potentiometer and observe the change in intensity of the Lamp-1.
Conclusion :
You will observe that on varying the PWM driver input voltage the ON OFF time of
pulse will vary and because of which intensity of lamp will change. The ON-OFF
effect of PWM driver output on lamp will not be observed because of fast switching

speed.

Experiment 15

AIM: To study and observe Characteristics of Photoconductive Cell (LDR)

2. Voltmeter

Circuit diagram :

Theory :
Electrical conduction in semiconductor materials occurs when free charge carriers

e.g.
electrons are available in the material when an electric field is applied. In certain
semiconductors. Photoconductive cell are elements whose conductivity is a function
of incident electromagnetic radiation. Since, resistance of these materials decrease
with increase in incident light, therefore these materials are also called Light
Dependent Resistor or LDR. Commercially available photoconductive cell materials
are cadmium sulfide (CdS) and cadmium selenoid (CdSe) with band gap of 2.42 eV &
1.74 eV respectively. On account of the large energy bands, both the materials have a
very high resistivity at ambient temperature which gives a very high value of
resistance for practical purposes. The photoconductive cells use a special type of
construction which minimizes resistance while providing maximum surface.
Photoconductive cells are made by chemically sintering the required powder into
tablets of the protective envelope of glass or plastic. Electrons are deposited on
the
tablet surface and are made of materials which give an ohmic contact but with low
resistance compared with that of the photoconductor.
The electrodes are usually in the form of interlocked fingers as shown.

Photoconduct
ive cell are
made from cadmium sulphide doped with silver antimony or
indium chemically deposited on a substrate. Light falling on the sensitive area
breaks
chemical bonds. The resulting electrons and holes become available to increase the
conductivity. These bonds are slow to re-form when light is removed and the response
time is sluggish. The resistance of the ORP12 drops dramatically as the incident
light
increases. Its characteristics are given in table given. The device requires a
suitable
load resistor to provide a voltage output which then falls with increasing
illumination.
The characteristics of a photoconductive cell vary considerably depending upon the
type of material used. When the cell is kept in darkness its resistance is called
Dark
Resistance. The dark resistance may be as high as 1010 . If the cell is illuminated
its
resistance decreases. The resistance depends on the physical character of
photoconductive layer as well as on the dimensions of the cell and its geometric
configuration. The current depends upon the electricity voltage applied and it is of
the
order of the mA. When using photoconductive cell for a particular application it is

important to select the proper dark resistance, as well as suitable sensitivity. The
sensitivity is defined as :

Where,
R = Change in resistance;
H = Change in irradiation; W/m-2
The spectral response of the sensor must match that of the light source. A Photo
conductor has a relatively large sensitive area. A small change in light intensity
causes
a large change in resistance. The relationship between irradiance and resistance is,
however not linear. It is closely an exponential relationship. The spectral response
of
cadmium sulphide cell closely matches that of the human eye and the cell is often
used in application where human vision is a factor, much as street light control or
automatic iris controls for cameras, to alter the bias of transistor or change the
gain of
an amplifier. Such circuits are used in automatic brightness composition of TV
receivers. Photoconductive cells are also used in bridge circuit applications, and
for
measurement of attenuation of light etc.

Experiment 16
AIM : To
study and

implement Characteristics of DC Motor (Speed / Vin).

2. Oscilloscope

Procedu
re :
1.
Make
the
connect
ions
accordi
ng to
the
Figure
30
4. Turn voltage POT slowly until the motor begins to rotate. And note down the
corresponding Reference voltage.
5. Increase the input voltage by slowly turning the Reference voltage POT. For
every one volt increment of the reference voltage (1v, 2v, 3v.), record
the corresponding change in voltage on the socket 5 with the help of Digital
Voltmeter.
6. Note down all the readings in table given below
7. Switch Off the power switch.
8. Plot a graph on input voltage vs motor speed.



Experiment 17

AIM : To study and implement Bidirectional motor speed control
Equipments Needed :
2. Oscilloscope

Proc
edur
e :
1.
Make
the
conn
ecti
ons
acco
rdin
g to
the
Figu
re
32
4. Slowly move the pot and set the motor at particular speed.
5. Connect tp22 (Direction in) to tp6 (De-Bounce switch)
Observation :
Now when De-Bounce switch is pressed, motor will change its direction of rotation
and when De-Bounce switch is not pressed motor will rotation in its own direction.


Experiment 18
AIM:To study and implement Tachogenerator.

Equipments Needed :
2. Oscilloscope

Circuit diagram :

Procedur
e :
1.
Make the
connecti
ons
accordin
g to the
Figure
33
2.
Connect
the NV3000-Control System Lab to AC mains.
4. Connect tp21(IR Out) to CRO
5. On increasing the input voltage slowly by rotating the Reference voltage POT in
counter clockwise (CCW). For every 1volt increment of the reference voltage
(1v, 2v, 3v.), you will see the corresponding square wave on CRO screen
that gives the measure of Reference voltage (input voltage).
Observation :
You will observe that with the increase in motor speed, pulse (square wave) widths
will decreases & vice versa. So, it is concluded that there is linear but inversely
proportional relationship between motor speed and pulse width.


Experiment 19
AIM :To study and implement Motor control using PWM method

Equipments Needed :

Circuit diagram :

Procedure :
1. Make the connections according to the Figure 34
3. Switch ON the trainer Power supply.
4. On slowly varying the POT in CCW (counter clockwise) direction to increase
the motor speed and CW (clockwise) to decrease the motor speed.
5. Connect the socket with +5v and ground to rotate the fan in one direction and
on
interchanging the terminals (+5v to Gnd & Gnd to +5v) the direction of rotation
will be in reverse.
Observation :
You will observe that speed of DC Motor will vary according to the change in
voltage.


Experiment 20

AIM: To study and observe Position control of DC Servo Motor

Equipments Needed :
2. PC Interface Module
3. Oscilloscope
5. One computer along with NV3000-Control System Lab Software.

Circuit diagram :

Proc
edur
e :
1.
Make
conn
ecti
ons
as
show
n in
Figu
re 35 between PC interface module and
trainer kit.
2. Switch ON the trainer power supply
3. Counter-check the trainer supply. Is it ON? If yes then ok and if not then
switch
it ON.
4. Now you are ready to Run the software given with the trainer.
5. Single left click on the Connect command button, so that all the application

buttons will get activated.
6. Now, single left click on the Servo Motor command button. A screen will
appear as shown in Figure 36
7. By changing the cursor position of scroll bar you can change the position of the
servo motor according to your requirement.
8. The change in angle position is shown in the form of an animated picture as
shown in Figure 36.
9. On connecting oscilloscope to digital output (D0) you will observe the change in
pulse width (ON time) with the change in angle.
10. Make an observation table to record the readings between ON time and angle
position.

Observation Table :

Experiment 21
AIM : To study and implement DC Motor Control-Open Loop

Equipments Needed :


Circuit diagram :

Procedur
e :
1.
Make
connecti
ons up
to
socket
23 & 24
as shown
in
Figure
37 between PC
Interface Module and NV3000-Control System Lab.
2. To built a Wave shaping circuit on the trainer bread board follow the following
steps :
Insert transistor (LM3904) into the bread board properly.
Connect a 1K resistor with collector and a 100 K resistor between 1 k &
base of transistor.
Connect a 1 K resistor and a 100 f capacitor in series with base of the
transistor.
Connect the output of IR sensor i.e., from socket-21 to base of the
transistor.
Take the output between collector and 1 K resistor and connect it to input
of F to V converter (Frequency to voltage) and connect emitter to gnd
(ground).
Connect a supply of 5V dc between 100 K and 1 K resistor.
3. Before Switch ON the trainer power supply check once again the connection
properly and if you are sure about it then only switch ON the supply. Otherwise
components may burn.
4. Counter-check the trainer power supply. Is it ON? If yes then ok and if then
switch it ON.
5. Now, you are ready to Run the software given with the trainer.
7. Single left click on the DC motor control and a screen will appear on the
window as shown in Figure 38.
8. Choose Open Loop Control option.
9. Set the set-point value in set-point block according to your requirement.

10. Now move the cursor position in order to reach the set-point value until the
value of speed block matches or nearly equal to the set-point.
11. This method also called as Manual mode of controlling the system.
12. After completion of the experiment double click on Disconnect command
button given on the toolbar to stop the communication between PC and trainer.

Conclus
ion :
Observe
and
write,
how the
open
loop
charact
eristic
acting
on
sliding
the
scroll
bar in
order
to achieve the desired set-point or, the behaviour of the open loop? Whether you
are able to reach the set-point manually or not. And take the screen print of your
experiment and attach with your practical notebook as shown in FIG.

Experiment 22
AIM : To study and observe DC Motor Control-Close Loop

Equipments Needed :


Circuit diagram :

Proced
ure :
1.
Make
connec
tions
as
shown
in
Figure
39
betwee
n PC
Interface Module and
NV3000-Control System Lab.
2. To built a Wave shaping circuit on the trainer bread board follow the following
steps :
Insert transistor (LM3904) into the bread board properly.
Connect a 1K resistor with collector and a 100 K resistor between 1 K
& base of transistor.
Connect a 1 K resistor and a 100 f capacitor in series with base of the
transistor.
Connect the output of IR sensor i.e., from socket-21 to base of the
transistor.
Take the output between collector and 1 K resistor and connect it to input
of F to V converter (Frequency to voltage) and connect emitter to gnd
(ground).
Connect a supply of 5V DC between 100 K and 1 K resistor.
properly and if you are sure about it then only switch ON the trainer supply.
Otherwise components may burn.
4. Counter-check the trainer power supply. Is it ON? If yes then ok and if NO then
switch it ON.
7. Single left click on the DC motor control from the main menu then a screen

will appear on the window as shown in Figure 40.
8. Choose Close Loop Control option.
9. Set the set-point value in set-point block by clicking the up & down arrow as
shown in figure 40.
10. Now observe the change in the speed of DC motor with respect to the set-point
value in the Real Time graph screen.
11. You will observe that the speed will change in accordance with the error (Err)
generated between the set-point (S.P.) and the feed-back (F.B.) value i.e., (Err
=
SP-FB).
12. In some cases the error will not be reduced to zero exactly because here we are
not using any controller (like PID). This experiment is to study the concept of
close loop. Here we can study the effect of feedback on a system.
13. This method also called as Automatic mode of controlling the system.
14. After the completion of an experiment double click on Disconnect button
given on the main menu.

Conclusion
:
Observe
and write,
how the
close loop
acting in
order to
achieve
the
desired
set-point
or, the
behaviour
of the
close
loop?
Whether the close loop is acting according to the
theory and the graphical representation (not exactly but it should be nearer to it)
or
not. Finally, take the screen print of your experiment and attach with your practical
notebook as shown in Figure


Experiment 23
AIM : To study and implement Temperature Control-Open Loop

Equipments Needed :

Circuit diagram :

Procedur
e :
1.
Make
connecti
ons as
shown in
Figure 41
between
PC
Interface
Module
and

NV3000-
Control
System Lab.
2. To do the connection as shown in Figure 41 you will need one relay (GoodSky-
GS-SH-205T) and one transistor (PNP type-2N3906). This component is
provided with this trainer, for pin configuration of relay and transistor refer
to
Figure 42 and Figure 43. Respectively, by using this components make the
circuit on breadboard given on the trainer as shown in Figure 41.

switch it ON.
7. Single left click on the Temperature control from the main menu then a
screen
will appear on the window as shown in Figure 44.
9. Set the set-point value in set-point block by clicking the up & down arrow
(temperature. range or set point value 2570C) as shown in Figure 44.
10. To ON the heater click on the check box and to make OFF the heater
uncheck it. To reach the desired set point you have to ON and OFF the heater
as per requirement and the corresponding graph will be displayed on the Real-
Time graph screen is shown in the right side of Figure 44.
11. Now change the speed of DC motor by scrolling the cursor position to cool the
heater. It is mandatory that while changing the speed of motor turn OFF the
heater.
This method also called as Manual mode of controlling the system.
After the completion of an experiment double click on Disconnect button

Conclusion :
Observe and write, how the open loop characteristic acting on sliding the scroll bar
in
order to achieve the desired set-point or, the behaviour of the open loop? Whether
you
experiment and attach with your practical notebook as shown in Fig.


Experiment 24
AIM :To study and observe Temperature Control-Close Loop

Equipments Needed :

Circuit diagram :

Procedure
:
1.
Make
connectio
ns as
shown in
Fig.45
between
PC
Interface
Module
and

NV3000-
Control
System
Lab.
2. To do the connection as shown in Fig.45 you will need one relay (GoodSky-GS-
SH-205T) and one transistor (PNP type-2N3906). This component is provided
with this trainer, for pin configuration of relay and transistor refer to Fig.
42 and
43 respectively, by using this components make the circuit on breadboard given
on the trainer as shown in Fig. 45.

switch it ON.
6. Single left click on the Connect command button, so that all the
application
7. Single left click on the Temperature control from the main menu then a
screen
will appear on the window as shown in Fig. 46.
9. Set the Set-point value in set-point block by clicking the up & down arrow
(temp. range or set point value 2570C) as shown in Fig. 46.
10. You will observe that the heater will switch ON/OFF in accordance with the
error generated between the set-point and the feed-back value and the
corresponding graph will be displayed on the Real-Time graph screen as shown
in the right side of Fig. 46.
11. The error will not going to be zero exactly because here we are not using any
controller (like PID). This experiment is to study the concept of close loop.
Here
we can study the effect of feedback on a system
Conclusion :
Observe and write how the close loops acting in order to achieve the desired set-
point
or, the behaviour of the close loop. Whether the close loop is acting according to
the
or
notebook as shown in Fig.


Experiment 25

AIM: To study and implement Light intensity control-Open Loop

Equipments Needed :

Circuit diagram :

Procedu
re :
1.
Make
connect
ions as
shown
in
Fig.47
between
PC
Interfa
ce
Module and
2. To complete the connection as shown in Fig.47 you will need an Op-Amp IC
(741). that is provided with this trainer. And for IC (741) layout and pin
configuration refer the Fig.48, by using this components make the circuit on
breadboard given on the trainer.
Otherwise components may get damage.
switch it ON.
7. Single left click on the Light Intensity control from the main menu then a
screen will appear on the window as shown in Fig. 49.

9. Now by scrolling the cursor position you can change the intensity of lamp-1 and
reach near to the set-point value and the corresponding change in graph will be
displayed on the Real-Time graph screen on the right side of Fig.49.
10. This method also called as Manual mode of controlling the system.

Conclusion :
Observe and write, how the open loop characteristic acting on sliding the scroll bar
in
order to achieve the desired set-point or, the behaviour of the open loop? Whether
you
experiment and attach with your practical notebook as shown in Fig


Experiment 26
AIM : To study and observe Light intensity control-Close Loop

Equipments Needed :

Circuit diagram :.

Procedure :
1. Make connections as shown in Fig.50 between PC Interface Module and
2. To complete the connection as shown in Fig.50 you will need an Op-Amp IC
(741). That is provided with this trainer. And for IC (741) layout and pin
configuration refer to the Fig.48, by using this components make the circuit on
breadboard given on the trainer.
Otherwise components may get damage.
switch it ON.
6. Single left click on the Connect command button, so that all the
application
7. Single left click on the Light Intensity control from the main menu then a

screen will appear on the window as shown in Fig. 51.
9. Now by scrolling the cursor position you can change the intensity of lamp-1 and
reach near to the set-point value and the corresponding change in graph will be
displayed on the Real-Time graph screen on the right side of Fig.51.
10. Now you will observe that the intensity of the Lamp-1 will change automatically
with respect to the set-point value and the corresponding change in graph will
be
displayed on the Real-time graph screen as shown on the right side of Fig.
11. In some cases the error will not be reduced to zero exactly because here we are
not using any controller (like PID). This experiment is to study the concept of
close loop. Here we can study the effect of feedback on a system.
13. After the completion of an experiment click on Disconnect button given on
the main menu.

Conclusion :
Observe and write, how the close loop acting in order to achieve the desired set-
point
or, the behaviour of the close loop? Whether the close loop is acting according to
the
or
notebook as shown in Fig.


Experiment 27
AIM : Calibration of RTD sensor

Equipments Needed :
NV3002 Mini Process Control Demonstrator trainer kit
NV3002 Mini Process Control Demonstrator software
2 mm Patch Chords
Low salinity mineral water (less than 2 litres.)

Connection diagram:

Procedure :
Make connections on trainer kit as shown in figure.
Connect mains chord and switch on power supply
Check whether the drain valve is closed or not, if it is open then close it surely
Fill tank with mineral water till LED at L
1
glows. (This much amount of water is
required to turn On heater)
Fill the tank up to L

2
Open Software
Click RTD Characteristics on home page.

Navigate Open >> Start (This will open USB port and starts acquiring
data).
Now temperature and resistance will show some reading.
Adjust pot given in Signal Conditioning block on trainer kit until temperature
show 0 C and resistance show 100
Observation :
This is calibration experiment. The signal conditioning block is calibrated to RTD
for further experiments.

Conclusion :
RTD gives 0 C for the resistance value of 100

Experiment 28

AIM : Study RTD Characteristics
Equipments Needed :
25.NV3002 Mini Process Control Demonstrator trainer kit
26.NV3002 Mini Process Control Demonstrator software
27.2 mm Patch Chords
28.Low salinity mineral water (less than 2 litres.)
Connection diagram :

Procedure :
13.Make connections on trainer kit as shown in figure.
14.Connect mains chord and switch on power supply
15.Check whether the drain valve is closed or not, if it is open then close it surely
16.Fill tank with mineral water till LED at L
1
required to turn On heater)
17.
2
18.Open Software
19.Click RTD Characteristics on home page.
20.Navigate Open >> Start (This will open USB port and starts acquiring
data).
21.Switch on heater.
22.Stop the process and Close the USB port. After temperature goes to 70-75
C

23.You can store the results by pressing Save Record; it will save data in Excel
format.

Observations :
figure shows the screenshot of this experiment. Typical characteristic based on
sample data is as shown in figure.

Conclusion :
Resistance of RTD is directly proportional to change in temperature. Prepare
following table.
Minimum Maximum
Resistance
Temperature

Experiment 29
AIM : Study the Open loop response of the process
Equipments Needed :
NV3002 Mini Process Control Demonstrator trainer kit
NV3002 Mini Process Control Demonstrator software
2 mm Patch Chords
Low salinity mineral water (less than 2 litres.)

Connection Diagram

Procedure :
Make connections on trainer kit as shown in figure
Connect mains chord and switch on power supply
Check whether the drain valve is closed or not, if it is open then close it surely
1
required to turn ON heater)

2
Open Software
Click Process Control on home page.
A window will open; choose Open Loop option
Navigate Open >> Start (This will open USB port and starts acquiring
data).

Check Step Input to heater and Stirrer
A point will reach after which temperature starts decreasing. Stop the process
and Close the USB port.
Click Plot to see fitted curve.
You can store the results by pressing Save Record; it will save data in Excel
format.
Observations :
You will get a response as shown in figure. A blue line is the real time response
while red line is approximated response of real time data.

Find out two values of time T
1
and T
2
as shown in figure the dotted curve shown is a
continuous function of the real time data.
After that find out following calculations:

( )
2 1
2
3
= T T
2
= T

Open Loop Transfer Function (OLTF):
s
p
K e
1 s
u
t
+

From sample data T
1
= 34 sec, T
2
= 53 sec, K
p
= 1.4
Therefore
( )
3
= 53 34
2
= 28.5
= 53-28.5 = 24.5
-24.55
1.4 e
OLTF =
1+28.55

Conclusion :
Find out step response of open loop system. Using open loop step response, find Open
Loop Transfer Function.


Experiment 30
AIM : Study of On/Off controller using the software
Equipments Needed :
(hhhh)NV3002 Mini Process Control Demonstrator trainer kit
(iiii)NV3002 Mini Process Control Demonstrator software
(jjjj)2 mm Patch Chords
(kkkk)Low salinity mineral water (less than 2 litres.)

Procedure :
W__ Make connections on trainer kit as shown in figure
W Connect mains chord and switch on Power Supply
W)) Check whether the drain valve is closed or not, if it is open then
close it surely
W
1
glows. (This much
amount of water is required to turn On heater); Fill the tank up to L
2
Wgg Open Software. Click Process Control on home page.
W A window will open; choose Close Loop >> On/Off option
WOO A window will popup asking for hysteresis settings. Set the value
of hysteresis range is (2-5)
W Set the value of set point, the difference between set point &
current temperature should be at least 10 to see the performance of On/Off
control action

WEE Navigate Open >> Save Parameters >> Start (This will
open USB port and starts acquiring data).
WOO You can store the results by pressing Save Record; it will save
data in Excel format. Before that Stop the process and Close the USB port.

Observations :
You will get a response as shown in figure. As it is only heating process you will
get peaks below the set point line.

Conclusion :
The heater gets on whenever temperature decreases below hysteresis line, and gets off
above set point line.

Experiment 31
AIM : Study of Ziegler- Nichols PID Controller tuning
Procedure :
Use open loop transfer function concluded in experiment number 3.
Prepare following table.
s
p
K e
1 s
u
t
+
Open Loop Transfer Function

Observations :
Find out all the values given in table. These values are required in further
experiments like study of P, PI and PID control action. Following table is prepared
from sample data:

Controll
er
Kp

Td
P
p
28.5
0.8383%
K1.424.5
t
u
= ==

-
PI
p
0.9 0.928.5
0.7575%
K1.424.5
t
u

= ==

3.3 3.324.573.5 u = =

-
PID
p
1.2 1.228.5
0.9999%
K1.424.5
t
u

= ==

2 224.549 u = =

24.5
12.25
2 2
u
= =


Experiment 32
Objective :
Study of P-control action using the software
Equipments Needed :
41)NV3002 Mini Process Control Demonstrator trainer kit
42)NV3002 Mini Process Control Demonstrator software
43)2 mm Patch Chords
44)Low salinity mineral water (less than 2 litres.)

Procedure :
18.Make connections on trainer kit as shown in figure
19.Connect mains chord and switch on power supply
21.
1
required to turn On heater); Fill the tank up to L
2
22.Open Software. Click Process Control on home page.
23.A window will open; choose Close Loop >> PID >> P option
24.Set P Parameter as per table, Set set-point
25.Navigate Open >> Save Parameters >> Start (This will open USB port and
starts acquiring data).

format. Before that Stop the process and Close the USB port.

Observations :
You will get response of P-controller as shown in figure.
6. Find out transient response specifications from graph.
Rise Time, Peak Time, Delay Time, Maximum Overshoot, Settling time.
Specifications for sample data:

Rise Time (T
r
): Time required to set-point rise from 0% to 100%, T
r
= 120 sec
Delay Time (T
d
): Time required for the response to reach half the final value
the very first time. T
d
= 83 sec
Peak Time (T
p
): Time required for the response to reach first peak of
overshoot.

T
p
= 160 sec
Settling Time (T
s
): Time required for the response to reach and stay within a
range about the final value of size specified by percentage of final value
(usually 2% or 5%).
T
s
= 300 sec
Maximum Overshoot (M
p
): Maximum overshoot is the maximum peak value.
M
p
= 40 %
14. Find out Close Loop Transfer Function of the Process with P Controller.
For example:

Conclusion : Thus we performs P- Control action and close loop response with P
controller.


Experiment 33
AIM :Study of PI-control action using the software
Equipments Needed :

Procedure :
d) Make connections on trainer kit as shown in figure
e) Connect mains chord and switch on power supply
f) Check whether the drain valve is closed or not, if it is open then close it surely
g)
1
2
h) Open Software. Click Process Control on home page.
i) A window will open; choose Close Loop >> PID >> PI option
j) Set P, T
i
Parameter as per table, Set set-point
k) Navigate Open >> Save Parameters >> Start (This will open USB port and
l) You can store the results by pressing Save Record; it will save data in Excel

Observations :
- Find out transient response specifications from graph.

Rise Time (T
r
r
= 180 sec
Delay Time (T
d
d
= 120 sec
Peak Time (T
p
): Time required for the response to reach first peak of
overshoot.
T
p
= 183 sec
Settling Time (T
s
range about the final value of size specifies by percentage of final value

(usually 2% or 5%).
T
s
= 360 sec
p
M
p
= 9 %
1. Find out Close Loop Transfer Function of the Process with PI Controller.
For example:

Conclusion : Thus we performs PI- Control action and close loop response with PI
controller.


Experiment 34
AIM :Study of PID-control action using the software
Equipments Needed :

Procedure :
8. Make connections on trainer kit as shown in figure
9. Connect mains chord and switch on power supply
11.
1
2
12.Open Software. Click Process Control on home page.
13.A window will open; choose Close Loop >> PID >> PID option
14.Set P, T
i
, T
d
Parameter as per table, Set set-point
15.Navigate Open >> Save Parameters >> Start (This will open USB port and

Observations :
- Find out transient response specifications from graph.

Rise Time (T
r
r
= 180 sec
Delay Time (T
d
d
= 120 sec
Peak Time (T
p
): Time required for the response to reach first peak of overshoot.
T
p
= 350 sec

Settling Time (T
s
range about the final value of size specifies by percentage of final value
(usually 2% or 5%).

T
s
= 460 sec
p
M
p
= 6.2 %
- Find out Close Loop Transfer Function of the Process with PID Controller.
For example:

Conclusion : Thus we performs PID- Control action and close loop response with PID
controller.


Experiment 35
AIM: Study the Industrial PID controller as On / Off Controller
Equipments Needed :
11. NV3002 Mini Process Control Demonstrator
12. Patch cords
13. Mineral water (low salinity water)
Circuit diagram :

Connection diagram of Industrial PID controller as P-Controller


Procedure :
10. Connect the patch cords as shown in the figure.
11. Dont connect the Relay output terminal to Relay input terminal, now.
12. Connect the mains cord and switch on the power supply of NV3002 Mini Process
Control Demonstrator.
13. Check whether water drain valve is closed properly.
14. Start filling water in tank until level 1 (L
1
) LED glows. Because heater will
start only when water is above L
1
level.
15. To enter into the configuration set-up menu of industrial PID control, press
switches and simultaneously for 3 seconds and it display SET 2 on
upper display and four zeros 0000 in the lower display. It tells that you
have entered into the menu.
16. Now, press 3 times. You will observe that upper the line of seven segment
display will show inpt (Input) and in the second line of seven segment display
select input sensor type as RTD by pressing or keys.
Now, press or until upper display line displays Pb (Proportional Band). At
this condition, press as well as or to set lower reading for
Proportional Band to Zero i.e, 0000.
17. Now, press or until upper display line displays int.t (integral time),
and in lower display, set it by pressing as well as or , to 000.
18. Now, press or until upper display line displays der.t (differential
time), and in lower display, set it by pressing as well as or , to 000.
19. Now, press switches and simultaneously for 3 seconds to return to main
screen. Here upper display will show current process temperature i.e. measured
value.
20. In lower display we can set the required set point by pressing as well as
or .
21. Now, open the software. The main window of the software will appear on your
desktop as shown in figure below.


Stopwatch screen of the software

22. As you click on the Stopwatch option, the stopwatch screen will appear on
your desktop as shown in figure
23. In the table the 2
nd
column will records the difference between two intervals
and the 3
rd
column will record the total time elapsed.
24. Now, connect the Relay output terminal to Relay in terminal as shown in
the connection diagram.
25. Click on the Start option of the stopwatch screen.
26. Start note down the temperature and time in the interval of 10 seconds.
27. Take 30 to 40 readings or more for better result.
28. As the experiment is completed, close the stopwatch screen and then Exit
from the main window.
29. Now, switch off the power supply of the trainer and open all the connections.
30. Open the drain valve fully and drain the water completely from the tank and
dont forget to close the valve.
31. Now, plot the graph using the readings you have noted down.

Observation :
1. After every 10 second interval note down the reading of temperature.
2. Plot the graph between temperature and time. Also note down the on time and off
time of heater.
3. Observe that, the on time of heater is more when the measure value is more drifted
from set point and it reduces when the measured value approaches near the Set
Point.
4. We can also change proportional band value to observe different readings.
Conclusion :
1. With increase in proportional band value, the measured value is shifted away from
the set point.
2. Heater will turn On only when the lower level LED (L
1
) glows.
Note :
1. Do not overheat the heater; and the set-point value must not be above 80
0
C at any
condition.
2. After completion of the experiment drain the water from the tank completely. And
if possible dry up the tank base with a piece of cloth to increase the tanks life.
3. Be careful while pouring water into the tank, such that no blot of water is
falling on the base and on the front panel of the trainer. It may cause electric
shock.

Experiment 36

AIM: Study of the Industrial PID controller as Proportional (P) Controller
Equipments Needed :
2. Patch cords
Circuit diagram :

Connection diagram of Industrial PID controller as P-Controller


Procedure :
1. Connect the patch cords.
2. Dont connect the Relay output terminal to Relay input terminal, now.
3. Connect the mains cord and switch on the power supply of NV3002 Mini Process
Control Demonstrator.
1
) LED glows. Because heater will only
start when water is above L
1
level.
6. To enter into the configuration set-up menu of industrial PID control, press
switches and simultaneously for 3 seconds and it display SET 2 on upper
display and four zeros 0000 in the lower display. It tells that you have
entered into the menu.
7. Now, press 3 times. You will observe that upper the line of seven segment
display will show inpt (Input) and in the second line of seven segment display
select input sensor type as RTD by pressing or keys.
8. Now, press or until upper display line displays Pb (Proportional Band). On
this condition, press as well as or to set lower reading for Proportional
Band (for e.g. 005), as it was calculated in the open loop response
experiment.
9. Now, press or until upper display line displays int.t (integral time), and
in lower display, set it by pressing as well as or , to 000.
10.Now, press or until upper display line displays der.t (differential time),
and in lower display, set it by pressing as well as or , to 000.
11.Now, press switches and simultaneously for 3 seconds to return to main
screen. Here upper display will show current process temperature i.e. set point.
12.In lower display we can set the required set point by pressing as well as or
.
13.Now, open the software. The main window of the software will appear on your
desktop.


(e)As you click on the Stopwatch option, the stopwatch screen will appear on your
desktop.
(f)In the table the 2
nd
column will records the difference between two intervals and
the 3
rd
column will records the total time elapsed.
(g)Now, connect the Relay output terminal to Relay in terminal as shown in
(h)Click on the Start option of the stopwatch screen.
(i)Start note down the temperature and time in the interval of 10 seconds.
(j)Take 30 to 40 readings or more for better result.
(k)As the experiment is completed, close the stopwatch screen and then Exit from
the main window.
(l)Now, switch off the power supply of the trainer and open all the connections.
(m)Open the drain valve fully and drain the water completely from the tank and dont
forget to close the valve.
(n)Now, plot the graph using the readings you have noted down.

Observation :
(a)After every 10 second interval note down the reading of temperature.
(b)Plot the graph between temperature and time. Also note down the on time and off
time of heater.
(c)Observe that, the on time of heater is more when the measure value is more drifted
from set point and it reduces when the measured value approaches near the Set
point.
(d)We can also change proportional band value to observe different readings.
Conclusion :
a) With increase in proportional band value, the measured value is sifted away from
the set point.
b) Heater will turn On only when the lower level LED (L
1
) glows.
Note:
i. Do not overheat the heater; and the set-point value must not be above 80
0
C at any
condition.
ii.After completion of the experiment drain the water from the tank completely. And
if possible dry up the tank base with a piece of cloth to increase the tanks
life.
iii. Be careful while pouring water into the tank, such that no part of
water is falling on the base and on the front panel of the trainer. It may cause
electric shock.

Experiment 37

AIM :Study of the Industrial PID controller as Proportional Integral (PI) Controller

Equipments Needed :

- NV3002 Mini Process Control Demonstrator
- Patch Cords
- Mineral water (low salinity water)

Circuit diagram :

Connection diagram of Industrial PID controller as PI- controller


Procedure :
14. Connect the patch cords.
15. Dont connect the Relay output terminal to Relay
input terminal, now.
16. Connect the mains cord and switch on the power supply of
NV3002 Mini Process Control Demonstrator.
1
) LED glows.
Because heater will only start when water is above L
1
level.
19. To enter into the configuration set-up menu of industrial PID
control, press switches and simultaneously for 3 seconds and it display
SET 2 on upper display and four zeros 0000 in the lower display. It
tells that you have entered into the menu.
20. Now, press 3 times. You will observe that upper the line
of seven segment display will show inpt (Input) and in the second line of seven
segment display select input sensor type as RTD by pressing or keys.
21. Now, press or until upper display line displays Pb
(Proportional Band). On this condition, press as well as or to set lower
reading for Proportional Band (for e.g. 005), as it was calculated in the open
loop response experiment.
22. Now, press or until upper display line displays int.t
(integral time), and in lower display, set it by pressing as well as or ,
as it was calculated in the open loop response experiment.
23. Now, press or until upper display line displays der.t
(differential time), and in lower display, set it by pressing as well as or
, to 000.
24. Now, press switches and simultaneously for 3 seconds to
return to main screen. Here upper display will show current process temperature
i.e. Set point.
25. In lower display we can set the required set point by
pressing as well as or .
26. Now, open the software. The main window of the software will
appear on your desktop.


a) As you click on the Stopwatch option, the stopwatch screen will appear on your
desktop.
b) In the table the 2
nd
column will records the difference between two intervals and
the 3
rd
column will records the total time elapsed.
c) Now, connect the Relay output terminal to Relay in terminal as shown in
d) Click on the Start option of the stopwatch screen.
e) Start note down the temperature and time in the interval of 10 seconds.
f) Take 30 to 40 readings or more for better result.
g) As the experiment is completed, close the stopwatch screen and then Exit from
the main window.
h) Now, switch off the power supply of the trainer and open all the connections.
i) Open the drain valve fully and drain the water completely from the tank and dont
forget to close the valve.
j) Now, plot the graph using the readings you have noted down.

Observation :
1. After every 10 second interval note down the reading of temperature.
2. Plot the graph between temperature and time. Also note down the on time and off
time of heater.
3. Observe that, the on time of heater is more when the measure value is more drifted
from set point and it reduces when the measured value approaches near the measured
value.
4. We can also change proportional band value to observe different readings.
Conclusion :
1. With increase in proportional band value, the measured value is shifted away from
the set point.
2. Heater will turn On only when the lower level LED (L
1
) glows.
Note :
1. Do not overheat the heater; and the set-point value must not be above 80
0
C in any
condition.
2. After completion of the experiment drain the water from the tank completely. And
if possible dry up the tank base with a piece of cloth to increase the tanks life.
3. Be careful while pouring water into the tank, such that no part of water is
falling on the base and on the front panel of the trainer. It may cause electric
shock.

Experiment 38

AIM : Study of the Industrial PID controller as Proportional Integral Derivative
(PID) Controller
Equipments Needed :

2. Patch cords
Circuit diagram :

Connection diagram of Industrial PID controller as PI- controller


Procedure :
Connect the patch cords.
Dont connect the Relay output terminal to Relay input terminal,
now.
Connect the mains cord and switch on the power supply of NV3002 Mini
Process Control Demonstrator.
Check whether water drain valve is closed properly.
Start filling water in tank until level 1 (L
1
) LED glows. Because heater
will only start when water is above L
1
level.
To enter into the configuration set-up menu of industrial PID control,
press switches and simultaneously for 3 seconds and it display
SET 2 on upper display and four zeros 0000 in the lower
display. It tells that you have entered into the menu.
Now, press 3 times. You will observe that the upper line of seven
segment display will show inpt (Input) and in the second line of seven
segment display select input sensor type as RTD by pressing or
keys.
Now, press or until upper display line displays Pb (Proportional
Band). At this condition, press as well as or to set lower
reading for Proportional Band (for e.g. 005), as it was calculated in the
open loop response experiment.
Now, press or until upper display line displays int.t (integral
time), and in lower display, set it by pressing as well as or ,
as it was calculated in the open loop response experiment.
Now, press or until upper display line displays der.t (differential
time), and in lower display, set it by pressing as well as or ,
as it was calculated in the open loop response experiment..
Now, press switches and simultaneously for 3 seconds to return to
main screen. Here, upper display will show current process temperature
i.e. measured value.
In lower display we can set the required set point by pressing as well
as or .
Now, open the software. The main window of the software will appear on
your desktop.



As you click on the Stopwatch option, the stopwatch screen will
appear on your desktop.
In the table the 2
nd
column will record the difference between two
intervals and the 3
rd
column will record the total time elapsed.
Now, connect the Relay output terminal to Relay in terminal as
shown in the connection diagram.
Click on the Start option of the stopwatch screen.
Start note down the temperature and time in the interval of 10 seconds.
Take 30 to 40 readings or more for better result.
As the experiment is completed, close the stopwatch screen and then
Exit from the main window.
Now, switch off the power supply of the trainer and open all the
connections.
Open the drain valve fully and drain the water completely from the tank
and dont forget to close the valve.
Now, plot the graph using the readings you have noted down.



LAB MANUAL

Version No. SWITCHGEAR & PROTECTION
Subject SWITCHGEAR & PROTECTION
Subject
Code
EX-603
Scheme New
Class/Branc
h
VI SEM
Author Mr.Kritarth shrivastav
Institution


EXPERIMENT NO. 1

TO STUDY INSTANTANEOUS OVER CUURENT RELAY

AIM:- To study instentanous over current relay.
study the construction of relay.
Study the operating & deoperating relay.
Study the time vs current characteristics.

INSTRUMENTS REQUIRED:- Voltmeter, ammeter,loading CT, Autotransformer,instentanous
relay time rotary switch etc.

FEATURES:-

Continuously variable current setting
high drop-off/pick-up ratio
low transient over reach
wide setting range

PROCEDURE:- Study the operating & deoperating cuurent of relay.
Connection are made as shown as fig.
Set the desired current in the relay.
Switch on the MSB.
Now to set the fault current,we will be using current source for that press the
green butten.
Now decrese the current through current source.at certain current,the relay
will design or drop off.this current is called de energising current note it.


1. Observation table:-

Plug setting Operating current Deoperating current
(A)

2.
PS = 1A or 5v
PSM (A) = Fault current Operating time


29.Study the current vs time charac.
24.connection are made as shown in the dia.
25.Set the desired current in the relay.
26.Switch on MSB.
27.Now to set the fault current, we will be using current source.
Now reset the time totilizer by pressing red butten fitted on the totalizer &
press green butten.

RESULT:- From the current chara. It can be concluded that increse in PSM,
operating time decreses for very small rise in fault current above plug setting
= 1A the drop is extremly large.

Experiment NO:-2

AIM:- To study the operation of solid state over voltage/under voltage relay and
hence to obtain its inverse time/voltage characteristics.

Apparatus required: one over voltage relay, autotransformers,one(0-500 volts A C)
voltmeter and connecting wires all fitted in control panel.

Circuit diagram:

detai
ls of
the
relay
:
1)vol
tage
ratin
g-

400-500 volts.
2)settings range -stepless variable settting.
3)resting voltage- about 100 tyo 105 % of the voltage setting.
4)pick up voltage- equal to the set voltage with a minimum error of +/-5%.
5)Auxiliary unit and operational indicator- Auxiliary voltage=220 volts AC.
6)Accuracy the operating value conferms to error clall index 5.0 per I.S. 3231/1965
at the voltage settings.
7)Application the over voltage relay is used for protection of AC circuits, static
capacitors and machine such as indution motors.
8)in the over voltage relay 2 pot setting for particular voltage and pot no. 2 for
time setting.

Note: over voltage relay contacts are normally closed/normally open.

Procedure:
1)connect 3 ph with neutral to the control pannel strip.
2)set therelay voltage at 440 V and set the adjustment of voltage difference at
maximum .
3)Switch on MCB and push ON the control circuit.
4)Measure voltage of all the phase

Experiment no:- 3

AIM:- To study the operation of a non directional electro mechanical type over
current relay and hence to obtain its inverse time current characteristics.

Apparatus required ;- One non directional over current relay and control panel
with time totalizer
fault creation panel , digital ammeter.

Theory:- This manual covers the commissioning and maintenance instruction for non
directional
inverse time over current relays belonging to the CDG 11 family which are self
powered .there is no
need for any seprate auxillary DC or AC supply for these type of relays.these relays
are available in the standard current range of 50-200 % and 10-40% of 1A or 5A .

STANDARD I.D.M.T. RELAY:- idmt over current relay have been used extensively in UK
for protection of generators , tranformers and distribution network.
The minimum permissible time
grading between the over current relay at each section breaker is approx 0.5 sec.
With the increase in the system fault current.it is desirable to shorten the
clearance time of fault nearest to the power source in order to minimize damage.it is
thus necessary to reduce the errors which are disproportionately large ,when compared
to the clearance time of a C.B.

The operating time of an over current relay
tends to become aasymtotic minimum value with increase in the value of current .T his
is inherent in electromagnetic relays due
to saturation of magnetic circuits. So by varying the saturation , different
characterstics are obtained
if the core is made to saturate at large stage , it is called IDMT relay.

PROC
EDUR
E:-
S
w
i
t
c
h

o
n

t
he MCB.
Initially Toggle switch should be in OFF position.
Now to set desired fault current we will be using current source. For that Switch
on the toggle switch and move the current source till the desired fault current
is indicated on the ammeter it is quit possible that while adjusting the fault
current the FLAG of the relay might trip for that you have to reset the flag by
moving the marked shaft UPWARD for resseting the flag the toggle switch must be
brought in off position and the marked shaft move UPWARD.
Now the desire fault current is Set and relay flag RESET only when the disk has
move fully anti clockwise . Now move the toggle switch on OFF position and
press the green push button and timer counting will start and counting will
stop once the relay is operated. Note down the time in second.
Now plot the graph between time take for the relay to operate vs plug setting
multiplier at various T.M.S

GRAPH:-
(1) Agraph the oprating time vs relay current for any one plug setting current .
(2) A common graph of operating time vs multiplies of plug setting current is drawn
.
it can be seen that for a given TMS the operating time vs multiplies of plug
setting

current
change
rustics
is same
irrespe
ctive
of
pllug
setting
.

Experi
ment
no:-4

AIM:-

To
study
of
operation of electro-mechanical type under voltage relay and hence to obtain it`s
inverse time/voltage characteristics.

APARATUS REQUIRED:-
Under Voltage Relay(Electro-mechanical type).
Auto Transformer.
Toggle Switch.
Voltmeter 0-600v.
Time Totalizer
Time(Digital).
Control Circuit.
Transformer(P/T).
Connection wires.

DETAIL OF THE RELAY:-
Voltage rating-110 Volts
Setting range-50%+90% adjustable in 5 equal steps of 10%


PROCEDURE:

30.Switch on the MCB.
31.Initially Toggle switch should be in off position.
32.Now to set the desired fault voltage we will be using voltage source. For that
switch ON the Toggle switch marked as voltage set and move the voltage source
till the desired fault voltage is indicated on the voltmeter, it is quit
possible that while adjusting the fault voltage the FLAG of the Relay might
trip for that you have to RESETthe FLAG by moving the marked shaft UPWARD
denoted by (RELAY FLAG RESET) for resetting the FLAG the Toggle switch must be
brought in off position and the marked shaft move UPWARD.
33.Now the desire fault voltage is SET and relay FLAG RESET only when the disk has
move fully anti clock wise . Now move the Toggle Switch on OFF position and
press the green push button and timer counting will start and counting will
STOP once the relay is operated . Note down thw time in seconds.
34.Now for various T.M.S(Time Multiplier Setting) and P.S.M. (Plug Setting
Multiplier)
the time taken by the relay to operate at various fault voltage may be
note down.
28.Now plot the graph between time taken for the relay to opperate Vs Plug Setting
Multiplier
at various T.M.S.

TABULAR COLUMN:-


Graph:-
A graph of operation time V/S applied voltage for any one plug setting.

Experiment no:- 6

Aim: To obtain the characteristics of MCB relay.

Appratus Required: control panel with MCB

Circuit Diagram;

Proc
edur
e:

T
h
e

c
o
n
n
e
c
t
i
on are made as shown in the diagram.

Keep the auto Transformer at minimum position.

Now switch in the MCB.

Press the green button and switch on the MCB which is under test ,set the desired
current by varying the auto transformer .After setting the current,reset the
time tatalizer by pressing the red push mounted on the time totalizer.

Note down the time and current .The MCB will trip ,because this is bi-metalic
relay you have to wait for 3 to 4 minutes for next reading.

Take the reading and different current setting .

Draw a graph current v/s time

GRAPH:-

Agraph of current v/s time .it can be seen that the characteristics are inverse type
i.e time of operation is inversely proportional to the current.

The above
graph shows
two lines
at the same
same
current
depicting
the change
in tripping
time at the
same load
current
which shows
that the
tripping
time
reduced
after
loading the
thermal bimetallic relay.
The observation should be made at various multiples of rated current of
Bimetallic relay and noting the tripping time.

EXPERIMENT NO:- 7

MANUAL FOR PERCENTAGE BIASED DIFFERENTIAL RELAY

OBJECTIVE:- To determine the charactristic of the given differential relay and
2, apply the relay for the protection of a transformer against internal faults.

APPARTUS :-
Prepare a list of equipment required from the given connection
diagram and note their ratings.

INTRODUCTION :- A differential relay has two electromagnets one attracting magnet
and one stblizing magnet . Which actuate a balanced beam in opposite direction A
spring operates together with the stablizing magnet and the tension of the spring may
be altered and its position is graduated .This
construction is used in high speed differential relays Refer to . When used as a
differential relay one carries through current and and the other the difference
current. The force at each end of the beam is proportional to the square of the
current.

Differential protection :-
The most positive way of protecting a
circuit against internal faults is to arrange relays to compare the current entering
and leaving it. Which should be the same under normal condition and during an
external fault any difference current must flowing into a fault within the protected
circuit .
When this system is applied to electrical equipment it is called differential
current protection and
afford protection against internal faults only.
Differential protection can be applied to generators motors transformers and
transmission lines when applied to transformer the ratio of transformer and the phase
shift in three phase shift transformer must be taken into account . In order to avoid

undesirable operation on heavy external fault faults due to current transformer
errors a restrainig winding is provided which is energies by the through current and
fewer turns than the operating.

Proced
ure:-

By
re
mo
vi
ng
th
e
to
p
li
d
ov
er
of
re
la
y
, adjust the bias top on both sides i.e. Either at 20% , 30% , or 40% for each
setting tripling time etc & as welll as minimum current operating setting.
Adjust relay oprating time which can be adjusted by moment of the disc
backstop which is controlled by rottating a knurled molded disc at the base of
the graduate time multiplier scale at present we have T.M.S. At 1
Adjust relay minimum operating current of the relay which is determined by the
tension of the disc control spring and can be adjust by rotating a molded disc.
Switch on the MCB and push green button, now adjust I1 and I2 each to be equal to
the set current by keeping continuosly variable knob is the control.
Keep I1 constant at this value and increase I2 through the Rheostate till your
control circuit and alarm indicate and take the regardind I1,I2 & I3
Increase I1 by 1A and then increase I2 through the rhestostate till your control
circuit trips.
Repeat till the current reacheas the rated value.
Repeat the above steps. Each time setting I2 to a constant value and adjust I1

till the control circuit trips Plots I1 vs I2 as in.
A transformer differential relay compare the current in the winding of the
transformer whose ratios are such as to make their of the transformer equal,
except for the magnetising current secondary currents foemer which is
relatively small the restrainig winding is provided in the relay to take care
of OT errors tap changing in the protected transformer and the effect of
magnetising and rush current of trsansformer

Dete
rmin
e
the
curr
ent
rati
o of
the
tran
form
etr
be protected.
Select suitable current transformer and connect as in set the operating
current so that the
relay will opereate for any internal fault but not operate for external
fault or overloads
Checks the operation of the relay by introducing fault.
Differential protection of transformer c.c. Contactor Holding coil If
internal fault to be
introduced.

OBSERVATION TABLE
(I) 20% BIAS setting

S.N. Through current (A) Differential cut (A)

1
2
3
4
5
6


7
8
9
10

30% BIAS setting

S.N. Restraning current (A) Opereting cut (A)

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

(iii) 40% BIAS setting

S.N. Restraning current (A) Opereting cut (A)

1
2
3
4
5


6
7
8
9
10

EXPERIMENT NO:-9

AIM:- To obtain the characteristics of thermal bimetalic Relay.

Apparatus Required:-
Control panel with thermal.

Thermal relay provides overload protection & short circuit protection . As the
current increase beyond the rated value, the thermal relay can be reset by hand after
tripping, & removing the fault. There are two main operations. One is the thermal
operation with inverse time characteristics for overload protection & hammer trip
that assisted magnetic operation for short circuit operation.Thermal operation is
achieved with a bimetallic strip.when it heated by any over current flowing through
it & cause the contacts to open. Greater the inverse current,shorter the time
required to operate the thermal relay.

Proc
edur
e:-

(1)T
he
conn
ecti
on
are
made

as shown in fig.
(2)Keep the auto transformer at minimum position.
(3) Now switch on the M.C.B
(4) Press the green button & set the desired current by varying the auto
transformer.After setting the current, reset the time totalizer by pressing the
red push mounted on the time totalizer.
(5) Note down the time & current. The thermal relay will trip , because this is
bimetallic
relay you have to wait for 3 to 4 minutes for next reading or reset the relay
by press red nob fitted on the relay.
(6) take the reading & different current setting .
(7) Draw a graph current v/s time.

GRAPHS:-
A graph of current V/S time. It can be seen that the characteristics are inverse
type i.e time of operation is inversely proportional to the current.

The above
Graph shows
two lines at
the same
current
depicting
the change
in tripping
time at the
same load
current
which shows
that the
tripping
time reduced
after loading the thermal bimetallic relay. The observations should be made at
various multiples of rated current of bimetallic relay 7 noting the tripping
time.


LAB MANUAL

Version No. 1ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENTATION
Subject ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENTATION
Subject Code EX604
Scheme New
Class/Branch VI SEM
Author Nirupa chaturvedi
Institution

LIST OF EXPERIMENTS

Experiment
No
NAME OF EXPERIMENT
1 (a) To Study of Input-Output characteristics of LVDT.
(b) Determination of sensitivity of LVDT.
2 (a) Study of Strain measurement using Strain gauges and
cantilever assembly.

(b) Determining sensitivity Strain Gauge.
3 To measure the value of unknown Resistance with the help of
wheat stone bridge.
4 To measure the value of unknown inductance with the help of
Maxwell's inductance bridge .
5 To measure the value of unknown capacitance with the help of
schering bridge .

6 To study the characteristics of photo voltaic cell.

7 To study and observe the characteristic of PIN Photo diode .

8 To study the characteristic of platinum RTD .

9 To study the operation of Analog to Digital converter .

10 To study the operation of digital to Analog converter .

Experiment : 1(a)
Objective :
Determination of sensitivity of LVDT

Theory :
Sensitivity : The ratio of the change in LVDT output to a change in the value of the
measure and (displacement). Sensitivity is the smallest change in displacement, which
LVDT is able to detect. The output of LVDT is an alternating signal which is
rectified
and filtered to give DC output (Signal conditioner output). The DC output is
proportional to amplitude of alternating signal of LVDT.
Sensitivity S = AC output / Displacement (Vpp/ mm) OR
= DC output / displacement (Vdc/mm)

Procedure :
3. Note the reading of micrometer.
4. Measure the differential voltage between Test Point TP6 and TP7 with multi-

meter in mV range.
6. Repeat step 4.
(Differential voltage for 10 mm - Differential voltage
for 9 mm)
7. Calculate S = (10 mm - 9 mm)

= . mV/mm

Exper
iment 1(b)
Objective :
Study of Input-Output characteristics of LVDT

Apparatus Required:
LVDT kit
Multimeter
Connecting probes

Theory:
Linear variable differential transformers (LVDT) are used to measure displacement.
LVDTs operate on the principle of a transformer. As shown in figure 4, an LVDT
consists of a coil assembly and a core. The coil assembly is typically mounted to a
stationary form, while the core is secured to the object whose position is being
measured. The coil assembly consists of three coils of wire wound on the hollow
form. A core of permeable material can slide freely through the center of the form.
The inner coil is the primary, which is excited by an AC source as shown. Magnetic
flux produced by the primary is coupled to the two secondary coils, inducing an AC
voltage in each coil.

LVDT Measurement :
LVDT measures displacement by associating a specific signal value for any given

position of the core. This association of a signal value to a position occurs through
electromagnetic coupling of an AC excitation signal on the primary winding to the
core and back to the secondary windings. The position of the core determines how
tightly the signal of the primary coil is coupled to each of the secondary coils. The
two secondary coils are series-opposed, which means wound in series but in opposite
directions. This results in the two signals on each secondary being 180 deg out of
phase. Therefore phase of the output signal determines direction and its amplitude,
distance.

Displac
ing the
core to
the
left
causes
the first secondary to be more strongly coupled to the primary than the second
secondary. The resulting higher voltage of the first secondary in relation to the
second secondary causes an output voltage that is in phase with the primary voltage.

Procedure :
2. Make micrometer to read 10 mm .
3. Display will indicate 00.0. This is the position when core is at centre i.e
equal flux linking to both the secondary.
5. Rotating thimble again clockwise by 0.1mm. Reading will be taken after each 0.1
mm rotation until micrometer read 0 mm. This is positive end. At this point secondary
I have highest voltage and secondary II has lowest voltage.
6. Rotate thimble anticlockwise so that micrometer read 10 mm.
7. Rotate thimble anti clockwise so that micrometer read 10.1 mm. It will move
core 0.1 mm outside the LVDT and simultaneously observe reading on display.
It will indicate displacement from 10 mm position in negative direction. The
reading will be negative. It indicates that secondary II is at higher voltage
than
secondary I.
8.take reading of voltage generated in coil by connecting multimeter on output point
of LVDT kit.
9. Plot the graph between displacement (mm) indicated by micrometer and Display

reading (mm).The graph will be linear .
Observation Table:
S.no Displacement in micrometer Display displacement(mm) Generated voltage (mv)


Experiment 2(a)

Objective :

Determining sensitivity Strain Gauge

Theory :
Strain Gauge :
If a metal conductor is stretched or compressed, its resistance changes on account of
the fact that both the length and diameter of the conductor change. There is also a
change in the value of resistivity of the conductor when it is strained and this
property
is called piezoresistive effect. This is the principle of strain gauge. Strain gauge
is a

device the electrical resistance of which varies in proportion to the amount of
strain in
the device. The most widely used gauge is the bonded metallic strain gauge.
A strain gauge of length L, area A, and diameter D when unstrained has resistance
R = (L)/ A
When a gauge is subjected to positive strain, its length increases while its area of
cross section decreases, resistance of gauge increases with positive strain.
lateral strain D / D
= strain = L/L
R / R
Gauge Factor = L / L

Sensitivity :
The ratio of the change in auxillary output to a change in the value of the measurand
(strain). Sensitivity is the smallest change in strain, which the trainer is able to
detect.
Strain is directly proportional to weight.
Auxillary Output
Sensitivity S = Weight mV /gm

Procedure :
2. Measure the auxillary output.
3. Adjust Offset Null Adjust preset slowly to get 0 mV at auxillary output
terminal.
4. Place weight of 5 gm on cantilever and measure the auxillary output voltage by
multimeter in 200 mV range.
5. Repeat the above step by placing the weights of 10gm, 20 gms etc.
6. Calculate :
Auxillary Output
S= for above specified weights.
Weight
= . mV/gm
WOO Compare value of sensitivity for different weights.

Experiment :2(b)

Objective :
Study of Strain measurement using strain gauges and cantilever assembly


Strain gauge Kit
Connecting Probes

Theory:
Strain is the amount of deformation of a body due to an applied force. More
specifically, strain () is defined as the fractional change in length, as shown
below.

L
= L
Strain can be positive (tensile) or negative (compressive). Although dimensionless,
strain is sometimes expressed in units such as in/in or mm/mm. In practice, the
magnitude of measured strain is very small. Therefore, strain is often expressed as
micro strain (-strain), which is x 10 -6.
Types of Strain gauges :
1. Unbonded metal strain gauges.
2. Bonded metal wire strain gauges.
3. Bonded metal foil strain gauges.
4. Vacuum deposited thin metal film strain gauges.
5. Sputter deposited thin film metal strain gauges.

Procedure :
2. Observe reading of the display. It should be 000.
If the display reading is not 000 then adjust offset null.
Take reading of strain directly from display board .

Observation Table:
S.no Weight in gm Strain


Result:

EXPERIMENT NO : 4

AIM :-To measure the value of unknown inductance with the help of Maxwell's
inductance bridge

Analog board
Dc power supply
function generator
2mm patch cord
Digital multimeter

Circuit
Diagram:

Theory :

This is the simplest method of comparing two inductance and to determine the values
off unknown inductance.Its first arm consist of a non inductive resistance R
1
second
arm consist of a standard inducter in series with the noninductive resistance R3 is
used for resistance balance control third arm consist of an unknown inductors with
internal resistance R
x
The balance can be obtained by varying resistance R
2
of third
arm

L1 = inductor with unknown inductance
R
x
= internal resistance
L
3
= standard inductor
R
1,
R
3
= non inductive resistance
At balance

Z
1
Z
x
=Z
2
Z3
the value of L
x
L
x
=L3R2/R1
Where Lis the value of unknown inductor and R is internal resistaance

PROCEDURE :-

Connect external power supply
Connect function generator probe in between Vin terminals
Make connection as shown in figure
Set 5Vpp,1 Khz input sinusoidal signal of function generator
Rotate the potentiometer R2 to find null or minimum sound is generated
Switch off the power supply and function generator
Take the reading of potentiometer resistance R2 between test points TP2 and
TP3
calculate the value of inductance Lxi and Rxi by there formula
Take the reading of unknown internal resistance Rx1 at socket a and test point
Tp2
Repeat the above steps for different values of Lx and Rx

OBSERVATION TABLE :
S NO RI R2 L3 L
X
=L
3
R
2
/R
1
R
x
=R
2
R
3
/R
1
1
2
3

CALCULATION :

Measured value of R
2
is .............ohm

Now measure the value of Lx by the formula

L
X
=L
3
R
2
/R
1

Measured value of resistance Rx by the multimeter between socket .........ohm
Now measure the values of Rx by the formula

R
x
=R
2
R
3
/R
1


Result :
The Inductance for Lx is measured to be =.............micro henry
The internal Resistance is =.................ohm

EXPERIMENT NO :5

Aim:- To measure the value of unknown capacitance with the help of schering bridge
Apparatus Required :-
Analog board
DC power supply
Function generator
2mm patch cord
Digital multimeter

Theory :-
This bridge is the simplest method of comparing Two capacitance and to determine
unknown capacitance In first arm Z
x
consist of an unknown capacitor c
x
in series with
the resistance R
x
and second arm consist of capacitor c
3
and third arm consist of
variable resistance R
2
and forth arm consist of a parallel combinaation of resistance
R
1
and capacitor c
1
The balance can be obtained by varying the resistance R
2
of third
arm
At balance
Z
1
Z
x
=Z
2
Z
3
The value of R
x
can be calculated by formula
R
X
=R
2
C
1
/C
3
The value of C
x
C
x
=R
1
C
3
/R
2
Procedure :
Connect external powerr supply
connect functioon generator probe in between vin termminals
Make connectioon as shown in figure
Set 5Vpp,1 Khz input sinusoidal signal of function generatorr
Rotate the potentiometer R2 to find null or minimum sound is generated
Switch off the power supply and function generatorr
Take the readingg of potentiometer resistance R2 between test points TP2 and
TP3
calculate the value of capacitance Cxi and Rxi by there formula
Take the reading of unknown internal resistance Rx1 at socket a and test point

Tp2
Repeat the above steps for different values of Cx and Rx
Observaation table :-
S no R
1
C
1
C R R
X
=R
2
C
1
/C
3
C
X
= R
1
C
3
/R
2
1
2
3

Measured value of R
2
is ...............ohm /k ohm
Now measure the value of C
x
by the formula
C
X
= R
1
C
3
/R
2
Now measure the value of R
x
by the formula
R
X
=R
2
C
1
/C
3
Result :-
The capacitance of capacitor C
X
= ...........micro farad
The effective resistance R
x
= ...................ohm /K ohm

EXPERIMENT NO : 6

AIM:-To study the characteristics of photo voltaic cell

APPARATUS REQUIRED:-Experiment kit,connecting probes,digital multimeter.

Circuit Diagram:

THE
ORY
:-

The
pho
to
vol
tai
c
cell is a two layer device,It generate a voltage by electron/hole pair production
when the junction is exposed to light.these diffuse across the junction to set up
voltage. A current will flow if a resistance is placed across the terminal optimized
for energy production are often called solar cells This is an important class of
photo detectors. They generate a voltage proportional to EM radiation intensity.
They are called photo voltaic cells because of their voltage generating
characteristic when light falls on them. They in fact convert the EM energy into

electrical energy. They are active transducers ie they do not need an external source
to power them instead they generating voltage .
The cell is a diode constructing a pn junction between appropriately doped
semiconductors Photons striking cell pass through the thin p doped under layer
and are absorbed by electrons in lower layer causing a difference of potential to
develop across the junction. All photo voltaic cell have low but finite internal
resistance .When connected in circuit having some load resistance
photo voltaic the cell voltage is reduced some what from rated value .
The photo voltaic cell can operate satisfactorily in temperature range of 100 to
125 c The temp. changes have little effect on short circuited current but affect the
open circuited voltage considerably .The main advantage of the photo voltaic cell as
name implies are its stability to generate a voltage without any form of bias and
its extremely fast responses ,This means that it can be used as an energy converter
directlY

CHARACTERISTIC:-

PROCEDURE:-
35. Connect the circuit as shown in figure
36.The socket C of wire wound pot to +12 v
45)The socket A of Wire wound pot to 0v
46)The socket B of wire wound pot to input of powerr amplifier

47)The out put of power amplifier to input of Lamp filament
48)The other input of filament lamp to +ve input of Moving coil meterr '
49)The -ve input of moving coil meter to 0 v
50)Output of photo voltaic cell to 0v through a digital multimeter connected as
an ammeter at 2 mA range to measure short circuit current of photo voltaic cell
51)switch ON the power supply & set the 10 K ohm wire wound pot to minimum zero
output voltage from power amplifier
52)Place the opaque box over the plastic enclosure to exclude all the ambient
light Take reading of photo voltaic cell short circuit output current as
indicated on digital multimeter as lamp voltage is increased in 1 v steps
record the result in below table

OBSERVATION TABLE:-
Lamp filament
voltage

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Short circuit
output current
(Micro A)

Open circuit
output voltage

Procedure:
29. Switch off the power supply &set the digital multimeter as voltmeter at
2/20 v dc range to read the open circuit output voltage

30.Switch on thee power supply and take the reading adding result to above table

31.switch off the power supply


32.Plot the graphs off photo voltaic cell short circuit current & open circuit
voltage against lamp filament voltage

RESULT :-characteristic of photo voltaic cell is plotted.

EXPERIMENT NO :7

AIM:-To study and observe the characteristic of PIN Photo diode .

Apparatus required :- Experiment kit,connecting probes

DIAGRAM:-

Theory :-

PIN photodiode differs from a standard PN photodiode by having layer of intrinsic
silicon.The intrinsic (I) region between normal P&N junction.The main improvement
of introuduction of I region is reducing capacitance of junction resulting
improvement of introuduction of I region is reducing capacitance of junction
resulting in fast response time .
When photodiode is reverse biased The reverse saturation current is depend
upon the intensity of incident light The photodiode Vs light relation ship is
linear over wide range in order to maintaine linearity the bias volatage
should be kept constant The output resistance of photodiode is very high of
the order of tens of mega ohms the DC resistance is the diode leakage
resistance and that too is very high This DC resistance depends upon the light
intensity.

CHARACTERISTIC:-


PROCEDURE:-

Connect the circuit as shown in the figure
socket c of wire wound pot to +12 v
socket A of wire wound pot to input of power amplifier
socket B of wire wound pot to input of power amplifier
Output of power amplifier to input of filament lamp
Other input of filament lamp to + ve input of moving coil meter
Connect -ve input of moving coil meter to 0v
Output of PIN photot diode to input of current amplifier this is used to
measure the current output of PIN photodiode
Output of current amplifier to input of DC amplifier

connect a digital multimeter as voltmeter on 20v dc range betwen output of DC
amplifier and 0v to measure the output voltage of DC amplifier

Place opaque box over the plastic enclosure to enclosure to exclude all ambient
light
Switch on the power supply and set the 10 k ohm wire wound pot.To minimum input at
DC amplifier

Take reading of Amplifier output voltage on digital multimeter as lamp voltage is
increased in 1v steps record the result in below table

Lamp filament
voltagee (v)

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
PIN Photodiode DC
amplifier output
voltage (v)


PIN Photodiode
Buffer output
voltage (V)


Change the current Amplifier to Buffer to measure output of PIN photo diode Take the
reading of PIN Photodiode output voltage as the lamp voltage is increased in 1v steps
record the result in table 4 remember to adjust the offset of DC amplifier is giving
zero output for zero input

Plot the graph between PIN photodiode current amplifier output voltage,buffer
amplifier output voltage &Lamp filament voltage.It should resemble the one given
below

Result :

chaaracterisic of PIN photodiode is studied


EXPERIMENT NO :8

Aim :-
To study the characteristic of platinum RTD

Apparatus required :- Experiment kit connecting probes digital multimeter

Theory:-
The variation in resistance of metal with variation in temperature is the basis of
of temprature measuremet in platinum rtd The metal generally used is platinum or
tungsten Platinum is especially suited for this purpose.as it can show limited
susceptibility to contaminaation all metal produce a positive change in resistance
with temprature This of course is the main function of an RTD.This implies that a
metal with high value off resistance should be used for RTD the requirment of the
conductor material to be used in RTD .The change in resistance of material per
unit change in temperature should be as large as possible .The material should
have high value of resistance so that minimum volume of material is used for the
construction of RTD .The resistance of material should have continoous and stable
relation ship with temperatu.Platinum or tungsten wire is wound on a former to give
a resistance in range of 10 K ohm depending upon application

Procedure :-
connect the circuit as shown in figure
The socket 'c'of slide potentiometer to +5v
The socket 'b' of slide potentiometer to output of platinum RTD connect digital
multimeter as
voltameter on 200 mv orr 2v DC range in between output of platinum RTD &ground
Set the 10 K slider resistance midway
Switch on the instrument check the output of IC temperature sensor for ambient
temperature by temperorily connecting DMM in 20 v DC range and find out the
resissstance in ohm for this particular temperaturee
Say for example ambient is 25
0
c then platinum RTD reading as per chart is 109.73
switch on the power supply adjust the slider control of the 10 K ohm resistance to
the voltage drop across the platinum RTD is 109mv as indicatied by DMM This
calliberate the platinum RTD for an ambient temperature of 25
0
c since the
resistance at 25
0
c will be 109 ohms Note that the voltage reading across the RTD in

mV is the same as the RTD resistance jin ohms,since current flowing must be
0.109/109=1 mA
Connect the +12V supply to Heater element input and note the values of the voltage
across the RTD with the voltmeter to its 200mV or 2 Vrange (this representing the RTD
resistance ) and the output voltage from the IC temperature sensor with the voltmeter
set to its 20 v range (this representing the temperature of the RTD ) after each
minute given in below table
Time (minutes)

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
RTD
Temperaaature

RTD resistance (OHM
)

Switch of the power supply and disconnect heater element supply (+12)

Convert RTD temperature into
0
c & add in above table
Plot the graph of RTD resistance in ohm against temperature in
0
c .It should
resemble the one given below
Temperature Vs resistance Table
0 100.00 30 111.67
1 100.39 31 112.06
2 100.78 32 112.44
3 101.17 33 112.83
4 101.56 34 113.22
5 101.95 35 113.61
6 102.34 36 114.99
7 102.73 37 114..77
8 103.12 38 115.15
9 103.51 39 115.15
10 103.90 40 115.54
11 104.29 41 115.93
12 104.68 42 116.31
13 105.07 43 116.70
14 105.46 44 117.08
15 105.85 45 117.47
16 106.23 46 117.86
17 106.62 47 118.24

18 107.01 48 118.63
19 107.40 49 119.01
20 107.79 50 119.40
21 108.18 51 119.78
22 108.57 52 120.17
23 108.57 53 120.55
24 109.34 54 120.94
25 109.73 55 121.32
26 110.12 56 121.70
27 110.51 57 122.09
28 110.89 58 122.47
29 111.28 59 122.86
60 123.24

EXPERIMENT NO : 7

Aim :-To study the operation of analog to digital converter

Apparatus required :-Experiment kit,connecting probes,oscilloscope

Theory :-
The analog to digital conversion is a logical process that requires conceptually
two steps the quantizing and the coding. Quantization is the process that performs
the transformation of continuous signal in a set of discrete level soon afterward we
combine through the coding each discrete levels with a digital word.The digital to
analog converter performs the conversion in n steps where n is the converter
settlement in bits .The working principle of this converter is analogous to that of
weighing an object on laboratory balance using standard weights as reference
according to the binary sequence ,1/8,1/16............1/n Kilograms to perform
accurately we start with largest weight and go on decreasing order to one of
smallest value.

PROCEDURE :-

Connect the power supply to the trainer
Make the connection as shown in the figure

Connect the dc supply to the V
i
of the converter

Keep the DC pot in counter clock wise position

Place the reset/count switch in reset position

Switch ON the power supply Keep the DC pot at mid position
To start conversion place the switch in count position the LED lit accroadding
to binary sequence
When the signal from the digital to analog converter goes over the input
signal the counter stops and LEDs show the binary conversion

Vary the DC pot and observe thee corresponding digital output. The converter
will follow the changes in analog signal without resetting the converter in
upward direction because the counter is configured as up counter only but to
observe the converted output when the input is decreased you have to reset
the converter

Observe on the oscilloscope the typical steps signal at the D/A output

Observe input voltage using digital multimeter and observe output LED

Repeat the test with the different values of input signal.

Result :- Analog to digital conversion is studied .

EXPERIMENT NO : 8

AIM :-

To study and observe the functional verification of a weighted resistor
digital to analog converter

APPARATUS REQUIRED:-Experiment kit, Connecting probes , Digital multimeter

THEORY:-
The simplest digital to analog converter is obtained by means of a summing
circuit with input resistance whose value depends on the bit weight that are

associated to. We obtain in this way the weighted resistors converter The switches
s3-s0 are driven from the digital information so that every resistance is connected
to reference voltage v ref or to ground in accordance with the fact that the
corresponding bit is at logical level 1 or 0

PROCEDURE:-

(llll) Connect the power supply to the board

(mmmm) Connect the D
0
-D
3
of the logic switches to the corresponding jacks B
0
-B
3

of the converter
set the switches S
0
-S
3
to logic level 0

(nnnn) Connect the v Ref socket to +5v connect a multimeter as voltmeter for DC
to the output v0of the converters

(oooo) Switch the logic switches in binary progression &measure &recorded the
output voltage in corresponding of every combination of the input code

(pppp) With input code s3 s2 s1 s0=0000 the output voltage v0 has to be null
eventually little deviation against zero are due to operational amplifier
offset
(qqqq) Switch off the power supply

Result :-
Digital to analog converter is studied and output is verified

EXPERIMENT NO : 9

Aim :-
To study of weign bridge oscillator and effect on output frequency with variation in
RC combination

Apparatus required :-
Experiment kit

Connecting probes
DC power supply
2 mm patch cord

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:-

Theory :-
The Weign Bridge is one of the simplest and best known oscillators and is used
extensively in circuits for audio applications Figure I shows the basic Wien bridge
circuit configuration On the positive side This circuit has only a few components
and good frequency stability Because of this simplicity and stability it is most
commonly used audio frequency oscillator The bridge has series RC network in one arm
and parallel RC network in the adjoining arm In the remaining two arms of the bridge
resistor R1 and Rf are connected .
The phase angle criterion for oscilaation is that the total phase shift around the
circuit must be zero
This condition occures only when the bridge is balanced that is at resonance.The
frequency of oscillation F
o
is exactly the resonant frequency of the balanced Wien
bridge and is given by

F
0
=0.159/RC


Procedure :-
1. Connect +12 v,-12 v DC power supply at their indicated position from
external source
2. Connect a 2mm patch cord between test point 1 and H
3. Switch on the power supply
4. Vary R
f
pot to make gain (R
f
/R
1
)greater than 2
5. Record the value of output frequency at test point G
6. Compare measured frequency with theoritically calculated value
7. Vary the gain pot of 470K to adjust the gain of the amplifier in case of
clipped wave form
8. Switch off the power supply
9. Connect a 2mm patch cord between test point A and B ,D and E
11. Switch off the power suppy
12. Connect a 2 mm patch cord between test point B and C ,E and F

Result :-weign bridge oscillator is studied and wave form is observed

LAB MANUAL

Version No. POWER SYSTEM-2
Subject POWER SYSTEM-2
Subject
Code
EX701
Scheme New
Class/Branc
h
VII SEM
Author
Institution

Bhopal Institute of Technology New Lab Manual

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